Engineering Hydrology

Chapter III

Abstraction From Precipitation

Macaspac, Jerrol R.

3.1 Introduction

Abstraction from Precipitation

Surface runoff

is the water flow that occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess water from rain, melt water, or other sources flows over the land.

Abstraction From Precipitation:

Evaporation Transpiration Infiltration Surface Detention Storage

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.2 Evaporation Process

process by which water is converted from its liquid form to its vapor form and thus transferred from land and water masses to the atmosphere.

Evaporation is the

Factors affecting Evaporation Rate

 Vapour Pressure - Rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the saturation vapour pressure (SVP) at the water temperature ( ew ) and the actual vapour pressure in the air ( ea ). John Daltons Law of Evaporation EL = C ( e w - e a ) where: EL rate of evaporation in mm/day C constant ew & ea are in mm Hg. Evaporation occurs till ew = ea. If ew > ea condensation takes place.

Factors affecting Evaporation Rate

 Temperature - Rate of evaporation increases with an increase in water temperature.  Wind - Wind helps to remove the evaporated water vapour from the zone of evaporation, thereby creating greater scope for evaporation.  Atmospheric Pressure Other factors remaining the same, a decrease in atmospheric pressure (as in high altitude areas) increases the evaporation rate.

Factors affecting Evaporation Rate

 Soluble salts When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure of the solution is less than that of pure water and hence it causes reduction in the rate of evaporation. Under identical conditions evaporation from sea water is about 2-3% less than that from fresh water.  Heat storage in water bodies Deep water bodies have more heat storage capacity than shallow water bodies. The effect of heat storage is to change the seasonal evaporation rates and the annual evaporation remains more or less unaltered.

Evaporation Process

Estimating the rate of Evaporation

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.3 Evaporimeters

 Evaporimeters are water containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere and loss of water by evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daily).

Types of Evaporimeters
Class A Evaporation Pan  A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255mm  Depth of water is maintained between 18 and 20cm  The pan is made of unpainted GI sheet  The pan is placed on a wooden platform of height 15cm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan  Evaporation is measured by measuring the depth of water in a stilling well with a hook gauge.

Types of Evaporimeters
ISI Standard Pan ( Modified Class A Pan)  A pan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255mm  The pan is made of copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and painted white outside  The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225mm and height 100mm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan  A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water

Types of Evaporimeters
Colorado Sunken Pan  920mm square pan made of unpainted GI sheet, 460mm deep, and buried into the ground within 100mm of the top  Main advantage of this pan its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are similar to that of a lake  Disadvantages difficult to detect leaks, expensive to install, extra care is needed to keep the surrounding area free from tall grass, dust, etc.

Types of Evaporimeters
US Geological Survey Floating Pan  A square pan of 900mm sides and 450mm deep.  Supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft of size 4.25m x 4.87m, it is set afloat in a lake with a view to simulate the characteristics of a large body of water  Water level in the pan is maintained at the same level as that in the lake, leaving a rim of 75mm.  Diagonal baffles are provided in the pan to reduce surging in the pan due to wave action  Disadvantages High cost of installation and maintenance, difficulty in making measurements.

Pan Coefficient, Cp
Pan Coefficient Evaporation Pan are not exactly models of large reservoirs and the following drawbacks:
They differ in the heat storing capacity and heat transfer from the sides and bottom. 2. The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind action over the surface. 3. The heat transfer characteristics of the pan material is different from that of the reservoir. 1.  The evaporation observed from a pan has to be corrected to get the evaporation from a lake under similar climatic and exposure conditions. Thus: Lake evaporation = Cp x Pan Evaporation

Pan Coefficient, Cp

Evaporation Station
 Arid Zones 1 station for every 30,000 sq.km.  Humid Temperate Zones 1 station for every 50,000 sq.km.  Cold regions 1 station for every 1,00,000 sq.km.

A typical hydrological station contains the following: Ordinary Rain gauge, Recording Rain gauge, Stevenson Box with maximum and minimum thermometer and dry and wet bulb thermometers, wind anemometer, wind direction indicator, sunshine recorder, thermo hydrograph and pan evaporimeter.

Problem
1. A class A pan was set up adjacent to a lake . The depth of water in the pan at the beginning of a certain week was 195mm. In that week there was a rainfall of 45 mm and 15 mm of water was removed from the pan to keep the water level within the specified depth range. If the depth of the water in the pan at the end of the week was 190mm calculate the pan evaporation. Using a suitable pan coefficient estimate the lake evaporation in that week.

Problem
2. A canal is 80 km long and has average surface width of 15 m. If the evaporation measured in a class A pan is 0.5 cm/day, what is the volume of water evaporated in a month?

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.4 Empirical Evaporation Equation

Empirical Evaporation Equation



Empirical Evaporation Equation



Problem
a) A reservoir with a surface of 250 hectares had the following average values of climate parameters during a week : Water Temperature = 20 o C, Relative Humidity = 40%, Wind Velocity at 1.0 m above ground surface = 16 km/h. Estimate the average daily evaporation from the lake by using Meyers Formula. b) An ISI Standard evaporation pan at the site indicated a pan coefficient of 0.80 on the basis of calibration against controlled water budgeting method . If this pan indicated an evaporation of 72 mm in the week under question, i.) estimate the accuracy if Meyer s Method relative to the pan evaporation measurements. ii.) Also, estimate the volume of water evaporated in the lake in that week.

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.5 Analytical Methods of Evaporation

Analytical Methods of Evaporation

1.Water Budget Method 2.Mass Transfer Method 3.Energy Balance Method

Water Budget Method



Energy Budget Method

Energy Budget Method is application of law of conservation of energy. The energy available for evaporation is determined by considering the incoming energy, outgoing energy and energy stored in the water body over a known time interval.

Fig. 3.4 Energy Balance in a Water Body

Energy Budget Method



Energy Budget Method



Abstraction from Precipitation

3.6 Reservoir Evaporation and Methods for its Reduction

Reservoir Evaporation and Methods for its Reduction

The Water Volume lost due to evaporation from a reservoir in a month is calculated as:

VE = A Epm Cp
VE = volume of water lost in evaporation in a month ( m3) A = average reservoir area during the month (m2) Epm = pan evaporation loss in metres in a month (m) Cp = relevant coefficient.

Methods to Reduce Evaporation Losses

 Reduction of Surface Area

As the area increases the rate of evaporation also increases.



Mechanical Covers Permanent roofs over the reservoir, temporary roofs and floating roofs such as rafts and light-weight floating particles. Chemical Films Application of Cetyl Alcohol (hexadecanol) and Stearyl alcohol (octadecanol) which forms layers on water surface to prevent water molecules to past them.

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.7 Transpiration

Transpiration
Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water vapor. The water is taken up by the plant-root system and escapes through the leaves. The important factors affecting transpiration are : - atmospheric vapor pressure, - temperature, - wind, light intensity and characteristics of the plant, such as the root and leaf systems.

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.8 Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration takes place at the land where plants exist; also lose moisture by the evaporation of water from soil and water bodies.

Evapotranspiration Terms:
 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) - It is is defined as the amount of evaporation that would occur if a sufficient water source were available.  Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) - Actual evapotranspiration is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration.  Field Capacity - is the maximum quantity of water that the soil can retain against the force of gravity. Any higher moisture input to a soil at field capacity simply drains away.  Permanent Wilting Point - is the moisture content of the soil at which the moisture is no longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.9 Measurement of Evapotranspiration

Measurement of Evapotranspiration
The measurement of Evapotranspiration for a given vegetation type can be carried out in two ways: 1. Lysimeters is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of actual evapotranspiration which is released by plants, usually crops or trees. By recording the amount of precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil, the amount of water lost to evapotranspiration can be calculated.

Measurement of Evapotranspiration
The measurement of Evapotranspiration for a given vegetation type can be carried out in two ways:  Field Experimental Plots - The different elements of the water budget (other than ET) in a known interval of time are measured in special experimental plots established in the field. ET is then estimated as: ET = Precipitation + Irrigation Input Runoff Increase in Soil Moisture Storage Groundwater Loss

Abstraction from Precipitation

3.10 Evapotranspiration Equations

Evapotranspiration Equations


Evapotranspiration Equations


Evapotranspiration Equations

Surface Closed Ground Corps Bare Water Surface Snow Range of r values 0.15 0.25 0.05 0.45 0.05 0.45 0.95

Table 3.3 Saturation Vapour Pressure of Water

Temperature
oC

Saturation Vapour Pressure ew (mm Hg) 4.58 6.54 7.78 9.21 10.87 12.79 15 17.54 20.44 23.76 27.54 31.82 36.68 42.81 48.36 55.32 71.20

A (mm/ C) 0.30 0.45 0.54 0.60 0.71 0.80 0.95 1.05 1.24 1.40 1.61 1.85 2.07 2.35 2.62 2.95 3.66

0 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37.5 40 45

Table 3.4 Mean Monthly Solar Radiation at Top of Atmosphere, Ha in mm of Evaporation Water/Day
North Latitude Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

0o 10o 20o 30o 40o 50o

14.5 12.8 10.8 8.5 6.0 3.6

15.0 13.9 12.3 10.5 8.3 5.9

15.2 14.8 13.9 13.7 11.0 9.1

14.7 15.2 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7

13.9 15.0 15.7 16.0 15.9 15.4

13.4 14.8 15.8 16.5 16.7 16.7

13.5 14.8 15.7 16.2 16.3 16.1

14.2 15.0 15.3 15.3 14.8 13.9

14.9 14.9 14.4 13.5 12.2 10.5

15.0 14.1 12.9 11.3 9.3 7.1

14.6 13.1 11.2 9.1 6.7 4.3

14.3 12.4 10.3 7.9 5.4 3.0

Table 3.5 Mean Monthly Values of Possible Sunshine Hours, N

North Jan Latitud e 0o 10o 20o 30o 40o 50o Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 11.6 11.8 11.1 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5

11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2 13.2 14. 4 15.0 14. 7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4

10.4 11.1 9.6

10.7 11.9

8.6

10.1

11.8

13.8 15.4 16.4 16.0 14.5 12.7 10.8

9.1

8.1

Table 3.5 Mean Monthly Values of Possible Sunshine Hours, N

North Latitude Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

0o 10o 20o 30o 40o

12.1 11.6 11.1 10.4 9.6

12.1 11.8 11.5 11.1 10.7

12.1 12.1 12.0 12.0 11.9

12.1 12.4 12.6 12.9 13.2

12.1 12.6 13.1 13.7 14.4

12.1 12.7 13.3 14.1 15.0

12.1 12.6 13.2 13.9 14.7

12.1 12.4 12.8 13.2 13.8

12.1 12.9 12.3 12.4 12.5

12.1 11.9 11.7 11.5 11.2

12.1 11.7 11.2 10.6 10.0

12.1 11.5 10.9 10.2 9.4

50o

8.6

10.1

11.8

13.8

15.4

16.4

16.0

14.5

12.7

10.8

9.1

8.1

Empirical Formulae for Evapotranspiration



Empirical Formulae for Evapotranspiration



Problem
Estimate the PET of an area for the season November to February in which wheat is grown. The area is in North India at a latitude of 30o N with mean monthly temperature as below:

The End
Reporter: Macaspac, Jerrol R. Course/Section: BSCE-4D College: Technological University of the Philippines Manila. S.Y. : 2nd Semester 2011 2012 Subject : Hydrology Instructor: Engr. Juanito H. Neric Reference Book: Engineering Hydrology by K. Subramanya.

 When it rains over a catchment, not all the precipitation falls directly onto the ground, a part of it may be caught by the vegetation and subsequently evaporated. The volume of water so caught is called interception.  Three possible routes of intercepted precipitation:  Interception loss- retained by the vegetation as surface storage and returned to the atmosphere by evaporation  Throughfall- drip off the plant leaves to ground surface or the surface flow  Stemflow- rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down the stem to reach the ground surface

 Coniferous trees have more interception loss than deciduous ones.  Dense grasses have nearly same interception losses as full grown trees.  Agricultural crops in their growing season also contribute to high interception losses.  Interception process has a very significant impact of ecology of the area related to silvicultural aspects.  However, in hydrological studies dealing with floods interception loss is rarely significant and is not separately considered.

 When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground, it must fill up all depressions before it can flow over the surface. The volume of water trapped in this depressions is called depression storage.

 Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors the chief which are:  The type of soil  Condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature of depression  Slope of the catchment  The antecedent precipitation, as a measure of soil moisture

 Is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface such as rainfall, snowmelt or irrigation into the soil.  The infiltration process is a component in the overall unsaturated redistribution process.

4 Moisture Zones
 Zone 1: At the top, a thin layer of saturated zone is created.  Zone 2: Beneath zone 1, there is a transition zone.  Zone 3: Next lower zone is the transmission zone where the downward motion of the moisture takes place.  Zone 4: The last zone is the wetting zone. The moisture content in this zone will be at or near field capacity & the moisture content decreases with the depth.

An infiltration model:

 The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm and has an exponential decay as the time elapses.  The infiltration capacity of an area is dependent on a large number of factors, chief of them are:  Characteristics of the soil (texture, porosity and hydraulic conductivity)  Condition of the soil surface  Vegetative cover  Current moisture content  Soil temperature

Characteristics of Soil