Problems

0
Copyright 2011 Sevagram Enterprises

Chemistry 133 Problem Set
Introduction

The following problem set includes all assigned problems for the Chemistry 133 Sections
taught by R.H. Langley.
The coding is the T.L. Brown, H. E. LeMay, Jr., B. E. Bursten, C. J. Murphy, and P. M.
Woodward, Chemistry the Central Science, 12
th
ed., Prentice Hall, 2012. Reference to this text
will be BLBMW.

1


Chapter 1
1.1 Corresponds to BLBMW Section 1.1

1.1 Define chemistry in your own words.

1.2 Make a list of all the physical properties you may observe concerning the water in a glass of water.

1.3 Look at a pencil. (a) Make a list of as many of its extensive properties as you can. (b) Make a list of as many of
its intensive properties as you can.

1.4 Which properties of a baseball will be the same on Earth as on Mars?

1.5 Define the terms mass and weight. Which of these terms is constant for an object?

1.6 (a) How can you increase the kinetic energy of a baseball? (b) How can you increase the potential energy of a
baseball?

1.7 Define exothermic and endothermic processes and give an example of each.

1.8 What is the state of matter under normal conditions for each of the following? (a) gasoline (b) copper (c)
nitrogen (d) sucrose (cane sugar) (e) helium

1.9 (a) Give three examples of substances that are gases under normal conditions. (b) Give three examples of
substances that are liquids under normal conditions. (c) Give three examples of substances that are solids under
normal conditions.

1.10 Describe each of the following as representing a chemical change or a physical change: (a) burning charcoal (b)
cutting wood (c) iron rusting (d) changing water to ice (e) dissolving table salt in water.

1.11 Which of the following separations involve physical properties and which involve chemical properties? (a)
Water is separated into hydrogen and oxygen. (b) A saltwater solution is separated into salt and water. (c) A sample
containing small pieces of iron and sand grains is separated into sand and iron. (d) A sample of vodka is separated
into alcohol and water. (e) Iron is separated from iron ore.

1.13 How does the mass of an object differ from its weight?

1.14 The gravity on the Moon is about one-sixth of that on Earth. (a) What would be the weight on the Moon of a
piece of a NASA satellite weighing 60 lb on Earth? (b) If the satellite has a mass of 27 kg on Earth, what will be its
mass on the Moon?

1.15 Classify each of the following as either an extensive or an intensive property: (a) volume (b) temperature (c)
boiling point (d) density (e) mass.

1.16 The following values were determined for a sample of water: mass = 125 g, volume = 0.125 L, density = 1.00
g/cm
3
, freezing point = 0.00C and color = colorless. Classify each of these properties as extensive or intensive.


1.17 What is the difference between a hypothesis, a theory, and a law?

1.18 What is the difference between observations and data?

1.19 Why is it important to control the different variables that may affect an experiment?

1.20 Does a serendipitous discovery invalidate the scientific method? Explain your answer.

2


1.21 A 5.0 g piece of aluminum wire is placed in a beaker containing 25.0 g of dilute sulfuric acid. The metal reacts
with the acid to release hydrogen gas, which escapes into the atmosphere. After the reaction is complete, there were
28.9 g of material left in the beaker. How many grams of hydrogen gas escaped?

1.22 The discovery of the element oxygen was in part based on the decomposition of a red solid known as mercuric
oxide. This compound, when heated, decomposed to bright, silvery mercury metal and colorless oxygen gas.
Heating a mixture of mercury and oxygen at a lower temperature can regenerate the mercuric oxide. A 15.2 g
sample of mercuric oxide is sealed in a 1.50 L container. The container plus sample had a total mass of 975.5 g.
The container and contents are then heated until the mercuric oxide completely decomposed. The container is then
cooled and weighed. What is the final mass of the container, mercury, and oxygen?


1.23 Define a pure substance and a mixture. Give an example of each.

1.24 Give two examples of each of the following. (a) an element (b) a compound (c) a homogeneous mixture (d) a
heterogeneous mixture

1.25 What experiments could you perform to demonstrate that liquid water and ice are the same compound?

1.27 Using the table inside the front cover of this textbook, list the symbol for each of the following elements: (a)
hydrogen (b) lithium (c) aluminum (d) xenon (e) samarium (f) iron (g) copper (h) sodium (i) mercury (j) lead

1.28 Use the table inside the cover of this book, first, to classify each of the following elements as a metal,
metalloid, or nonmetal, and, second, to name the element: (a) K (b) Ra (c) Pt (d) Ne (e) Ge

1.29 Using the table inside the front cover of this textbook, identify each of the following elements from its symbol:
(a) He (b) Kr (c) Ca (d) Cr (e) Dy (f) K (g) Ag (h) Sn (i) Sb (j) Au

1.30 Use the tables inside the front cover of this book to, first, classify each of the following elements as a metal,
metalloid, or nonmetal, and, second, give the elements symbol: (a) rubidium (b) rhenium (c) iodine (d) hydrogen (e)
silicon


1.32 Your roommate claims that the SI system is so complicated because, among other things, there are so many
different length measurements such as meters, centimeters, millimeters, and kilometers. Outline how you would
explain the fallacy of your roommate's claim about there being so many different units.

1.33 List the different SI base units and give an example of where each might be useful.

1.34 Why is there no need for SI base units for area or volume?

1.35 You perform a calculation to determine the volume of a box. You enter the following information into your
calculator: 12. 12.0 12 and you report 1728 as the answer. It is very likely that your instructor will count the
answer wrong. Why?

1.36 Identify the SI units that would be appropriate for measuring the following quantities: (a) the temperature of a
glass of water (b) the volume of a bottle of a soft drink (c) the surface area of a football field (d) the distance from
the Earth to the Moon (e) the speed of a bullet.

1.37 Which SI units would be reasonable choices for making the following measurements: (a) the thickness of a
sheet of paper (b) the mass of your chemistry book (c) the temperature of the air on a hot, sunny day (d) the volume
of the gas tank in your car (e) the speed you normally drive?

1.38 Give the numerical value for each of the following SI prefixes: (a) c (b) m (c) M (d) p (e) (f) d (g) k (h) a (i)
T (j) n

3


1.39 Express each of the following units as a power of 10: (a) c (b) m (e) (f) d (g) k (h) a (i) G (j) n (c) M (d) p

1.40 The following units refer to certain measurements. Determine the type of measurement performed (mass,
length, volume, etc.). (a) C (b) m (c) dm
3
(d) km
2
(e) ms

1.41 Designate which type of unit (mass, length, volume, etc.) is each of the following. (a) 175 mm (b) 5.0 cm
3
(c)
978 mg (d) 4.53 km
2
(e) 273 K

1.42 Classify each of the following as a time, temperature, mass, volume, or area measurement. (a) mm
2
(b) mL (c)
g (d) Ms (e) K

1.43 Which units of the English system could replace the following SI units? (a) 1.0 dm
3
(b) 30.5 cm (c) 373 K (d)
2.2 lbs/qt (e) 55 mph?


1.44 Define accuracy and precision. Give an example of a situation in which accuracy is high but precision is low.
Give an example of a situation in which accuracy is low but precision is high. Hint: you may use a "bull's-eye"
target to illustrate both situations.

1.45 Do the terms accuracy and precision apply to the conversion of 12 inches into feet? Why or why not?

1.46 How many significant figures are in Mega = 1 000 000?

1.47 Under what circumstances would it be correct to describe 1000 as having four significant figures?

1.48 Define a measured and an exact value. Give two examples of each.

1.49 Does an increase in the number of significant figures indicate an increase in precision or an increase in
accuracy?

1.52 State, in your own words, how to determine if a zero is significant or not.

1.53 How can the addition of values result in a value that has more significant figures than any of the individual
values has? Use 9.5 + 2.7 as your example.

1.54 How would you distinguish between a measured and an exact value?

1.55 Determine which of the following quantities are measured and which are exact. (a) A book has a mass of 1.000
kg. (b) There are 1000 g in a kilogram. (c) There are 12 inches in a foot. (d) Thirty-seven people entered a room.
(e) A football stadium holds 80,000 people.

1.56 How many significant figures are present in each of the following measurements? (a) 3842 kg (b) 4.27 10
2
s
(c) 9.004735 ft (d) 0.000427 g (e) 34000 miles

1.57 Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following measurements. (a) 4.00 10
7
m (b)
8.0032 cm (c) 0.00353 kg (d) 3.24000 10
3
in (e) 12 atoms.

1.58 Round the following numbers to two significant figures: (a) 11.3 (b) 122 (c) 10.00 (d) 2000 (e) 5.280 10
3
.

1.59 Round the following numbers to three significant figures: (a) 111.3 (b) 122.45 (c) 11.00 (d) 400000 (e) 6.580
10
6
.

1.60 Perform the following calculations and round the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures: (a)
1.4837 + 1.48 (b) 432.32 4.32 (c) 2.52 48312 (d) 0.2235 / 19.3 (e) 4.226 + 8.227 + 1.0.

4


1.61 Perform the following operations and round the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures: (a)
1.3827 g + 1.46 g (b) 412.32C 12.32C (c) 3.52 ft 5312 ft (d) 0.3235 g/ 22.5 cm
3
(e) 3.726 in + 5.427 in + 2.0
in.

(14.32 / 2.54) 3.2 (b) 4.854 + (3.33 45321) (c) 300 (4.31 + 5.85) (d) 2.54 10
3
+ [(8.55 10
2
) (5.88 10
4
)]
(e) 5.88 (4.81 2.81).

(24.32 cm
2
/ 2.54 cm) 8.2 cm (b) 3.754 ft
2
+ (3.33 ft 45321 ft) (c) 500 km (2.31 km + 50.65 km) (d) 2.54 10
3

m
2
+ [(8.55 10
2
m) (5.88 10
4
m)] (e) 6.28 cm (5.11 cm 3.11 cm).

1.6 Corresponds to BLBMW Section1.6

1.65 The first law of mathematics is, "The answer has to look right." How does this apply to unit conversions?

1.66 What are the two conversion factors that can come from 1 mi = 5280 ft?

1.67 When converting from pounds to ounces, how do you know which term belongs in the denominator of the
conversion factor?

1.68 When a person picks up a 1 lb piece of steel and says it is heavier than a 1 lb bag of feathers, what does she
really mean?

1.69 The weight of a bowling ball on the Moon is about one-sixth of its weight on Earth. How does the density of a
bowling ball on the Earth compare to the density of the same bowling ball on the Moon?

1.70 To determine the density of an object, you must know its mass and its volume. Identify each of these quantities
(mass, volume, and density) as extensive or intensive.

1.71 Perform the following conversions: (a) 526 m to kilometers (b) 3.42 s to seconds (c) 954 ng to grams (d)
0.024 m
3
to cubic centimeters (e) 7351 kg/m
3
to grams per cubic centimeter.

1.72 Convert the following values: (a) 275 cm to m (b) 4.95 10
3
kg to g (c) 25.0 cm
2
to m
2
(d) 45 s to ps (e) 25C
to K.

1.73 Perform the following conversions: (a) 1251 mm to inches (b) 1.25 gal to liters (c) 55 mi/hr to meters per
second (d) 1.785 ft
3
to cubic centimeters (e) 3.52 10
3
gal/hr to liters per minute.

1.74 Carry out the following conversions: (a) 1.00 ft
3
to cubic inches (b) 45.3 ft
2
to square meters (c) 1760 lbs/m
3
to
kilograms per cubic meter (d) 745 mL to cubic meters (e) 186,000 mi/hr to meters per second.

1.75 The density of air at room temperature (25C) is 1.11 10
3
kg/L. How many grams of air are in a room
measuring 12.1 m 7.2 m 2.0 m?

1.76 The density of air at room temperature (0C) is 1.20 10
3
kg/L. How many grams of air are in a room
measuring 12.1 ft 7.2 ft 2.0 ft?

1.77 Highly toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) has many industrial uses. As little as 1.0 10
5
g/L is cause for
concern. Calculate the number of grams of HCN at 1.0 10
5
g/L is in a room measuring 25 ft 22 ft 8.0 ft. (b)

1.78 Nickel tetracarbonyl is one of the most toxic substances known. The recommended maximum concentration in
air is 1.0 10
3
g/L. At this maximum concentration, how many grams of nickel tetracarbonyl would be in a room
that measures 25.0 ft 15.5 ft 8.0 ft?

1.79 During the 1920s and 1930s, the United States minted silver dollars known as Peace Dollars. Each Peace
Dollar weighed 26.73 g and was 90.0 % silver (the remainder was copper). In 1925, the price of silver was 69 cents
per troy ounce. (a) Determine the value of silver in a Peace Dollar. (b) In 1980, silver prices reached $20.80 per
5


troy ounce. What was the value of the silver in 10 Peace Dollars? (c) The current price of silver is about $47.65 per
troy ounce. How many Peace Dollars are required to supply $500.00 of silver? (1 troy ounce = 31.103 g)

1.80 Until 1933, the United States minted gold coins for general circulation. The highest denomination produced
was the twenty-dollar gold piece known as the double eagle. By an act of Congress in 1849, each double eagle
weighed 516 grains and was 0.900 fine (33.436 g and 90.0 % gold (the remainder was copper). In 1934, the United
States increased the price of gold from $20.67 per Troy ounce to $35.00 per Troy ounce. (a) Determine the value of
gold in a double eagle before 1934. (b) How much was the gold in 10 double eagle coins worth in 1934? (c) The
current price of gold is $1789.85 per troy ounce. How many double eagle coins are required to supply $1000.00 of
gold? (d) Jewelers express the purity of gold in karats. Pure gold is 24 karat (24 K). A sample that is 50 % gold is
12 K [(12/24) 100% = 50 %]. What is the purity of a double eagle in terms of karats? (1 troy ounce = 31.103 g)

1.81 Antifreeze contains the compound ethylene glycol. This compound not only lowers the freezing point of water
but also increases the boiling point of water. The density of ethylene glycol is 9.35 lb/gal, and the density of water
is 62.5 lb/ft
3
. (a) Is the density of water greater than the density of ethylene glycol? (b) Convert the density of
ethylene glycol to grams per milliliter. (c) Assuming the density of a mixture of water and ethylene glycol is simply
the weighted average of the amounts of the two liquids mixed, what is the density in grams per cubic centimeter of a
mixture containing 1.00 gal of ethylene glycol in 3.00 gal of water? (Hint: to determine the weighted average
density, multiply each individual density by the fraction of the final solution that is that particular substance.)

1.82 A teabag contains about 0.23 oz of tea and is able to make a cup of strong tea. If you have 1.00 oz of tea, how
many milliliters of strong tea can you prepare? (1 cup = 236.6 mL)

1.83 When you use 0.857 ounces of coffee beans are able to make about 12 cups of strong coffee. If you have 1.00
ounce of coffee beans, how many milliliters of strong coffee can you prepare? (1 cup = 236.6 mL)

1.84 In the United States, the measurement of rainfall is typically in inches. How many liters of rain fall on an acre
of land if 0.75 in of rain are measured? (1 square mile = 640 acres)

1.7 Summary

1.87 Louis Pasteur made many significant discoveries, one of which was pasteurization. This process consists of
heating a substance, such as milk, to kill the bacteria responsible for spoilage. Pasteurization of milk requires a
temperature of 145F. Determine the pasteurization temperature for milk in degrees Celsius and in Kelvins.

1.88 The pasteurization of beer utilizes heat to kill any microorganisms that could lead to spoilage. Normal
pasteurization of beer is at 135F, but an alternative method, called flash pasteurization, utilizes a higher temperature
of nearly 165F for a shorter time. Convert the temperatures 135F and 165F to degrees Celsius.

1.8 Summary

1.95 Round the mass values to two significant figures, and round the length values to three significant figures. (a)
11.345 kg (b) 122.22 km (c) 10.7500 cm (d) 6000 g (e) 5.280 10
3
m.

1.96 A small beaker is weighed on a balance and it has a mass of 25.48 g. When it is carefully filled to the rim with
water and re-weighing shows it to have a mass of 55.78 g. A small piece of metal is then gently dropped into the
filled beaker, causing a total of 1.55 g of water to overflow. The total mass of the beaker, the remaining water, and
the metal is 68.02 g. The density of water is 1.00 g/mL. Determine the density of the metal.

1.97 In 1994, the United States produced 89.20 billion pounds of sulfuric acid. The density of this sulfuric acid was
1.84 g/mL. (a) Determine the kilograms of sulfuric acid produced in 1994.
(b) Determine the gallons of sulfuric acid produced in 1994. (1 L = 1.057 qt) (c) Determine the cubic millimeters
of sulfuric acid produced.

1.98 In 1991, the United States produced 11.70 billion pounds of ethylene dichloride. The density of this compound
was 1.218 g/mL. (a) Determine the kilograms of ethylene dichloride produced in 1991. (b) Determine the gallons
6


of ethylene dichloride produced in 1991. (1 L = 1.057 qt) (c) Determine the cubic millimeters of ethylene
dichloride produced.

1.99 There is a wide variety of units in the English system, which is no longer in common use. Three of these are
palms (= 0.16666667 cubits), roods (= 40 square perches), and tun (= 4 hogsheads). (a) A cubit is 1.5 feet. How
many centimeters are in 10.5 palms? (b) A square perch is 30.25 square yards. How many square millimeters are in
3.25 roods? (c) A hogshead is 63 gallons. How many cubic centimeters are in 4.2 tuns?

1.100 You want to determine the density of a colorless liquid in a small bottle. You weigh the bottle and liquid and
find the total mass is 25.45 g. You then pour the liquid into a graduated cylinder and determine the volume to be
10.2 mL. Finally, you weigh the empty bottle and find its mass to be 9.45 g. What is the density of the colorless
liquid in g/ml?

1.102 You have an irregular shaped sample of an unknown metal. The sample weighs 15.68 g. To determine the
volume of the sample, you carefully place it in a graduated cylinder that already contains 5.5 mL of water. The
volume of the water plus metal in the graduated cylinder is 7.0 mL. Determine the density of the metal.

1.104 Calculate the thickness, in micrometers, of a piece of gold foil, given the following information: width = 3.27
inches, length = 0.51 inches, mass = 1.66 10
3
g, density = 19.3 g/cm
3
.

1.105 Aluminum metal has a density of 2.70 g/cm
3
. Calculate the thickness, in inches, of a piece of aluminum foil
weighing 2.87 g and measuring 3.00 10
2
mm by 0.500 m.

Chapter 2

2.1 What is an atom?

2.2 Who receives credit with first suggesting the existence of atoms?

2.3 List the basic postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory. Which of these postulates required modification since
Dalton's time?

2.4 How does Dalton's Atomic Theory explain the Law of Definite Composition?

2.5 How does Dalton's atomic theory explain the law of multiple proportions?

2.6 (a) What was the first subatomic particle to be discovered? (b) Which was the last of the basic subatomic
particles discovered?

2.7 Describe Rutherford's experiment that discovered the nuclear nature of the atom.

2.8 A sample of carbon dioxide from a burning piece of charcoal contains 27% carbon and 73% oxygen. A different
sample of carbon dioxide also contains 27% carbon and 73% oxygen. The percentages are the same for all samples
analyzed. Explain these observations with respect to atomic theory.

2.9 The analysis of a sample of bottled water found it to contain 89% oxygen and 11% hydrogen. An Antarctic
expedition brought back a sample of ice from the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica. The ice sample was melted and
analyzed. The melted ice contained 89% oxygen and 11% hydrogen. How does the similarity in the composition of
these two samples of water support atomic theory?

2.10 Samples from a series of four compounds containing manganese and oxygen have the following compositions:
Compound Mass of Manganese (g) Mass of Oxygen (g)
1 24.6 7.2
2 25.4 11.1
3 33.7 19.6
4 38.5 39.2
7


(a) Calculate the grams of oxygen per gram of manganese in each compound. (b) How do your answers support
atomic theory?

2.11 Iron forms a variety of compounds with oxygen. The analyses of three of these compounds appear in the
following table.
Compound Mass of Iron (g) Mass of Oxygen (g)
1 24.6 10.6
2 25.4 7.29
3 33.7 12.9
(a) Determine the grams of oxygen per gram of iron in each of the compounds. (b) Explain how your answers relate
to atomic theory.

2.12 Glucose (blood sugar) combines with oxygen in your body to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy. A
sample of glucose weighing 18.0 g combines with 19.2 g of oxygen to produce 26.4 g of carbon dioxide. How many
grams of water formed?

2.13 Carbon monoxide, CO, reacts with iron(III) oxide, Fe
2
O
3
, in a blast furnace to produce carbon dioxide, CO
2
,
and iron, Fe, metal. A blast furnace loaded with 45 tons of iron(III) oxide produced 32 tons of iron and 37 tons of
carbon dioxide. How many tons of carbon monoxide reacted?

2.2 Corresponds to BLBMW Sections 2.2-2.3

2.14 (a) Which subatomic particle(s) is/are in the nucleus of an atom? (b) Which sub-atomic particle(s) is/are
outside the nucleus of an atom?

2.15 List the subatomic particles in order of decreasing mass.

2.16 Why is it preferable to use the number of protons instead of the number of electrons to identify the atomic
number of an atom?

2.17 (a) How is it possible for atoms of different elements to have the same mass number? (b) Is it possible for
atoms of different elements to have the same atomic number? Explain.

2.18 Two forms of oxygen occur in nature. There is the oxygen gas we breathe, and there is ozone gas in the upper
atmosphere and in certain types of air pollution. Are the two types of oxygen isotopes or allotropes? Explain.

2.19 (a) Why does removing electrons produce an ion with a positive charge (a cation)? (b) Why does adding
electrons produce an ion with a negative charge (an anion)?

2.20 One of your classmates looks on the periodic table and finds the number 35.45 associated with the element
chlorine, Cl. Your classmate then states that 35.45 is the mass number of chlorine. Explain the error in your
classmate's statement.

2.21 A xenon atom has a radius of about 2.2 . (a) What is the radius of a xenon atom in picometers? (b) How
many xenon atoms would it take to produce a line 1.0 inch long?

2.22 A potassium atom has a diameter of about 5.6 . (a) What is the radius of a potassium atom in nanometers?
(b) How many potassium atoms would it take to produce a line 1.0 yard long?

2.23 An oxygen-16 atom has a diameter of 3.0 10
2
pm, but the diameter of the nucleus is only 5.0 fm. A single
oxygen-16 atom weighs 15.9949 amu, and its nucleus weighs 15.9905 amu. (a) How many oxygen atoms are
necessary, when placed in a row, to yield a line 1.0 foot long? (b) How many oxygen nuclei are necessary to yield a
similar row that is 1.0 foot long? (c) Determine the density of an oxygen-16 atom in g/cm
3
. (d) Determine the
density of an oxygen-16 nucleus in g/cm
3
. The volume of the atom or nucleus may be determined by V = (4/3)tr
3
.

2.25 Determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in each of the following atoms: (a) C
11
6
(b) K
40
19
(c)
Fe
58
26
(d) Cd
110
48
(e) Mt
268
109

8


2.26 Determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in each of the following isotopes used in medicine:
(a) chromium-51 (b) strontium-85 (c) gadolinium-153 (d) cobalt-60 (e) cobalt-57.

2.27 For each of the following isotopes, determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons: (a) barium-137
(b) chlorine-35 (c) samarium-153 (d) zinc-60 (e) iridium-190.

2.30 Complete the following table for atoms:
Symbol
31
P ___
132
Xe ___ ___
Protons ___ 57 ___ ___ ___
Electrons ___ ___ ___ 50 79
Neutrons ___ 80 ___ 82 ___
Mass number ___ ___ ___ ___ 197

2.31 Complete the following table describing the atoms of five elements:
Symbol
32
S ___ ___ ___ ___
Protons ___ 30 ___ ___ 62
Electrons ___ ___ ___ 36 ___
Neutrons ___ 35 ___ ___ ___
Atomic number ___ ___ 83 ___ ___
Mass number ___ ___ 209 84 150

2.32 Complete the following table:
Symbol Br
81
35
+ 3 55
26
Fe ___ ___ ___
Protons ___ ___ 36 82 52
Electrons ___ ___ ___ ___ 54
Neutrons ___ ___ 50 ___ 76
Net charge ___ ___ 0 2+ ___
Mass Number ___ ___ ___ 207 ___

2.33 Complete the following table:
Symbol Kr
81
36
Mn
55
25
___ ___ ___
Protons ___ ___ 40 84 49
Electrons ___ ___ ___ ___ 46
Neutrons ___ ___ 51 ___ 66
Net charge ___ ___ 0 2 ___
Mass Number ___ ___ ___ 209 ___

2.34 Dalton stated that all atoms of an element are identical. Which of the following properties are identical for all
the atoms of an element: mass number, atomic mass, atomic number?

2.35 (a) In general, combinations of what type of elements give ionic compounds? (b) Combinations of what type of
elements give molecular compounds?

2.36 Is it possible for the molecular formula and the empirical formula to be the same? Explain why or why not.

2.37 There are two naturally occurring isotopes of silver: silver-107 and silver-109. Silver-107 has a mass of
106.90509 amu (abundance = 51.83%), and silver-109 has a mass of 108.9047 amu (abundance = 48.17%).
Determine the atomic mass of silver from these data.

2.38 Silicon, Si, is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust. This element has three naturally occurring
isotopes. Their masses and abundances are as follows: silicon-28 (27.9769265 amu), 92.23%; silicon-29
(28.9764947 amu), 4.67%; and silicon-30 (29.9737702 amu), 3.10%. Determine the atomic mass of natural silicon.

2.39 There are five naturally occurring isotopes of the element germanium, Ge. The masses and the percent
abundances of each of the isotopes are in the following list:
9


Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance (%)
Germanium-70 69.9243 20.5
Germanium-72 71.9217 27.4
Germanium-73 72.9234 7.8
Germanium-74 73.9219 36.5
Germanium-76 75.9214 7.8
Determine the atomic mass of germanium from these data.

2.40 The noble gas krypton, Kr, consists of six natural isotopes. The masses and percent abundance for each of
these isotopes are in the following table:
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance (%)
Krypton-78 77.9204 0.35
Krypton-80 79.9164 2.25
Krypton-82 81.9135 11.6
Krypton-83 82.9141 11.5
Krypton-84 83.9115 57.0
Krypton-86 85.9106 17.3
Determine the atomic mass of krypton from these data.

2.41 The atomic mass of rubidium, Rb, is 85.4678 amu. Natural rubidium consists of two isotopes, rubidium-85,
and rubidium-87. The mass of a rubidium-85 atom is 84.9117 amu, and the mass of a rubidium-87 atom is 86.9099
amu. (a) Determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in each of the two rubidium isotopes. (b)
Determine the percent abundance of each isotope.

2.42 The lanthanide element europium, Eu, consists of two natural isotopes. The lighter isotope is
151
Eu, with a
mass of 150.919846 amu, and the heavier isotope is
153
Eu, with a mass of 152.921226 amu. The atomic mass of
europium is 151.964 amu. (a) Determine the composition of each isotope in terms of protons, neutrons, and
electrons. (b) Calculate the percent abundance of each of the two isotopes.
2.43 Determine the formula mass of each of the following to four significant figures. (a) O
2
(b) H
2
O (c) CO
2
(d)
Fe
2
O
3
(e) NH
4
NO
3

2.44 Calculate the formula mass for each of the following to three decimal places. (a) O
3
(b) Fe
3
O
4
(c) CCl
4
(d)
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(e) C
6
H
12
O
6

2.45 Convert each of the following molecular formulas to empirical formulas. (a) H
2
C
2
O
4
(b) N
2
O
4
(c) C
6
H
12
O
6
(d)
Fe
2
O
3
(e) B
3
N
3
H
6

2.46 Convert the following empirical formulas to molecular formulas. The approximate molecular masses for each
substance are in parentheses. (a) NO
2
(90 amu) (b) CH
2
O (180 amu) (c) CH
2
O (120 amu) (d) MnSO
4
(151 amu) (e)
P
2
O
5
(284 amu)

2.47 What information is necessary to convert a molecular formula to a structural formula?

2.48 The structural formula for dinitrogen oxide may be written as O=N-O. (a) What is the molecular formula of
this compound? (b) Describe what information is present in the structural formula that is not in the molecular
formula.

2.49 (a) What is the molecular formula for the compound shown in the following picture? (b) Is this likely to be an
ionic or a covalent compound?

C
C
C
C
C
C
F
H
H H
O
H
H
O
H H
F
H
H
H

2.50 Determine the molecular formula of each of the following compounds.

10


H O Cl H O Cl O
H O Cl O
O
H O Cl O
O
O
(a) (b)
(c) (d)

2.51 Determine the molecular formula of each of the following compounds.

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Cl C
H
H
C
H
Cl
H H C N C H
H H
H H
H
O S F
F
F
H
F
Br
F
F
F
F


2.52 Examine the periodic table in the front of the book. (a) How many periods are there? (b) How many groups
are there?

2.53 (a) How many of the elements are nonmetals? (b) How many of the elements are metalloids? (c) How many of
the elements are metals?

2.54 List three ways of distinguishing a metal from a nonmetal (assuming you do not know the name of the
substance). Will these methods work when differentiating a metal from a metalloid?

2.55 Locate each of the following elements on the periodic table. Give the symbol for the element, and classify it as
a metal, metalloid (semimetal), or nonmetal. (a) titanium (b) tellurium (c) tantalum (d) fluorine (e) bromine

2.56 Give the name and the symbol for each of the metalloids (semimetals) shown on the periodic table.

2.57 From the list provided here, choose the best match for each of the descriptions that follow S, Na, As, I, Yb,
Ba, Al, Fe, In, H, and Xe. Use each element only once. (a) Which forms ions with a 3+ charge? (b) Which forms
ions with a 2 charge? (c) Which element is a metalloid? (d) Which element is a transition metal? (e) Which
element is an alkaline earth metal? (f) Which element is most like aluminum? (g) Which element is a noble gas?
(h) Which element is an alkali metal? (i) Which element is a halogen? (j) Which is the lightest nonmetal?

2.58 Choose the best member from the list to fit the following descriptions S, Fr, Ge, At, Yb, Sr, Po, Bh, Tl, H,
and Ne. Use each element only once. (a) Which element is a metalloid? (b) Which element is a transition metal?
(c) Which element is an alkaline earth metal? (d) Which element is most similar to aluminum? (e) Which element
is a noble gas? (f) Which element is an alkali metal? (g) Which element is a halogen? (h) Which is the heaviest
member of the oxygen family?
2.5 Corresponds to BLBMW Section 2.6-2.9

2.59 The most reactive of all the metals are the alkali metals, and the most reactive of all the nonmetals are the
halogens. What type(s) of ions do you expect reactions of elements in these two groups to form?

2.60 Why is the compound MgCl unlikely to exist?

2.61 (a) One of your fellow students tells you that calcium ions, Ca
2+
, will combine with nitride ions, N
3
, to produce
CaN. Explain why this is not the formula of the compound containing calcium and nitride ions. (b) Another of your
fellow students wishes to make a compound containing ammonium ion, NH
4
+
, and sodium ions, Na
+
. Explain why
this is not possible.
11


2.62 Based on the position of the elements on the periodic table, which of the following ions would you expect to be
unlikely to form? (a) Ca
3+
(b) O
2
(c) Cl
+
(d) Ba
+
(e) N
3

2.63 Based on the position of the elements on the periodic table, predict the most likely charge exhibited by ions of
each of the following elements. (Hint: look at the other elements in the same column.) (a)Rb (b)Ra (c)Ga (d)Se (e)At

2.64 Predict the formula of the compound formed when the following ions combine.
(a) Sr
2+
and S
2
(b) Fe
3+
and O
2
(c) NH
4
+
and NO
3
(d) Al
3+
and NO
2
(e) Ca
2+
and PO
4
3

2.65 The following ions may combine to form ionic compounds. Determine the simplest formula for each of the
compounds that may form. (a) Se
2
and Ca
2+
(b) K
+
and I
(c) Fe
2+
and AsO
4
3
(d) NH
4
+
and PO
4
3
(e) Zr
4+
and SO
4
2

2.66 Predict the formula of the compound formed by each of the following pairs of elements assuming that each
element forms an ion with the charge predicted from its position on the periodic table. (a) K and Br (b) Ba and Se
(c) Mg and N (d) Ca and I (e) Al and Cl

2.67 Predict the charge on ions formed by each of the following elements. Then fill the table with the formulas of
the ionic compounds that may form from the ions.
Nonmetallic Element__________
Metallic Element F O N

K _____ _____ _____
Mg _____ _____ _____
Al _____ _____ _____

2.68 Classify each of the following as an ionic compound or as a molecular compound. (a) NaCl (b) C
6
H
12
O
6
(c)
CO
2
(d) YF
3
(e) RaCl
2

2.69 Given the elements Mg, Cl, As, Cs, and Se, predict which will form an ionic compound with sulfur, S, and
which will form a molecular compound with sulfur.

2.70 Classify each of the following as an organic or as an inorganic compound: (a) H
2
O (b) C
6
H
12
O
6
(c) Na
2
CO
3
(d)
HC
2
H
3
O
2
(e) CO
2

2.71 Which of the following compounds are organic? (a) CH
2
O (b) (NH
4
)HCO
3
(c) CS
2
(d) C
2
H
5
OH (e) CaC
2

2.72 Determine the molecular formula and give the name of each of the following compounds.

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
H O
H
F Cl
F
F
Cl
S S
Cl
O
I I

2.73 Determine the molecular formula and give the name of each of the following compounds.

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
H S
H
F Br
F
F
P
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
F S
F
F
F

12



2.74 Define the terms reactants and products.

2.75 Which side of a reaction arrow has the products? Which side has the reactants?

2.76 How does a balanced chemical equation obey the law of conservation of matter?

2.77 List the reactants and products in the following equation, and tell what the terms in parentheses mean.
Hg(l) + 2 H
2
SO
4
(aq) HgSO
4
(s) + SO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l)

2.79 Historically, geologists often ran the following reaction to determine if a rock sample contained the mineral
calcite (CaCO
3
). CaCO
3
(s) + 2 HCl(aq) CaCl
2
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)
The formation of carbon dioxide (CO
2
(g)) indicates the presence of calcite. List each of the reactants and products,
and tell what the abbreviations in parentheses mean.

2.80 A student balances the equation H
2
(g) + Cl
2
(g) HCl(g) as H(g) + Cl(g) HCl
Explain why the final "balanced" equation is wrong.

2.81 One of your fellow students balances the following equation S
8
(s) + 8 O
2
(g) 8 SO
2
(g)
Their answer was S(s) + O
2
(g) SO
2
(g)
How would you explain to the student what they did wrong?

2.82 (a) What is the scientific basis (or law) exhibited by a balanced chemical equation? (b) How do the meanings
of 8 S and S
8
differ?

2.83 (a) An unbalanced chemical equation violates which scientific principle (or law)? (b) How do the meanings of
4 P and P
4
differ?

2.84 How do balanced chemical equations illustrate the law of multiple proportions?

2.7 Summary

2.87 How did the mass spectrometer further the understanding of atomic structure?

2.92 Fluorine was proposed as a possible element for use as the basis of atomic masses. The current atomic masses
may be converted to another elemental basis by multiplying each atomic mass by a ratio of the new standards ideal
atomic mass to the new standard elements previous, carbon-12-based mass. For fluorine, the ratio would be
19.0000/18.9984. Determine the atomic masses for the following elements on a fluorine-based table. Also,
determine the differences between the old and new masses. (a) H (b) C (c) O (d) Fe (e) U.

2.9 Summary

2.94 Name each of the following compounds. (a) CO
2
(b) PCl
3
(c) Cl
2
O (d) N
2
O
5
(e) SCl
2
(f) XeF
4
(g) IF
7
(h) CCl
4

(i) P
4
O
6
(j) Cl
2
O
7

2.95 Name each of the following compounds. (a) CO (b) BCl
3
(c) I
2
O (d) P
4
O
10
(e) SiF
4
(f) KrF
2
(g) BrF
5
(h) TeCl
4

(i) SeO
3
(j) Br
2
O
5

2.96 What is the formula of each of the following compounds? (a) carbon monoxide (b) sulfur trioxide (c) disulfur
dichloride (d) selenium tetrabromide (e) nitrogen dioxide (f) krypton difluoride (g) nitrogen trichloride (h)
diphosphorus pentasulfide (i) boron triiodide (j) dibromine pentoxide

2.97 What is the formula of each of the following compounds? (a) silicon dioxide (b) diphosphorus trioxide (c)
dinitrogen tetroxide (d) sulfur tetrabromide (e) carbon dioxide (f) xenon difluoride (g) phosphorus trichloride (h)
disulfur decafluoride (i) boron trifluoride (j) diboron tetroxide

13


2.98 What is the name of each of the following compounds? (a) hydrochloric acid (b) hydrogen sulfide (c) ammonia
(d) sulfur dioxide (e) dinitrogen pentoxide (f) dichlorine trioxide (g) carbon dioxide (h) tetraphosphorus decaoxide
(i) sulfur trioxide (j) diiodine oxide

2.101 Sulfur forms two compounds when it reacts with oxygen. In one compound, there is 1.00 g of oxygen for
every gram of sulfur, and in the other compound, there are 1.50 g of oxygen for every gram of sulfur. Show how
these compounds illustrate the law of multiple proportions.

2.102 What information is necessary to convert a molecular formula to a structural formula?

2.105 The atomic mass of thallium, Tl, is 204.3833 amu. Natural thallium consists of two isotopes, thallium-203,
and thallium-205. The mass of a thallium-203 atom is 202.972329 amu, and the mass of a thallium-205 atom is
204.974412 amu. (a) Determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in each of the two thallium isotopes.
(b) Determine the percent abundance of each isotope.

2.106 Phosphorus forms two compounds when it reacts with oxygen. In one compound, there are 1.00 g of
phosphorus for every 1.30 g of oxygen, and in the other compound, there are 1.00 g of phosphorus for every 0.77 g
of oxygen. Show how these compounds illustrate the law of multiple proportions.

2.107 Read the story Omnilingual by H. Beam Piper and comment on its applicability to information presented in
this chapter. (This story is available on-line as an ebook through Project Guttenberg.)

Chapter 3

3.4 Which fundamental law(s) require that a chemical equation be balanced?

3.5 How does the listing of the phases affect the balancing of an equation?

3.6 During a study session, one of your friends takes the following equation: H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) H
2
O(l)
Your friend balances the equation as: H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) H
2
O
2
(l)
How would you explain the error your friend made?

3.7 In a study group reviewing for a chemistry exam, you ask your fellow students to balance the following
equation: Al(s) + O
2
(g) Al
2
O
3
(s)
One member of your group submits the following answer: 2 Al(s) + 3/2 O
2
(g) Al
2
O
3
(s)
Explain why this answer is only partially correct.

3.8 You are helping a friend to understand why their grade on a recent chemistry exam was lower than expected.
One of the questions on the exam asked for the following equation to be balanced: Fe
3
O
4
(s) + O
2
(g) Fe
2
O
3
(s)
Your friend answered: 2 Fe
3
O
4
(s) + O
2
(g) 3 Fe
2
O
3
(s) + O(g)
How would you explain the error to your friend?

3.9 One of your friends asks you to check their homework. You notice that one of their answers is:
6 Br
2
(l) + 12 KOH(aq) 10 KBr(aq) + 2 KBrO
3
(aq) + 6 H
2
O(l)
You explain to your friend that this answer is not completely correct. What important detail about balancing
equations did your friend forget?

3.10 Balance the following chemical equations by placing appropriate coefficients in the blanks:
(a) ___ Cl
2
O
5
(g) + ___ H
2
O(l) ___ HClO
3
(aq)
(b) ___KClO
3
(s) ___KCl(s) + ___O
2
(g)
(c) ___SiCl
4
(l) + ___H
2
O(l) ___H
4
SiO
4
(aq) + ___HCl(aq)
(d) ___Li
3
N(s) + ___H
2
SO
4
(aq) ___Li
2
SO
4
(aq) + ___(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(aq)
(e) ___C
8
H
18
(l) + ___O
2
(g) ___CO
2
(g) + ___H
2
O(l)

(a) ___ I
2
O
5
(s) + ___ H
2
O(l) ___ HIO
3
(aq)
(b) ___ KNO
3
(s) ___ KNO
2
(s) + ___ O
2
(g)
14


(c) ___ PCl
5
(l) + ___ H
2
O(l) ___ H
3
PO
4
(aq) + ___ HCl(aq)
(d) ___ CaC
2
(s) + ___ H
2
O(l) ___ Ca(OH)
2
(s) + ___ C
2
H
2
(g)
(e) ___ C
2
H
6
(g) + ___ O
2
(g) ___ CO
2
(g) + ___ H
2
O(l)

(a) ___Yb
2
O
3
(s) + ___H
3
PO
4
(l) ___YbPO
4
(s) + ___H
2
O(l)
(b) ___WO
2
(s) + ___O
2
(g) ___WO
3
(s)
(c) ___P
4
O
10
(s) + ___H
2
O(l) ___H
3
PO
4
(aq)
(d) ___C
2
H
5
OH(l) + ___O
2
(g) ___CO
2
(g) + ___H
2
O(g)
(e) ___Mn(OH)
3
(s) + ___H
2
SO
4
(aq) ___Mn
2
(SO
4
)
3
(aq) + ___H
2
O(l)

(a) ___ ZrO
2
(s) + ___ H
3
PO
4
(l) ___ Zr
3
(PO
4
)
4
(s) + ___ H
2
O(l)
(b) ___ Fe
3
O
4
(s) + ___ O
2
(g) ___ Fe
2
O
3
(s)
(c) ___ POCl
3
(l) + ___ H
2
O(l) ___ H
3
PO
4
(aq) + ___ HCl(aq)
(d) ___ C
4
H
4
S(l) + ___ O
2
(g) ___ CO
2
(g) + ___ H
2
O(l) + ___ SO
2
(g)
(e) ___ Pr
2
O
3
(s) + ___ H
2
SO
4
(aq) ___ Pr
2
(SO
4
)
3
(aq) + ___ H
2
O(l)

(a) ___Al(s) + ___O
2
(g) ___Al
2
O
3
(s)
(b) ___H
3
PO
4
(aq) + ___Fe(OH)
2
(s) ___Fe
3
(PO
4
)
2
(s) + ___H
2
O(l)
(c) ___C
6
H
14
(l) + ___O
2
(g) ___CO
2
(g) + ___H
2
O(l)
(d) ___N
2
O
5
(s) + ___H
2
O(l) ___HNO
3
(aq)
(e) ___XeF
2
(s) + ___H
2
O(l) ___Xe(g) + ___HF(g) + ___O
2
(g)

(a) ___ Al(s) + ___ F
2
(g) ___ AlF
3
(s)
(b) ___ H
3
AsO
4
(aq) + ___ CuO(s) ___ Cu
3
(AsO
4
)
2
(s) + ___ H
2
O(l)
(c) ___ C
12
H
26
(l) + ___ O
2
(g) ___ CO
2
(g) + ___ H
2
O(g)
(d) ___ Rb
2
O(s) + ___ H
2
O(l) ___ RbOH(aq)
(e) ___ XeF
6
(s) + ___ H
2
O(l) ___ XeO
3
(s) + ___ HF(g)

3.18 Determine the formulas for all the reactants and products for the following reactions. Then write balanced
chemical equations for each reaction. (a) Carbon dioxide gas dissolves in liquid water to produce an aqueous
solution of carbonic acid. (b) Solid potassium oxide reacts with liquid water to produce an aqueous solution of
potassium hydroxide. (c) When it is heated, solid potassium nitrate decomposes to solid potassium nitrite and
oxygen gas. (d) Hydrogen sulfide gas will dissolve in an aqueous solution of lead(II) nitrate, (b(NO
3
)
2
) to
precipitate solid lead(II) sulfide (PbS) and form a dilute aqueous solution of nitric acid. (e) Solid dichlorine
heptoxide forms an aqueous perchloric acid solution when dissolved in liquid water.

chemical equations for each reaction. (a) Gaseous sulfur dioxide dissolves in liquid water to produce an aqueous
solution of sulfurous acid. (b) Solid barium oxide reacts with liquid water to produce an aqueous solution of barium
hydroxide. (c) Liquid hydrogen peroxide decomposes when heated to produce liquid water and oxygen gas. (d)
Carbon dioxide gas will dissolve in an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide to produce solid calcium carbonate
and liquid water. (e) Solid tetraphosphorus decaoxide dissolves in liquid water to from an aqueous solution of
phosphoric acid.


3.22 Define Avogadro's number. (Note: 6.022 10
23
is not the definition.)

3.23 Your study partner cannot understand how a mole of oxygen can contain the same number of particles as a
mole of lead when the masses are so different. How would you explain that a mole of oxygen and a mole of lead
have the same number of particles? You might want to compare a dozen eggs to a dozen pencils.

3.24 If nitrogen molecules weigh 28 amu each, without doing any calculations, how much does a mole of nitrogen
molecules weigh?
15


3.25 What information is necessary to change the grams of a compound to the moles of that compound? Why is
Avogadro's number not necessary?

3.26 What information is necessary to change the moles of a compound to the grams of a compound? Why is
Avogadro's number not necessary?

3.27 When using moles or grams in a problem, what indicates that you also need to use Avogadro's number?

3.28 (a) How many carbon-12 atoms are in each mole of carbon-12? (b) How many grams does each mole of
carbon-12 atoms weigh? (c) Calculate how many grams each carbon-12 atom weighs.

3.29 An atom of carbon-13 weighs 13.00335 amu. (a) How many carbon-13 atoms are in each mole of carbon-13?
(b) How many grams does each mole of carbon-13 atoms weigh? (c) Calculate how many grams each carbon-13
atom weighs.

3.30 Morphine (C
17
H
19
NO
3
) is a powerful analgesic. (a) What is the molar mass of morphine? (b) How many
grams does 2.00 mol of morphine weigh? (c) Calculate the number of moles of morphine present in a sample
weighing 0.120 grams. (d) How many carbon atoms are present in 5.45 g of morphine?

3.31 The analgesic acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) has the formula C
9
H
8
O
4
. (a) What is the molar mass of
acetylsalicylic acid? (b) How many grams are present in 3.25 mol of acetylsalicylic acid? (c) How many moles of
acetylsalicylic acid are present in a sample weighing 10.120 grams? (d) How many carbon atoms are present in 7.45
ng of acetylsalicylic acid?

3.32 Determine the number of grams present in each of the following samples. (a) 0.27952 mol of calcium chloride
(CaCl
2
), (b) 4.37 10
28
molecules of carbon dioxide (CO
2
), (c) 6.95 10
15
molecules of water (d) 4.35 mol of
carbon monoxide (CO), (e) 2.50 10
18
atoms of xenon (Xe).

3.33 Calculate how many grams each of the following samples weighs. (a) 4.3528 mol of krypton difluoride (KrF
2
)
(b) 3.75 10
7
molecules of sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) (c) 9.9527 10
45
molecules of nitrogen oxide (NO) (d) 3.77 mol of
sulfur hexafluoride (SF
6
) (e) 1 billion phosphorus atoms (P).

3.34 Determine the number of molecules in each of the following samples: (a) 3.25 mol of aspirin (acetylsalicylic
acid) (C
9
H
8
O
4
), (b) 0.0045 mol of table sugar (sucrose) (C
12
H
22
O
11
), (c) 4.55 g of water, (d) 2.3 ng of natural gas
(methane) (CH
4
), (e) 3 kg of battery acid (sulfuric acid) (H
2
SO
4
).

3.35 Calculate the number of molecules present in each of the following samples. (a) 3.45 mol of hydrogen chloride
(HCl) (b) 0.00525 mol of silicon dioxide (SiO
2
) (c) 15.3 g of silicon tetrachloride (SiCl
4
) (d) 14.3 mg of oxygen (O
2
)
(e) 3.552 Mg of nitrogen (N
2
)

3.36 Determine the number of hydrogen atoms present in each of the following samples: (a) 10 molecules of water,
(b) 0.672 mol of methane (CH
4
), (c) 1.32 mol of glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
), (d) 2.6 g of urea ((NH
2
)
2
CO), (e) 3 ng of
propane (C
3
H
8
).

3.37 Calculate the number of oxygen atoms that are present in each of the following samples. (a) 15 molecules of
water (b) 0.552 g of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) (c) 3.93 mol of sulfur trioxide (SO
3
) (d) 3 g of dichlorine pentoxide
(Cl
2
O
5
) (e) 47 cg of sulfur dioxide (SO
2
)

3.38 Nickel tetracarbonyl (Ni(CO)
4
) is used industrially in the purification of nickel. This compound is very toxic
with as little as 6.7 10
9
g/L in the air being dangerous. (a) How many moles of nickel tetracarbonyl are present in
a room 2.5 m 3.7 m 2.0 m? (b) How many molecules of nickel tetracarbonyl are in a liter?

3.39 Highly toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN) has many industrial uses. As little as 1.0 10
5
g/L is cause for
concern. (a) Calculate the number of moles of HCN at 1.0 10
5
g/L is in a room measuring 25 ft 22 ft 8.0 ft.
(b) How many molecules of hydrogen cyanide, at 1.0 10
5
g/L, are in a quart?

16


3.40 The mineral spinel has the formula MgAl
2
O
4
. The mineral is very hard and is occasionally used as a semi-
precious gemstone. The density of spinel is 3.581 g/cm
3
. Determine how many aluminum atoms are present in
7.500 cm
3
of spinel.

3.41 The mineral beryl has the formula Be
3
Al
2
Si
6
O
18
. The presence of small quantities of chromium, as an impurity,
results in a gem known as emerald. The density of beryl is 2.640 g/cm
3
. Calculate the number of silicon atoms
present in 4.250 cm
3
of beryl.

3.42 (a) Calculate the number of moles of the following compound present in 15.25 grams. (b) How many
molecules are present in 27.52 grams?

F C
F
F
O C
F
F
F

3.43 (a) Calculate the number of moles of the following compound present in 12.50 grams. (b) How many
molecules are present in 2.51 grams?

C
C
N
C
C
C
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H


3.44 What is the definition of percent composition? Using C
6
H
12
O
6
as an example, show how your definition
applies to the percent carbon in this compound.

3.45 In addition to the chemical formula, what information is necessary to determine the percent composition of a
compound?

3.46 For each of the following compounds calculate the percent by mass of the indicated element. (a) Carbon in
octane (C
8
H
18
) a component of gasoline (b) Iodine in potassium iodide (KI) a compound used as a dietary
supplement (c) Oxygen in methyl salicylate (C
8
H
8
O
3
) a compound used as wintergreen flavoring (d) Sodium in
sodium stearate (NaC
18
H
35
O
2
) a compound in some soap (e) Nitrogen in ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
) a compound
used in some fertilizers

3.47 In each of the following, determine the mass percentage of the indicated element: (a) oxygen in water, (b)
oxygen in hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
) a substance sometimes used as a disinfectant, (c) nitrogen in urea ((NH
2
)
2
CO)
a compound sometimes used as a fertilizer, (d) hydrogen in isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) (C
3
H
8
O), (e) iron in
hematite (an iron ore) (Fe
2
O
3
).

3.48 (a) Determine the percent by mass of each of the elements present in chlorophyll b (C
55
H
70
MgN
4
O
6
). (b)
Determine the percent by mass of each of the elements in hemoglobin (C
2952
H
4664
Fe
4
N
812
O
832
S
8
). (Yes the numbers
are 2952, 4664, 4, 812, 832, and 8.)

3.49 Calculate the mass percent of each of the elements present in the following compound.

H C
H
H
C
H
H
O H

3.50 Calculate the mass percent of each of the elements present in the following compound.

H C
H
H
O C
H
H
H

17


3.51 Polymers form by joining many small molecules together to produce gigantic molecules. An example of a
polymer is polypropylene, which results from joining propylene molecules (C
3
H
6
). A polypropylene molecule
isolated at a certain factory has the formula C
3027
H
6054
. (a) Determine the molar mass of polypropylene. (b)
Calculate the mass percentage of each of the elements in the polypropylene molecule. (c) Calculate the mass
percentage of each of the elements in propylene.

3.52 The compound ajmalicine, isolated from various plant sources is an organic compound. Burning a sample of
ajmalicine, weighing 1.0527 g, in oxygen produced 2.7605 g of CO
2
, 0.6458 g of H
2
O, and 0.0837 g of N
2
. The
compound contained C, H, N, and O. Determine the percentages of each of these elements.

3.53 Alstonine is a yellow solid isolated from several species of plants. A sample of alstonine weighing 1.0170 g
sample was burned in oxygen. The reaction produced 2.6978 g of CO
2
, 0.5259 g of H
2
2
. The
compound contained C, H, N, and O. Determine the mass percentages of each of the four elements present.


3.54 Define both the empirical formula and the molecular formula. Are there any situations where the empirical
formula and the molecular formula are the same? Give an example of a compound where the empirical and
molecular formulas are the same.

3.55 During a study session, one of your fellow students takes the following information from an empirical formula
calculation: 0.25 mol N and 0.50 mol of H, and reports the empirical formula to be N
0.25
H
0.50
. Explain to your friend
what they did wrong, and what the correct answer should be.

3.56 List the types of data that you may use to determine the empirical formula of a compound.

3.57 As you are working an empirical formula problem, you come up with the following mole values: C = 1.238, H
= 4.000, N = 1.485 and O = 1.000. What is the empirical formula of this compound? Round each of the mole
values to two significant figures, and then determine the empirical formula. Do your two answers agree? If your
answers do not agree, what does this imply about rounding during empirical formula calculations?

3.58 Calculate the formula mass for each of the following: (a) H
2
O (b) Cl
2
O
5
(c) (NH
4
)
2
CrO
4
(d) Mg
3
(PO
4
)
2
(e)
CuSO
4
H
2
O

3.59 Determine the formula mass for each of the following: (a) CO
2
(b) P
4
O
10
(c) Zr(SO
4
)
2
(d) (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
(e)
MgSO
4
7H
2
O

3.60 Convert each of the following to empirical formulas: (a) H
2
O
2
(b) C
6
H
6
(c) CO
2
(d) P
4
O
10
(e) C
6
H
12
O
6

3.61 Change each of the following molecular formulas to empirical formulas: (a) H
2
C
2
O
4
(b) C
7
H
14
(c) P
4
O
6
(d)
N
2
O
5
(e) B
2
H
6

3.62 The analysis of three compounds, A, B, and C, gave the following results. (a) Compound A contained 0.1248
mol of nitrogen and 0.2496 mol of hydrogen. (b) Compound B contained 3.800 g of iodine and 1.200 g of oxygen.
(c) Compound C was 39.2 percent phosphorus and 60.8 percent sulfur. Convert these analyses to the empirical
formulas for these three compounds.

3.63 The analysis of three different oxides of chlorine gave the following information:
Compound Moles Cl Moles O
1 3.255 6.510
2 2.786 1.393
3 1.332 3.330
Determine the empirical formula of each of the chlorine oxides.

3.64 Using the following data determine the empirical formulas for compounds A and B. (a) Compound A is 52.1
percent carbon, 13.1 percent hydrogen, and 34.7 percent oxygen. (b) Compound B contains 26.95 percent sulfur,
13.45 percent oxygen, and 59.60 percent chlorine.

18


3.65 In addition to carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO
2
), carbon forms two additional stable oxides.
Analysis of samples of these two oxides gave the following information:
Compound Percent C Percent O
1 52.97 47.03
2 50.02 49.98
Determine the empirical formula of these additional oxides of carbon.

3.66 (a) Glycine is an amino acid with a molecular mass of 75.07 amu. This amino acid is 32.00 percent carbon,
6.71 percent hydrogen, 18.66 percent nitrogen, and 42.63 percent oxygen. Determine both the empirical and
molecular formulas for glycine. (b) Lysine is another amino acid with a molecular mass of 146.19 amu. This amino
acid is 49.29 percent carbon, 9.65 percent hydrogen, 19.16 percent nitrogen, and 21.89 percent oxygen. Determine
both the empirical and molecular formulas for lysine.

3.67 (a) Glucose is a sugar used by the body as the primary source of energy. This compound is blood sugar and has
a molecular mass of 180.2 amu. This carbohydrate is 40.00 percent carbon, 6.714 percent hydrogen, and 53.28
percent oxygen. Calculate both the empirical and molecular formulas of glucose. (b) Ribose is a sugar that makes
up part of the backbone of ribonucleic acid (RNA). This carbohydrate has a molecular mass of 150.1 amu. This
sugar is 40.00 percent carbon, 6.714 percent hydrogen, and 53.28 percent oxygen. Calculate both the empirical and
molecular formulas of ribose. (c) Determine the empirical formula of sucrose, cane sugar, if its molecular formula is
C
12
H
22
O
11
. (d) The name carbohydrate implies the formula C
x
(H
2
O)
y
. Do the empirical and molecular formulas of
glucose, ribose, and sucrose have this implied formula?

3.68 The combustion of a 1.507 g sample of morphine (C
17
H
19
NO
3
) in pure oxygen produced carbon dioxide, water,
and nitrogen gas. How many grams of each of the three products formed?

3.69 The combustion of a 0.0168 g sample of cocaine (C
17
H
21
NO
4
) in pure oxygen produced carbon dioxide, water,
and nitrogen gas. How many milligrams of each of the three products formed?

3.70 Hydrocarbons are compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon. A 2.00 mg sample of an unknown
hydrocarbon was burned in oxygen. After combustion was complete, analysis of the products found 6.275 mg of
carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and 2.569 mg of water (H
2
O). Determine the empirical formula of the unknown hydrocarbon.

3.71 In order to determine the formula of the compound carpiline a 0.5572 g sample was burned in oxygen. The
reaction produced 1.5687 g of CO
2
, 0.2223 g of H
2
2
. The compound contained C, H, N, and O.
Determine the empirical formula.

3.72 Isopentyl acetate is the substance that produces the characteristic odor of pears. A sample of isopentyl acetate
weighing 3.75 10
3
g was burned in excess oxygen to produce 8.87 mg of carbon dioxide and 3.63 mg of water.
Isopentyl acetate contains the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Determine the empirical formula of
isopentyl acetate.

3.73 Physostigmine salicylate has a variety of medicinal uses. In order to determine the formula of the compound
physostigmine salicylate a 0.5560 g sample was burned in oxygen. The reaction produced 1.3020 g of CO
2
, 0.3271
g of H
2
O, and 0.05654 g of N
2
. The compound contained C, H, N, and O. Determine the empirical formula.

3.74 Chlorophyll a is a magnesium-containing compound necessary for photosynthesis in plants. In order to
determine the empirical formula for this compound the magnesium was first removed, and then 0.7693 g of the
remaining material was burned in oxygen. The reaction produced 2.1423 g of CO
2
, 0.5740 g of H
2
O, and 0.0496 g
of N
2

3.75 At one time, the drug echitamidine was useful in the treatment of malaria. In order to determine the formula of
the compound echitamidine a 0.6664 g sample was burned in oxygen. The reaction produced 1.7129 g of CO
2
,
0.4558 g of H
2
2

3.76 Many ionic compounds exist as hydrates. The mineral mirabilite is an example of a hydrate. The general
formula for mirabilite is Na
2
SO
4
xH
2
O. The value of x may be determined by calculating the difference in mass
between mirabilite and sodium sulfate produced from a sample of this mineral. A 3.095 g sample of mirabilite is
19


heated to 325C to drive off the water. After the removal of the water, the sample was cooled and weighed. The
dried sample weighed 1.364 grams. Determine the value of x and the complete formula for mirabilite.

3.77 Copper(II) sulfate is normally isolated as a hydrate. The general formula for copper(II) sulfate hydrate is
CuSO
4
xH
2
O. A 4.355 g sample of copper(II) sulfate hydrate was heated to 150C. At this temperature all the
water was driven off the sample leaving anhydrous (without water) copper(II) sulfate. The anhydrous sample
weighed 2.771 g. Determine the value of x in the formula of copper(II) sulfate hydrate.

3.78 Nickel(II) sulfate is normally isolated as one of two hydrates. The general formula for the nickel(II) sulfate
hydrates is NiSO
4
xH
2
O. From the following information determine the value of x in the formula of the two
nickel(II) sulfate hydrates. (a) A 3.781 g sample of one of the nickel(II) sulfate hydrates was heated to 150C. At
this temperature all the water was driven off the sample leaving anhydrous (without water) nickel(II) sulfate. The
anhydrous sample weighed 2.226 g. (b) A 4.843 g sample of one of the nickel(II) sulfate hydrates was heated to
150C. At this temperature all the water was driven off the sample leaving anhydrous (without water) nickel(II)
sulfate. The anhydrous sample weighed 2.669 g.


3.79 Given the following chemical equation: 4 Sb(s) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 Sb
2
O
3
(s)
List the six different mole ratios that this equation contains.

3.80 During a study session, your group attacks the following problem.
Small quantities of very reactive chlorine gas may be produced in the laboratory by the following reaction:
4 HCl(aq) + MnO
2
(s) MnCl
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l) + Cl
2
(g)
(a) How many grams of greenish-yellow chlorine gas will form from the reaction of a solution containing 25.0000 g
of hydrochloric acid, HCl, if the black solid manganese(IV) oxide is present in excess? (b) One member of the
group comes up with the following solution:
Grams Cl
2
= ( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
HCl g 4606 . 36
Cl g 9054 . 70
HCl g 0000 . 25
2
= 48.6178 g Cl
2
Upon checking the groups learns that the correct answer is 12.1545 g Cl
2
. Where did your friend make her mistake?

3.81 Methane (CH
4
) gas burns in oxygen (O
2
) gas according to the following equation:
CH
4
(g) + 2 O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l)
Describe this reaction on a molecular, molar, an on a mass level.

3.82 Water, like many substances, will burn in fluorine gas. The equation for this reaction is:
2 H
2
O(l) + 2 F
2
(g) 4 HF(g) + O
2
(g)
Describe this reaction on a molecular, molar, and on a mass level.

3.83 Aluminum (Al) metal reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form aluminum chloride (AlCl
3
) and hydrogen
(H
2
) gas. (a) Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. (b) Describe this reaction on a molecular, molar,
and on a mass level.

3.84 Powdered aluminum will burn in oxygen gas to form solid aluminum oxide (Al
2
O
3
). (a) Write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction of solid aluminum in oxygen gas to produce solid aluminum oxide. (b) Describe
this reaction on a molecular, molar, and on a mass level.

3.85 LP gas is liquid propane (C
3
H
8
). The substance vaporizes and burns as follows:
C
3
H
8
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 3 CO
2
(g) + 4 H
2
O(l)
(a) A 2.00 mol sample of propane is burned. How many moles of oxygen are required to burn this propane? (b) The
combustion of 10.0 g of propane requires how many grams of oxygen? (c) Calculate the number of grams of
oxygen required to burn 15.0 cm
3
of LP gas. The density of LP gas is 0.5853 g/mL. (d) How many grams of carbon
dioxide are produced when 15.0 cm
3
of LP gas combusts?

3.86 The following reaction may be used to prepare iodic acid (HIO
3
).
I
2
(s) + 6 H
2
O(l) + 5 Cl
2
(g) 2 HIO
3
(aq) + 10 HCl(aq)
20


How many grams of HIO
3
could be prepared if 1.8460 g of iodine, I
2
, 0.7870 g of H
2
O, and 2.5555 g of chlorine, Cl
2

are mixed?

3.87 One form of the element phosphorus has the formula P
4
. This form is prepared by heating a mixture of calcium
phosphate, sand (silicon dioxide), and coke (carbon) to 1400-1500C. The reaction is:
2 Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
(s) + 6 SiO
2
(s) + 10 C(s) 6 CaSiO
3
(l) + 10 CO(g) + P
4
(g)
(a) Calculate the number of moles of silicon dioxide required to react with a 2.00 mol sample of calcium phosphate.
(b) Calculate the number of grams of phosphorus formed from 3.50 mol of calcium phosphate. (c) Calculate the
number of grams of calcium silicate that would form by the reaction of 125 g of calcium phosphate.

3.88 Oxalic acid (H
2
C
2
O
4
) reacts with potassium chlorate (KClO
3
) in the presence of an acid such as sulfuric acid
(H
2
SO
4
) by the following reaction: H
2
C
2
O
4
+ H
2
SO
4
+ 2 KClO
3
K
2
SO
4
+ 2 H
2
O + 2 CO
2
+ 2 ClO
2

(a) How many moles of potassium chlorate are necessary to react with 1.50 mol of oxalic acid? (b) How many
grams of sulfuric acid are necessary to prepare 2.45 mol of chlorine dioxide (ClO
2
)? (c) How many grams of
potassium sulfate (K
2
SO
4
) form when 125 g of potassium chlorate react with an excess of the other reagents. (d) If
25.8750 g of H
2
C
2
O
4
are mixed with an excess of the other reactants, how many grams of ClO
2
are formed?

3.89 Rust deposits will dissolve in muriatic acid. Rust is mostly Fe
2
O
3
, and muriatic acid is an impure hydrochloric
acid (HCl) solution. The acid will dissolve the rust to produce an aqueous solution of FeCl
3
and water. (a) What is
the balanced chemical equation for this reaction? (b) How many grams of rust could in a sample of muriatic acid
containing 4.55 g of HCl?

3.90 The filament in an incandescent light bulb is made of tungsten metal (W). This metal is formed by heating
yellow tungsten(VI) oxide (WO
3
) by reaction with hydrogen gas to produce not only pure tungsten metal but also
water vapor. (a) Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. (b) How many grams of tungsten will 14.7
kg of hydrogen gas produce with excess tungsten(VI) oxide?

3.91 Chloroform (CHCl
3
) can be used as a sedative and as an anesthetic, but its use is not recommended because of
toxicity issues. Chloroform may form during the chlorine treatment of water containing organic matter. A 1000.0 L
sample of chlorine treated water was analyzed. Chemical treatment of the water freed the chlorine and allowed it to
react with silver nitrate to form 0.0375 g of silver chloride (AgCl). How many grams of chloroform were in each
liter of the treated water?

3.92 A 2.500 g pesticide sample, thought to contain DDT (C
14
H
9
Cl
5
) was weighed. This sample was decomposed
by reaction with sodium metal. Dissolving the sample in water gave a colorless solution. The addition of a silver
nitrate solution to the colorless solution gave 0.0795 g of solid silver chloride (AgCl). What was the percent DDT in
the sample?

3.93 A 5.782 g sample from a fish was thought to contain mercury. Analysis of the sample produced 6.7 10
4

grams of mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). What was the percent mercury in the fish sample?

3.94 Chlorine is more reactive than bromine. The reactivity of chlorine allows it to displace bromine from
compounds in reactions analogous to the following: 2 XBr
3
(s) + 3 Cl
2
(g) 2 XCl
3
(s) + 3 Br
2
(l)
A 2.5178 g sample of XBr
3
completely reacts with excess chlorine to produce 1.6357 g of XCl
3
. (a) Determine the
atomic mass of X. (b) What element is X?

3.95 Highly reactive fluorine gas (F
2
) will displace the less reactive chlorine gas from compounds. An example of
this displacement is: 2 XCl
3
(s) + 3 F
2
(g) 2 XF
3
(s) + 3 Cl
2
(g)
In one experiment, 2.7825 g of XCl
3
reacted with an excess of fluorine gas to form 2.2835 g of XF
3
. (a) Calculate
the atomic weight of X. (b) What element is X?

3.96 One industrial method for the production of titanium involves the chlorination of the ore ilmenite (FeTiO
3
) in
the presence of carbon at 900C. The compound TiCl
4
distills away and is reacted with magnesium metal to
produce titanium metal. The unbalanced equation for the chlorination reaction is:
FeTiO
3
(s) + C(s) + Cl
2
(g) TiCl
4
(g) + CO(g) + FeCl
3
(g) (unbalanced)
(a) Balance the above equation. (b) How many kilograms of ilmenite are needed to prepare a metric ton (1000.0
kg) of TiCl
4
? (c) How many kilograms of ilmenite are needed to prepare a metric ton of TiCl
4
if the percent yield is
21


only 85.2%? (d) Determine the theoretical yield of TiCl
4
from the reaction of 215 kg of ilmenite, 51.1 kg of carbon,
and 331 kg of chlorine. (e) What is the percent yield in part (d) if only 115 kg of TiCl
4
formed?


3.97 (a) What step must be added to a limiting reactant calculation that is not present in the previous stoichiometric
calculations? (b) What is a simple way to recognize that a problem requires a limiting reactant calculation?

3.98 You are given the following equation: CuO(s) + 2 HCl(g) CuCl
2
(s) + H
2
O(g)
You are then supplied with the following sets of data:
i. 25.0 g CuO and excess HCl
ii. 25.0 g of CuO and 75.0 g of HCl
iii. 25.0 g of CuO and 39.0 g of CuCl
2

iv. 25.0 g of CuO, 75.0 g of HCl, and 39.0 g of CuCl
2

Which of these four cases will involve the limiting reactant concept?

3.99 How much limiting reactant will remain after the reaction is complete? How is this different from the
quantities of the other reactants? Are any values the same as when you started?

3.100 The last step in the manufacture of tricycles requires the assembly of a frame, a front wheel, a handlebar and
two rear wheels. The manufacturer has on hand 1725 frames, 1700 front wheels, 1750 handlebars, and 3125 rear
wheels. (a) Using only the parts on hand, how many tricycles may be assembled? (b) How many frames remain?
front wheels? handlebars? rear wheels? (c) In terms of concepts introduced in this chapter, which tricycle part
behaves as the limiting reagent?

3.101 Chlorine dioxide (ClO
2
) is used as an industrial bleach. It is prepared commercially by the following reaction:
2 NaClO
3
(aq) + 2 H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) 2 ClO
2
(g) + 2 CO
2
(g) + Na
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l)
(a) Calculate the number of grams of ClO
2
formed from 525 g of NaClO
3
. (b) Calculate the number of grams of
H
2
C
2
O
4
needed to react completely with 525 g of NaClO
3
. (c) Calculate the number of grams of ClO
2
formed when
475 g of NaClO
3
and 375 g of H
2
C
2
O
4
are mixed. (d) One of the reactants in part (c) was limiting and the other was
in excess. How many grams of the excess remain after the reaction?

3.102 Small quantities of chlorine gas may be prepared in the laboratory by the following reaction:
2 H
2
SO
4
(aq) + MnO
2
(s) + 4 NaCl(aq) 2 Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + MnCl
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l) + Cl
2
(g)
In one experiment 1.2320 g of H
2
SO
4
, 0.5460 g of MnO
2
, and 1.4500 g of NaCl are mixed. How many grams of Cl
2

will form?

3.103 Chlorine is commonly used as bleach. Sodium thiosulfate (Na
2
S
2
O
3
) is used in the bleaching industry to
destroy excess chlorine. Sodium thiosulfate is prepared by heating an aqueous solution of sodium sulfite, Na
2
SO
3
,
with sulfur. The reaction is: Na
2
SO
3
(aq) + S(s) Na
2
S
2
O
3
(aq)
Calculate the maximum number of grams of sodium thiosulfate formed when 5.25 g of sodium sulfite are reacted
with 7.25 g of sulfur.

3.104 The industrial bleach, chlorine dioxide (ClO
2
) is generated in small quantities through the following reaction.
H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 KClO
3
(aq) K
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l) + 2 CO
2
(g) + 2 ClO
2
(g)
How many grams of ClO
2
could form by the reaction of a mixture containing 8.3500 g of H
2
C
2
O
4
, 9.0970 g of
H
2
SO
4
, and 22.7200 g of KClO
3
?

3.105 Natural gas is primarily methane (CH
4
). Methane burns with the oxygen in air to produce carbon dioxide gas
and water vapor. (a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methane. (b) Calculate the
maximum number of grams of water vapor that may form from the reaction of 15.2 g of methane with 15.2 g of
oxygen.

3.106 The cyanide process was developed in the late nineteenth century for use in the gold and silver mining
industry. Gold (Au) may be extracted from gold ore by the following reaction:
22


8 NaCN(aq) + 4 Au(s) + O
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) 4 NaAu(CN)
2
(aq) + 4 NaOH(aq)
How many grams of NaAu(CN)
2
would form if 3.1000 g of Au, 1.5400 g of NaCN, 0.1350 g of O
2
, and 0.1400 g of
H
2
O are mixed?

3.107 Acetylene (C
2
H
2
) will react with bromine (Br
2
) to produce 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane (C
2
H
2
Br
4
). (a) What is
the balanced chemical equation for this reaction? (b) If 180.0 g of bromine are combined with 30.0 g of acetylene,
which one is the limiting reactant? (c) Determine the amounts of acetylene, bromine, and 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane
present after the reaction.

3.108 The following reaction may be used to prepare potassium iodate (KIO
3
):

10 CrO
3
(s) + 3 I
2
(s) + 24 KCl(s) 6 KIO
3
(s) + 4 K
3
CrCl
6
(s) + 6 KCrO
2
(s)
In one experiment, the following quantities of the reactants were mixed: 0.440 g of CrO
3
, 0.330 g of I
2
, and 7.500 g
of KCl. How many grams of KIO
3
formed?


3.111 Write the definition of a percent yield. Why is the definition more useful than a simple chemical equation?

3.112 You are given the following equation:
CuO(s) + 2 HCl(g) CuCl
2
(s) + H
2
O(g)
You are then supplied with the following sets of data: i. 25.0 g CuO and excess HCl
ii. 25.0 g of CuO and 75.0 g of HCl
iii. 25.0 g of CuO and 39.0 g of CuCl
2

iv. 25.0 g of CuO, 75.0 g of HCl, and 39.0 g of CuCl
2

v. 25.0 g of CuO, 75.0 g of HCl, and 4.00 g of H
2
O
Which of these four cases has enough information to calculate the percent yield? In those cases where you can
determine the percent yield, what is the actual yield?

3.113 The compound butanal may be produced from 1-butanol by the following reaction:
1-butanol chromium(VI) butanal chromium(III)
oxide chloride
3 CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
OH(l) + CrO
3
(s) + 3 HCl(g) 3 CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CHO(l) + CrCl
3
(aq) + 3 H
2
O(l)
(a) How many grams of butanal may be formed by mixing 24.2 g of 1-butanol, 9.50 g of chromium(VI) oxide and
excess hydrochloric acid (HCl)? (b) Determine the percent yield if only 18.5 g of butanal formed.

3.114 Small quantities of iron(III) chloride (FeCl
3
) may be prepared by the following reaction:
2 Fe
3
O
4
(s) + 3 Cl
2
(g) + 12 HCl(aq) 6 FeCl
3
(aq) + 6 H
2
O(l) + O
2
(g)
What was the percent yield if 16.8295 g of FeCl
3
were formed by reacting 15.2500 g of Fe
3
O
4
with an excess of the
other reagents?

3.115 Many detergents are derived from a group of organic compounds called sulfonic acids. Sulfonic acids are
distinguished by the presence of the SO
2
OH group. The following reaction may be used to produce laurlysulfonic
acid, which may be converted to sodium lauryl sulfate for used in shampoos and detergents.
C
12
H
25
SH(l) + 2 HNO
3
(aq) C
12
H
25
SO
2
OH(aq) + 2 NO(g) + H
2
O(l)
(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of laurylsulfonic acid resulting when 177 g of C
12
H
25
SH and 95.0 g of HNO
3
are
allowed to react. (b) Calculate the percent yield if only 158 g of laurylsulfonic acid formed.

3.116 Under certain conditions, the compound S
4
N
4
may be explosive. One safe way to destroy this compound is by
the following reaction: S
4
N
4
(s) + 6 NaOH(aq) + 3 H
2
O(l) Na
2
S
2
O
3
(aq) + 2 Na
2
SO
3
(aq) + 4 NH
3
(g)
In one test reaction, 2.0000 g of S
4
N
4
generated 0.5298 g of NH
3
. What was the percent yield in the test reaction?

3.9 Summary

3.121 The following reaction is important to the Haber process: N
2
(g) + 3 H
2
(g) 2 NH
3
(g)
An industrial plant combines 13.5 metric tons of nitrogen gas and 4.0 metric ton of hydrogen gas in a Haber-Bosch
reactor, after adjusting the conditions to optimum, 7.36 metric tons of ammonia form. What is the percent yield of
ammonia? (A metric ton is 1000 kilograms.)

23


3.122 The Ostwald process begins with ammonia from the Haber-Bosch process through the following reaction:
4 NH
3
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 4 NO(g) + 6 H
2
O(g)
An industrial plant combines 19.5 metric tons of ammonia gas and 37 metric tons of oxygen gas in a reactor, after
adjusting the conditions to optimum, 9.50 metric tons of nitrogen oxide form. What is the percent yield of nitrogen
oxide? (A metric ton is 1000 kilograms.)

3.123 The goal of the Ostwald process is to form nitric acid, HNO
3
. This acid forms in the final step:
3 NO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) 2 HNO
3
(aq) + NO(g)
The percent yield of this reaction, in some cases, is 37.5%. Taking into account this percent yield, how many metric
tons of nitric acid will form when 18.9 metric tons of nitrogen dioxide react with 1.75 metric tons of water?

3.126 The following compounds may serve as nitrogen sources in fertilizer: calcium carbamate (Ca(NH
2
CO
2
)
2
),
ammonia (NH
3
), calcium nitrate (Ca(NO
3
)
2
), and sodium nitrate (NaNO
3
). Determine the percent nitrogen in each
of these substances.

3.127 Rank the following potential fertilizers from highest percent of nitrogen available to the lowest percent of
nitrogen available.

H N
H
H
N
H
H
N
H
H
C
O
N N
H
H
H
H
Cl N
Cl
Cl
a b
c d

3.10 Summary

3.128 Dicobalt octacarbonyl (Co
2
(CO)
8
) and copper(I) iodide (CuI) may be prepared by the following reaction:
2 CoI
2
+ 4 Cu + 8 CO Co
2
(CO)
8
+ 4 CuI
(a) How many grams of CuI could be prepared by the above reaction if 0.850 g of CoI
2
, 0.330 g of Cu, and 0.985 g
of CO are mixed? (b) How many grams of dicobalt octacarbonyl may be prepared by reacting 36.7250 g of CoI
2

with an excess of the other reactants?

3.132 One reaction that leads to the tarnishing of silverware is: 4 Ag + 2 H
2
S + O
2
2 Ag
2
S + 2 H
2
O
A chemist, who is investigating this reaction mixes 1.6310 g of silver (Ag) 0.2560 g of hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) and
0.1215 g of oxygen (O
2
) are mixed. How many grams of silver sulfide (Ag
2
S) will form?

3.133 Carbon monoxide is one of the most toxic substances known. The recommended maximum concentration in
air is 29 mg/m
3
. At this maximum concentration, how many grams of nickel tetracarbonyl would be in a room that
measures 25.0 ft 15.5 ft 8.0 ft?

3.134 Rubies and sapphires are aluminum oxide with different colors induced by various impurities such as
chromium and manganese. The density of pure aluminum oxide is 3.96 g/cm
3
. How many aluminum atoms are
present in a 3.50 cm
3
sample of aluminum oxide?

3.135 One industrial method for the production of white phosphorus reaction of the ore apatite (Ca
5
(PO
4
)
3
OH) in the
presence of carbon and sand (mostly SiO
2
) at very high temperatures. The phosphorus distills away. The
unbalanced equation for the reaction is:
Ca
5
(PO
4
)
3
OH (s) + C(s) + SiO
2
(s) P
4
(g) + CO(g) + CaSiO
3
(l) + H
2
O(g) (unbalanced)
(a) Balance the above equation. (b) How many kilograms of apatite are necessary to prepare a metric ton (1000.0
kg) of P
4
? (c) How many kilograms of apatite are necessary to prepare a metric ton of P
4
if the percent yield is only
85.2%? (d) Determine the theoretical yield of P
4
from the reaction of 115 kg of apatite, 19.1 kg of carbon, and 131
kg of sand. (e) What is the percent yield in part (d) if only 11.0 kg of P
4
formed?

Chapter 4

24


4.1 A solution forms when sugar dissolves in water. What is the solute and what is the solvent? Is this an aqueous
solution?

4.2 (a) Give an example of a solution that is an aqueous solution. (b) Give an example of a solution that is not an
aqueous solution.

4.3 Define the terms (a) unsaturated solution, (b) saturated solution, and (c) supersaturated solution.

4.4 Which of the following types of solutions may spontaneously form a precipitate: an unsaturated solution, a
saturated solution, or a supersaturated solution?


4.6 Define molarity.

4.7 What information do you need to prepare a 1 M solution?

4.8 When performing a dilution, which of the following increases: moles of solute, volume of solution,
concentration of solute?

4.9 In the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, we find that 23.8 g of potassium chloride will dissolve in 100
cm
3
of water at 20C. What additional information is necessary to determine the molarity of the solution?

4.10 (a) What is the molarity of a solution containing 0.0335 mol of potassium dichromate (K
2
Cr
2
O
7
) in 450.0 mL
of solution? (b) Determine the number of milliliters of a 1.05 M calcium bromide (CaBr
2
) solution required to
supply 0.500 mol of solute. (c) Calculate the number of moles of sodium chloride (NaCl) in 125 mL of a 2.75 M
solution of sodium chloride. (d) How many milliliters of a 0.100 M iron(III) chloride (FeCl
3
) solution are required
to supply 0.575 mol of chloride ion (Cl
)?
4.11 (a) What is the molarity of a solution containing 0.0435 mol of sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO
3
) in 375.0
mL of solution? (b) Determine the number of milliliters of a 2.05 M ethanol (C
2
H
5
OH) solution required to supply
1.000 mol of solute. (c) Calculate the number of moles of ammonium hydrogen phosphate ((NH
4
)
2
HPO
4
) in 225 mL
of a 0.750 M solution of ammonium hydrogen phosphate. (d) How many milliliters of a 0.250 M iron(II) chloride
(FeCl
2
) solution are required to supply 0.100 mol of chloride ion (Cl
)?

4.12 How many grams of solute are required to make each of the following solutions? (a) 0.250 L of 0.250 M nitric
acid (HNO
3
) (b) 175 mL of 0.500 M sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) (c) 100.0 mL of 1.25 M phosphoric acid (H
3
PO
4
) (d)
250. mL of 1.55 10
6
M hydrofluoric acid (HF) (e) 1250 mL of 10.0 M perchloric acid (HClO
4
)

4.13 How many grams of solute are required to make each of the following solutions? (a) 0.500 L of 0.125 M
chloric acid (HClO
3
) (b) 275 mL of 1.50 M periodic acid (HIO
4
) (c) 1000.0 mL of 2.25 M acetic acid (HC
2
H
3
O
2
).
(d) 500.0 mL of 2.50 10
5
M hydrochloric acid (HCl) (e) 1750 mL of 10.0 M nitric acid (HNO
3
)

4.14 You have a bottle of pure magnesium chloride (MgCl
2
), and you need to prepare 250.0 mL of a 0.100 M
solution of magnesium chloride. Calculate how much solute you would need, and tell how you would make the
solution.

4.15 You have 2.00 L of a 3.50 M lithium chloride (LiCl) solution. Make the appropriate calculations and outline
the steps you would take to prepare 1.00 L of 0.150 M lithium chloride.

4.16 Concentrated sulfuric acid is supplied in 4-L bottles of 18.0 M H
2
SO
4
. Outline the steps you would take and
show the necessary calculations to prepare 500.0 mL of 3.0 M sulfuric acid.

4.17 Ethylene glycol (C
2
H
4
(OH)
2
) is used in many antifreezes. At 20C, the density of ethylene glycol is 1.1202
g/mL. Determine the molarity of an ethylene glycol solution made by adding 125.00 mL of this compound (at
20C) to a container and adding sufficient water to produce a solution with a volume of 500.00 mL.

4.18 Calculate the final molarity of acid in each of the following solutions. (a) 0.125 L of 1.50 M acetic acid
(HC
2
H
3
O
2
) mixed with sufficient water to prepare 1.00 L of solution (b) 475 mL of 5.00 M nitric acid (HNO
3
) added
25


to 725 mL of water (assume the volumes are additive) (c) 5.33 g of dinitrogen pentoxide added to sufficient water to
prepare 750.0 mL of solution

4.19 Commercial solutions of concentrated ammonia are 14.8 M. A chemist needs 750 mL of 3.00 M ammonia.
Showing the necessary calculations, describe how this solution may be prepared from concentrated ammonia.


4.20 (a) What is a cation? (b) What is an anion?

4.21 What is the difference between a nonelectrolyte and an electrolyte? Give an example of each.

4.22 What is the difference between a strong electrolyte and a weak electrolyte? Give an example of each.

4.23 What is the difference between a strong acid and a weak acid? Give an example of each.

4.24 Which of the following is an example of a strong base solution: 10.0 M NH
3
or 0.001 M NaOH? Why?

4.25 What does the symbol "" means in a chemical equation?

4.26 Each of the following substances will dissolve, to a greater or lesser extent, in water. Predict which are
nonelectrolytes and which are electrolytes. Then predict which of the electrolytes are strong or weak. (a) potassium
chloride (KCl, a salt substitute) (b) sucrose (C
12
H
22
O
11,
table sugar) (c) acetic acid (HC
2
H
3
O
2,
in vinegar) (d)
hydrochloric acid (HCl, stomach acid) (e) sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO
3,
baking soda) (f) ethylene glycol
(C
2
H
4
(OH)
2
, in antifreeze) (g) ammonia (NH
3
, in some household cleaners) (h) isopropyl alcohol (CH
3
CHOHCH
3
,
rubbing alcohol) (i) copper(II) sulfate (CuSO
4
, used as an algaecide) (j) oxalic acid (H
2
C
2
O
4
, in some rust removers)

4.27 The following substances are soluble in water. Predict which behave as nonelectrolytes and which behave as
electrolytes. If the substance is an electrolyte, predict whether it is a strong or weak electrolyte. (a) sulfuric acid
(H
2
SO
4
, battery acid) (b) citric acid (H
3
C
6
H
5
O
7
, in citrus fruit) (c) ethanol (C
2
H
5
OH, grain alcohol) (d) magnesium
sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO
4
7H
2
O, Epsom salts) (e) fructose (C
6
H
12
O
6
, fruit sugar) (f) sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl, a component of some bleaches) (g) potassium iodide (KI, added to table salt to prevent goiter) (h) ascorbic
acid (C
6
H
8
O
6
, vitamin C) (i) sodium stearate (NaC
18
H
35
O
2
, in some soaps) (j) sodium hydroxide (NaOH, lye, a
component of some drain cleaners)

4.31 Acetic acid, structural formula pictured below, is a weak monoprotic acid. (A monoprotic acid has only one
acidic hydrogen atom.) Examine the structure of acetic acid and predict which of the four hydrogen atoms in acetic
acid is the only acidic hydrogen atom.

H C
H
H
C
O
O H


4.32 (a) To which ions does the first solubility rule apply? (b) To which ions does the second solubility rule apply?
(c) To which ions does the third solubility rule apply?

4.33 (a) List the exceptions to the first solubility rule. (b) List the exceptions to the second solubility rule. (c) List
the exceptions to the third solubility rule.

4.34 What substances not covered by the solubility rules may be soluble in water?

4.35 Predict which of the following are soluble in water. (a) potassium nitrate (KNO
3
) (b) silver bromide (AgBr) (c)
iron(III) phosphate (FePO
4
) (d) barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)
2
) (e) zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)
2
) (f) aluminum sulfate
(Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
) (g) lead(II) iodide (PbI
2
) (h) ammonium oxalate ((NH
4
)
2
C
2
O
4
) (i) sodium permanganate (NaMnO
4
) (j)
mercury(I) chloride (Hg
2
Cl
2
)

26


4.36 Predict which of the following are soluble in water. (a) ammonium fluoride (b) strontium phosphate (c) zinc
chromate (d) potassium phosphate (e) magnesium hydroxide (f) silver nitrate (g) barium acetate (h) calcium chloride
(i) aluminum oxide (j) cesium hydroxide


4.37 Define a neutralization reaction and give an example.

4.38 Which, if any, of the following would not be a neutralization reaction? (a) a strong acid with a strong base (b)
a strong acid with a weak base (c) a weak acid with a strong base (d) a weak acid with a weak base

4.39 How does the existence of acidic oxides and basic oxides illustrate the difference between metals and
nonmetals?

4.40 Label each of the following as an acid or a base; then label them as weak or strong. (a) HCl (b) HClO
2
(c)
Ba(OH)
2
(d) HC
2
H
3
O
2
(e) NH
3

4.41 Label each of the following as an acid or a base; then label them as weak or strong. (a) LiOH (b) HCN (c)
H
2
SO
4
(d) H
2
C
2
O
4
(e) RbOH

4.42 Write balanced chemical equations showing how each of the following basic oxides forms a base when added
to water. (a) K
2
O (b) CaO (c) lithium oxide (d) barium oxide

4.43 Write balanced chemical equations showing how each of the following acidic oxides forms a strong acid when
added to water. (a) SO
3
(b) Cl
2
O
5
(c) dinitrogen pentoxide (d) dichlorine heptaoxide

4.44 Determine the products for each of the following reactions; then balance the chemical equations:
(a) NaOH(aq) + HNO
3
(aq)
(b) H
2
SO
4
(aq) + LiOH(aq)
(c) Sr(OH)
2
(aq) + H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq)
(d) H
3
PO
4
(aq) + Cu(OH)
2
(s)
(e) Fe(OH)
3
(s) + H
2
SeO
4
(aq)

4.45 The following depictions show two compounds containing an OH group. One of these compounds, sodium
hydroxide, is a strong base, while the other compound, ethyl alcohol, is not a base. Examine the two depictions to
find a reason for this difference in behavior.

Na
+
OH
-
H C
H
H
C
H
H
O H
sodium
hydroxide ethyl alcohol


4.46 Why is it not possible to have an oxidation without a reduction?

4.47 If copper undergoes oxidation in a reaction, is copper the oxidizing agent or the reducing agent?

4.48 Why are certain metals placed near the top of the activity series whereas certain other metals are placed near
the bottom?

4.49 What is the relationship between the electrons lost and the electrons gained in a redox reaction?

4.50 Calculate the oxidation number for each element in each of the following: (a) SO
3
(b) SO
3
2
(c) HC
2
H
3
O
2
(d)
FeF
6
3
(e) Hg
2
Br
2
(f) NO
2
+
(g) K
2
CrO
4
(h) H
2
CO (i) CHO
2
(j) Fe
3
O
4

27


4.51 Based on their positions on the periodic table, list the maximum and minimum oxidation numbers expected for
each of the following elements: (a) As (b) S (c) Cr (d) Ba (e) Cu

4.52 Give the name or the formula, as appropriate, for each of the following: (a) PbO
2
(b) Cu
2
O (c) Mn
2
O
7
(d) CrO
(e) TiO
2
(f) tungsten(VI) oxide (g) copper(II) sulfide (h) nickel(II) bromide (i) gold(III) oxide (j) silver(II) fluoride

4.53 Give the name or the formula, as appropriate, for each of the following: (a) Cu(NO
3
)
2
(b) TiCl
3
(c) NiCO
3
(d)
Ag
2
O
3
(e) Fe
3
(AsO
4
)
2
(f) tin(II) fluoride (g) molybdenum(IV) oxide (h) chromium(III) hydroxide (i) manganese(II)
sulfate (j) cobalt(II) phosphate

4.54 Identify which elements in each of the following reactions change oxidation states.
(a) 3 Cu(s) + 8 HNO
3
(aq) 3 Cu(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + 2 NO(g) + 4 H
2
O(l)
(b) 2 Na
2
O
2
(s) + 2 H
2
O(l) 4 NaOH(aq) + O
2
(g)
(c) 2 KMnO
4
(aq) + 5 H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) + 3 H
2
SO
4
(aq) K
2
SO
4
(aq) + 2 MnSO
4
(aq) + 10 CO
2
(g) + 8 H
2
O(l)
(d) CO(g) + 2 H
2
(g) CH
3
OH(g)
(e) 3 Br
2
(aq) + 6 KOH(aq) KBrO
3
(aq) + 5 KBr(aq) + 3 H
2
O(l)


4.55 Define a molecular equation, a total ionic equation, and a net ionic equation, and give an example of each.

4.56 Define a spectator ion.

4.57 List the types of substances that dissociate in a total ionic equation. Give one example of each type.

4.58 How do the solubility rules help you write a total ionic equation?

4.59 Convert the following balanced chemical reactions to net ionic equations and list the spectator ions, if any.
(a) 2 Al(s) + 6 HBr(aq) 2 AlBr
3
(aq) + 3 H
2
(g)
(b) Mg(s) + 2 AgNO
3
(aq) Mg(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + 2 Ag(s)
(c) 3 Fe(s) + Au
2
(SO
4
)
3
(aq) 3 FeSO
4
(aq) + 2 Au(s)
(d) 2 Cs(s) + 2 H
2
O(l) 2 CsOH(aq) + H
2
(g)
(e) Zn(s) + PdCl
2
(aq) ZnCl
2
(aq) + Pd(s)

4.60 Convert the following to net ionic equations and list any spectator ions.
(a) Ba(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(aq) 2 NH
4
NO
3
(aq) + BaSO
4
(s)
(b) PbO(s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) PbSO
4
(s) + H
2
O(l)
(c) 2 RbOH(aq) + Mn(NO
2
)
2
(aq) Mn(OH)
2
(s) + 2 RbNO
2
(aq)
(d) 2 Al(s) + 6 HBr(aq) 2 AlBr
3
(aq) + 3 H
2
(g)
(e) 2 H
3
AsO
4
(aq) + 3 CoI
2
(aq) 6 HI(aq) + Co
3
(AsO
4
)
2
(s)

4.61 Balance the following reactions, convert to net ionic equations, and list the spectator ion(s), if any.
(a) LiCl(aq) + AgNO
3
(aq) LiNO
3
(aq) + AgCl(s)
(b) K
2
CO
3
(aq) + CuCl
2
(aq) KCl(aq) + CuCO
3
(s)
(c) FeS(s) + HCl(aq) FeCl
2
(aq) + H
2
S(g)
(d) (NH
4
)
3
AsO
4
(aq) + Ca(MnO
4
)
2
(aq) Ca
3
(AsO
4
)
2
(s) + NH
4
MnO
4
(aq)
(e) BaCO
3
(s) + H
3
PO
4
(aq) Ba
3
(PO
4
)
2
(s) + CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)

4.62 Complete and balance the following equations using the Activity Series. Write both molecular and net ionic
equations. (a) Copper metal is added to an aqueous silver nitrate solution. (b) Zinc metal is added to an aqueous
sulfuric acid solution. (c) Iron metal is added to an aqueous aluminum nitrate solution. (d) Tin metal is added to an
aqueous copper(II) sulfate solution. (e) Potassium metal is added to water.

28


4.63 Write balanced equations for the following reactions. Write both molecular and net ionic equations for each.
(a) Zinc reacts with chloric acid. (b) Iron reacts with hydrochloric acid. (c) Magnesium reacts with acetic acid. (d)
Nickel reacts with hydrosulfuric acid. (e) Sodium reacts with water

4.64 Write balanced equations for the following reactions. Write both molecular and net ionic equations for each.
(a) Lead reacts with nitric acid. (b) Calcium reacts with oxalic acid. (c) Cobalt reacts with sulfuric acid. (d)
Chromium reacts with perchloric acid. (e) Barium reacts with water

4.65 Complete and balance the following equations using the Activity Series. Write both molecular and net ionic
equations. (a) Zn(s) + CuSO
4
(aq)
(b) Mg(s) + ZnSO
4
(aq)
(c) H
2
(g) + AuCl
3
(aq)
(d) Fe(s) + HCl(aq)
(e) Cu(s) + AgNO
3
(aq)
(f) Au(s) + Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
(aq)
(g) Ba(s) + H
2
O(l)
(h) Sn(s) + Pb(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
(aq)
(i) Hg(l) + AgClO
3
(aq)
(j) Cr(s) + NiI
2
(aq)


4.68 What is a metathesis reaction?

4.69 Write a balanced chemical equation for a reaction that results in the formation of a gas from substances in
aqueous solution.

4.70 Balance the following reactions, convert to net ionic equations, and list the spectator ions, if any.
(a) KOH(aq) + (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(aq) K
2
SO
4
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + NH
3
(g)
(b) H
3
PO
4
(aq) + CaSO
3
(s) Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
(s) + H
2
O(l) + SO
2
(g)
(c) FeS(s) + HCl(aq) FeCl
2
(aq) + H
2
S(g)
(d) HCl(aq) + CaCO
3
(s) CaCl
2
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + CO
2
(g)
(e) NH
4
NO
3
(aq) + K
2
CO
3
(aq) KNO
3
(aq) + H
2
O(l) + NH
3
(g) + CO
2
(g)

4.71 Complete the equations for the reactions occurring when the following are mixed. Write both molecular and
net ionic equations. If there is no reaction, label the answer as NR.
(a) K
2
SO
4
(aq) with Pb(NO
3
)
2
(aq)
(b) Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
(aq) with Na
2
CO
3
(aq)
(c) HC
2
H
3
O
2
(aq) with Zn(OH)
2
(s)
(d) Hg
2
(NO
3
)
2
(aq) with HCl(aq)
(e) CrCl
3
(aq) with Na
2
CrO
4
(aq)
(f) (NH
4
)
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) with K
2
SO
4
(aq)
(g) ZnS(s) with HNO
3
(aq)
(h) FeCl
2
(aq) with CsOH(aq)
(i) H
2
SO
4
(aq) with MgCO
3
(s)
(j) AgNO
3
(aq) with NaCl(aq)

4.72 Complete the molecular equations for any reactions resulting when the following are mixed, then write the net
ionic equations. If there is no reaction, label the answer as NR.
(a) Al(NO
3
)
3
(aq) with Na
3
PO
4
(aq)
(b) KOH(aq) with H
2
CO
3
(aq)
(c) Pb(NO
3
)
2
(aq) with HBr(aq)
(d) Ba(OH)
2
(aq) with Fe(NO
3
)
3
(aq)
(e) AgClO
4
(aq) with SrBr
2
(aq)
(f) NH
4
NO
3
(aq) with KOH(aq)
(g) NaNO
3
(aq) with CaCl
2
(aq)
(h) NiBr
2
(aq) with H
2
S(aq)
(i) HNO
2
(aq) with Mn(OH)
2
(s)
29


(j) Ba(NO
3
)
2
(aq) with (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
(aq)

4.73 Balance the following chemical equations by placing appropriate coefficients in the blanks. Then classify the
type of reaction (decomposition, combination, combustion, or other).
(a) ___XeO
3
(s) ___Xe(g) + ___O
2
(g)
(d) ___Pt(s) + ___F
2
(g) ___PtF
6
(s)
(c) ___C
10
H
22
(l) + ___O
2
(g) ___CO
2
(g) + ___H
2
O(g)
(d) ___P
4
(s) + ___O
2
(g) ___P
4
O
10
(s)
(e) ___Ca(OH)
2
(aq) + ___HCl(aq) ___CaCl
2
(aq) + ___H
2
O(l)

4.74 Balance the following chemical equations by placing appropriate coefficients in the blanks. Then classify the
type of reaction (decomposition, combination, combustion, or other).
(a) ___Mg(s) + ___O
2
(g) ___MgO(s)
(b) ___Mg(s) + ___N
2
(g) ___Mg
3
N
2
(s)
(c) ___SO
2
(g) + ___H
2
O(l) ___H
2
SO
3
(aq)
(d) ___HgO(s) ___Hg(l) + ___O
2
(g)
(e) ___K(s) + ___H
2
O(l) ___KOH(aq) + ___H
2
(g)

4.75 Write balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction of aqueous sulfuric acid, H
2
SO
4
, with each of
the following: (a) a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution (b) solid aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)
3
) (c) a barium
chloride (BaCl
2
) solution (d) a potassium carbonate (K
2
CO
3
) solution (e) a rubidium fluoride (RbF) solution.

4.76 Write balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction of aqueous phosphoric acid, H
2
SO
4
, with
each of the following: (a) a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution (b) solid aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)
3
) (c) a
calcium chloride (CaCl
2
) solution (d) a sodium carbonate (K
2
CO
3
) solution (e) a cesium fluoride (CsF) solution.


4.77 How many grams of solid form by reacting 50.00 mL of 2.500 M CuCl
2
solution with an excess of Rb
3
AsO
3

solution? They react as follows: 3 CuCl
2
(aq) + 2 Rb
3
AsO
3
(aq) Cu
3
(AsO
3
)
2
(s) + 6 RbCl(aq)

4.78 How many milliliters of 0.2300 M Na
2
C
2
O
4
solution are required to react with 17.00 g of ThCl
4
? They react as
follows: ThCl
4
(aq) + 2 Na
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) Th(C
2
O
4
)
2
(s) + 4 NaCl(aq)

4.79 How many grams of NaCl are produced by reacting 25.00 mL of a 0.1000 M NiCl
2
solution with an excess of
Na
2
CrO
4
solution? They react as follows: NiCl
2
(aq) + Na
2
CrO
4
(aq) NiCrO
4
(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)

4.80 How many milliliters of a 0.1400 M K
2
S
2
O
3
solution are required to produce 1.000 g of Pu(S
2
O
3
)
2
? The
reaction used was: PuCl
4
(aq) + 2 K
2
S
2
O
3
(aq) Pu(S
2
O
3
)
2
(s) + 4 KCl(aq)

4.81 How many milliliters of a 1.125 M K
2
C
2
O
4
solution are required to produce 5.000 g of U(C
2
O
4
)
2
in the reaction
UCl
4
(aq) + 2 K
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) U(C
2
O
4
)
2
(s) + 4 KCl(aq)

4.82 The following reaction produced 2.850 g of NaCl. If 100.00 mL of AuCl
3
solution was used, what was the
concentration of the AuCl
3
solution? AuCl
3
(aq) + Na
3
PO
3
(aq) AuPO
3
(s) + 3 NaCl(aq)

4.83 What is the concentration of base when 350.0 mL of 0.2010 M sulfuric acid reacts with 0.5000 L of sodium
hydroxide?

4.84 How many milliliters of 0.1750 M Ti(SO
4
)
2
solution are required to react with 25.00 mL of a 0.1750 M Na
2
SO
3

solution? They react as follows: Ti(SO
4
)
2
(aq) + 2 Na
2
SO
3
(aq) Ti(SO
3
)
2
(s) + 2 Na
2
SO
4
(aq)

4.85 How many grams of LiCl are produced by reacting 25.00 mL of 1.000 M VCl
3
solution with an excess of
Li
3
AsO
4
? They react as follows: VCl
3
(aq) + Li
3
AsO
4
(aq) VAsO
4
(s) + 3 LiCl(aq)

4.86 What is the concentration of base when 350.0 mL of 0.2010 M sulfuric acid reacts with 0.1500 L of lithium
hydroxide?

30


4.87 What is the concentration of acid when 45.35 mL of 0.01000 M calcium hydroxide reacts with 50.00 mL of
phosphoric acid?

4.88 How many grams of MoO
3
could we dissolve by the following reaction using 100.00 mL of 0.1000M HCl?
MoO
3
(s) + 6 HCl(aq) MoCl
6
(aq) + 3 H
2
O(l)

4.89 How many milliliters of 0.1550 M magnesium chloride are necessary to precipitate the silver ion completely
from a solution made by dissolving 2.500 g of silver nitrate in 500.0 mL of water?

4.90 Using the following reaction 25.00 mL of a 0.1200 M CoCl
2
solution were reacted with an excess of a 0.1800
M Na
2
CO
3
solution. After the reaction, everything was diluted to 250.00 mL. What was the resultant concentration
of NaCl? CoCl
2
(aq) + Na
2
CO
3
(aq) CoCO
3
(s) + 2 NaCl(aq)

4.91 How many grams of HCl could we produce by reacting 50.00 mL of a 0.2000 M CuCl
2
solution with an excess
of a 0.3000 M H
2
CrO
4
solution? They react as follows:
CuCl
2
(aq) + H
2
CrO
4
(aq) CuCrO
4
(s) + 2 HCl(aq)

4.92 The following reaction produced 2.875 g of KNO
3
. How many milliliters of a 0.1000 M K
2
CO
3
solution were
required to do this? K
2
CO
3
(aq) + 2 HNO
3
(aq) 2 KNO
3
(aq) + CO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l)

4.10 Summary

4.93 Someone gives you two unlabelled beakers. You know that one beaker contains a barium nitrate solution and
one beaker contains a magnesium nitrate solution. Since solutions containing barium ions are toxic, it is important
to know which of the beakers contains barium ion. Which of the following substances could be used to distinguish
between barium ions and magnesium ions: NaNO
3
, CaCl
2
, (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
, KBr, or HBr? Write a balanced chemical
equation for any reactions that occur.

4.94 Even though magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)
2
, is classified as an insoluble substance, a very small amount of
the solid will dissolve in water. A sample of magnesium is added to a liter of water and allowed to stand overnight.
The next day 500.0 mL of this solution is carefully withdrawn. This solution required 45.25 mL of 3.6 10
3
M
hydrochloric acid, HCl, for neutralization. (a) Write balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the
neutralization reaction. (b) Calculate the molarity of magnesium hydroxide. (c) How many grams of magnesium
hydroxide were dissolved in the 500.0 mL solution? (d) How many milliliters of water are required to dissolve 1.0 g
of magnesium hydroxide?

4.95 Toxic mercury ions may be removed from a solution by precipitating mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). A solution of
sodium sulfide (Na
2
S) is made by dissolving 50.00 g in sufficient water to prepare 0.7500 L of solution. How many
milliliters of the sodium sulfide solution are necessary to precipitate the mercury ions from 10.00 L of a solution that
is 1.58 10
3
M Hg
2+
?

4.96 (a) Determine how many milliliters of a 1.25 10
3
M calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)
2
) solution are needed to
completely react with 100.0 mL of 0.1000 M chloric acid (HClO
3
). (b) What volume of 0.2500 M perchloric acid
(HClO
4
) solution is needed to dissolve 0.1000 g of iron(II) hydroxide (Fe(OH)
2
)? (c) Calculate the milliliters of
0.1255 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) required to precipitate all the Pb
2+
ions from a solution made by dissolving
0.5000 g of lead(II) acetate (Pb(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
) in 1.000 L of water. (d) What is the molarity of a chlorous acid (HClO
2
)
solution if 45.25 mL of 0.1025 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution are required to neutralize 25.00 mL of a
solution of the acid? (e) How many grams of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) are present in a solution that requires 40.35
mL of 0.09825 M barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)
2
) solution to neutralize?

4.97 Vinegar is normally 5-6% acetic acid. A 5.00 g sample of vinegar is titrated with 0.2243 M sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution. If the titration requires 44.32 mL of base to neutralize the vinegar, in the following reaction, what
is the percentage of acetic acid in the vinegar? HC
2
H
3
O
2
(aq) + NaOH(aq) H
2
O(l) + NaC
2
H
3
O
2
(aq)

31


4.98 Citric acid (H
3
C
6
H
5
O
7
), found in citrus fruits, such as lemons, has three hydrogen atoms that may react with
bases. A 25.00 mL solution of this acid is titrated with 0.01837 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The
titration requires 47.23 mL of base. (a) Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction of citric acid with
sodium hydroxide. (b) What is the molarity of the citric acid solution?

4.99 Iron forms two chlorides: iron(II) chloride (FeCl
2
) and iron(III) chloride (FeCl
3
). Both are soluble in water. A
solution is prepared by dissolving 0.6825 g of one of these chlorides in 250 mL of water. A solution of silver nitrate
(AgNO
3
) is added to the iron chloride solution, and 1.809 g of silver chloride (AgCl) precipitates. (a) Determine the
mass percent of chloride in iron(II) chloride and in iron(III) chloride. (b) Based on the grams of silver chloride
precipitated, what was the mass percentage of chloride in the sample dissolved in water? (c) Write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction of silver nitrate with the iron chloride determined to be present in the sample.

4.11 Summary

4.100 (a) Calculate the molarity of nitrate ion (NO
3
) in a solution made by mixing 500.0 mL of 0.2500 M sodium

nitrate (NaNO
3
) with 750.0 mL of 0.1250 M potassium nitrate (KNO
3
). (b) Calculate the molarity of nitrate ion in a
solution made by mixing 75.0 mL of 0.2500 M sodium nitrate with 75.0 mL of 0.3750 M calcium nitrate
(Ca(NO
3
)
2
). Assume the volumes are additive in both cases.

4.101 An environmental chemist dissolves a sample of sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) weighing 2.75 g in 500.0 mL of a
0.125 M sulfuric acid solution. The volume is then adjusted to 750.0 mL. What is the final concentration of sulfuric
acid?

4.102 Give the formula and the name of the salt produced in each of the following neutralization reactions. (a)
aqueous potassium hydroxide reacts with aqueous nitric acid (b) solid magnesium hydroxide dissolves in aqueous
hydrochloric acid (c) aqueous acetic acid reacts with aqueous barium hydroxide (d) aqueous arsenic acid (H
3
AsO
4
)
reacts with solid zinc hydroxide (e) gaseous ammonia dissolves in aqueous phosphoric acid

4.103 Zinc metal will reduce V
3+
(aq) ions to V
2+
(aq) ions. The reaction must be run in the absence of air, as oxygen
in the air will react with the V
2+
(aq) ions. (a) Write the balanced net ionic equation for this process. (b) Why would
this reaction be inappropriate as a means of placing vanadium in the activity series?

4.104 An activity series may be constructed for the halogens. The following reactions occur for some of the
halogens: Cl
2
(g) + 2 KBr(aq) Br
2
(l) + 2 KCl(aq)
Cl
2
(g) + 2 KI(aq) I
2
(s) + 2 KCl(aq)
Br
2
(l) + 2 KI(aq) I
2
(s) + 2 KBr(aq)
All other combinations of these three halogens and their ions show no reaction. (a) Convert the three reactions to
net ionic equations. (b) Place these three halogens into an activity series beginning with the most reactive. (c)
Compare your activity series to the arrangement of these three halogens on the periodic table. (d) Where would you
expect fluorine to appear in your activity series? (e) Using your activity series, predict what will occur when each of
the following are mixed:
Cl
2
(g) + NaBr(aq) Br
2
(l) + KCl(aq)
I
2
(s) + LiCl(aq) Br
2
(l) + LiI(aq)
F
2
(g) + RbCl(s)

4.105 Determine the molarity of each solute particle in the following solutions. (a) 0.250 M hydrochloric acid (HCl)
(b) 0.500 M sodium fluoride (NaF) (c) 0.125 M strontium bromide (SrBr
2
) (d) 5.00 M ethyl alcohol (C
2
H
5
OH) (e) a
solution prepared by mixing 125 mL of 0.100 M potassium chloride (KCl) solution with 275 mL of a 0.0500 M
calcium chloride (CaCl
2
) solution

4.106 Rank the following in order of decreasing amount of ammonium ion present. (a) 25.0 mL of 0.100 M
ammonium chloride (NH
4
Cl) (b) 45.0 mL of 0.0750 M ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
) (c) 25.0 mL of 0.100 M
ammonium sulfate ((NH
4
)
2
SO
4
)

chemical equations for each reaction. (a) When solid magnesium is heated in the presence of nitrogen gas, solid
magnesium nitride forms. (b) Solid aluminum metal reacts with a dilute aqueous solution of sulfuric acid to produce
hydrogen gas and an aqueous solution of aluminum sulfate. (c) Liquid thionyl chloride (SOCl
2
) reacts with water
32


vapor to produce sulfur dioxide gas and hydrogen chloride gas. (d) Methane gas burns in oxygen gas to form
gaseous carbon dioxide and water vapor. (e) Solid calcium hydroxide reacts with an aqueous solution of phosphoric
acid to form solid calcium phosphate and liquid water.

4.108 How many grams of solid could you produce by the following reaction if 100.00 mL of a 0.2000 M CoCl
2

solution was reacted with an excess of a 0.5000 M K
3
AsO
4
solution?
3 CoCl
2
(aq) + 2 K
3
AsO
4
(aq) 6 KCl(aq) + Co
3
(AsO
4
)
2
(s)

4.109 (a) Calculate the volume of 0.1245 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution needed to completely react with
25.00 mL of 0.1500 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution. (b) Calculate the volume of 0.1621 M sulfuric acid
(H
2
SO
4
) solution required to neutralize 50.00 mL of 0.4521 M potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution. (c) How
many milliliters of 1.25 M nitric acid (HNO
3
) solution are required to react with 2.50 g of calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)
2
)? (d) How many milliliters of 0.1250 M magnesium chloride (MgCl
2
) are needed to precipitate all of the
silver ion from a solution made by dissolving 1.00 g of silver nitrate (AgNO
3
) in 500.0 mL of water? (e) How many
grams of sodium chromate (Na
2
CrO
4
) are in a solution if it reacted completely with 750.0 mL of a 0.7500 M barium
nitrate (Ba(NO
3
)
2
) solution?

4.110 How many grams of LiCl can the following reaction produce from 25.00 mL of 1.000 M VCl
3
solution with
an excess of Li
3
AsO
4
? VCl
3
(aq) + Li
3
AsO
4
(aq) VAsO
4
(s) + 3 LiCl(aq)

4.111 How many milliliters of 0.2300 M Na
2
C
2
O
4
solution are required to react with 17.00 g ThCl
4
? The reaction is
ThCl
4
(aq) + 2 Na
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) Th(C
2
O
4
)
2
(s) + 4 NaCl(aq)

4.112 By the following reaction, how many grams of KCl could a student produce with 25.00 mL of a 0.1725 M
PtCl
2
solution and an excess of a 0.2200 M K
2
HPO
4
solution?
PtCl
2
(aq) + K
2
HPO
4
(aq) PtHPO
4
(s) + 2 KCl(aq)

4.113 Write balanced molecular and net ionic equations for each of the following combinations. (Assume that all
reactions take place in aqueous solution.) (a) Nitric acid plus potassium acetate (b) Hydrochloric acid plus lithium
thiocyanate (c) Rubidium oxalate plus barium bromide (d) Strontium hydroxide plus chloric acid (e) Sodium
phosphate plus calcium chloride

4.114 Write balanced molecular and net ionic equations for each of the following combinations. (Assume that all
reactions take place in aqueous solution.) (a) hydrochloric acid plus calcium acetate (b) sulfuric acid plus
ammonium thiocyanate (c) sodium oxalate plus barium hydroxide (d) barium hydroxide plus perchloric acid (e)
potassium phosphate plus strontium bromide

4.115 Which will contain more total moles of bromide ion: 45.0 mL of 0.53 M sodium bromide or 55.0 mL of 0.52
M calcium bromide?

4.116 Seawater contains an average of 65 mg Br
per kilogram of seawater. If the density of seawater is 1.025

g/mL, what is the molarity of bromide ion?

4.117 A 2.54 g sample of a pesticide was analyzed for arsenic. The arsenic was converted to AsO
4
3
, which was
precipitated with Ag
+
to produce solid Ag
3
AsO
4
. If 35.00 mL of 0.0955 M Ag
+
solution was used to precipitate the
solid, what was the mass percentage of arsenic in the pesticide?

4.118 Acetic acid is a weak acid capable of donating a hydrogen ion and thus becoming an acetate ion. We may
write the formula of acetic acid in a number of ways. Two common ways are (I) HC
2
H
3
O
2
and (II) CH
3
COOH. The
following figure shows the structural formula of acetic acid and the structural formula of the acetate ion. Using the
structural formula as a guide, discuss an advantage for each of the two ways (I and II) of writing the formula of
acetic acid.

H C
H
H
C
O
O H H C
H
H
C
O
O
-
acetic acid acetate ion

33


Chapter 5

5.1 What is the difference between a gas and a vapor?

5.2 List the two types of condensed phases.

5.3 What are the five postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory?

5.2 Corresponds to BLBMW Sections 10.1-10.2 and 10.6

5.4 A 125 lb woman places her entire weight on one heel. If she is wearing high heels with a heel area of 0.75 in
2
,
what is the pressure under the heel in pascals?

5.5 A chemistry textbook weighing 4.53 lb rests on a desktop. The book is resting on an edge that is 10.25 in high
and 8.12 in wide. What is the pressure under the book in pascals?

5.6 Make the following conversions: (a) 1.5 10
5
Pa to atmospheres (b) 852 torr to atmospheres (c) 1.95 kPa to
atmospheres (d) 127 mmHg to torr (e) 827 torr to pascals.

5.7 Convert each of the following to torr. (a) 15.2 lb/in
2
(b) 3.52 bar (c) 1.00 atm (d) 555 mmHg (e) 3.55 10
3
Pa

5.8 Determine the total pressure, in atmospheres, in a balloon that contains 0.950 atm nitrogen gas, 181 torr of
oxygen gas, and 9 mmHg of argon.

5.9 A sample of air has a nitrogen partial pressure of 1072 torr, an oxygen partial pressure of 271 mmHg, and an
argon partial pressure of 0.0179 atm. What is the total pressure of the sample in pascals?

5.10 Determine the mole fraction of each component in a mixture with a nitrogen partial pressure of 0.855 atm, an
oxygen partial pressure of 0.220 atm, and a carbon dioxide partial pressure of 0.100 atm.

5.11 A gas mixture contains 655 torr of nitrogen, 245 torr of oxygen, and 25.2 torr of water vapor. Determine the
mole fraction of each of the components of the mixture.

5.12 A gas sample has a total pressure of 2.0 10
2
kPa. The sample contains 0.200 mol of hydrogen chloride, 0.150
mol of hydrogen bromide, 0.115 mol of hydrogen iodide, and 0.333 mol of argon. What is the partial pressure, in
kilopascals, of each of the gases in the sample?

5.13 A mixture of gases made of 3.525 g C
5
H
12
, 2.528 g of C
3
H
8
, and 3.056 g of C
4
H
10
was contained in a flask.
The total pressure of the gases was 1.385 atm. Determine the partial pressure of each gas, in atmospheres.


5.16 Describe how placing a balloon in the freezer illustrates Charles' Law.

5.17 You place a small piece of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) into a balloon and then seal the balloon. The balloon
slowly expands, even though neither the temperature nor the pressure changes. Why does the volume of the balloon
increase?

5.19 (a) According to Boyle's law, pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Write a sentence or two
explaining what "inversely proportional" means. (b) According to Charles's law, temperature and volume are
proportional. Write a sentence or two explaining what "proportional" means. (c) Is the volume of a gas proportional
or inversely proportional to the number of moles present?

5.20 Fill in the blank in each of the vertical columns below with either I (increases), D (decreases), or C (constant).
The potential changes apply to a sample of gas:
Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5
Volume constant __(b)___ constant constant increases
34


Pressure increases constant increases __(d)___ __(e)___
Temperature constant decreases __(c)___ increases constant
Moles _(a)____ constant constant constant constant

5.21 Fill in the blank in each of the vertical columns below with either I (increases), D (decreases), or C (constant).
The potential changes apply to a sample of gas:
Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5
Volume increases constant decreases __(d)___ constant
Pressure constant decreases constant increases __(e)___
Temperature __(a)___ constant constant constant decreases
Moles constant __(b)___ __(c)___ constant constant


5.22 The ideal gas constant, R, has a value of 0.08206 Latm/molK. What is the value of the ideal gas constant in
ft
3
psi/molK?

5.23 Determine the missing quantity in each row in the following table:
P V n T
(a) ________ 13.2 L 2.35 mol 22.5C
(b) 525.3 torr _______ 3.751 mol 27.85C
(c) 3.22 atm 1375 mL ____mol 315 K
(d) 2.35 kPa 1652 mL 0.227 mol ____C

5.24 Your body heats the air in your lungs to body temperature (37C). If you exhale 1075 mL of air at a pressure
of 755 mmHg, how many molecules of air did you exhale?

5.25 Steel cylinders are used to transport small quantities of oxygen gas. A particular cylinder has a volume of 50.0
L, and at 24.0C contains oxygen gas under a pressure of 1225 lb/in
2
. (a) Assuming the oxygen is behaving ideally,
how many grams of oxygen gas are present in the cylinder? (b) What would be the volume in milliliters of the gas
at 27C and 1.00 atm (1 atm = 14.70 lbs/in
2
)?

5.26 (a) What is the density (in grams per liter) of gaseous carbon dioxide (CO
2
) at 0.893 atm and 47C? (b) A
sample of an unknown gas weighing 0.144 g has a volume of 275 mL at 755 mmHg and 97C. What is the molar
mass of the gas?

5.27 A common method for determining the molar mass of a volatile liquid is the Dumas method. A sample of a
volatile liquid is placed in a flask and vaporized in a boiling water bath. The flask is then removed from the bath
and cooled until the vapor condenses. The volume of the flask is the volume of the vapor, the boiling point of the
water is the temperature of the vapor, and the atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the vapor. After removal from
the water bath, the mass of the condensed vapor is determined. In one experiment, a student placed a flask with a
volume of 295 mL into a boiling water bath (98C) at a pressure of 752 torr. After removal from the bath, the flask
contained 0.585 g of liquid. What was the molar mass of the liquid?

5.28 A student used the Dumas method (see Problem 5.27) to determine the molecular weight of an unknown liquid
he was assigned to identify. At a temperature of 98C and a pressure of 743 torr, 1.220 g of the liquids vapor
occupied 375 mL. Determine the molecular weight of the unknown.

5.29 An environmental scientist finds an unknown liquid. The first step she chose in order to identify the liquid was
to determine its molecular weight using the Dumas method (see Problem 5.27). She found that at a temperature of
97C and a pressure of 743 torr, 1.106 g of vapor occupied 295 mL. What did she find the molecular weight of the
unknown to be?

5.30 A sample of neon gas (Ne) was placed in a 1250.0 mL container at a temperature of 17.00C and a pressure of
795.0 mmHg. How many grams of neon were in the sample?

5.31 How many grams of carbon dioxide gas are in a container holding 3.50 L of carbon dioxide gas at 25C and
895 torr?
35


5.32 The first binary compound of krypton to be prepared was KrF
2
. A sample of this compound was prepared
having a volume of 500.0 mL at a pressure of 795.0 mmHg and a temperature of 17.00C. How many grams of
KrF
2
were in the sample?

5.33 Hydrogen and chlorine react to produce gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl) and heat. In one particular
experiment, a total of 1250.0 mL of hydrogen chloride gas was produced at a temperature of 85.00C and a pressure
of 825.0 torr. How many grams of hydrogen chloride formed?


5.34 A sample of a gas occupying a volume of 5.72 L exerts a pressure of 725 mmHg. (a) What would be the
volume in milliliters of the sample if you increased the pressure to 1.25 atm? (b) What would be the pressure in torr
exerted by the gas if you decreased the volume to 3.76 L?

5.35 A sample of a gas occupies 10.55L at a temperature of 25.85C. (a) What will be the volume of the gas if the
temperature increases to 51.40C? (b) What temperature (C) is necessary to adjust the volume of the gas to 10.00L?

5.36 A sample of a gas at a temperature of 15.5C and a pressure of 0.895 atm occupies 14.3 L. (a) Determine the
volume in milliliters of the gas at STP. (b) Determine the volume in liters of the gas at a pressure of 0.752 atm and a
temperature of 31.0C.

5.37 A research student collected a sample of xenon gas in a 5.00 L container at a pressure of 225 mmHg and a
temperature of 27C. Later she found that the pressure had changed to 1.000 atm, and the volume had changed to
750.0 mL. What was the new Celsius temperature of the gas?

5.38 An engineer collected a sample of nitrogen gas in a 7.50 L container at a pressure of 575 torr and a temperature
of 37C. Later she found that the pressure had changed to .5000 atm, and the volume had changed to 3750.0 mL.
What was the new Celsius temperature of the gas?

5.39 The initial pressure on a sample of oxygen gas was 795 torr. At this pressure, the sample occupied 1250.0 mL
at 0C. What was the final kelvin temperature of a sample of oxygen gas if the final volume was 1.000 L and the
final pressure was 1.000 atm?

5.40 A sample of air had all of the oxygen removed to leave nearly pure nitrogen gas. Initially, the nitrogen gas had
a volume of 15.00 L at 0.952 atm and 25C. Later, the volume was 17.25 L and the pressure was 785 mmHg. What
was the later temperature in degrees Celsius?

5.41 A chemist collected a 750.0 mL sample of air at a pressure of 745 mmHg and a temperature of 38C. The
sample was later compressed to a volume of 500.0 mL using a pressure of 273 K. What was the new pressure of the
gas in atmospheres?

5.42 A 250.00-mL sample of helium gas was collected at a temperature of 25C and a pressure of 1.15 atm. At what
Celsius temperature will the sample of gas have a volume of 225.0 mL and a pressure of 725 torr?

5.43 A sample of a gas occupies 15.55 L at a temperature of 27.85C. At what temperature, in degrees Celsius,
would the volume of the gas be 10.00 L?


5.44 (a) A chemistry student analyzed a sample of an unknown hydrocarbon gas and found it contained 82.66
percent carbon and 17.34 percent hydrogen. Determine the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon. (b) A 1.50 L
container held 3.4 g of the unknown hydrocarbon at 37C and 1.00 atm. What was the molecular formula of the
hydrocarbon?

5.45 The catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide generates small quantities of oxygen gas by the reaction
2 H
2
O
2
(aq) 2 H
2
O(l) + O
2
(g)
36


The generated oxygen acts as a disinfectant; this is why we use hydrogen peroxide to cleanse minor injuries.
Calculate the number of grams of hydrogen peroxide necessary to generate 15.25 L of oxygen gas at 24.35C if the
partial pressure of the oxygen is 745.0 torr.

5.46 The final step in the Ostwald process for the industrial synthesis of nitric acid is
3 NO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) 2 HNO
3
(aq) + NO(g)
How many liters of nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) at 65.0C and 3.75 atm are required to produce 275 kg of nitric acid?

5.47 Chlorine gas can be generated in the laboratory by reacting hydrochloric acid with manganese(IV) oxide:
4 HCl(aq) + MnO
2
(s) MnCl
2
(aq) + 2 H
2
O(l) + Cl
2
(g)
In one experiment, 25.00 mL of 12.0 M hydrochloric acid was reacted with excess manganese(IV) oxide. The
generated chlorine was collected over water at 26C. If the barometric pressure is 745 mmHg, what is the maximum
volume in milliliters of chlorine gas that may be collected? The vapor pressure of water at 26C is 25.2 mmHg.

5.48 In to the following reaction, how many grams of Mg(NH
2
)
2
are required to generate 5.00 L of NH
3
gas at 27C
and 675 torr? 3 Mg(NH
2
)
2
(s) Mg
3
N
2
(s) + 4 NH
3
(g)

5.49 In the reaction below, how many grams of Al are required to generate 1.50 L of NH
3
at 35C and 695 mmHg?
3 KNO
3
(aq) + 8 Al(s) + 5 KOH(aq) + 18 H
2
O(l) 8 KAl(OH)
4
(aq) + 3 NH
3
(g)

5.50 According to the reaction below, how many grams of NH
2
Cl would we use if we collected 12.3 L of N
2
over
water at 30.0C and a total pressure of 795 mmHg? 2 NH
2
Cl(s) + N
2
H
4
(aq) 2 NH
4
Cl(aq) + N
2
(g)

5.51 To generate PH
3
gas by the reaction shown below, you have collected 1.75 L of PH
3
gas over water at 15C. If
the total pressure of the gases is 775 mmHg, how many grams of H
3
PO
3
should decompose?
4 H
3
PO
3
(aq) 3 H
3
PO
4
(aq) + PH
3
(g)

5.52 Chemists use the reaction below to generate PH
3
gas. In one experiment, a chemist collected 2.75 L of PH
3
gas
over water at 20.0C with a total pressure of 785 torr. How many grams of KH
2
PO
2
did the chemist produce at the
same time? P
4
(s) + 3 KOH(aq) + 3 H
2
O(l) PH
3
(g) + 3 KH
2
PO
2
(aq)

5.53 A 2.75 L sample of H
2
S was stored at a temperature of 25C with a pressure of 875 mmHg. How many grams
of S could this sample produce in the following reaction?
5 H
2
S(g) + 2 H
3
AsO
4
(aq) 2 S(s) + As
2
S
3
(s) + 8 H
2
O(l)

5.54 A student used the reaction below to generate H
2
gas. After some Si
2
H
6
was reacted with an excess of H
2
O, she
collected a total of 7.75 L of H
2
over water at 30.0C. The total pressure of the gas sample was 685 torr. How many
grams of Si
2
H
6
did she use in this reaction? Si
2
H
6
(aq) + 4 H
2
O(l) 2 SiO
2
(s) + 7 H
2
(g)

5.55 A researcher used the reaction below to generate H
2
gas. In one experiment, he collected a total of 1.85 L of
gas over water at 15C. The total pressure of the gas was 895 torr. How many grams of B
4
H
10
did he generate
while this amount of H
2
formed? B
6
H
12
(s) + 6 H
2
O(l) B
4
H
10
(s) + 2 H
3
BO
3
(l) + 4 H
2
(g)

5.56 The reaction below may be used to generate (CN)
2
gas. The two products of the reaction are much more stable
than the highly unstable Cu(CN)
2
. If 2.85 L of (CN)
2
produced by this reaction was collected over water at 40.0C
with a total pressure of 475 torr, how many grams of Cu(CN)
2
were decomposed?
2 Cu(CN)
2
(s) 2 CuCN(s) + (CN)
2
(g)

5.57 The reaction below for generating N
2
gas is used as the means of inflation in some automobile airbags. In a test
of this reaction, an 8.25 L sample of gas was collected over water at 25C and at a total pressure of 875 mmHg.
How many grams of NaN
3
were used? 2 NaN
3
(s) 2 Na(s) + 3 N
2
(g)

5.58 A student in a general chemistry class used the reaction below to generate KClO
3
. How many grams of KClO
3

could be prepared from 8.75 L of Cl
2
gas if the gas was originally at a pressure of 1275 mmHg and a temperature of
57C? 3 Cl
2
(g) + 6 KOH(aq) KClO
3
(aq) + 5 KCl(aq) + 3 H
2
O(l)

5.59 A chemistry graduate student used the reaction below to generate SiF
4
gas. What volume of SiF
4
gas could be
prepared at 27C and 550.0 torr from 45.3 g of XeF
6
?
37


2 XeF
6
(s) + SiO
2
(s) 2 XeOF
4
(l) + SiF
4
(g)

5.60 Students use the reaction below to generate O
2
gas. In one experiment, 8.25 L of gas was collected over water
at 35C and a total pressure of 895 mmHg. How many grams of Ba(IO
3
)
2
were used in this experiment?
5 Ba(IO
3
)
2
(s) Ba
5
(IO
6
)
2
(s) + 4 I
2
(s) + 9 O
2
(g)

5.61 After using the reaction below to generate hydrogen gas, you collect the H
2
over water at a temperature of
15C. You collect a total of 12.5 L of gas with a total pressure of 795mmHg. How many grams of Al did you use
to produce this much gas? 2 Al(s) + 6 HCl(aq) 2 AlCl
3
(aq) + 3 H
2
(g)

5.62 An engineer used the reaction below to generate SiF
4
gas. How many liters of SiF
4
gas could she generate by
reacting 75.00 g of HF with an excess of SiO
2
if the pressure of the SiF
4
is 745 torr at a temperature of 27C?
SiO
2
(s) + 4 HF(aq) 2 H
2
O(l) + SiF
4
(g)

5.63 A student uses the reaction below to generate ClO
2
gas. How many milliliters of ClO
2
did he form by reacting
125.0 g of H
2
C
2
O
4
with an excess of HClO
3
? The gas was collected as pure ClO
2
(all other possible gaseous
impurities were removed). The ClO
2
was collected at 37C and a pressure of 675 mmHg.
2 HClO
3
(aq) + H
2
C
2
O
4
(aq) 2 ClO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) + 2 CO
2
(g)

5.64 Chemists produce chlorine gas (Cl
2
) by the electrolysis of a salt-water solution. A 0.7500 L sample of chlorine
was prepared in this manner; it had a pressure of 0.9500 atm and a temperature of 37.0C. Later the volume had
changed to 500.0 mL and the pressure had changed to 695.0 mmHg. What was the temperature at the new volume
and pressure?


5.65 A teacher gives a student two 2.0 L balloons. One balloon contains helium (He) gas, and the other balloon
contains carbon dioxide (CO
2
) gas. The balloons are identical in size, temperature, and pressure. (a) How do the
number of molecules in the balloon compare? (b) How do the densities of the gases in the balloons compare? (c)
How does the speed of the gas molecules in the balloons compare? (d) How does the average kinetic energy of the
two gases in the balloons compare? (e) Which of the two gases will effuse faster?

5.66 In an effusion experiment that was set up to determine the molecular weight of an unknown gas, 39.71 mL of
the gas effused through a porous barrier in 262.0 s. When the experiment was repeated using oxygen gas, 47.92 mL
of oxygen effused through the same barrier in 148.0 s. What was the molecular weight of the unknown gas?

5.67 An engineer submitted a sample of an unknown gas for analysis. One of the steps in the analysis was to
determine the molecular weight of the unknown gas. To make this determination, lab technicians allowed the gas to
effuse through a porous barrier and found that 54.87 mL of the gas effused in 372.0 s. A sample of chlorine gas
under the same pressure and at the same temperature was then tested for comparison, and 75.45 mL of it effused in
275.0 s. What was the molecular weight of the unknown gas?

5.68 In an effusion experiment to determine the molecular weight of an unknown gas, 86.85 mL of the unknown gas
effused through a porous barrier in 604.0 s. When the experiment was repeated using bromine vapor, 118.45 mL of
bromine effused through the same barrier in 555.0 s. What was the molecular weight of the unknown gas?


5.70 Explain which of these gases is most likely to behave as an ideal gas under high pressure given the van der
Waals constants shown below:
Gas a (L
2
atm/mol
2
) b (L/mol)
CO
2
3.658 0.04286
SO
2
6.865 0.05679
O
2
1.382 0.03186

5.71 You place a sample of 2.50 mol of chlorine gas (Cl
2
) in a 1.00 L steel container at 25C. (a) Calculate the
pressure exerted by the gas if it behaved ideally. (b) Calculate the pressure exerted by the gas if it did not behave
ideally. The van der Waals constants for chlorine gas are
38


a = 6.49 L
2
atm/mol
2
b = 0.0562 L/mol.

5.9 Summary

5.77 If the air in a particular urban area contains 175 g of suspended particulates per cubic meter, how many
particles do people inhale in one breath? Assume the particles are spherical with a radius of 0.50 m and a density
of 1.05 g/cm
3
. The average human breath is 0.50 L.

5.78 The safety standard for sulfur dioxide is 5 ppm. How much sulfur must burn to achieve this concentration in a
room measuring 25 ft 15 ft 12 ft? Assume the temperature is 25C and the atmospheric pressure is 745 torr.

5.11 Summary

5.83 A student collected a sample of oxygen gas in the laboratory by inverting a bottle of water in a tank of water at
25C and bubbling oxygen gas, from the decomposition of potassium chlorate (KClO
3
), into the inverted bottle until
all the water was displaced. What was the partial pressure of the water vapor in the bottle?

5.84 In the following reaction, how many grams of NaBH
4
are required to produce 4.85 L of B
2
H
6
at a pressure of
685 torr and a temperature of 37C? 3 NaBH
4
(s) + BF
3
(l) 3 NaF(s) + 2 B
2
H
6
(g)

5.85 Students use the reaction below to generate BF
3
gas. How many grams of CaSO
4
form when 3.35 L of BF
3
is
produced at 575 torr and 27C? B
2
O
3
(s) + 3 H
2
SO
4
(aq) + 3 CaF
2
(s) 3 CaSO
4
(s) + 3 H
2
O(l) + 2 BF
3
(g)

5.86 A student produced hydrogen gas from the reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with zinc metal (Zn), collecting
the gas by the displacement of water from an inverted 500.0 mL flask. The temperature of the flask was 35.0 C.
The total pressure in the flask was 0.885 atm. Determine the partial pressure of hydrogen in the flask.

5.87 Hydrogen gas will react with molten sodium metal to produce sodium hydride (NaH). How many liters of
hydrogen gas at 755 torr and 175C are necessary to prepare 25.0 g of sodium hydride?
5.88 An evacuated 5.0 L flask is filled with 10.0 g of each of the following gases: hydrogen chloride (HCl),
hydrogen bromide (HBr), and hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S). The temperature of the flask is adjusted to 25.0C. (a)
Determine the partial pressure of each gas. (b) Determine the total pressure in the flask.

5.89 The final step in the Ostwald process for the industrial synthesis of nitric acid is
3 NO
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) 2 HNO
3
(aq) + NO(g)
How many liters of nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) at 75.35C and 2.750 atm are required to produce 225.0 kg of nitric
acid?

5.90 A sample of a partially combusted gas mixture was analyzed and found to contain 0.22 mol of methane (CH
4
),
0.42 mol of carbon monoxide (CO), and 0.88 mol of carbon dioxide. The sample had a total pressure of 0.795 atm.
Determine the partial pressure of each gas in the sample.

5.91 (a) Determine the mass, in kilograms, of ammonia gas in a 1.00 10
3
liter tank at 35C and at a pressure of 925
mmHg. (b) What would be the volume of this gas, in liters, at 27C and 1.00 atm?

5.94 A student collected a sample of xenon gas in a 5.000 L container at a pressure of 225.0 mmHg and a
temperature of 27.0C. Later, she found that the pressure had changed to 1.000 atm, and the temperature had
changed to 295 K. What was the new volume of the gas in milliliters?

5.95 The initial pressure on a sample of oxygen gas was 795.0 torr. At this pressure, the sample occupied 1.2500 L
at 0.00C. What was the final temperature in degrees Celsius of a sample of oxygen gas if the final volume was
1.000 L and the final pressure was 1.000 atm?

5.96 A sample of carbon dioxide was prepared by burning pure carbon in oxygen gas. After the reaction, you found
that 1.25 L of gas had been collected at a pressure of 1.000 atm, and that the burning had heated the sample to
127C. At a later time you found the volume to be 125 mL and the temperature 175C. What was the pressure in
millimeters of mercury at the new volume and temperature?
39


5.97 Hydrogen will reduce many metal oxides to the metal. A sample of a tungsten oxide with the general formula
WO
n
is reduced by this method. In one experiment, excess hydrogen reacted to produce 0.255 g of tungsten (W)
metal and 159 mL of water vapor at 125C and 0.855 atm. What is the formula of the tungsten oxide?

5.98 Hydrogen will reduce many metal oxides to the metal. A sample of an iron oxide undergoes reduction by this
method. In one experiment, excess hydrogen reacted to produce 0.222 g of iron metal and 264 mL of water vapor at
135C and 0.755 atm. What is the formula of the iron oxide?

5.99 Students use the reaction below to generate O
2
gas. The O
2
was collected at a temperature of 30.0C over
water. The total pressure was 875 mmHg. If the students found that 1.75 L of O
2
gas was generated, how many
grams of KMnO
4
were used? 2 KMnO
4
(s) K
2
MnO
4
(s) + MnO
2
(s) + O
2
(g)

5.100 A student used the reaction below to generate O
2
gas. A 5.25 L sample of O
2
was prepared. The O
2
was
collected over water at a temperature of 25C and under a total pressure of 745 torr. How many grams of KO
3
were
required for the reaction? 4 KO
3
(s) + 2 H
2
O(l) 4 KOH(aq) + 5 O
2
(g)

5.101 In contact with air, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) slowly loses its purity by reacting with carbon dioxide (CO
2
) to
produce sodium carbonate (Na
2
CO
3
): 2 NaOH(s) + CO
2
(g) Na
2
CO
3
(s) + H
2
O(l)
How many milliliters of carbon dioxide at 725 torr and 25.0C will react with 2.50 g of sodium hydroxide?

5.102 As part of the process of identifying any unknown liquid, chemists must determine its molecular weight. A
chemist who chose the Dumas method (see Problem 5.27) for this measurement found that at a temperature of 99C
and a pressure of 755 torr, 2.040 g of vapor occupied 384 mL. Determine the molecular weight of the unknown.

5.103 Oxalic acid (H
2
C
2
O
4
) decomposes when heated to carbon dioxide (CO
2
), carbon monoxide (CO), and water
vapor. A graduate student heated a sample of oxalic acid until it completely decomposed. She collected the
generated gases over water at 20.0 C. The gas mixture occupied 2.75 L at 775 torr. The vapor pressure of water at
20.0C is 17.5 torr. (a) Write a balanced equation for the decomposition of oxalic acid. (b) How many grams of
oxalic acid were in the sample?

5.105 A chemist performed an analysis on a gas sample with a density of 1.80 g/L at 25C and 0.955 atm and found
it to be 52.2 percent carbon, 13.0 percent hydrogen, and 34.8 percent oxygen. Assuming there was only one
compound in the gas sample, what is its molecular formula?

5.106 A chemist analyzes a gas sample with a density of 5.42 g/L at 35C and 684 torr and found it to contain 63.15
percent carbon, 5.30 percent hydrogen, and 31.55 percent oxygen.

5.107 An engineer submitted a sample of an unknown gas for analysis. The first step toward determining the
molecular weight of the unknown gas was to allow the gas to effuse through a porous barrier. The technicians found
that 30.90 mL of the gas effused in 408.0 s. A sample of nitrogen gas was then tested under the same pressure and
at the same temperature, as a standard of comparison, and 45.84 mL of it effused in 152.0s. What was the molecular
weight of the unknown gas?

5.108 The German zeppelin Hindenburg was destroyed over Lakehurst, New Jersey, on May 26, 1937. The
zeppelin was over 800 ft long and had a diameter of about 135 ft. The hydrogen in the Hindenburg burst into flame,
and over 30 people died in the disaster. The dirigible contained 7.2 10
6
ft
3
of hydrogen gas at 0.985 atm and a
temperature of 20.0C. Calculate the mass of hydrogen in the Hindenburg.

5.109 Most aerosol cans contain a gas or gases under pressure. If you heat the can sufficiently, it will explode. If
the pressure in such a can is 1.9 atm at 25C, how high will the temperature need to be to cause the can to explode,
assuming it will explode when the internal pressure reaches 3.1 atm?

5.110 Assume that gasoline is pure octane (C
8
H
18
) and that when it burns in an automobile engine, only carbon
dioxide gas and water vapor form. (a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of octane in
an automobile engine. (b) If a cylinder in an automobile engine has a volume of 525 cm
3
, how many moles of
oxygen would be present at 90.0C and 0.995 atm? (c) Air is 20.95 percent oxygen. Calculate the maximum
number of grams of octane that the oxygen in part b could completely burn.

40


5.111 The radioactive decay of uranium is a natural source of radon. This inert gas poses a radiation hazard when it
diffuses out of the ground and accumulates in homes. In many parts of the United States, the radon in homes
reaches 1.4 10
18
atm at 298 K. How many radon atoms are in a room measuring 12.5 ft 10.0 ft 8.0 ft?

5.112 Gaseous diborane (B
2
H
6
) spontaneously ignites in oxygen gas to form solid diboron trioxide and water vapor.
(a) Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (b) In one experiment, a 10.00 g sample of diborane is mixed with
50.00 g of oxygen gas in a 1.00 L container. After the reaction has gone to completion, the temperature in the
container is 127C. What is the final partial pressure of each of the substances involved in the reaction? (c) What is
the final mole fraction of each of the substances involved in the reaction?

5.113 A chemist wishes to identify an unknown liquid and must therefore determine its molecular weight. She
chose the Dumas method (see Problem 5.27) and found that at a temperature of 98C and a pressure of 715 torr,
1.668 g of vapor occupied 415 mL. Determine the molecular weight of the unknown.

5.114 Name each of the following compounds: (a) Na
2
SO
4
(b) KNO
3
(c) CaCO
3
(d) Mg
3
(PO
4
)
2
(e) Al
2
O
3
(f) Li
2
SO
3

(g) NH
4
Br (h) BaCl
2
(i) Sr(OH)
2
(j) CsI

5.115 What is the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) sodium carbonate (b) calcium nitrate (c)
potassium phosphate (d) magnesium sulfite (e) barium sulfate (f) aluminum hydroxide (g) lithium bromide (h)
strontium hydrogen sulfate (i) rubidium acetate (j) ammonium nitrite

5.116 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) nitric acid (b) HNO
2
(c) H
2
SO
4
(d)
carbonic acid (e) HC
2
H
3
O
2
(f) phosphoric acid (g) chromic acid (h) sulfurous acid (i) H
3
AsO
4
(j) H
2
C
2
O
4

5.117 Assign charges to each of the following substances. Then combine the ions to form a stable ionic compound.
Finally, give the name for each compound formed. (a) K, F (b) Ca, Se (c) Al, O (d) Ra, HSO
3
(e) Li, Cr
2
O
7
(f) Na,
HCO
3
(g) Mg, CrO
4
(h) Al, C
2
H
3
O
2
(i) Sr, NO
3
(j) NH
4
, PO
4

5.118 Many chemicals are known by their common names. Give the chemical names for each of the following
substances. (a) lime (CaO) (b) blue vitriol (CuSO
4
5H
2
O) (c) saltpeter (KNO
3
) (d) baking soda (NaHCO
3
) (e)
muriatic acid (HCl) (f) milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)
2
) (g) battery acid (H
2
SO
4
) (h) Epsom salts (MgSO
4
7H
2
O) (i)
smelling salts ((NH
4
)
2
CO
3
) (j) table salt (NaCl)

5.119 There are many proposed alternatives to hydrocarbon fuels. These alternative fuels will still produce nitrogen
oxides when combusted. Why do these alternative fuels produce nitrogen oxides?

5.120 Write balanced chemical equations for each of the following reactions. (a) Sulfur, in coal, burns to produce
sulfur dioxide gas. (b) Sulfur dioxide gas, from burning coal, reacts with atmospheric oxygen gas to form gaseous
sulfur trioxide. (c) Gaseous sulfur trioxide, from the air oxidation of sulfur dioxide, dissolves in raindrops to form
an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid. (d) Acid rain, containing an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, falls on a marble
(calcium carbonate) statue and forms solid calcium sulfate, gaseous carbon dioxide, and liquid water.

5.121 A particular automobile engine emits 145 L of exhaust at 85C and 765 mmHg. If the exhaust contains 210
ppm of nitrogen oxide (NO), how many moles of nitrogen oxide are present?

5.122 When a glass of pure water was set on a table, the water was neither acidic nor basic. Later the water was
tested and found to be acidic. Why was the water acidic?

Chapter 6

6.1 The joule is a common unit for the expression of energy. Express the joule in terms of SI base units.

6.2 List three common energy units.

6.3 You are conducting an experiment to measure the temperature change when ice melts in a beaker. You are in a
laboratory and you have a beaker containing ice, water, and a thermometer on the lab bench. What items constitute
the system and what items constitute the surroundings? What observations establish the state of the system?
41



6.4 Show how using the equation for kinetic energy and the SI base units gives energy units as a result.

6.5 (a) A baseball is heavier than a tennis ball. If both balls are traveling with the same velocity, which ball has the
greater kinetic energy? (b) How fast must a 0.0750 kg ball travel to have the same kinetic energy as a 0.175 kg ball
traveling at 45.0 m/s?

6.6 (a) You drop two books off a desk. Both books hit the floor at the same velocity. One book is twice as heavy as
the other is. Which book strikes the floor with more kinetic energy? (b) If the heavier book has twice the mass of
the lighter book, how much faster must the lighter book be traveling for both books to have the same kinetic energy?

6.7 A 200.0 grain bullet may leave the barrel of a .44 Magnum pistol with a velocity as high as 1475 ft/s. (7000
grains is exactly equal to 1 pound.) (a) Calculate the maximum velocity in m/s. (b) Calculate the kinetic energy of
the bullet in Joules.

6.8 A 32.0 grain rifle bullet may leave the barrel of a .204 Ruger with a velocity of 4225 ft/s. (7000 grains is exactly
equal to 1 pound.) (a) Calculate the maximum velocity in m/s. (b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the bullet in
Joules.

6.9 What is the sign of the indicated variable in each of the following? (a) The internal energy increases. (b) The
system loses heat. (c) The system does work on the surroundings.

6.10 What is the sign of the indicated variable in each of the following? (a) The system loses internal energy. (b)
The system absorbs heat from the surroundings. (c) The surroundings do work on the system.

6.11 Determine how much the internal energy changes is each of the following cases: (a) A balloon bursts and the
released air expands, without any significant heat exchange, and does 125 Joules of work on the surroundings. (b) A
pan of water on a stove absorbs 1250 Joules of heat. (c) A sample of a gas is compressed. The sample has 375
Joules of work done on it, and 125 Joules of heat energy are removed from the sample.


6.12 State the First Law of Thermodynamics.

6.13 In your own words, define a state function. Give two examples of state functions.

6.14 If the pressure is in pascals and the volume is in liters, what conversions are necessary to determine pressure-
volume work in joules?

6.15 How does the volume change when a system does pressure-volume work on the surroundings?

6.16 Decide whether each of the following processes is exothermic or endothermic. (a) Water in a water heater
becomes warmer. (b) Water in a freezer turns into ice. (c) Water in a glass on a table evaporates. (d) A sample of
charcoal burns. (e) When ice is removed from the freezer; it melts.

6.17 A balloon expands against a constant pressure of 1.00 atm. The volume of the balloon increases in volume
from 0.500 liters to 0.750 liters. Determine the amount of pressure-volume work.

6.4 Corresponds to BLBMW Sections 5.3 and 5.5

6.18 List the common units for each of the following (a) heat capacity, (b) specific heat capacity, (c) molar heat
capacity.

42


6.19 What additional information is necessary in each of the following? (a) You wish to determine the joules from
the heat capacity. (b) You wish to determine the joules from the specific heat capacity. (c) You wish to determine
the joules from the molar heat capacity.

6.20 Which type of calorimeter directly yields the enthalpy change?

6.21 A piece of lead metal weighing 60.80 g was heated. The lead absorbed 235 J and the temperature increased
from 20.00C to 50.20C. Calculate the specific heat of lead.

6.22 Determine the specific heat of an unknown metal from the following data. A 39.2 g sample (at 61.67C) was
dropped into 53.4 g of water (at 20.00C). The final temperature was 30.00C.

6.23 The specific heat of water is 4.184 J/gC or 4.184 J/gK. (a) Calculate the heat capacity of 575 g of water. (b)
Calculate the enthalpy change when you heat 2.50 kilograms of water by 25.0C. (c) Calculate the enthalpy change
when you cool 1.750 kilograms of water from 51.35C to 26.25C.

6.24 Gold has a specific heat of 0.129 J/gC. (a) What is the specific heat of gold in J/gK? (b) Calculate the change
in enthalpy when 0.3251 troy ounces of gold cools from 37.0C to 25.0C. (1 troy ounce = 31.103 grams)

6.25 A coffee-cup calorimeter, as illustrated in the textbook, is an inexpensive alternative to a bomb calorimeter,
also illustrated in the textbook. Water is placed in a coffee-cup calorimeter and some solid sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, is added. The process of dissolving the sodium hydroxide results in an enthalpy change. Determine the
enthalpy change, in kJ/mole NaOH, if the addition of 8.91 g of sodium hydroxide to 100.0 g of water causes the
temperature to change from 22.4C to 44.6C. Assume that the specific heat of the solution is the same as that of
pure water.

6.26 When a 12.4 g sample of sodium nitrate, NaNO
3
, dissolves in 250.0 g of water in a coffee-cup calorimeter the
temperature changes from 25.30C to 22.51C. Determine the enthalpy change, in kJ/mole NaNO
3
, for sodium
nitrate dissolving in water. Assume that the specific heat of the solution is the same as that of pure water.

6.27 An ethanol, C
2
H
5
OH, sample weighing 2.49 g was placed in a bomb calorimeter, and burned according to the
following equation: C
2
H
5
OH(l) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 CO
2
(g) + 3 H
2
O(l)
The total heat capacity of the calorimeter was 8.43 kJ/C. The reaction raised the temperature from 22.50C to
30.14C. (a) Calculate the heat of combustion for ethanol in kilojoules per gram of ethanol. (b) Calculate the heat
of combustion in kilojoules per mole of ethanol.

6.28 A sample of naphthalene, C
10
H
8
, weighing 1.542 g was burned in a bomb calorimeter. The reaction caused the
temperature of the bomb calorimeter to increase from 21.37C to 27.46C. The heat of combustion of naphthalene
is 40.14 kJ/g. (a) Calculate the total heat capacity of the calorimeter. (b) If there were a total of 2.000 kg of water in
the calorimeter, what would be the heat capacity of the empty calorimeter? (c) In a second experiment, only 1.750
kg of water was placed in the calorimeter, and a 1.385 g sample of naphthalene was burned. Calculate the
temperature change in the second experiment.

6.29 Naphthalene is used in mothballs. In order to measure its heat of combustion a 2.870 g sample was combined
with an excess of O
2
and burned in a bomb calorimeter. After the reaction, the temperature of the calorimeter had
increased from 23.00C to 34.34C. The calorimeter contained 2.000 kg of water. The heat capacity of the
calorimeter was 1.80 kJ/C. Determine the heat of reaction for the reaction in kJ/mole naphthalene. The reaction
was: C
10
H
8
(s) + 12 O
2
(g) 10 CO
2
(g) + 4 H
2
O(l)

6.30 The compound B
5
H
9
was investigated at one time as a potential rocket fuel, because of the energy generated by
the following reaction: 2 B
5
H
9
(g) + 12 O
2
(g) 5 B
2
O
3
(s) + 9 H
2
O(g)
In order to determine the heat of reaction for the above equation, 0.400 g of B
5
H
9
was burned with an excess of O
2

in a bomb calorimeter. The heat capacity of the calorimeter was 1.840 kJ/C. The calorimeter contained 1704 g of
water, and the temperature increased from 25.00C to 28.14C. Calculate the heat of reaction per mole of B
5
H
9
.

6.31 The reaction of 3.986 g of Fe
2
O
3
with an excess of Al was carried out in a bomb calorimeter. The heat capacity
of the calorimeter was 1.96 kJ/C, and the calorimeter contained 1.97 kg of water. After the reaction it was
43


determined that, the temperature had increased from 25.00 to 27.58C. Determine the heat of reaction per mole of
Al for this reaction. The reaction is: Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 2 Al(s) Al
2
O
3
(s) + 2 Fe(l)

6.32 The enthalpy of combustion for benzoic acid, HC
7
H
5
O
2
, is 3226.7 kJ/mole. A 1.8476 g sample of benzoic
acid was burned in a bomb calorimeter. The temperature of the calorimeter rose by 3.56C. If the calorimeter
contained exactly 2.000 kg of water, what was the heat capacity of the calorimeter?

6.33 Lactic acid, C
3
H
6
O
3
, which is generated in the body by the partial oxidation of glucose, can be further oxidized
in the body to produce energy. In order to measure its heat of combustion a 5.24 g sample was combined with an
excess of O
2
and ignited in a bomb calorimeter. After the reaction, the temperature of the calorimeter had increased
from 22.000C to 25.600C. The calorimeter contained 2.000 kg of water. The heat capacity of the calorimeter was
13.33 kJ/C. Determine the heat of reaction for the reaction in kJ/mole lactic acid. The reaction was:
C
3
H
6
O
3
(s) + 3 O
2
(g) 3 CO
2
(g) + 3 H
2
O(l)

6.34 Natural gas is mostly CH
4
. In order to measure its heat of combustion a 0.3200 g sample was combined with
an excess of O
2
and ignited in a bomb calorimeter. After the reaction, the temperature of the calorimeter had
calorimeter was 958 J/C. Determine the heat of reaction for the reaction in kJ/mole CH
4
. The reaction was:
CH
4
(g) + 2 O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l)

6.35 Butane, C
4
H
10
, is used as a fuel. In order to measure its heat of combustion a 2.000 g sample was combined
with an excess of O
2
calorimeter was 3.88 kJ/C. Determine the heat of reaction for the reaction in kJ/mole C
4
H
10
. The reaction was:
2 C
4
H
10
(g) + 13 O
2
(g) 8 CO
2
(g) + 10 H
2
O(l)

6.36 A sample of C
6
H
6
(l) weighing 3.500 g was burned with an excess of oxygen in a bomb calorimeter. During the
reaction, the temperature rose from 25.00C to 36.33C. The calorimeter contained 2.000 kg of water. The heat
capacity of the calorimeter was 3.68 kJ/C. From these data, determine the heat of reaction for:
2 C
6
H
6
(l) + 15 O
2
(g) 12 CO
2
(g) + 6 H
2
O(l)


6.37 Why is it acceptable to use fractional coefficients in thermochemical equations but not in normal chemical
equations?

6.38 State Hess's Law in your own words.

6.39 How can a person driving from New York City to San Francisco illustrate Hess's Law?

6.40 What is the expected sign for AH in each of the following?
(a) H
2
O(l) H
2
O(g)
(b) CH
4
(g) + 2 O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) Methane, CH
4
, is natural gas.
(c) CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) CH
4
(g) + 2 O
2
(g)
(d) NH
4
NO
3
(s) NH
4
NO
3
(aq) The temperature of the solution is lowered.
(e) CO
2
(g) CO
2
(s)

6.41 The following reaction releases 198 kJ: 2 SO
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 SO
3
(g)
What is the enthalpy change when 35.00 g of SO
2
(g) are reacted?

6.42 Ammonia, NH
3
, gas burns with oxygen, O
2
, gas in the presence of a catalyst to form water vapor and nitrogen,
N
2
, gas. A thermochemical equation for this reaction is given below:
4 NH
3
(g) + 3 O
2
(g) 6 H
2
O(g) + 2 N
2
(g) AH = 1267 kJ
(a) Determine the enthalpy change for:
2 NH
3
(g) + 3/2 O
2
(g) 3 H
2
O(g) + N
2
(g) AH = ?
44


(b) Determine the enthalpy change for:
8 NH
3
(g) + 6 O
2
(g) 12 H
2
O(g) + 4 N
2
(g) AH = ?
(c) Determine the enthalpy change for:
6 H
2
O(g) + 2 N
2
(g) 4 NH
3
(g) + 3 O
2
(g) AH = ?

6.43 The combustion of octane in gasoline proceeds by the following reaction:
2 C
8
H
18
(l) + 25 O
2
(g) 16 CO
2
(g) + 18 H
2
O(l) AH = 10942 kJ
How much energy is released when 175 g of CO
2
(g) are formed by this reaction?

6.44 Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas according to the following reaction:
2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 571.7 kJ
(a) Is this an endothermic or an exothermic process? (b) What is the energy change when 0.5000 mol of hydrogen
are combusted according to the above reaction? Assume the pressure remains constant. (c) What is the energy
change resulting when 2.75 g of hydrogen completely reacts according to the above reaction? Assume the pressure
remains constant. (d) Calculate the number of grams of water produced by an energy change of 175 kJ. (e)
Calculate the energy change when 15.0 g of water decomposes to the elements at constant pressure.

6.45 Carbon monoxide reacts with nitrogen oxide according to the following reaction:
2 CO(g) + 2 NO(g) 2 CO
2
(g) + N
2
(g) AH = 746.6 kJ
(a) Calculate the enthalpy change when 0.250 mol of carbon dioxide form through the above reaction. (b) Calculate
the enthalpy change when 50.0 g of NO(g) are consumed in the above reaction. (c) What would be the enthalpy
change if 0.375 mol of CO(g) are produced by the reverse of the above reaction?

6.46 The following thermochemical equation is endothermic by 90.3 kJ: N
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 NO(g)
Calculate the enthalpy change when 25.00 g of NO(g) are decomposed.

6.47 The following thermochemical equation is exothermic by 1037 kJ:
2 H
2
(g) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 SO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(g)
Calculate the enthalpy change when 125.0 g of SO
2
(g) gas react as follows:
2 SO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(g) 2 H
2
(g) + 3 O
2
(g)

6.48 Under standard conditions 0.2000 mol of OF
2
(g) produced 64.8 kJ by the following reaction:
OF
2
(g) + H
2
O(g) O
2
(g) + 2 HF(g)
Calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction in terms of kJ/mole OF
2
.

6.49 The following reaction is used in the altitude-control engines of the space shuttle:
4 CH
6
N
2
(l) + 5 N
2
O
4
(l) 4 CO
2
(g) + 3 H
2
O(l) + 5 N
2
(g)
The reaction is exothermic with a molar heat of reaction of 1384 kJ. What is the energy change when 25 g of
N
2
O
4
(l) reacts according to the above reaction?

6.50 The compound HC
2
H
3
O
2
combusts as follows: HC
2
H
3
O
2
(l) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l)
The reaction is exothermic and produces 871.5 kJ/mole HC
2
H
3
O
2
. How many grams of O
2
are required for this
reaction if the enthalpy change is to be 1000.0 kJ?

6.51 How many grams of C
2
H
4
(g) must be burned to produce 3250.0 kJ of heat? The heat of combustion of C
2
H
4
(g)
is 1410.0 kJ/mole C
2
H
4
.

6.52 Use Hess's law to determine AH for the following reaction: N
2
(g) + 2 H
2
(g) N
2
H
4
(l)
Use the following equations:
N
2
H
4
(l) + O
2
(g) N
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 622.2 kJ
2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 571.6 kJ

6.53 Using the following thermochemical equations:
2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 571.6 kJ
N
2
O
5
(g) + H
2
O(l) 2 HNO
3
(l) AH = 76.6 kJ
N
2
(g) + 3 O
2
(g) + H
2
(g) 2 HNO
3
(l) AH = 348.2 kJ
Determine AH for the following reaction: 2 N
2
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 2 N
2
O
5
(g)
45


2 Al(s) + 6 HCl(aq) 2 AlCl
3
(aq) + 3 H
2
(g) AH = 1049 kJ
HCl(g) HCl(aq) AH= 75.2 kJ
H
2
(g) +Cl
2
(g) 2 HCl(g) AH = 184.6 kJ
AlCl
3
(s) AlCl
3
(aq) AH = 323 kJ
Determine AH for the formation reaction for solid aluminum chloride: 2 Al(s) + 3 Cl
2
(g) 2 AlCl
3
(s)

2 C
2
H
2
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 4 CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 2600. kJ
2 C
2
H
6
(g) + 7 O
2
(g) 4 CO
2
(g) + 6 H
2
O(l) AH = 3120. kJ
H
2
(g) + 1/2 O
2
(g) H
2
O(l) AH = 285.8 kJ
Calculate the heat of reaction for: C
2
H
2
(g) + 2 H
2
(g) C
2
H
6
(g)

6.56 Calculate the heat of reaction for: W(s) + C(s) WC(s)
Using the following thermochemical equations:
2 W(s) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 WO
3
(s) AH = 1680.6 kJ
2 WC(s) + 5 O
2
(g) 2 WO
3
(s) + 2 CO
2
(g) AH = 2391.6 kJ
C(s) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) AH = 393.51 kJ

6.57 Calculate the heat of reaction for: 2 N
2
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 2 N
2
O
5
(g)
Use the following thermochemical equations for this calculation:
1 N
2
(g) + 3 O
2
(g) + 1 H
2
(g) 2 HNO
3
(aq) AH = 413.14 kJ
N
2
O
5
(g) + H
2
O(g) 2 HNO
3
(aq) AH = 218.4 kJ
2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 H
2
O(g) AH = 483.64 kJ

6.58 Find AH for the following reaction: C(s) + 2 H
2
(g) CH
4
(g)
Use the following thermochemical equations:
C(s) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) AH = 393.5 kJ
H
2
(g) + 1/2 O
2
(g) H
2
O(l) AH = 285.8 kJ
CH
4
(g) + 2 O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 890.28 kJ


6.61 Define a standard heat of formation.

6.62 For each of the following substances, derive a balanced thermochemical equation for the standard heat of
formation of one mole of the substance from its constituent elements. Assume all materials are in their standard
states. Use Appendix C to determine the enthalpy change for each reaction. (a) solid calcium iodide: CaI
2
(s) (b)
gaseous sulfur trioxide: SO
3
(g) (c) solid sodium carbonate: Na
2
CO
3
(s) (d) liquid ethanol: C
2
H
5
OH(l) (e) solid
sodium bicarbonate: NaHCO
3
(s).

6.63 For each of the following substances, derive a balanced thermochemical equation for the standard heat of
formation of one mole of the substance from its constituent elements. Assume all materials are in their standard
states. Use Appendix C to determine the enthalpy change for each reaction. (a) solid silver chloride (b) gaseous
hydrogen bromide (c) solid aluminum oxide (d) liquid sulfuric acid (e) solid barium chloride dihydrate.

6.64 Calculate the standard heat of formation for HC
2
H
3
O
2
(l) using the following:
C(s) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) AH = 393.5 kJ
H
2
(g) + 1/2 O
2
(g) H
2
O(l) AH = 285.8 kJ
HC
2
H
3
O
2
(l) + 2 O
2
(g) 2 CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 871 kJ

6.65 Using the following thermochemical equations calculate the standard heat of formation for C
2
H
2
(g):
2 C
2
H
2
(g) + 5 O
2
(g) 4 CO
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 2547.6 kJ
C(s) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g) AH = 393.5 kJ
46


2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 571.66 kJ

6.66 Calculate the heat of formation for ZnO, using the following thermochemical equations:
Zn(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ZnCl
2
(aq) + H
2
(g) AH = 152.4 kJ
ZnO(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ZnCl
2
(aq) + H
2
O(l) AH = 90.2 kJ
2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 571.6 kJ

6.67 Determine the enthalpy change for each of the following:
a. 2 ZnS(s) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 ZnO(s) + 2 SO
2
(g)
b. C
6
H
12
(l) + 9 O
2
(g) 6 CO
2
(g) + 6 H
2
O(l)
c. CaO(s) + H
2
O(l) Ca(OH)
2
(s)

a. Ca(OH)
2
(s) CaO(s) + H
2
O(g)
b. 2 Cu(s) + O
2
(g) 2 CuO(s)
c. 2 C
6
H
12
(l) + 12 O
2
(g) 12 CO(g) + 12 H
2
O(l)

a. CuO(s) + Cu(s) Cu
2
O(s)
b. C
2
H
5
OH(l) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 CO
2
(g) + 3 H
2
O(l)
c. 4 NH
3
(g) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 N
2
(g) + 6 H
2
O(l)

a. Ca(OH)
2
(s) + H
2
SO
4
(aq) CaSO
4
(s) + 2 H
2
O(l)
b. 2 Zn(s) + O
2
(g) 2 ZnO(s)
c. C
2
H
5
OH(l) + 2 O
2
(g) 2 CO(g) + 3 H
2
O(l)

6.71 Ethyl alcohol (C
2
H
5
OH(l))undergoes the following combustion reaction:
C
2
H
5
OH(l) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 CO
2
(g) + 3 H
2
O(l) H = 1366.8 kJ
What is the enthalpy change when 5.00 g of ethyl alcohol burns according to this reaction?

a. P
4
O
10
(s) + 6 H
2
O(l) 4 H
3
PO
4
(aq)
b. 2 C
4
H
10
(g) + 13 O
2
(g) 8 CO
2
(g) + 10 H
2
O(g)
c. Pb(NO
3
)
2
(s) + 2 KI(s) PbI
2
(s) + 2 KNO
3
(s)

6.73 At one time manganese metal was produced by the following reaction:
4 Al(s) + 3 MnO
2
(s) 2 Al
2
O
3
(s) + 3 Mn(s)
Determine AH for this reaction using data from Appendix C.

6.74 Determine the enthalpy change for the following reactions using information in Appendix C:
(a) H
2
(g) + Br
2
(l) 2 HBr(g)
(b) 2 NaHCO
3
(s) Na
2
CO
3
(s) + H
2
O(g) + CO
2
(g)
(c) BaO(s) + H
2
SO
4
(l) BaSO
4
(s) + H
2
O(l)
(d) P
4
O
10
(s) + 6 H
2
O(l) 4 H
3
PO
4
(aq)
(e) 2 C
4
H
10
(g) + 13 O
2
(g) 8 CO
2
(g) + 10 H
2
O(l)

6.75 Diborane, B
2
H
6
, reacts with oxygen as follows:
B
2
H
6
(g) + 3 O
2
(g) B
2
O
3
(s) + 3 H
2
O(g) AH = 2035 kJ
Using the above reaction and Appendix C, determine AH
f
for diborane.


47


6.76 What type of phase transition occurs during each of the following changes: (a) dew forms on grass (b) ice cubes
in a freezer slowly disappear (c) when warmed in a pan of a stove, butter changes to a liquid (d) water in a glass
slowly disappears (e) gaseous carbon dioxide forms dry ice (solid carbon dioxide).

6.77 Two pans of water are placed on a stove and the heat is turned on high. One pan contains 1 L of water and the
other contains 2 L of water. (a) If both pans are heated at the same rate, which will boil first? (b) If the water in the
pan with less water is boiling at 100C, what is the temperature of boiling water in the other pan? (c) Once both
pans begin to boil, the heat is turned down on one pan so that it is barely boiling, while the other is left on high and
boils vigorously. How do the temperatures of the water in the two pans compare?

6.78 In the desert, water may be cooled by evaporation. The evaporation of water from the surface of a water bag
cools the liquid in the bag. Calculate the number of milliliters of water that may be cooled from 40.0C to 25C by
the evaporation of 15 g of water. The density of water is 1.0 g/cm
3
, the specific heat of water is 4.18 J/gK, and the
heat of vaporization of water is 41 kJ/mole.

6.79 Cesium metal melts at 28C and boils at 669C. The enthalpy of fusion of cesium is 2.092 kJ/mol, and its
enthalpy of vaporization is 68.28 kJ/mol. The specific heats of solid, liquid and gaseous cesium are 0.233 J/gK,
0.243 J/gK and 0.156 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 175.0g of cesium at 0.0C to the
vapor phase at 769C?

6.80 Gallium, Ga, melts at 29C and boils at 2403C. The enthalpy of fusion of gallium is 5.590 kJ/mol, and its
enthalpy of vaporization is 295.8 kJ/mol. The specific heats of solid, liquid and gaseous gallium are 0.381 J/gK,
0.409 J/gK and 0.364 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 135.0 g of gallium at 0.00C to the
vapor phase at 2600.C?

6.81 Lead melts at 327C and boils at 1740.C. The enthalpy of fusion of lead is 5.121 kJ/mol, and its enthalpy of
vaporization is 177.8 kJ/mol. The specific heats of solid, liquid, and gaseous lead are 0.129 J/gK, 0.154 J/gK, and
0.100 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 1500.0 g of lead at 127C to the vapor phase at
1850.C?

6.82 Xenon melts at 112C and boils at 107C. The enthalpy of fusion of xenon is 3.096 kJ/mol, and its enthalpy
of vaporization is 12.64 kJ/mol. The specific heats of solid, liquid, and gaseous xenon are 0.159 J/gK, 0.339 J/gK,
and 0.159 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 175.0g of xenon at 162.C to the vapor phase
at 0.00C?

6.83 Sulfur dioxide melts at 73C and boils at 10.C. The enthalpy of fusion of sulfur dioxide is 8.619 kJ/mol,
and its enthalpy of vaporization is 25.73 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous sulfur dioxide are 0.995
J/gK and 0.622 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 2.50 Kg of solid sulfur dioxide at the
melting point to the vapor phase at 60.C?

6.84 Hydrogen iodide melts at 51C and boils at 35C. The enthalpy of fusion of hydrogen iodide is 2.871
kJ/mol, and its enthalpy of vaporization is 44.11 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous hydrogen iodide
are 0.365 J/gK and 0.228 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 220.0 g of solid hydrogen iodide
at the melting point the vapor phase at 0.0C?

6.85 Benzene, C
6
H
6
, melts at 6C and boils at 80.C. The enthalpy of fusion of benzene is 9.937 kJ/mol, and its
enthalpy of vaporization is 42.90 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous benzene are 1.74 J/gK and 1.05
J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 150.0 g of solid benzene at the melting point to the vapor
phase at 125C?

6.86 Toluene, C
7
H
8
, melts at 95C and boils at 111C. The enthalpy of fusion of toluene is 6.61 kJ/mol, and its
enthalpy of vaporization is 39.2 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous toluene are 1.69 J/gK and 1.13
J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 235.0 g of solid toluene at the melting point to the vapor
phase at 181C?

6.87 Dimethyl sulfide, (CH
3
)
2
S, melts at 98C and boils at 37C. The enthalpy of fusion of dimethyl sulfide is 7.97
kJ/mol, and its enthalpy of vaporization is 28.21 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous dimethyl sulfide
48


are 0.1.91 J/gK and 1.16 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 375.0 g of solid dimethyl sulfide
at the melting point to the vapor phase at 77C?

6.88 Ethyl ether, (C
2
H
5
)
2
O, melts at 116C and boils at 35C. The enthalpy of fusion of ethyl ether is 7.26 kJ/mol,
and its enthalpy of vaporization is 29.06 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous ethyl ether are 2.32 J/gK
and 1.46 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 425.0 g of solid ethyl ether at the melting point
to the vapor phase at 85C?

6.89 Acetone, C
3
H
6
O, melts at 95C and boils at 56C. The enthalpy of fusion of acetone is 5.683 kJ/mol, and its
enthalpy of vaporization is 31.97 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous acetone are 2.18 J/gK and 1.30
J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 600.0 g of solid acetone at the melting point to the vapor
phase at 66C?


6.90 How does the solubility of a gas vary with temperature?

6.91 How does thermal pollution affect the ability of fish to survive in a river?

6.92 At 20C the Henry's law constants for nitrogen, N
2
, and oxygen, O
2
, are 6.9 10
4
M/atm and 1.38 10
3

M/atm, respectively. The air is a diving bell is under a pressure of 10.0 atm, at 20C. The mole fraction of nitrogen
in air is 0.781, and the mole fraction of oxygen is 0.209 (neglecting water vapor). What is the solubility of each
gas?

6.93 If the air pressure is 1.00 atm and the mole fraction of oxygen in the atmosphere is 0.209. Calculate the molar
solubility of oxygen in the water in a lake at 20. At this temperature, the Henry's law constant for oxygen is 1.38
10
3
M/atm.


6.94 What is the relationship between (a) a nutritional calorie and a calorie, and (b) a nutritional calorie and a joule?

6.95 A package of a particular brand of instant oatmeal contains 2 g of fat, 34 g of carbohydrate, and 5 g of protein.
Fats typically produce 38 kJ/g, and both proteins and carbohydrates typically produce 17 kJ/g. How many
nutritional calories (Calories) are present in the package of instant oatmeal?

6.96 A package of a particular brand of a microwavable Chinese food contains 10.0 g of fat, 87.0 g of carbohydrate,
and 12.0 g of protein. Fats typically produce 38 kJ/g, and both proteins and carbohydrates typically produce 17 kJ/g.
How many nutritional calories (Calories) are present in the package of Chinese food?

6.97 Nitrogen may be oxidized in automobile engines by the following reaction:
N
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 NO(g) AH = 180.6 kJ
How many grams of nitrogen are required to absorb 125 kJ?

6.98 (a) Determine the heat of combustion for ethanol, C
2
H
5
OH. The reaction is:
C
2
H
5
OH(l) + 3 O
2
(g) 2 CO
2
(g) + 3 H
2
O(l)
(b) A bottle of wine is 12.0 % alcohol by mass. The density of the wine is 1.090 g/mL. How many Calories does
the alcohol in a 1.00 qt bottle of this wine contribute?

6.99 Octane is used in gasoline. In order to measure its heat of combustion a 3.06 g sample was combined with an
excess of O
2
and ignited in a bomb calorimeter. After the reaction, the temperature of the calorimeter had increased
by 3.72C. The calorimeter contained 3.000 kg of water. The heat capacity of the calorimeter was 30.15 kJ/C.
Determine the heat of reaction for the reaction in kJ/mole octane. The reaction was:
2 C
8
H
18
(l) + 25 O
2
(g) 16 CO
2
(g) + 18 H
2
O(l)

49


6.100 Propane gas, C
3
H
8
, is sometimes used as a fuel. In order to measure its energy output as a fuel a 1.860 g
sample was combined with an excess of O
2
and ignited in a bomb calorimeter. After the reaction, the temperature of
the calorimeter increased from 25.000C to 26.061C. The calorimeter contained 1.000 kg of water. The heat
capacity of the calorimeter was 4.643 kJ/C. Determine the heat of reaction for the reaction in kJ/mole propane.
The reaction was: C
3
H
8
(l) + 5 O
2
(g) 3 CO
2
(g) + 4 H
2
O(l)

6.101 Fructose is a sugar found in fruits. In order to measure its heat of combustion a 2.50 g sample was combined
with an excess of O
2
calorimeter was 21.33 kJ/C. Determine the heat of reaction for the reaction in kJ/mole fructose. The reaction was:
C
6
H
12
O
6
(s) + 6 O
2
(g) 6 CO
2
(g) + 6 H
2
O(l)

6.102 A variety pack of instant oatmeal lists three types of oatmeal present. Using the following information,
determine the nutritional calories available from each package.
Protein Fat Carbohydrate
(a) Maple and Brown Sugar 4 g 2 g 33 g
(b) Apple and Cinnamon 3 g 1.5 g 27 g
(c) Cinnamon and Spice 5 g 2 g 34 g

6.10 Summary

6.103 Unlike other chemical equations, thermochemical equations must contain the physical states of all substances
involved. Why must this information be included?

6.104 Write a thermochemical equation for the standard heat of formation of solid sodium carbonate (Na
2
CO
3
).

6.105 Write a thermochemical equation for the standard heat of formation of solid sodium hydrogen carbonate
(NaHCO
3
).

6.106 A 100.0 g sample of water is heated to boiling, 100.00C, and removed from the heat source. A 45.0 g sample
of manganese, at 25.00C, was immediately dropped into the hot water. The final temperature of the water plus
manganese was 98.49C. Assuming no heat was lost, what is the specific heat of manganese?

6.107 A 25.00 g sample of chromium metal was heated to 75.00C. This sample was clamped in contact with a
47.00 g sample of beryllium metal at 25.00C. The specific heat of chromium metal is 0.450 J/gC, and the specific
heat of beryllium metal is 1.82 J/gC. Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings, what was the final temperature
of the two metals?
6.108 A 15.00 g sample of lead metal was heated to 65.00C. This sample was clamped in contact with a 27.00 g
sample of magnesium metal at 25.00C. The specific heat of lead metal is 0.127 J/gC, and the specific heat of
magnesium metal is 1.024 J/gC. Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings, what was the final temperature of
the two metals?

6.109 During respiration glucose, C
6
H
12
O
6
, is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. The overall reaction may be
simplified to: C
6
H
12
O
6
(s) + 6 O
2
(g) 6 CO
2
(g) + 6 H
2
O(l) AH = 2802.7 kJ
(a) Is the enthalpy of the reactants higher or lower than the products? (b) Is this an endothermic or an exothermic
reaction? (c) Calculate the enthalpy change when 2.500 g of glucose react. (d) Calculate the enthalpy change when
2.500 g of carbon dioxide gas are formed. (e) How many grams of glucose must be consumed to furnish 1000. kJ
of energy?

6.110 Solar heating may be used to keep a house warm. Normally water is used to store heat because it can retain a
significant amount of heat. For example, a volume of 1500 gallons of water may be used to store heat to keep a
house warm overnight. Wood, on the other hand, is not as efficient for heat storage. A typical piece of wood has a
density of 0.865 g/cm
3
and a specific heat of 1.76 J/gC. Wood is measured in board feet. A board foot is the
volume of a piece of wood measuring exactly 12 inches 12 inches 1 inch. How many board feet of wood would
50


be required to replace the 1500 gallons of water for heat storage? Hint: The heat capacity of the wood will equal the
heat capacity of the water.

6.111 Hydrogen fluoride melts at 83C and boils at 20.C. The enthalpy of fusion of hydrogen fluoride is 4.577
kJ/mol, and its enthalpy of vaporization is 7.485 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous hydrogen fluoride
are 0.148 J/gK and 1.457 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 1350.0 g of solid hydrogen
fluoride at the melting point to the vapor phase at 75C?

6.112 Methyl alcohol, CH
3
OH, melts at 98C and boils at 65C. The enthalpy of fusion of methyl alcohol is 3.17
kJ/mol, and its enthalpy of vaporization is 39.23 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous methyl alcohol are
2.54 J/gK and 1.37 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 250.0 g of solid methyl alcohol at the
melting point to the vapor phase at 85C?

6.113 A sample of benzoic acid, HC
7
H
5
O
2
, weighing 0.286 g is burned in a bomb calorimeter (constant volume).
The temperature of the calorimeter rose from 21.487C to 23.485C. A sample of caffeine, C
8
H
10
N
4
O
2
, weighing
0.323 g was burned in the same calorimeter, and the temperature increased from 22.352C to 24.208C. The heat of
combustion for benzoic acid is reported to be 3221.6 kJ/mole. Determine the heat of combustion, in kJ/mole, for
caffeine.

6.114 Phosphorus pentachloride hydrolyzes in water according to the following reaction:
PCl
5
(s) + 4 H
2
O(l) H
3
PO
4
(aq) + 5 HCl(aq) AH = 569 kJ
From this reaction, and Appendix C, estimate AH
f
for PCl
5
(s).

6.115 Chloroform, CHCl
3
, melts at 64C and boils at 62C. The enthalpy of fusion of chloroform is 8.798 kJ/mol,
and its enthalpy of vaporization is 31.38 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous chloroform are 0.967 J/gK
and 0.550 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 175.0 g of solid chloroform at the melting point
to the vapor phase at 82C?

6.116 Isopropyl alcohol, C
3
H
7
OH, melts at 90.C and boils at 82C. The enthalpy of fusion of isopropyl alcohol is
5.36 kJ/mol, and its enthalpy of vaporization is 42.11 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous isopropyl
alcohol are 2.68 J/gK and 1.54 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 150.0 g of solid isopropyl
alcohol at the melting point to the vapor phase at 122C?

6.117 Liquid hydrazine, N
2
H
4
, and some of its derivatives are used to fuel some rockets. Gaseous hydrazine burns
with oxygen to produce nitrogen gas and water vapor. Hydrazine has a density of 1.004 g/mL, and it boils at
113.5C. The AH
f
for N
2
H
4
(g) is 95.40 kJ/mole. The heat of vaporization for N
2
H
4
(l) is 44.77 kJ/mole. (a) How
many kilojoules are produced when 1.00 gallon of liquid hydrazine are burned? (b) How many gallons of gasoline
are required to produce an equal amount of energy? Assume gasoline is pure C
8
H
18
(l) (AH
f
= 249.9 kJ/mol) with
a density of 0.7025 g/mL.

Chapter 7

7.1 Explain why electrons are the key to understanding the behavior of atoms.

7.2 What is the probe used to investigate atoms?


7.3 Name three examples of radiant energy.

7.4 In addition to the speed of light, what are three other properties of light waves?

7.5 Draw a simplified wave and indicate the wavelength and the amplitude.

7.6 What is an angstrom?

51


7.7 Why is frequency often expressed as s
1
or 1/s?

7.8 Give the relationship between wavelength and frequency.

7.9 If the wavelength doubles, by what factor does the frequency change?

7.10 Which of the following could not possibly be correct wavelength units? (a) meters (b) centimeters (c) 1/meters
(d) hertz (e) joules (f) angstroms (g) miles (h) s
1
(i) m/s (j) cm
3

7.11 FM radio transmissions range from 87.5 to 108.0 MHz. Determine the wavelengths of the two limiting
wavelengths in centimeters.

7.12 (a) Calculate the wavelength of light with a frequency of 8.97 10
12
s
1
. (b) Calculate the frequency of light
with a wavelength of 427 nm. (c) Calculate the frequency of light with a wavelength of 1.54 . (d) How many
meters does a beam of light, with a wavelength of 725 nm, travel in 6.42 s? (e) How many seconds does it take for
a beam of light to travel 125 miles?

7.13 (a) A beam of light has a frequency 3.55 10
13
/s. What is the wavelength of this light in nanometers? (b)
Determine the frequency of a light wave with a wavelength of 0.500 pm.

7.14 (a) Using the figure in the chapter estimate the maximum and minimum wavelengths of yellow light. (b) Using
your answers to part (a) determine the maximum and minimum frequency of yellow light.

7.15 A laser emits light with a wavelength of 6450 . (a) Using the figure in the chapter, predict the color of this
radiation. (b) Calculate the frequency of this radiation.

7.16 (a) How long does it take a radio wave to travel 3000 miles across the United States? (b) How does the time
necessary for a radio wave compare to the time necessary for a microwave to cross the United States?

7.17 Mars varies in distance from the Earth from a minimum of 3.39 10
7
miles when both planets are on the same
side of the Sun to a maximum of 2.49 10
8
miles when the two planets are on the opposite sides of the Sun. (These
values are upper and lower limits.) (a) How many seconds will it take for a radio message to reach a lander on the
Martian surface at the minimum distance? (b) How many seconds will it take a radio message to reach a lander on
the Martian surface at the maximum distance?


7.18 (a) Give the relationship between frequency and energy. (b) Give the relationship between energy and
wavelength.

7.19 What did Plank call a unit of light energy?

7.20 What is a particle of light?

7.21 What does quantized mean?

7.22 Does the value of Plank's constant indicate that the typical photon will have a large or a small value? Explain.
7.23 You get an answer of 5.0 10
19
J for a single photon of light. Explain why this is an unreasonable value.

7.24 What is the difference between an emission spectrum and an absorption spectrum?

7.25 The emission spectrum of sodium has a line with a wavelength of 589.0 nm. (a) What color is this light? (b)
How does this wavelength compare to the wavelength of the corresponding transition in the absorption spectrum?

7.26 Determine the energy of a photon of each of the following types of visible light. (a) red light at 685 nm (b)
yellow light at 5920 (c) blue light at 0.468 m

7.27 What information in addition to the wavelength is necessary to calculate the energy of a photon of light?
52


7.28 (a) Calculate the frequency of a photon with 6.35 10
19
J. (b) What is the energy of a photon with a
frequency of 6.05 10
12
s
1
? (c) Calculate the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 13.2 m. (d) Calculate the
wavelength of a photon with energy of 7.75 10
19
J.

7.29 (a) Calculate the frequency of a photon with 1.37 10
19
J. (b) What is the energy of a photon with a
frequency of 8.25 10
12
s
1
? (c) Calculate the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 19.0 m. (d) Calculate the
wavelength of a photon with energy of 8.75 10
18
J.

7.30 AM radio transmissions are between 530 and 1710 kHz. Determine the energy of each of these limiting values
in joules.

7.31 Compare the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 652 nm to a photon with a wavelength of 775 .

7.32 An X-ray diffractometer uses the diffraction of X-rays to determine the structures of molecules. One type of
diffractometer uses X-rays generated from a copper target. These X-rays have a wavelength of 1.5418 . (a)
Convert this wavelength to meters. (b) Determine the frequency of this radiation. (c) What is the energy of a
photon of this radiation in joules?

7.33 Many organic compounds have a hydrogen atom attached to an oxygen atom. This arrangement absorbs
infrared radiation with a wavelength near 3.0 m. How many joules does a photon of 3.0 m radiation supply?

7.34 Photons, with sufficient energy, striking a surface will cause electrons to be emitted by what is called the
photoelectric effect. Excess energy from the photons is observed as kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. For
elemental cesium, a photon with the minimum amount of energy needed to drive out an electron has a frequency of
5.17 10
14
s
1
. (a) Calculate the energy of this photon. (b) Calculate the wavelength of this photon. (c) A sample
of cesium metal is bombarded by photons with a wavelength of 475 nm. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted electrons. (d) An electron weighs 9.109 10
28
g. What is the maximum velocity of the electrons
emitted in part (c)?

7.35 Platinum, Pt, metal requires 545 kJ/mol to drive out electrons through the photoelectric effect. (a) How much
energy does each photon posses? (b) Determine the frequency of this light. (c) If X-rays with a wavelength of
0.154 nm are used; calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons driven out of the platinum metal.

7.36 Electromagnetic radiation may be used to break the bonds between atoms. This process is known as
photodissociation. It requires 1072 kJ/mole to photodissociate the bond in carbon monoxide, CO. Determine the
wavelength of a photon of radiation with sufficient energy to break up a single carbon monoxide molecule.

7.37 A helium-neon laser, such as the one used in laser pointers, emits light with a wavelength of 6328 . (a)
Calculate the wavelength of this light in meters. (b) Calculate the frequency of this radiation. (c) Calculate the
energy of a photon of this radiation.

7.38 High-powered lasers emit exceedingly intense beams of high energy light for very short period of times. A
high-powered laser emits a 75 ps pulse, which has a total energy of 25 joules. The wavelength emitted by the laser
has a wavelength of 7500 . How many photons are in the pulse?

7.39 A particular type of photographic film is sensitive to infrared radiation with a maximum wavelength of 855 nm.
(a) What is the frequency of 855 nm radiation? (b) How many kilojoules does a mole of 855 nm photons supply to
the film?


7.40 What are the three postulates of the Bohr model of an atom?

7.41 (a) What type of spectrum results when an electron moves from the ground state to an excited state? (b) What
type of spectrum results when an electron moves from an excited state to the ground state?

7.42 Why can there be more than one excited state but only one ground state?
53


7.43 Each of the following processes is accompanied by the gain or loss of energy. Decide if energy is gained or
lost in each case. (a) An electron in the n = 3 shell of iron is completely removed from the atom. (b) An electron
moves from the n = 2 to the n = 1 shell in a copper atom. (c) An electron moves from an orbital with a radius of
0.537 nm to one with a radius of 0.062 nm.

7.44 The spectrum of hydrogen involves the movement of an electron from one energy level to another. However,
the absorption of too much energy will remove the electron from the hydrogen atom instead of simply moving the
electron between levels. To remove an electron from a ground-state hydrogen atom requires 1.31 MJ/mol. (a) What
is the minimum frequency necessary to remove an electron? (b) What is the maximum wavelength necessary to
remove an electron?

7.5 Corresponds to BLBMW Section6.4

7.45 What is the de Broglie relationship?

7.46 (a) What is the difference between v and v? (b) What are typical units for v and v?

7.47 What information is necessary to determine the wavelength of a particle?

7.48 (a) If two objects, with different masses, are moving at the same velocity, which will have the shorter
wavelength? (b) If two objects, with different velocities, have the same mass, which will have the shorter
wavelength?

7.49 Express a joule in terms of SI base units.

7.50 State the Uncertainty Principle.

7.51 What experiment led to the acceptance of the dual nature of electrons?

7.52 Why is it not possible to observe the wave nature of particles in our macroscopic world?

7.53 The de Broglie relationship may be used to determine the wavelength of any object. Determine the de Broglie
wavelength of each of the following. (a) A 68 kg person sprinting at 10.0 kilometers per hour (b) A 5.25 ounce
baseball traveling at 95 mph (c) A helium atom traveling at 2500 mph.

7.54 The de Broglie relationship may be used to determine the wavelength of any object. Determine the de Broglie
wavelength of each of the following. (a) A 125 pound person running at 1.20 miles per hour (b) A 5.25 ounce
baseball traveling at 75 mph (c) A hydrogen molecule traveling at 1500 mph.

7.55 A transmission electron microscope may accelerate electrons to speeds nearly that of light. In a particular
experiment, the electrons were found to have a de Broglie wavelength of 0.037 . How fast were these electrons
moving (in m/s)? The mass of an electron is 9.109 10
28
g.

7.56 (a) What is the significance of ? (b) What is the significance of
2
?

7.57 How did Schrdinger's work alter Bohr's concept of electrons traveling in orbits?

7.58 What is an electron cloud?


7.60 List the names of the four quantum numbers.

54


7.61 (a) What is the rule governing the possible values of the quantum number n? (b) What is the rule governing the
possible values of the quantum number l? (c) What is the rule governing the possible values of the quantum number
m
l
? (d) What is the rule governing the possible values of the quantum number m
s
?

7.62 Each of the quantum numbers gives information on the features of an orbital or an electron. (a) What feature of
an orbital does the principle quantum number, n, describe? (b) What feature of an orbital does the angular
momentum quantum number, l, describe? (c) What feature of an orbital does the magnetic quantum number, m
l
,
describe? (d) What feature of an electron does the electron-spin quantum number, m
s
, describe?

7.63 Define each of the following in your own words and tell how the quantum numbers relate to each. (a) shell (b)
subshell (c) orbital (d) electron spin (e) electron shell

7.64 Sketch a 2p
x
, a 2p
y
, and a 2p
z
orbital. Tell how these orbitals are alike, and how they are different.

7.65 (a) Sketch a 1s, a 2s, and a 3s orbital. (b) Sketch a 2p, a 3p, and a 4p orbital.

7.66 Give the letter designation for each of the following values of l: 0, 1, 2, and 3.

7.67 (a) If the principle quantum number, n, is 4, what are the allowed values for the angular momentum quantum
number, l? (b) If the angular momentum quantum number, l, has a value of 3, what are the allowed values for the
magnetic quantum number, m
l
? (c) If the magnetic quantum number, m
l
, has a value of -2, what are the possible
values for the electron spin quantum number, m
s
?

7.68 (a) List the allowed values for n, l, and m
l
for each electron in a 5d subshell. (b) List the allowed values for n, l,
and m
l
for each electron in the third shell.

7.69 Which, if any, of the following are not allowed: (a) 6s (b) 2d (c) 1p (d) 3d (e) 4f?

7.70 (a) How is a 4s orbital similar to a 3s orbital? (b) How is a 4s orbital different from a 3s orbital? (c) How is a
3s orbital similar to a 3p orbital? (d) How is a 3s orbital different from a 3p orbital? (e) How is a 3p
x
orbital similar
to a 3p
z
orbital? (f) How is a 3p
x
orbital different from a 3p
z
orbital?

7.71 For each of the following give the appropriate subshell designation:
n l
(a) 3 0
(b) 4 3
(c) 5 1
(d) 3 2
(e) 1 0
7.72 The following sets of quantum numbers have been assigned to electrons:
n l m
l

(a) 2 0 0
(b) 4 4 1
(c) 5 3 4
(d) 3 2 2
(e) 1 2 0
If the combination is allowed, write the appropriate designation, i.e. 5d. If the combination is not allowed, make an
appropriate correction, then give the appropriate designation.

7.8 Summary

7.73 Why is it possible to identify new elements based upon their spectra?

7.74 How does the calcium spectrum of a sample of calcium chloride compare to the calcium spectrum of a sample
of calcium nitrate?

7.75 Why is it important for the Bunsen burner flame to be essentially invisible when used in spectroscopic
analysis?
55


7.76 In addition to a line at 455.5 nm, the spectrum of cesium also has a line at 459.3 nm. (a) Determine the
frequency in 1/s for the 459.3 nm line. (b) Determine the energy, in joules, for a photon of the 459.3 nm emission
line.

7.77 Rubidium has lines in its absorption spectrum at 780.0 nm and 794.1 nm. (a) What color are the two lines. (b)
What is the frequency, in s
1
, for each of these lines? (c) What is the energy, in joules, for a photon of light for each
of these lines?

7.78 Atomic absorption spectroscopy is used to analyze various materials. The sample is vaporized by various
means, and the amount of light, with a specific wavelength, absorbed by the vapor indicates the amount of a specific
element is present. The wavelengths used for the alkali and alkaline earth metals are:
Li 670.8 nm Be 234.9 nm
Na 589.0 nm Mg 285.2 nm
K 766.5 nm Ca 422.7 nm
Rb 780.0 nm Sr 460.7 nm
Cs 852.1 nm Ba 553.6 nm
(a) For the elements absorbing light in the visible portion of the spectrum, determine the color of the radiation
absorbed. (b) Rank these elements in order of increasing energy of the absorbed radiation.

7.79 The oxidizing agents in fireworks work because they release oxygen gas. Write balanced chemical equations
for the release of oxygen gas for each of the following. (a) Solid potassium perchlorate decomposes to form solid
potassium chloride and oxygen gas. (b) Solid potassium chlorate decomposes to form solid potassium chloride and
oxygen gas. (c) Solid potassium nitrate decomposes to form solid potassium nitrite and oxygen gas.

7.80 Gunpowder has charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate present in a 3:2:15 ratio. One way of achieving this
ratio is to mix 3.0 g of charcoal, C, 2.0 g of sulfur, S, and 15.0 g of potassium nitrate, KNO
3
. These three substances
react to produce carbon dioxide gas, CO
2
, sulfur dioxide gas, SO
2
, and solid potassium nitrite, KNO
2
. (a) Write a
balanced chemical reaction for gunpowder. (b) Which of the three components is the limiting reactant? (c) What is
the total volume, in liters, of the gases produced if the temperature is 1500C at a pressure of 0.95 atm?

7.81 Potassium chlorate, KClO
3
, may substitute for the potassium nitrate in gunpowder. Unlike potassium nitrate,
which only releases some of its oxygen to produce potassium nitrite, potassium chlorate decomposes to release all of
its oxygen. How many grams of potassium chlorate are necessary to supply the same quantity of oxygen as 15.0 g
of potassium nitrate?

7.82 Potassium perchlorate, KClO
4
, may substitute for the potassium nitrate in gunpowder. The decomposition of
gunpowder containing potassium perchlorate produces carbon dioxide gas, sulfur dioxide gas, and solid potassium
chloride. (a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the decomposition of potassium perchlorate containing
gunpowder. (b) A gunpowder sample is prepared by mixing 6.0 g of charcoal, C, 4.0 g of sulfur, S, and 15.0 g of
potassium perchlorate. Which of the three components is the limiting reagent? (c) Determine the partial pressure of
each of the gases produced assuming the final temperature is 1250C at a pressure of 0.925 atm.

7.9 Summary

7.83 How many joules are there in a mole of photons?

7.84 Ultraviolet radiation is sometimes divided into three categories: UVA, UVB, and UVC. UVA consists of
wavelengths between 320 and 400 nm, and is responsible for tanning of skin. UVB is responsible for sunburns, and
has wavelengths ranging from 280 to 320 nm. UVC, which is almost entirely absorbed by the atmosphere, ranges
between 200 and 290 nm. UVC is germicidal ultraviolet because even short exposure can be deadly to bacteria. (a)
Determine the energy of a photon of UVA radiation with a wavelength of 365 nm. (b) Determine the energy of a
photon of UVB radiation with a wavelength of 305 nm. (c) Determine the energy of a photon of UVC radiation
with a wavelength of 245 nm.

7.85 The element cesium was discovered before the development of atomic theory. Scientists did not know about
electrons, protons, or neutrons as components of atoms. We now know that natural cesium consists entirely of
cesium-137. How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are present in a cesium-137 atom?
56


7.86 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) H
2
S(g) (b) HF(g) (c) NH
3
(g) (d) CH
4
(g)
(e) LiH (f) hydrogen bromide (g) hydrogen selenide (h) hydrobromic acid (i) calcium hydride (j) hydrofluoric acid

7.87 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) XeF
2
(s) (b) BrCl(g) (c) S
2
Cl
2
(s) (d) PBr
3
(l)
(e) CI
4
(s) (f) disilicon hexachloride (g) nitrogen trifluoride (h) oxygen difluoride (i) iodine pentafluoride (j) diboron
tetrachloride

7.88 The human eye requires at least 2.0 10
17
J for detection. How many photons of 660 nm green light are
necessary to supply this amount of energy?

7.89 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) lithium nitrate (b) magnesium phosphate
(c) aluminum sulfate (d) barium fluoride (e) zinc acetate (f) SrH
2
(g) AlP (h) CdS (i) (NH
4
)HSO
4
(j) NaHCO
3

7.90 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) calcium oxalate (b) potassium dichromate
(c) zinc cyanide (d) aluminum cyanate (e) ammonium thiocyanate (f) Li
2
SO
3
(g) CsMnO
4
(h) (NH
4
)
2
HPO
4
(i)
BaCrO
4
(j) SrCl
2

7.91 The light from a typical incandescent light bulb has a maximum amplitude with a wavelength of 550 nm. The
light from an incandescent light is about 5% of the total electrical energy passing through the bulb. How many
photons does a 100 watt light produce in 1.0 minutes? 1 watt = 1 W = 1 J/s (exactly)

7.92 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) FeCl
2
(b) ZnCl
2
(c) FeCl
3
(d) MnSO
4

(e) CuF
2
(f) lead(IV) oxide (g) tin(II) fluoride (h) manganese(III) oxide (i) gold(III) chloride (j) nickel(II) sulfide.

7.93 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) iron(III) oxide (b) SnCl
4
(c) CuCN
(d) tin(II) nitrate (e) PbI
2
(f) nickel(II) sulfate (g) MnO
2
(h) iron(II) carbonate (i) vanadium(V) oxide (j) Co
2
O
3
.

7.94 Most radioactive decay processes are accompanied by gamma rays. The energy of gamma radiation is typically
given in MeV. A MeV is a Mega-eV or million electron volts. An electron volt (eV) is 1.602176 10
19
J. The
highest energy photon emitted by plutonium-239 has an energy of 0.41369 MeV. Determine the frequency of this
photon in 1/s.

7.95 The highest energy gamma ray photon emitted by americium-240 has an energy of 0.98764 MeV. A MeV is a
Mega-eV or million electron volts. An electron volt (eV) is 1.602176 10
19
J. Determine the wavelength of the
photon in meters.

7.96 Barium compounds are often used to produce a bright green color in fireworks. Barium chlorate, Ba(ClO
3
)
2
, is
one possible source of barium. This compound has the advantage that it may replace the potassium nitrate. Barium
chlorate, like most chlorates, decomposes to the metal chloride and oxygen gas. (a) Write a balanced chemical for
the reaction of solid carbon, sulfur, and barium chlorate to produce gaseous carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide along
with solid barium chloride. (b) If you have 10.0 g of carbon, how many grams of each of the other solids are
necessary?

7.97 A mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium chlorate is used as a gunpowder substitute. All of these
substances are solids. This mixture will react to form gaseous carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide along with solid
potassium chloride. Determine the standard heat of reaction per mole of potassium chlorate.

7.98 What is the formula of each of the compounds used is the following reactions: (a) Heating calcium carbonate
decomposes it to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. (b) Hydrobromic acid reacts with zinc metal to form zinc
bromide and hydrogen gas. (c) Copper(II) sulfate reacts with iron metal to form copper metal and iron(II) sulfate.
(d) Potassium metal reacts with water to form potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. (e) Ammonium nitrate
decomposes when heated to form dinitrogen oxide and water vapor. (f) Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to
form ammonia gas. (g) Copper metal reacts with concentrated nitric acid to form copper(II) nitrate, nitrogen oxide,
and water. (h) Magnesium metal burns in oxygen gas to form magnesium oxide. (i) When heated in oxygen gas
tungsten metal forms yellow tungsten(VI) oxide. (j) Sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to form sodium
chloride, carbon dioxide, and water.

57


7.99 Chlorophyll a absorbs sunlight to supply energy for photosynthesis. The maximum wavelength absorbed is
660 nm. The overall reaction involved in photosynthesis is: 6 CO
2
(g) + 6 H
2
O(l) C
6
H
12
O
6
(s) + 6 O
2
(g)
The carbohydrate formed is glucose, C
6
H
12
O
6
. (a) Determine the enthalpy change for this reaction in kJ/mole
glucose. (b) How many photons of 660 nm radiation are necessary to form a mole of glucose?

7.100 Ozone, O
3
, helps to protect the Earth's surface from high-energy photons of ultraviolet light. The energy from
a photon of light can cause the following photodissociation process: O
3
(g) O
2
(g) + O(g)
The standard heats of O
3
(g), O
2
(g), and O(g) are 143, 0.00, and 249.2 kJ/mole, respectively. What is the longest
wavelength of radiation that will photodissociate an ozone molecule?

7.101 How many microwave photons with a wavelength of 12.5 cm are needed to heat one cup of water from 25C
to boiling? Assume all the energy of the photons heats the water. The specific heat of water is 4.18 J/gC. The
density of water is 1.00 g/cm
3
. 1 cup = 236.3 mL

7.102 The names of certain compounds and ions may be very similar. Give the correct formula for each compound
in the following pairs. (a) ammonium ion and ammonia (b) hydrochloric acid and chloric acid (c) lithium nitride
and lithium nitrite (d) manganese(II) oxide and manganese(III) oxide (e) manganese(II) oxide and magnesium oxide
(f) potassium nitrate and potassium nitrite (g) tungsten(IV) oxide and tungsten(VI) oxide (h) iodic acid and periodic
acid (i) ammonium hydrogen phosphate and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (j) calcium sulfite and calcium
bisulfite.

7.103 An alpha particle (mass = 6.6 10
24
g) emitted by radium travels at 3.4 10
7
mi/h. What is its de Broglie
wavelength (in meters)?

Chapter 8

8.1 What is the underlying principle for the arrangement of the elements in the periodic table?

8.2 When two atoms collide and react, what parts of the atom directly interact?

8.3 What is the rule that applies to the possible values of each of the four quantum numbers?

8.4 Explain what each of the four quantum numbers indicates us about the behavior of an electron in an atom.

8.5 If the value of the principle quantum number, n, is 4, what are the possible values of the l quantum number?

8.6 What are the possible values of the m
l
quantum number if n = 3?

l
quantum number if l = 2?

s
quantum number if l = 2?


8.9 In your own words, state the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

8.10 What is the relationship between two spin-paired electrons?

8.11 Which possesses the lowest energy, the excited state, or the ground state? Explain your answer.

8.12 How does the German meaning of "aufbau" apply to how the electrons fill the orbitals?

8.13 What are the first ten orbitals to fill in an atom? List these orbitals in order of increasing energy.


58


8.14 How does an orbital diagram differ from an electron configuration?

8.15 What is the first element where Hund's rule becomes applicable? Why is this true?

8.16 The following sets of quantum numbers have been assigned to electrons:
n l m
l

(a) 2 0 0
(b) 4 4 1
(c) 5 3 4
(d) 3 2 2
(e) 1 2 0
If the combination is allowed, write the appropriate designation, i.e. 5d. If the combination is not allowed, make an
appropriate correction, then give the appropriate designation.

8.17 Determine the maximum number of electrons allowed in an atom to have the following quantum numbers: (a) n
= 4 (b) n = 3 and l = 2 (c) n = 6, l = 1, and m
l
= 0 (d) n = 5, l = 0, m
l
= 0, and m
s
= +1/2.

8.18 List all possible sets of the four quantum numbers for a 2p electron on a hydrogen atom.

8.19 List all possible sets of the four quantum numbers for a 3d electron on a hydrogen atom.

8.20 How do valence electrons differ from core electrons?

8.21 The electron configuration of a potassium atom is 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
1
. (a) How many core electrons does a
potassium atom have? (b) How many valence electrons does a potassium atom have?

8.22 Give the complete electron configuration for each of the following atoms: (a) O (b) Mn (c) Yb (d) Os (e) Cu.

8.23 Draw orbital diagrams showing the electrons in the outside shell of each of the following atoms: (a) C (b) Al
(c) As (d) Ba (e) Xe.

8.24 (a) List in order of increasing energy the various subshells of the fourth shell. (b) List in order of increasing
energy the orbitals in the 4p subshell.

8.25 Which element is indicated by each of the following electron configurations?
(a) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
5

(b) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
7

(c) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
1

(d) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6
6s
2
4f
8

(e) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6
6s
2
4f
14
5d
10
6p
4

8.26 Convert each of the following excited-state electron configurations to ground-state electron configurations, and
identify the element.
(a) 1s
2
2s
1
2p
6

(b) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
5
4s
1

(c) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
1
3d
10
4p
4

(d) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
9
5p
2

(e) 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6
6s
2
4f
13
5d
8

8.27 (a) What first row transition elements have electrons configurations that are exceptions to the aufbau principle?
(b) Give the electron configuration of the first row transition elements that are exceptions to the aufbau principle.

8.28 (a) Define the terms paramagnetic and diamagnetic. (b) Give the name two second-period elements whose
atoms are paramagnetic. (c) Give the name two second-period elements with atoms that are diamagnetic.

8.29 What experimental evidence shows that a substance is paramagnetic?

8.30 When determining, if an atom is paramagnetic, which is more useful, an electron configuration or an orbital
diagram?
59


8.31 Which of the following atoms is the most paramagnetic? N, Ar, Mn, K, or O

8.32 How many elements in the fourth period on the periodic table are diamagnetic in the ground state?

8.33 (a) Draw an orbital diagram for the outer shell of a magnesium atom. (b) Draw an orbital diagram for the outer
shell of a phosphorus atom. (c) Describe each of these two elements as paramagnetic or diamagnetic.

8.34 Sketch a periodic table. (a) On your sketch, indicate where the s orbitals are filling. (b) On your sketch,
indicate where the p orbitals are filling. (c) On your sketch, indicate where the d orbitals are filling. (d) On your
sketch, indicate where the f orbitals are filling. (e) On your sketch, indicate where the 5f orbitals are filling.

8.35 What distinguishes the electron configuration of helium from that of all the other noble gases?

8.36 Based on the position of each of the following elements on the periodic table; give the outer shell electron
configuration of each: (a) N (b) Cl (c) Ge (d) Sr (e) Kr.

8.37 What orbitals are being filled for each of the following types of elements? (a) representative elements (b)
transition metals (c) inner transition metals

8.38 In terms of orbital filling, what distinguishes the lanthanide series from the actinide series?

8.39 List the similarities and differences between the electron configurations of nitrogen, N, phosphorus, P, and
bismuth, Bi.

8.40 Some properties for the elements silicon (Si), and tin (Sn) are listed below. Mendeleev used the properties of
these two elements to predict the properties of eka-silicon (later discovered and named germanium). (a) Predict the
corresponding properties for germanium (Ge). (b) Use the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics to determine
the correct answers for these properties.
Property Silicon Germanium Tin
(a) predicted (b) CRC
Atomic weight 28.08 amu _____ _____ 118.71 amu
Formula of oxide SiO
2
_____ _____ SnO
2
and SnO
Density of element 2.32 g/cm
3
_____ _____ 5.75 g/cm
3

Melting point of element 1410C _____ _____ 232 C
Boiling point of element 2355C _____ _____ 2270 C

8.41 Some properties for the elements sodium (Na) and rubidium (Rb) are listed below. (a) Predict the
corresponding properties for potassium (K). (b) Use the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics to determine the
correct answers for these properties.
Property Sodium Potassium Rubidium
(a) predicted (b) CRC
Atomic weight 22.9898 amu _____ _____ 85.47 amu
Formula of chloride NaCl _____ _____ RbCl
Density of element 0.971 g/cm
3
_____ _____ 1.532 g/cm
3

Melting point of element 97.80C _____ _____ 39.31 C
Boiling point of element 883C _____ _____ 688 C


8.42 Why do the atomic radii tend to increase down a column on the periodic table?

8.43 (a) Why is an argon atom smaller than a krypton atom? (b) Why is an argon atom smaller than a chlorine
atom?

8.44 Describe why the outer shell of the noble gas neon has a smaller radius than the outer shell of nitrogen.

60


8.45 Using only the periodic table, arrange the elements in each of the following groups in order of decreasing
atomic radius: (a) C, S, Ca, Pt, and Sb (b) Cr, Ga, N, Ta, and Mo (c) Al, Te, He, Mg, and Cs.

8.46 What is "effective nuclear charge," and why is it more important than the nuclear charge of an atom?

8.47 Why does the effective nuclear charge increase across a period?

8.48 How does the effective nuclear charge affect the atomic radius of an atom?

8.49 Which of the following isotopes has the highest effective nuclear charge?
23
Na,
25
Na, or
24
Mg Explain your
choice.


8.50 What is the definition of ionization energy?

8.51 Why do the successive ionization energies of an element increase?

8.52 Write balanced chemical equations illustrating the first and second ionization energies of calcium.

8.53 Compare the second ionization energies of the elements K and Ca. Why is the value of potassium larger than
that of calcium?

8.54 Using only the periodic table, pick the member of each pair with the higher ionization energy: (a) Na and Rb
(b) Si and Sb (c) Li and Be (d) B and Al (e) C and N.

8.55 For each of the following pairs indicate which element has the larger first ionization energy: (a) P, Cl (b) Al,
Ga (c) Cs, La (d) Si, N. In each case provide an explanation in terms of electron configuration and effective nuclear
charge.

8.56 (a) Write electron configurations for Ca and Ca
2+
. (b) Write the electron configurations for Fe, Fe
2+
, and Fe
3+
.
(c) Use your answers to parts (a) and (b) to illustrate why the meaning of valence electrons is different for the
representative elements and the transition metals.

8.57 Write the full electron configuration of each of the following atoms or ions. Co, Co
2+
, and Co
3+

8.58 Why are cations smaller than their parent atom?

8.59 The following trends in the sizes of atoms or ions have been observed: (a) Li
+
< K
+
< Cs
+
(b) S
2+
< S < S
2
(c)
Cr
6+
< Cr
3+
< Cr
2+
< Cr. In each case, explain the observed trend.

8.60 The following trends in the sizes of atoms or ions have been observed: (a) La
3+
< Ba
2+
< Cs
+
(b) F
< O
2
< N
3

(c) K
+
< Ar < Cl
< S
2
. Explain the trend in each case.

8.61 List the atoms or ions in each set in order of decreasing radius: (a) Y
3+
, Rb
+
, and Sr
2+
(b) Ne, F
, and Na
+
(c)
P
3
, Cl
, and S
2
(d) Li
+
, Ca
2+
, and Cl
(e) Kr, Br, and Br


8.62 What is the definition of electron affinity?

8.63 Write balanced chemical equations illustrating the first and second electron affinities of sulfur.

8.64 Why, in most cases, is it more difficult to form a dianion (2 ion), than it is to form a 1 ion?

8.65 Why are anions larger than their parent atom?

8.66 Write the full electron configuration of each of the following atoms or ions. O, O
2
, and Ne
61


8.67 (a) Why are the electron affinities of the noble gases negligible? (b) Why are the electron affinities of the
alkaline earth metals negligible?

8.68 Using electron configurations show why it is easier to add an electron to a potassium atom than to a calcium
atom.

8.69 (a) Write the electron configuration of oxygen. (b) Write electron configurations for the anions formed as
electrons are added to an oxygen atom. (c) Why is the addition of two electrons the limit for an oxygen atom? (d)
Based on your answer to part (c) what is the limit for a nitrogen atom?


8.70 What is electronegativity?

8.71 (a) Which of the representative elements has the highest electronegativity? (b) Which of the representative
elements has the lowest electronegativity?

8.72 Draw a simplified sketch of the periodic table and indicate the general trend(s) for electronegativity.

8.73 (a) What type of ions do atoms with high electronegativities tend to form? (b) What type of ions do atoms with
low electronegativities tend to form?

8.74 (a) What is the general trend in electronegativity moving left the right on the periodic table? (b) What is the
general trend in electronegativity moving from top to bottom on the periodic table?

8.75 (a) How does the trend in electronegativities compare to the trend in ionization energies? (b) How does the
trend in electronegativities compare to the trend in electron affinities?

8.76 Using only the periodic table as a guide arrange the elements in each of the following sets in order of increasing
electronegativity. (a) F, O, Cl (b) Br, Cl, I (c) H, B, C (d) Li, K, Cs (e) Al, Na, P

8.77 Using only the periodic table, pick the member of each pair with the higher ionization energy: (a) Na and Rb
(b) Si and Sb (c) Li and Be (d) B and Al (e) C and N.


8.78 Which element is the "unique" element? Why is this element unique?

8.79 Sketch a simplified periodic table and illustrate the trend(s) in metallic character.

8.80 (a) In general, how do the properties of metals compare to the properties of nonmetals. (b) How do the
properties of metalloids compare to metals and nonmetals?

8.81 Use the periodic table to pick the more metallic member of each pair: (a) C and Pb (b) Li and O (c) Ca and Ba
(d) Se and Po (e) Br and I.

8.82 Arrange the following elements in order of increasing electrical conductivity. Si, K, P

8.83 (a) Why is barium more reactive than magnesium? (b) Why is barium less reactive than cesium?

8.84 Most oxides may be described as being either acidic or basic. Arrange the following oxides from the most
acidic to the most basic: calcium oxide (CaO), cesium oxide (Cs
2
O), sulfur dioxide (SO
2
), zinc oxide (ZnO), silicon
dioxide (SiO
2
), dichlorine heptoxide (Cl
2
O
7
), thallium(III) oxide (Tl
2
O
3
), and sulfur trioxide (SO
3
)

8.85 (a) What type of compounds do nonmetal oxides tend to form when added to water? (b) What type of
compounds do metal oxides tend to form when added to water?

62


8.86 (a) What type of ions do metals tend to form? (b) What type of ions do nonmetals tend to form? (c) What
happens when a typical metal oxide reacts with a typical nonmetal oxide?

8.87 Complete and balance the equations for each of the following: (a) calcium oxide reacts with water (b) sulfur
dioxide reacts with water (c) manganese(II) oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid (d) carbon dioxide reacts with an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (e) calcium oxide reacts with sulfur dioxide.

8.88 Complete and balance the equations for each of the following: (a) tetraphosphorus decaoxide dissolves in water
(b) chromium(III) oxide reacts with nitric acid (c) dinitrogen pentoxide reacts with water (d) nickel(II) oxide reacts
with sulfuric acid (e) cobalt(II) oxide reacts with sulfur trioxide.

8.89 Complete and balance the equations for each of the following reactions. (a) Solid selenium reacts with calcium
metal. (b) Dinitrogen oxide decomposes to the elements. (c) Magnesium metal burns in oxygen gas. (d) Sulfur
vapor reacts with beryllium metal. (e) Water vapor burns in fluorine gas to produce hydrogen fluoride gas and
oxygen gas.

8.90 Complete and balance the equations for each of the following reactions. (a) Liquid bromine reacts with
calcium metal. (b) Carbon burns in air. (c) Xenon gas reacts with fluorine gas. (d) Lithium metal reacts with
oxygen gas. (e) Aluminum metal reacts with carbon.

8.91 Complete and balance the equations for each of the following: (a) sodium is placed in a beaker of water (b)
calcium is placed in a beaker of water (c) lithium metal reacts with liquid bromine (d) hydrogen gas burns in
fluorine gas (e) magnesium metal reacts when heated with nitrogen gas.

8.92 Complete and balance the equations for each of the following: (a) calcium metal reacts with chlorine gas (b)
lithium metal reacts with hydrogen gas (c) barium metal reacts with water (d) beryllium metal reacts with chlorine
gas (e) potassium oxide reacts with water.

8.93 Hydrogen may form two ions. Give the electron configuration of each of these ions.

8.94 (a) Define a covalent hydride and give an example. (b) Define an ionic hydride and give an example. (c)
Define a metallic hydride and give an example.

8.95 Which alkali metals are essential to living organisms?

8.96 The alkali metals are very reactive. Write a general chemical equation to illustrate the reaction of an alkali
metal with water.

8.97 Write balanced chemical equations for the reaction of each of the alkali metals with oxygen.

8.98 Which alkaline earth metals are amongst the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust?

8.99 How does beryllium hydroxide differ from barium hydroxide?

8.100 How does the most stable thallium ion differ from the most stable aluminum ion?

8.101 How is aluminum hydroxide different from the alkali metal hydroxides?

8.102 (a) What is an allotrope? (b) Describe the structures of the following allotropes of carbon: diamond, graphite,
and buckminsterfullerene.

8.103 Which element is the most abundant element in the carbon family?

8.104 What are the highest and lowest oxidation numbers for the elements in the nitrogen family?

8.105 Which elements in the nitrogen family are essential to life?

8.106 Which oxygen containing anion is analogous to the disulfide ion?
63


8.107 (a) What is the formula for a sulfur molecule? (b) What is the formula of ozone? (c) How do these formulas
differ from that of a "normal" oxygen molecule?

8.108 Which elements in the oxygen family are essential to most living organisms?

8.109 Which halogen only forms one type of ions in its compounds?

8.110 The text states the following is a disproportionation reaction:
Cl
2
(g) + H
2
O(l) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
(a) Assign oxidation numbers to each of the elements in this equation. (b) Which element undergoes oxidation? (c)
Which element undergoes reduction? (d) The answers to parts (b) and (c) provide a clue to the definition of a
disproportionation reaction. What do you think is the definition of a disproportionation reaction?

8.111 How many compounds are known to contain simple noble gas ions?

8.112 (a) What is the formula for platinum(VI) fluoride? (b) Why is platinum(VI) fluoride important to the
chemistry of the noble gases?

8.113 (a) List five of the major biologically important elements. (b) List five of the trace biologically important
elements.

8.114 (a) Which elements are important to biological systems because they form stable ions? (b) Some elements are
biologically important because they participate in oxidation-reduction reactions. Where are most of these ions
located on the periodic table?

8.10 Summary

8.115 (a) When Mendeleev first developed the periodic table; he arranged the elements in terms of increasing atomic
weight. What two pairs of representative elements are exceptions to this arrangement? (b) Which of these two pairs
did not matter to Mendeleev? Why?

8.116 The most abundant isotopes of the nitrogen family elements are
14
N,
31
P,
75
As,
121
Sb, and
209
Bi. (a) List the
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom of each of each of these isotopes. (b) Give the number of
electrons present in the ions most likely to form for each of these isotopes.

8.117 Label each compound, from the following list, as a solid or a gas based upon its most likely physical state at
room temperature. Explain your choice in each case. (a) hydrogen chloride (HCl) (b) sodium chloride (NaCl) (c)
strontium oxide (SrO) (d) zinc fluoride (ZnF
2
) (e) dinitrogen oxide (N
2
O) (f) hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) (g) carbon
monoxide (CO) (h) sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) (i) aluminum sulfide (Al
2
S
3
) (j) ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
)

8.118 Locate the following elements on the periodic table: N, Te, Ge, Pb, and Cl. (a) Arrange these elements in
order of decreasing electron affinity. (b) Arrange these elements in order of decreasing first ionization energy. (c)
Arrange these elements in order of decreasing atomic radius.

8.119 The following table gives the successive ionization energies for carbon and silicon. All values are in
MJ/mole.
First Second Third Fourth Fifth
C 1.1 2.4 4.6 6.2 37.8
Si 0.8 1.6 3.2 4.4 16.1
(a) Compare any of the values for carbon with the corresponding value for silicon. Why is the silicon value lower?
(b) Why do both elements show a similar trend of increasing values? (c) Why is there an apparent break in the trend
between the fourth and fifth ionization energies?

8.120 Explain any similarities and differences between the elements potassium and calcium with respect to: (a) size
of the atoms (b) expected ionic charge (c) electron configuration (d) ionization energy (e) behavior with water.

64


8.121 Complete and balance the equations for each reaction in the following pairs. Compare the products of the
reactions in each pair. (a) Potassium metal reacts with iodine vapor, and hydrogen gas reacts with iodine vapor. (b)
Strontium metal reacts with chlorine gas, and strontium metal reacts with hydrogen gas.

8.122 The synthesis of sulfuric acid begins with the combustion of sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide. In the presence
of a catalyst, oxygen oxidizes the sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide. Dissolving the sulfur trioxide in sulfuric acid
produces disulfuric acid, H
2
S
2
O
7
. Finally, adding water to disulfuric acid produces sulfuric acid. (a) Write balanced
chemical equations for each step in the synthesis of sulfuric acid. (b) Beginning with one ton (2000. pounds) of
sulfur, how many gallons of sulfuric acid may be produced? The density of sulfuric acid is 1.84 g/mL. (c) What is
the total volume of air gas required for the oxidation of one ton of sulfur in the preparation of sulfuric acid? The
mole fraction of oxygen in air is 0.20, and the air is at 27C at a pressure of 742 mmHg.

8.123 Give the full electron configuration of each of the following. (a) Silicon (b) Iron (c) Lead

8.124 A 2.50 g sample of sodium reacted completely with water. How many milliliters of dry H
2
evolved at 21C
and 748 mmHg. The reaction is: 2 Na(s) + 2 H
2
O(l) 2 NaOH(aq) + H
2
(g)

8.125 Using only the periodic table as a guide arrange each of the following sets of elements in order of decreasing
electronegativity. (a) Br, I, and Cl (b) Mg, Al, and Cs (c) C, N, and Br (d) Se, B, and F (e) H, C, and Na.

Chapter 9

9.1 Which electrons are the key to the chemistry of the atoms?

9.2 Where are the valence electrons of the representative elements located?

9.3 If zinc is treated as a representative element, how many valence electrons does it have?

9.4 How many valence electrons does each of the following atoms possess? (a) Na, (b) Al, (c) As, (d) Se, (e) F

9.2 Introduction to Chapter 8 in BLBMW

9.5 What are the three bonding types?

9.6 What type of bonding is involved in each of the following? (a) steel, (b) table salt, (c) water

9.7 Which of the following has bonding similar to that found in water? (a) gasoline, (b) chalk, (c) brass, (d)
vegetable oil, (e) sugar

9.8 Which of the following has bonding similar to that found in table salt? (a) bronze, (b) chalk, (c) sugar, (d)
rubbing alcohol, (e) wood ash

9.9 If the only information you know concerning a substance is its composition, how can you predict if the substance
has ionic, covalent, or metallic bonding?

9.10 What would be a better method rather than simply examining the composition to predict the type of bonding
present in a substance?

9.11 (a) If a compound is ionic, what is the minimum electronegativity difference between the atoms? (b) If a
compound is covalent, what is the minimum electronegativity difference between the atoms?

9.12 If two atoms have an electronegativity difference of 1.0, what is the best description of the type of bonding
present?

9.13 Which element gives rise to many exceptions to bonding predictions?

9.14 Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing ionic bonding character. (a) MgCl
2
(b) SiCl
4
(c) NaCl
(d) AlCl
3
(e) PCl
5

65



9.15 In your own words, define a Lewis symbol.

9.16 Show four different ways to draw the Lewis symbol of a hydrogen atom.

9.17 Draw the Lewis symbol of each element in the third period on the periodic table.

9.18 Draw Lewis symbols for each of the following. (a) As (b) As
3
(c) Ba
2+
(d) O
(e) Pb
2+

9.19 Draw Lewis symbols for each of the following. (a) Si (b) Kr (c) P
2
(d) Sb
3+
(e) Cd

9.20 Draw a Lewis symbol for each of the following: (a) Li (b) Se (c) Pb (d) Al
3+
(e) P
3

9.21 (a) Which elements are most likely to form anions? (b) Which elements are most likely to form cations? (c)
Locate these groups on the periodic table.
9.22 Why are cations like F
7+
and S
6+
unlikely to form?

9.23 Why are anions like B
5
and Mg
6
unlikely to form?

9.24 The electron configuration for sulfur is 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
4
. (a) How many valence electrons does sulfur have? (b)
What is the relationship between sulfur's valence electrons and its position on the periodic table? (c) Which of the
electrons on sulfur are the valence electrons? (d) How many electrons would sulfur be expected to gain when
forming an anion? (e) Write the electron configuration for the anion sulfur is expected to form.

9.25 Polonium, Po, is in the oxygen family on the periodic table. What type of ion or ions would you expect it to
form? Explain.

9.26 Write balanced chemical equations for each of the following. Give the Lewis symbols for all reactants and
products. (a) the first electron affinity of phosphorus (b) the second electron affinity of phosphorus (c) the third
electron affinity of phosphorus

9.27 Give Lewis structures and identify any ions that do not obey the octet rule. (a) calcium fluoride (b) lithium
phosphide (c) tin(II) oxide (d) sodium sulfide (e) magnesium nitride


9.28 (a) When forming a stable anion, what is the maximum number of electrons an atom may gain?
(b) When forming a stable cation, what is the maximum number of electrons an atom may lose?

9.29 (a) Is the formation of an anion oxidation or a reduction? (b) Is the formation of an anion oxidation or a
reduction?

9.30 What is the source of electrons for the formation of an anion?

9.31 (a) Draw the Lewis symbols of a nitrogen atom, an oxygen atom, and a fluorine atom. (b) On your Lewis
symbol, indicate where the atom will gain electrons to form an anion.

9.32 What complication occurs when predicting the cations that the lower p-block elements may form?

9.33 Diagram the reaction of potassium atoms with bromine atoms to form a compound using Lewis symbols.

9.34 Diagram the reaction of calcium atoms with fluorine atoms using Lewis symbols.

9.35 Each of the following pairs of elements will form an ionic compound. In each case, predict the formula for the
compound. (a) Li and I (b) Ba and Cl (c) Na and P (d) Ca and Se (e) Al and S

66


9.36 Each of the following pairs of elements will form an ionic compound. In each case, predict the formula for the
compound. (a) Na and F (b) Ca and Br (c) Li and N (d) Mg and S (e) Al and Se

9.37 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) FeCl
3
(b) CdCl
2
(c) MnCl
3
(d) CoSO
4

(e) ZnF
2
(f) manganese(IV) oxide (g) lead(II) fluoride (h) iron(III) oxide (i) silver(II) fluoride (j) nickel(II)
thiosulfate

9.38 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) chromium(III) oxide (b) VCl
4
(c) CuI
(d) iron(II) nitrate (e) PbBr
2
(f) titanium(III) sulfate (g) CrO
2
(h) iron(III) phosphate (i) chromium(VI) oxide (j)
Mn
2
O
3


9.39 State the octet rule in your own terms.

9.40 Why would it be possible to change the octet rule to the noble gas rule?

9.41 Using electron configurations to show why each of the following obeys the octet rule. (a) O
2
(b) K
+
(c) Xe (d)
As
3
(e) Sn
4+

9.42 Does the hydrogen ion or the hydride ion obey the octet rule?

9.43 Assign the most likely charge to the ions formed by the second period elements. Which of these ions do, and
which do not obey the octet rule?

9.44 What energy change is necessary in order to form a potassium atom to produce an ion obeying the octet rule?
What is the name of this energy change?

9.45 What energy change is necessary in order to form a chlorine atom to produce an ion obeying the octet rule?
What is the name of this energy change?

9.46 Which of the following ions obey the octet rule? (a) O
2
(b) Li
+
(c) Fe
2+
(d) Ba
2+
(e) P
3

9.47 Which noble gas does not obey the octet rule?


9.48 Energy is required to produce a cation, and energy is often required to produce an anion. What is the source of
this energy?

9.49 In your own words, define lattice energy. Is the lattice energy always endothermic or exothermic?

9.50 The Born-Haber cycle requires the following information (a) the standard heat of formation, (b) the ionization
energy, (c) the electron affinity, (d) the sublimation energy, (e) and the bond energy. Define each of these terms.
Where are the values for the first three terms found within this text?

9.51 The construction of a Born-Haber is made possible by what chemical law?

9.52 If the Born-Haber cycle in section 9.6 was for magnesium bromide, MgBr
2
, what values would you need to
change? What additional value(s) would be necessary?

9.53 Which member of each of the following pairs has the higher lattice energy? Explain your answer in each case.
(a) NaCl and KCl (b) BaCl
2
and MgCl
2
(c) NaF and CaO

9.54 Aluminum oxide, Al
2
O
3
, is a very hard material with an extremely high melting point. Explain these properties
in terms of its expected lattice energy.

67


9.55 Determine the lattice energy for potassium fluoride. Use the following information. The heat of formation of
potassium fluoride is 568.6 kJ/mole. The ionization energy of potassium is 419 kJ/mole. The electron affinity of
fluorine is 328 kJ/mole. The sublimation energy of potassium is 89.2 kJ/mole. The bond energy of fluorine is
150.6 kJ/mole.

9.56 Determine the lattice energy for calcium oxide. Use the following information. The heat of formation of
calcium oxide is 635.1 kJ/mole. The first ionization energy of calcium is 0.5898 MJ/mole. The second ionization
energy of calcium is 1.1454 MJ/mole. The first electron affinity of oxygen is 141 kJ/mole. The second electron
affinity of oxygen is 744 kJ/mole. The sublimation energy of calcium is 192.6 kJ/mole. The bond energy of oxygen
is 498.7 kJ/mole.

9.57 Determine the ionization energy for cesium. Use the following information. The lattice energy for cesium
fluoride, CsF, is 743.9 kJ/mole. The heat of formation of cesium fluoride is 554.7 kJ/mole. The electron affinity
of fluorine is 328 kJ/mole. The sublimation energy of cesium is 76.7 kJ/mole. The bond energy of fluorine is
150.6 kJ/mole.

9.58 Determine the electron affinity for bromine. Use the following information. The lattice energy for rubidium
bromide, RbBr, is 654.0 kJ/mole. The heat of formation of rubidium bromide is 389.2 kJ/mole. The ionization
energy of rubidium is 403 kJ/mole. The sublimation energy of rubidium is 85.81 kJ/mole. The bond energy of
bromine is 192.5 kJ/mole. The heat of vaporization for bromine is 30.91 kJ/mole.

9.59 If the compound NaF
2
existed, its lattice energy would be 2180 kJ/mole. Determine the heat of formation of
NaF
2
. In view of the heat of formation for NaF
2
, would you expect this compound to exist? Use the following
additional information. The electron affinity of fluorine is 328 kJ/mole. The sublimation energy of sodium is
107.76 kJ/mole. The bond energy of fluorine is 150.6 kJ/mole. The first ionization energy of sodium is 496
kJ/mole. The second ionization energy of sodium is 4562 kJ/mole.

9.7 Summary

9.66 An adult has about 4.7 L of blood plasma. (a) What is the minimum percentage of the body's potassium is in
the blood plasma? (b) What is the maximum percentage of the body's potassium is in the blood plasma?

9.67 If a person has an iron level of 0.02 mmol/L, how many milligrams of iron(II) sulfate, FeSO
4
, are necessary to
raise this to 180 mg/kg of body weight. Assume there are 4.7 L of blood plasma present, and the person weighs 73
kg.

9.68 List the three solubility rules.

9.69 What are the common exceptions to Solubility Rule 1?

9.70 What is the relationship between the solubility rules and the lattice energy?

9.71 You are given a compound; the cation has a +1 charge, and the anion has a 1 charge. The compound is
insoluble in water. What does this tell you about the relative electronegativities of the elements in the compound?

9.72 What effect does the size of an ion have on the solubility of compounds containing the ion?

9.73 Explain why lithium fluoride, LiF, is expected to be less soluble than cesium iodide, CsI.

9.74 When a hydrosulfuric acid solution and a iron(II) sulfate solution mix, iron(II) sulfide precipitates. (a) Write a
balanced molecular equation for this reaction. (b) Write a net ionic equation for this reaction. (c) Which solubility
rule is applicable? (d) How many grams of unreacted hydrosulfuric acid are present in the solution? (e) If you
began with 100.0 mL of 0.10 M hydrosulfuric acid and 175.0 mL of 0.50 M iron(II) sulfate solution, what is the
molarity of unreacted hydrosulfuric acid?

9.75 Write net ionic equations for each of the following reactions. (a) An aqueous solution of ammonium iodide,
NH
4
I, reacts with an aqueous solution of lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO
3
)
2
. (b) An aqueous solution of potassium sulfide,
K
2
S, reacts with an aqueous solution of cobalt(II) sulfate, CoSO
4
. (c) An aqueous solution of ammonium arsenate,
68


(NH
4
)
3
AsO
4
, reacts with an aqueous solution of magnesium chlorate, Mg(ClO
3
)
2
. (d) An aqueous solution of
barium nitrite, Ba(NO
2
)
2
, reacts with an aqueous solution of lithium sulfate, Li
2
SO
4
. (e) An aqueous solution of
lead(II) acetate, Pb(C
2
H
3
O
2
)
2
, reacts with an aqueous solution of cesium bromide, CsBr.

9.76 Silver iodide, AgI, is the least soluble of all the silver halides. Silver bromide, AgBr, is slightly more soluble,
and silver chloride, AgCl, is more soluble. Explain the solubility trend AgCl > AgBr > AgI.

9.77 Write net ionic equations for each of the following reactions, and tell which solubility rule(s) is/are applicable.
(a) An aqueous solution of sodium bromide reacts with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate. (b) An aqueous
solution of potassium sulfide reacts with an aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate. (c) An aqueous solution of
ammonium phosphate reacts with an aqueous solution of magnesium perchlorate. (d) An aqueous solution of
barium chloride reacts with an aqueous solution of lead(II) chlorate. (e) An aqueous solution of mercury(I) acetate
reacts with an aqueous solution of lithium iodide

9.8 Summary

9.78 For the representative elements, how do the number of valence electrons relate to the position of the element on
the periodic table?

9.79 Give the electron configuration for each of the following ions: (a) F
(b) Mg
2+
(c) P
3
(d) Fe
2+
(e) Ti
4+

9.80 Use arrows to indicate the direction the electrons will shift in each of the following polar bonds. (The arrows
will go from the less electronegative to the more electronegative atom.) (a) O-As (b) Cl-F (c) O-C (d) S-Al (e) C-H.

9.81 Identify the ions in each of the following that do not have a noble-gas electron configuration: (a) FeO (b) Sc
2
O
3

(c) CuF
2
(d) V
2
O
5
(e) MnF
3

9.82 What type of bonding is expected to occur in each of the following: (a) Mg
3
N
2
(b) CuZn (c) ClF
3

9.83 In each of the following identify which main group column on the periodic table the element belongs: (a)
CX
4
(b) X
3
(PO
4
)
2
(c) X
2
S (d) AlX (e) B
2
X
3

9.84 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are present in each of the following? (a)
31
P
3
(b)
42
Ca
2+
(c)
14
C (d)
170
Tm
3+
(e)
125
Te
2

9.85 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) potassium phosphate (b) calcium nitrite (c)
aluminum chloride (d) barium carbonate (e) cadmium acetate (f) KO
2
(g) Mg
3
N
2
(h) SrS (i) (NH
4
)H
2
PO
4
(j)
Mg(HCO
3
)
2

9.86 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) ammonium oxalate (b) cesium dichromate
(c) zinc cyanate (d) aluminum thiocyanate (e) ammonium bicarbonate (f) MgSO
3
(g) AlAsO
4
(h) (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
(i)
BaC
2
O
4
(j) BeCl
2

9.87 (a) Write the electron configuration of phosphorus. (b) Circle the valence electrons in your electron
configuration of phosphorus. (c) How many electrons does phosphorus need to gain to achieve an octet?

9.88 Which of the following compounds only contain ions that obey the octet rule? (a) CsI (b) FeCl
2
(c) LiH (d)
ScCl
3
(e) SnF
2

9.89 The lattice energy of CsF
2
would be greater than that of CsF. In view of this, why does CsF
2
not form?

9.90 (a) A 0.500 g sample of sodium metal was placed in a bomb calorimeter and reacted with an excess of fluorine
gas. The temperature of the calorimeter rose from 23.25C to 28.25C. The heat capacity of the calorimeter was
3.97 kJ/C. (b) Determine the lattice energy for sodium fluoride. Use the following information. The ionization
energy of sodium is 496 kJ/mole. The electron affinity of fluorine is 328 kJ/mole. The sublimation energy of
sodium is 107.76 kJ/mole. The bond energy of fluorine is 150.6 kJ/mole.

69


9.91 (a) Write balanced chemical equations for each step in the Born-Haber cycle for aluminum sulfide. (b) Label
each of your equations as to type. (For example, is the reaction a lattice energy reaction?)

9.92 The ionization energy of sodium in the Born-Haber cycle is 496 kJ/mole. (a) How much energy in joules is
necessary to ionize a sodium atom? (b) What is the frequency of a photon of this energy? (c) What is the
wavelength of this photon in nanometers?

9.93 What volume, in milliliters, of hydrogen chloride gas at 745 mmHg and 27C is necessary to precipitate all the
lead ions from 150.0 mL of a 0.15 M lead(II) nitrate?

9.94 Write balanced chemical equations for each of the following. Give the Lewis symbols for all reactants and
products. (a) the first ionization of aluminum (b) the second ionization of aluminum (c) the third ionization of
aluminum

9.95 A 0.500 g sample of a compound containing aluminum and oxygen was decomposed to the elements. After the
decomposition, 178.6 mL of oxygen gas at 765 torr and 25C were isolated. Write the Lewis structure for the
compound.

9.96 Two 0.750 gram samples (A and B) of compounds containing lead and fluorine was decomposed to the
elements. The released fluorine from compound A was sealed in a 175.0 mL metal cylinder at 30.0C. The pressure
of the fluorine released from compound A was 0.643 atm. The fluorine released from compound B was sealed in a
195.0 mL metal cylinder at 30.0C. The pressure of the fluorine from compound B had a pressure of 0.387 atm.
Draw the Lewis structures of compounds A and B.

9.98 The most stable ions of the first row transition elements are Sc
3+
, Ti
4+
, V
5+
, Cr
3+
, Mn
2+
, Fe
3+
, Co
2+
, Ni
2+
, Cu
2+
,
and Zn
2+
. (a) Write electron configurations for each of the most stable ions of the first row transition elements. (b)
Which of the most stable ions of the first row transition elements obeys the octet rule?

9.99 A sample of a lead compound was decomposed to the elements. The decomposition gave lead metal and
chlorine gas. The decomposition of 1.000 g of this compound yielded 143.9 mL of chlorine gas measured at 27C
and 745 mmHg. Which of the ions in the lead compound obeyed the octet rule?

9.100 Many compounds of silver are insoluble in water. One exception to this generalization is silver fluoride, AgF.
Why might silver fluoride be an exception?

9.101 Using Lewis symbols write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of aluminum atoms with oxygen
atoms to form a compound.

Chapter 10

10.1 (a) What are the three different types of bonding? (b) What role does electronegativity play in these bonding
types?

10.2 (a) In what type of bonding are electrons transferred? (b) In what type of bonding are electrons shared?

10.3 How is the Lewis structure of a molecule related to the Lewis structures of atoms?

10.4 What two additional tools can refine the understanding of molecules relative to their stability?

10.5 What theory applies quantum mechanics to molecules?

10.6 The modern explanation of metallic bonding relies very strongly upon what theory?

10.2 Corresponds to BLBMW Sections 8.3, 8.5, and 8.7

10.7 What electronegativity difference separates ionic from covalent bonding?

70


10.8 If the electronegativity difference between two atoms is 0.5, how could you predict if the bonding will be
covalent or metallic?

10.9 (a) Which elements, commonly considered transition metals, may be treated as representative elements when it
comes to Lewis structures? (b) Write the electron configurations of these elements.

10.10 In the chlorine molecule, how many electrons are not being shared?

10.11 What is the difference between a bonding pair and a lone pair of electrons?

10.12 What is the difference between a single, a double, and a triple bond?

10.13 What is the maximum number of bonds that may be present between two representative element atoms?

10.14 (a) What is the "new" definition of the octet rule given in this chapter? (b) How does the octet rule in this
chapter differ from the octet rule in Chapter 9? (c) What element(s) is (are) always an exception to the octet rule?

10.15 Write a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules or ions: (a) hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) (b) dichlorine
oxide (Cl
2
O) (c) carbon monoxide (CO) (d) sulfate ion (SO
4
2
) (e) nitrous acid (HNO
2
)

10.16 Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules or ions: (a) hydrocyanic acid (HCN) (b) hydrazine
(N
2
H
4
) (the nitrogen atoms are bonded to each other) (c) chlorate ion (ClO
3
) (d) ethylene (C
2
H
4
) (the carbon atoms
are bonded to each other) (e) thionyl chloride (SOCl
2
)

10.17 Diagram the reaction of silicon atoms with fluorine atoms using Lewis symbols.

10.18 Phosphorus will combine with hydrogen to form phosphine, PH
3
. Use Lewis symbols or structures to
illustrate the reaction of phosphorus and hydrogen atoms to form phosphine.

10.19 Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules or ions. (a) phosphorus trichloride (PCl
3
) (b)
hydrazoic acid (HN
3
) (c) nitric acid (HNO
3
) (d) ozone (O
3
) (e) oxalic acid (H
2
C
2
O
4
) (there are no oxygen-oxygen
bonds)

10.20 Even in Lewis structures that are exceptions to the octet rule, there is always one type of atom that will obtain
its octet if possible. What type of atom will achieve its octet in these structures?

10.21 (a) Define a coordinate covalent bond. (b) Once formed, how does a coordinate covalent bond differ from
other covalent bonds?

10.22 Which of the following elements can exceed an octet in at least some of their compounds? (a) Xe (b) C (c) N
(d) S (e) B (f) Li (g) As (h) Si (i) O (j) I

10.23 Write a Lewis structure for each of the following and identify any atom not obeying the octet rule: (a) sulfur
tetrafluoride (SF
4
) (b) boron trifluoride (BF
3
) (c) nitrogen oxide (NO) (d) chlorine dioxide (ClO
2
) (e) xenon
tetrafluoride ( XeF
4
)

10.24 Write a Lewis structure for each of the following and identify any atom not obeying the octet rule: (a)
beryllium chloride (BeCl
2
) (b) krypton difluoride (KrF
2
) (c) bromine dioxide (BrO
2
) (d) tellurium tetrafluoride
(TeF
4
) (e) aluminum fluoride (AlF
3
)

10.25 Write a Lewis structure for each of the following and identify which atoms, if any, which do not obey the
octet rule: (a) triiodide ion (I
3
) (b) beryllium hydride (BeH

2
) (c) germanium tetrachloride (GeCl
4
) (d)
hexafluoroarsenate ion (AsF
6
) (e) hexafluorosilicate ion (SiF

6
2
)


71


10.26 When determining the formal charge how do you find each of the following? (a) The number of valence
electrons an atom possesses. (b) The number of bonding electrons an atom possesses. (c) The number of
nonbonding electrons an atom possesses.

10.27 Write the equation for determining the formal charge on an atom.

10.28 The following sets of formal charges were found for three atoms in a triatomic ion. Tell why each set will
indicate a poor Lewis structure. (a) 1, 1, +1 (b) 2, +3, 2 (c) 2, 0, +1

10.29 Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following, and predict the formal charge on each atom. (a) nitrite
ion, NO
2
(b) sulfuric acid, H

2
SO
4
(c) ozone, O
3
(d) hydrogen phosphate ion, HPO
4
2
(e) hydrogen carbonate ion,
HCO
3
.

10.30 Draw Lewis structures for each of the following assuming the atomic arrangement is exactly as shown.
Determine the formal charge for each atom in each structure. Based on the formal charges predict which member of
each set is the more stable. (a) nitrosyl fluoride: NOF or ONF (b) dinitrogen oxide: NON or NNO (c) cyanate ion:
OCN
, CNO
, or CON
(d) carbon dioxide: OCO or COO (e) cyanamide ion: CNN

2
or NCN
2
.


10.31 What term describes a molecule or ion that has more than one favorable Lewis structure?

10.32 Why is it not possible for the following two structures to be related by resonance? HOCN and HCNO

10.33 What is the difference between a resonance structure and a resonance hybrid?

10.34 Write a Lewis structure for each of the resonance forms for each of the following molecules or ions: (a) nitrate
ion (NO
3
) (b) cyanate ion (OCN
) (c) bicarbonate ion (HCO

3
) (d) nitrogen dioxide (NO

2
) (e) dinitrogen oxide
(N
2
O) (one nitrogen is central).

10.35 Use Lewis structures to arrange the following in order of decreasing carbon-oxygen bonds lengths: CO
3
2
,
CO
2
, CO, and CHO
2
(all atoms are attached to the carbon atom).


10.36 (a) Define bond energy. (b) Are bond energy values endothermic or exothermic?

10.37 Why is a heat of reaction determined from bond energies less reliable than a heat of reaction determined with
a calorimeter?

10.38 What is the relationship between bond length and bond energy?

10.39 If there is resonance present, how is the bond length affected?

10.40 Using the table given in the text calculate the bond length of each of the following: (a) H-H (b) H-O (c) O-O
(d) O=O (e) N-O.

10.41 Nitrogen forms compounds with hydrogen in addition to ammonia, NH
3
. One of these compounds is
hydrazine, N
2
H
4
. The other nitrogen-hydrogen compounds are thermally unstable and include diazene, N
2
H
2
,
triazene, HNNNH
2
, and tetrazene, H
2
NNNNH
2
. (a) Draw Lewis structures for nitrogen gas, N
2
, and each of the five
nitrogen-hydrogen compounds listed. (b) Rank the five structures with nitrogen-nitrogen bonds in order of
decreasing bond length. (c) Rank the five structures with nitrogen-nitrogen bonds in order of increasing bond
strength.

10.42 Estimate the enthalpy change for each of the following reactions based upon bond energies.
(a) 2 H-H + O=O 2 H-O-H
(b) 2 H-N=N-H + O=O NN + 2 H-O-H
(c)
72


H C
H
H
H O O
O
H
H
C
O
H H
+
+

10.43 Estimate the enthalpy change for each of the following reactions based upon bond energies.
(a) 2 CO + O
2
2 CO
2

(b) 2 HCN + 5 F
2
2 CF
4
+ N
2
+ 2 HF

10.44 Balance the following equations and estimate the enthalpy change for each of the following reactions based
upon bond energies.
(a) C
2
H
6
+ O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
(b) NH
3
+ F
2
N
2
+ HF


10.45 Define a o bond. Sketch a o bond.

10.46 Define a t bond. Sketch a t bond.

10.47 Sketch how a o bond could form in each of the following cases. (a) two s orbital overlap (b) two p orbitals
overlap (c) an s and a p orbital overlap

10.48 Sketch how a t bond could form when two p orbitals overlap.

10.49 What type of bond restricts rotation in a molecule? Why?

10.50 If there are two t bonds between two atoms, how are the two bonds related to each other?

10.51 (a) What is the maximum number of bonds that may be present between two representative element atoms?
(b) How many of these are bonds and how many are bonds.


10.52 (a) What is a Lewis acid? (b) What is a Lewis base?

10.53 How does the concept of coordinate covalent bonding relate to Lewis acid-base reactions?

10.54 Is it possible for a Lewis base to be a "normal" base? Explain.

10.55 Explain why a molecule with no lone pairs cannot serve as a Lewis base.

10.56 Many Lewis acids are cations. Why?

10.57 In each of the following reactions, which of the following reactants is the Lewis acid and which of the
reactants is the Lewis base?
(a) FeCl
3
(s) + Cl
(aq) FeCl
4
(aq)
(b) H
2
O(l) + NO
2
(aq) HNO
2
(aq) + OH
(aq)
(c) NH
3
(g) + BF
3
(g) H
3
NBF
3
(s)
(d) BrF
3
(l) + HF(lq) H
+
(sol) + BrF
4
(sol) (sol = solvated)

(e) CaO(s) + H
2
O(l) Ca(OH)
2
(s)

10.58 In each of the following reactions, which of the following reactants is the Lewis acid and which of the
reactants is the Lewis base?
(a) SiF
4
(g) + 2 F
(aq) SiF
6
2
(aq)
(b) H
2
O(l) + NH
2
(aq) OH
(aq) + NH
3
(aq)
73


(c) Cu
2+
(aq) + 4 NH
3
(aq) Cu(NH
3
)
4
2+
(aq)
(d) OH
(aq) + NH
4
+
(aq) NH
3
(g) + H
2
O(l)
(e) CO
2
(aq) + H
2
O(l) H
2
CO
3
(aq)


10.59 Which of the following, developed when discussing atomic orbitals, apply to molecular orbitals? (a) Hund's
rule (b) the aufbau principle (c) the Pauli exclusion principle

10.60 How do the labels of molecular orbitals differ from the labels for atomic orbitals?

10.61 When two atoms come together, molecular orbitals form. (a) Describe the similarities and differences
between the atomic orbitals and the molecular orbitals. (b) Compare the bonding to the antibonding molecular
orbitals.

10.62 (a) Sketch the formation of a bonding and a antibonding molecular orbital from two s orbitals. (b) Sketch
the formation of a bonding and a antibonding molecular orbital from two p orbitals.

10.63 Sketch the formation of a bonding and a antibonding molecular orbital from two p orbitals.

10.64 (a) How do bonding molecular orbitals affect the stability of a molecule or ion? (b) How do antibonding
molecular orbitals affect the stability of a molecule or ion?

10.65 What is the equation for calculating bond order?

10.66 (a) Sketch the two arrangements of the molecular orbitals arising from p atomic orbitals. (b) Beside each
arrangement, list the second period elements that use the arrangement.

10.67 What does a bond order of zero tell you about the stability of a molecule?

10.68 The oxygen molecule is known to be paramagnetic. Which theory (Lewis or molecular orbital) best explains
the behavior of oxygen molecules?

10.69 (a) Which diatomic molecules of the second period elements are paramagnetic? (b) Which diatomic
molecules of the second period elements are diamagnetic?

10.70 Draw molecular orbital energy level diagrams for each of the following: (a) C
2
(b) CN

(c) NO
+
(d) BF (e) N
2
2
. Predict the bond order in each case.

10.71 Oxygen not only occurs as diatomic molecules, O
2
, but also in the following diatomic ions: O
2
+
, O
2
, and O
2
2
.
The ions are dioxygenyl, superoxide, and peroxide, respectively. (a) Draw molecular orbital energy level diagrams
for the oxygen molecule and each of the three ions. (b) List the four in order of increasing bond strength. (c) List
the four in order of decreasing bond length. (d) Tell which of the four is paramagnetic and which is diamagnetic.

10.72 Nitrogen and oxygen not only form diatomic molecules, NO, but also in the following diatomic ions: NO
+
,
NO
2
, and NO
2+
. (a) Draw molecular orbital energy level diagrams for the NO molecule and each of the three ions.
(b) List the four in order of increasing bond strength. (c) List the four in order of decreasing bond length. (d) Tell
which of the four is paramagnetic and which is diamagnetic.

10.73 What is the maximum number of electrons that may be accommodated by each of the following: (a) a o-
bonding molecular orbital (b) a t-antibonding molecular orbital?


10.74 How does the molecular orbital energy level diagram for metallic bonding differ from that of a simple
diatomic molecule?
74


10.75 What is a conduction band?

10.76 Beginning with a single lithium, Li, atom; show how an energy band forms when more lithium atoms come
together.

10.10 Summary

10.77 Define valence band and band gap.

10.78 Sketch the band structure for germanium.

10.79 (a) Sketch the band structure for silicon. (b) Make another sketch showing how the band structure of silicon
containing a small quantity of phosphorus differs from that of pure silicon. (c) Make another sketch showing how
the band structure of silicon containing a small quantity of aluminum differs from that of pure silicon.

10.80 (a) How does the band structure of a p-type semiconductor differ from a normal semiconductor?
(b) How does the band structure of an n-type semiconductor differ from a normal semiconductor?

10.81 Describe how p-type and n-type semiconductors differ from a semimetal such as silicon.

10.82 Determine which of the following are n-type and which are p-type semiconductors: (a) germanium doped with
arsenic (b) silicon doped with aluminum (c) germanium doped with gallium (d) silicon doped with phosphorus (e)
diamond doped with nitrogen.

10.83 The density of ozone gas is 2.144 g/L. What is the density of ozone in pounds per cubic foot?

10.84 The blue color of ozone is produced by the absorption of red light in the 557 to 602 nm region. (a) What is
the frequency of a 557 nm wave of red light? (b) What is the energy, in joules, of an red photon with a wavelength
of 602 nm?

10.85 Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation in the 200 to 310 nm region. (a) What is the frequency of a 275 nm wave
of ultraviolet light? (b) What is the energy, in joules, of an ultraviolet photon with a wavelength of 285 nm? (c)
How many kilojoules will you skin receive if it absorbs 1.00 10
3
mol of photons from 200.0 nm ultraviolet light.

10.86 The standard enthalpy of formation for ozone is 143 kJ/mol O
3
. (a) Use bond energies to estimate the
standard enthalpy of formation for ozone. (b) The difference between the standard enthalpy of formation of ozone
and the estimated value from part (a) is primarily due to resonance. Calculate how much resonance contributes to
the stability of ozone.

10.87 It is possible to produce ozone by the reaction of oxygen gas with oxygen atoms.
O
2
(g) + O(g) O
3
(g) AH = 105 kJ/mol O
3

(a) Use bond energies to estimate the standard enthalpy of formation for ozone. (b) The difference between the
standard enthalpy of formation of ozone and the estimated value from part (a) is primarily due to resonance.
Calculate how much resonance contributes to the stability of ozone.

10.88 In order to produce ozone through the reaction of oxygen atoms with oxygen molecules, it is necessary to
produce oxygen atoms from oxygen molecules. The bond energy in an oxygen molecule is 498.7 kJ/mole. What is
the maximum wavelength, in nanometers, of a photon with sufficient energy to break the bond in an oxygen
molecule?

10.89 Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent. Balancing the following reactions of ozone.
(a) NO
2
(g) + O
3
(g) N
2
O
5
(s) + O
2
(g)
(b) KOH(aq) + O
3
(g) KO
3
(s) + O
2
(g) + H
2
O(g)
(c) Ag(s) + O
3
(g) Ag
2
O(s) + O
2
(g)
(d) KOCN(aq) + H
2
O(l) + O
3
(g) KHCO
3
(aq) + O
2
(g) + N
2
(g)
(e) Hg(l) + O
3
(g) HgO(s)

75


10.90 The compound potassium ozonide, KO
3
, forms when ozone reacts with potassium metal. (a) Draw a Lewis
structure for the ozonide ion. (b) The ion is known to be paramagnetic. Does your Lewis structure support this
observation?

10.11 Summary

10.91 Rank the following bonds in order of increasing polarity: N-P, N-N, N-O, N-F.

10.92 Use Lewis structures to indicate the reaction in each of the following. Begin with individual atoms of the
elements involved and end with the appropriate compound. (a) Chlorine reacts with fluorine to produce chlorine
trifluoride, ClF
3
. (b) Aluminum reacts with fluorine to produce aluminum fluoride, AlF
3
.

10.93 Use Lewis structures to indicate the reaction in each of the following. Begin with individual atoms of the
elements involved and end with the appropriate compound. (a) Bromine reacts with fluorine to produce bromine
pentafluoride. (b) Aluminum reacts with oxygen to produce aluminum oxide.

10.94 Draw Lewis structures for each of the following. (a) carbon monoxide (CO) (b) methane (CH
4
) (c)
dimethylberyllium (Be(CH
3
)
2
) (d) xenon tetraoxide (XeO
4
) (e) paraperiodic acid (H
5
IO
6
)

10.95 For many years, it was thought that the simplest boron hydride was BH
3
. After much work, it was found that
the simplest boron hydride is diborane (B
2
H
6
). (a) Draw a Lewis structure for BH
3
. (b) What problem occurs when
you attempt to draw a Lewis structure for diborane?

10.96 A gas with a formula weight of about 166 g/mole is found to be 14.49 % carbon and 85.51 % chlorine. Draw
its Lewis structure.

10.97 Oxalic acid, H
2
C
2
O
4
, is a diprotic acid. It may lose one H
+
to form the hydrogen oxalate ion, HC
2
O
4
, or two
H
+
to form the oxalate ion, C
2
O
4
2
. The two carbons are bonded to each other, and each carbon has one O-H group
attached. (a) Draw the Lewis structures, showing all resonance forms, for H
2
C
2
O
4
, HC
2
O
4
, and C
2
O
4
2
. (b)
Compare the relative C-O bond lengths in each of the three substances.

10.98 The Haber process is used industrially to synthesize ammonia from the elements. The reaction is:
N
2
(g) + 3 H
2
(g) 2 NH
3
(g)
(a) Calculate the heat of reaction using AH
f
values from Appendix C. (b) Calculate the heat of reaction using bond
energies. (c) Account for any discrepancies between your answers for (a) and (b).

10.99 Draw Lewis structure for the following compounds: (a) sodium chloride, NaCl (b) magnesium bromide,
MgBr
2
(c) sodium nitrate, NaNO
3
(d) potassium sulfate, K
2
SO
4
(e) ammonium phosphate, (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
.

10.100 Draw Lewis structure for the following compounds: (a) potassium fluoride (b) magnesium nitride (c) sodium
carbonate (d) ammonium sulfate (e) calcium phosphate

10.101 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) potassium peroxide (b) calcium
phosphate (c) aluminum sulfide (d) barium chloride (e) cadmium arsenate (f) PbO
2
(g) Mg(NO
2
)
2
(h) SrSO
4
(i)
(NH
4
)
2
HPO
4
(j) Mg(HSO
3
)
2

10.102 Name or give the formula for each of the following compounds. (a) ammonium carbonate (b) cesium
chromate (c) zinc thiocyanate (d) aluminum chlorate (e) ammonium bromate (f) MgSO
4
(g) AlPO
4
(h)
(NH
4
)H
2
AsO
4
(i) BaCr
2
O
7
(j) Be(ClO
2
)
2

10.103 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) CrCl
3
(b) ZnCl
2
(c) Mn(ClO
3
)
2
(d)
CoSO
3
(e) AgF
2
(f) manganese(VII) oxide (g) lead(IV) fluoride (h) iron(III) perchlorate (i) silver(II) oxide (j)
nickel(II) thiocyanate

10.104 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) molybdenum(VI) oxide (b)
V(ClO
4
)
3
(c) Cu
2
S (d) iron(II) chlorite (e) Pb(BrO)
2
(f) titanium(III) thiosulfate (g) CrO
3
(h) iron(III) arsenate (i)
tungsten(IV) oxide (j) MnO
2

76


10.105 The amount of ozone in air may be determined by bubbling the air through a basic potassium iodide solution.
The reaction is: O
3
(g) + 2 KI(aq) + H
2
O(l) I
2
(aq) + 2 KOH(aq) + O
2
(g)
The liberated iodine is determined by a titration with a sodium thiosulfate solution. The reaction is:
I
2
(aq) + 2 Na
2
S
2
O
3
(aq) 2 NaI(aq) + Na
2
S
4
O
6
(aq)
(a) Titration of the released iodine required 45.25 mL of 0.01778 M sodium thiosulfate solution. How many moles
of iodine had been released by the ozone? (b) The iodine was produced by the passage of 1.00 10
5
L of air at 748
mmHg and 27C through the potassium iodide solution. What is the volume of the ozone present under at the same
pressure and temperature as the air? (c) Determine the concentration of the ozone in the air sample in ppm. Hint:
Divide the volume of ozone by the volume of the air, and multiply the result by one million. (d) Would this level of
ozone be easily detectable by a person?

10.106 A sample of a xenon fluoride partially reacts with water to produce a compound containing xenon, oxygen,
and fluorine. Analysis of the compound showed it to have a molar mass of 220 g/mole and to contain 58.8% Xe,
7.2% O, and 34.0% F, by mass. Draw the Lewis structure of compound.

10.107 Draw the Lewis structures for three different compounds having a molar mass of about 60 g/mole and
containing 59.96% C, 13.42% H, and 26.63% O, by mass.

10.108 In which of the following does the central atom obey the octet rule? (a) Methane (b) Boron trifluoride (c)
Sulfur tetrafluoride (d) Ammonia (e) Arsenic pentafluoride

10.109 Arsenic, for semiconductors, occurs naturally as the mineral realgar, AsS. If realgar is heated in air,
atmospheric oxygen reacts to produce sulfur dioxide gas and solid arsenic(III) oxide. The arsenic(III) oxide is
mixed with carbon and heated to produce solid elemental arsenic and gaseous carbon monoxide. Write balanced
chemical equations for these reactions.

Chapter 11

11.1 What is the definition of molecular geometry?

11.2 What does the VSEPR approach rely upon?

11.3 What does the valence bond approach rely upon?

11.4 How do polar molecules interact with each other?


11.5 When does a polar covalent bond form?

11.6 Consider the molecules H
2
and ClF. (a) Which has a polar covalent bond? (b) Which is a polar molecule?

11.7 (a) Sketch how a H
2
S molecule might appear if it were nonpolar. (b) Sketch how a H
2
S molecule might appear
if it were polar.

11.8 The molecule IF is polar. Show two methods of illustrating that the IF molecule is polar.

11.9 What are the definitions of dipole and dipole moment?

11.10 What effect does the polarity of water have upon the boiling point of water?

11.11 Place the members of each of the sets in order of decreasing polarity of the bond between the atoms involved.
(a) I-O, Cl-O, and Br-O (b) C-N, C-C, and C-O (c) C-H, O-H, and F-H (d) F-F, B-F, and Li-F (e) Na-H, N-N, and
C-S

77


11.12 (a) What does the acronym VSEPR mean? (b) To what does the VS in VSEPR refer? (c) To what does the
EP in VSEPR refer? (c) To what does the R in VSEPR refer?

11.13 What two terms may be used to designate the positions of the electron pairs about the central atom?

11.14 (a) The greatest repulsion occurs between which types of electron pairs? (b) The smallest repulsion occurs
between which types of electron pairs? (c) Which electron pair combination yields an intermediate level of
repulsion?

11.15 Which type of repulsion does the VSEPR model try hardest to avoid?


11.16 What is the definition of hybridization?

11.17 If an atom hybridizes five atomic orbitals, how many hybrid orbitals will form?

11.18 What things change when atomic orbitals hybridize?


11.19 (a) What is the orbital geometry resulting when the central atom has two electron pairs? (b) What is the
molecular geometry when the central atom has two electron pairs and no lone pairs?

11.20 What is the bond angle for a molecule where the central atom has two electron pairs?

11.21 What is the hybridization about the central atom if there are two electrons pairs about it?

11.22 The compound cadmium iodide, CdI
2
, may be treated as covalent. (a) Write the electron configuration for
cadmium. (b) Draw a Lewis structure for cadmium iodide. (c) In cadmium iodide, what is the orbital geometry
about the cadmium? (d) What is the molecular geometry of cadmium iodide? (e) What is the hybridization of
cadmium in cadmium iodide? (f) Is cadmium iodide polar or nonpolar?


11.23 (a) What is the orbital geometry resulting when the central atom has three electron pairs? (b) What is the
molecular geometry when the central atom has three electron pairs and no lone pairs? (c) What is the molecular
geometry when the central atom has three electron pairs and one lone pair?

11.24 (a) What is the bond angle for a molecule where the central atom has three electron pairs? (b) How does the
bond angle change if one of the pairs is a lone pair?

11.25 What is the hybridization about the central atom if there are three electrons pairs about it?

11.26 Predict the orbital geometry and the molecular geometry of each of the following. (a) boron trifluoride, BF
3

(b) nitrate ion, NO
3
(c) nitrosyl chloride, NOCl (d) hydrocyanic acid, HCN (e) formate ion, CHO
2

11.27 The compound B
2
Cl
4
is an unusual compound because the boron atoms are bonded to each other. What is the
orbital and molecular geometry around each boron atom?

11.28 Predict the hybridization about the central atom in each of the following. (a) boron trifluoride (BF
3
) (b) nitrate
ion (NO
3
) (c) nitrosyl chloride (NOCl) (d) hydrocyanic acid (HCN) (e) formate ion (CHO
2
)


78


11.29 (a) What is the orbital geometry resulting when the central atom has four electron pairs? (b) What is the
molecular geometry when the central atom has four electron pairs and no lone pairs? (c) What is the molecular
geometry when the central atom has four electron pairs and one lone pair? (d) What is the molecular geometry
when the central atom has four electron pairs and two lone pairs?

11.30 (a) What is the bond angle for a molecule where the central atom has four electron pairs? (b) How does the
bond angle change if one of the pairs is a lone pair? (c) How does the bond angle change if two of the pairs are lone
pairs?

11.31 What is the hybridization about the central atom if there are four electrons pairs about it?

11.32 Carbon is the only element that readily forms bonds with itself. The ability of an unlimited number of carbon
atoms to bond together is very important to organic chemistry and biochemistry. Predict the orbital, molecular
geometry, hybridization about the carbon atoms in each of the following compounds, which contain carbon atoms
bonded to each other. (a) ethane (C
2
H
6
) (b) ethene (C
2
H
4
) (c) ethyne (C
2
H
2
)

11.33 Acetic acid, HC
2
H
3
O
2
, is an unsymmetrical compound. The two carbons are connected. One carbon has three
of the hydrogen atoms attached, while the other carbon has the two oxygens attached. One of the oxygen atoms has
the fourth hydrogen (the acid hydrogen). (a) Draw the Lewis structure of acetic acid. (b) What is the orbital
geometry about each carbon atom? (c) What is the molecular geometry about each carbon atom? (d) What is the
hybridization about each carbon atom?

11.34 A measure of the polarity of a molecule is its dipole moment. The greater the dipole moment, the more polar
the molecule is. The unit used to express the dipole moment is the debye (abbreviated D). Carbon tetrachloride,
CCl
4
, has no dipole moment. However, when one of the chlorines is replaced with a hydrogen atom, the new
molecule has a dipole moment of 1.01 D. Explain the change in polarity.

11.35 There are three compounds with the general formula C
2
H
2
Cl
2
. All of these compounds are isomers of
dichloroethene. Isomers are different compounds with the same formula. Draw the structures of the three isomers
of dichloroethene, and predict which are polar.

11.36 Draw Lewis structures for each of the following and indicate the approximate bond angles throughout the
molecule: (a) nitric acid (HNO
3
) (b) hydroxylamine (NH
2
OH) (c) ethanol (CH
3
CH
2
OH) (d) acetylene (HCCH) (e)
ethyl acetate (CH
3
CH
2
OC(=O)CH
3
). In each case, the hydrogens are next to the atom they bond. The "=O" stands
for an oxygen double bonded to the carbon preceding it.

11.37 Why are the electron pair and molecular geometries not always the same? Use methane, CH
4
, and water,
H
2
O, in your explanation.

11.38 The bond angle in methane is the ideal 109.5 angle. Why are bond angles in other compounds with
tetrahedral orbital geometries not always ideal?

11.39 Carbon often occurs with sp
3
hybridization; however, it may also adopt sp and sp
2
hybridization. (a) How
many unhybridized p orbitals on in the valence shell of carbon in each of the three hybridization schemes (sp
3
, sp
2
,
and sp)? (b) How many t bonds can a carbon atom form in each of these hybridization schemes? (c) What is the
maximum number of t bonds a single carbon atom can form?

11.40 The structure of ethyl acetate is:

The carbons and the oxygen bonded to two different carbons may each be treated as a central atom. (a)Give the
hybridization of each of the central atoms. (b) Give the approximate bond angles about each central atom. (c) What
is the total number of o bonds present? (d) What is the total number of t bonds present?

11.41 The amino acid tryptophan has the structure shown below. What is the orbital and molecular geometry
around each number atom?
79


11.42 Cocaine has the structure shown below. What is the hybridization of each numbered atom?

11.43 The controversial drug mifepristone (RU486) has the structure shown below:

(a) What is the orbital geometry around each numbered atom? (b) What is the molecular geometry around each
numbered atom? (c) What is the hybridization around each numbered atom? (d) How many o bonds are present?
(e) How many t bonds are present?

11.44 The structure of diazepam (Valium) is:

(a) What is the orbital geometry around each numbered atom? (b) What is the molecular geometry around each
numbered atom? (c) What is the hybridization around each numbered atom? (d) How many o bonds are present?
(e) How many t bonds are present?


11.45 (a) What is the bond angle for a molecule where the central atom has five electron pairs? (b) How does the
pairs? (d) How does the bond angle change if three of the pairs are lone pairs?

11.46 (a) What is the bond angle for a molecule where the central atom has five electron pairs? (b) How does the
pairs? (d) How does the bond angle change if three of the pairs are lone pairs?
80


11.47 What is the hybridization about the central atom if there are five electrons pairs about it?

11.48 Predict the hybridization of the central atom, the molecular geometry, and the approximate bond angle for
each of the following: (a) chloric acid (HClO
3
) (b) ammonium ion (NH
4
+
) (c) arsenic pentafluoride (AsF
5
) (d)
germanium tetrachloride (GeCl
4
) (e) ozone (O
3
) (f) carbonate ion (CO
3
2
) (g) triiodide ion (I
3
) (h)
tetrahydridoaluminate ion (AlH
4
) (i) orthonitrate ion (NO

4
3
) (j) sulfurous acid (H
2
SO
3
)

11.49 Determine which of the following are polar: (a) hydrogen chloride (HCl) (b) nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) (c)
krypton difluoride (KrF
2
) (d) ammonia (NH
3
) (e) boron trifluoride (BF
3
)

11.50 Determine which of the following have a non-zero dipole moment: (a) carbon dioxide (CO
2
) (b) hypochlorous
acid (HOCl) (c) iodine trichloride (ICl
3
) (d) trichloromethane (chloroform) (CHCl
3
) (e) beryllium iodide (BeI
2
)

11.51 When molecules of boron trifluoride, BF
3
, and chlorine trifluoride, ClF
3
, are compared, it is found that even
though the electronegativity difference is greater in BF
3
, it is not polar whereas ClF
3
is polar. Explain.


11.52 (a) What is the orbital geometry resulting when the central atom has six electron pairs? (b) What is the
molecular geometry when the central atom has six electron pairs and no lone pairs? (c) What is the molecular
geometry when the central atom has six electron pairs and one lone pair? (d) What is the molecular geometry when
the central atom has six electron pairs and two lone pairs?

11.53 (a) What is the bond angle for a molecule where the central atom has six electron pairs? (b) How does the
pairs?

11.54 What is the hybridization about the central atom if there are six electrons pairs about it?

11.55 Predict the hybridization of the central atom in each of the following: (a) carbon dioxide (CO
2
) (b) bromine
pentafluoride (BrF
5
) (c) formaldehyde (CH
2
O) (d) nitrate ion (NO
3
) (e) tetrachloroiodate ion (ICl

4
) (f)
dichloromethane (CH
2
Cl
2
) (g) silane (SiH
4
) (h) selenium tetrafluoride (SeF
4
) (i) hydrocyanic acid (HCN) (j) xenon
tetrafluoride (XeF
4
)

11.56 Draw the Lewis structure and list the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry for each of the
following: (a) hydrogen selenide (H
2
Se) (b) phosphine (PH
3
) (c) selenium tetrafluoride (SeF
4
) (d) triiodide ion (I
3
)
(e) sulfur hexafluoride (SF
6
) (f) thionyl chloride (SOCl
2
) (g) nitrate ion (NO
3
) (h) chlorine trifluoride (ClF

3
) (i)
sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
)

11.57 The following species have the general molecular formulas XF
4
: carbon tetrafluoride, CF
4
, sulfur
tetrafluoride, SF
4
, and xenon tetrafluoride, XeF
4
. Determine the molecular geometry for each and explain why they
have the same general formula but differing geometries.

11.58 Determine the molecular geometry for: (a) thiocyanate ion (SCN
) (b) hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO

3
) (c)
xenon difluoride (XeF
2
) (d) sulfite ion (SO
3
2
) (e) antimony pentafluoride (SbF
5
)

11.10 Summary

11.59 (a) A solution was prepared by dissolving olive green platinum(II) chloride, PtCl
2
, in water. The solution was
divided into two portions. Adding an excess of potassium chloride to one portion of the solution precipitated a red
solid. Adding an excess of ammonia to the second portion followed by the addition of potassium bromide yielded a
colorless precipitate. The analyses of these two precipitates are in the table below. Determine the empirical
formulas of each of the precipitates. (b) A portion of the red solid was dissolved in a hot ammonia solution and an
orange-yellow polar solid was isolated. A portion of the colorless solid was dissolved in warm hydrochloric acid
and a pale-yellow nonpolar solid was isolated. Both solids had the same composition (see the table below). The
molar mass of each solid was about 300 g/mole. Determine the molecular formula for each solid. (c) Assuming all
81


the hydrogen atoms remain attached to the nitrogen as they were attached in ammonia, sketch the structures of the
two solids in part (b) assuming the molecule is square planar with the platinum in the center.
Analysis of the samples
Red Colorless Orange-yellow Pale-yellow
Solid Solid Solid Solid
K 0.458 g 0 0 0
Pt 1.143 g 1.499 g 65.02 % 65.02 %
Cl 0.831 g 0 23.63 % 23.63%
N 0 0.431 g 9.337 % 9.337%
H 0 0.094 g 2.016 % 2.016 %
Br 0 1.228 g 0 0
11.11 Summary

11.60 (a) Draw Lewis structures for carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen chloride (HCl). (b) Determine the
bonding and lone pairs for each of these molecules. (c) What is the molecular geometry of each of these molecules?
(d) Why is it unnecessary to have a line in the geometry table to accommodate these electron pair combinations?

11.61 Sketch the arrangement arising when an atom has the following numbers of electron pairs about it: (a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5 (e) 6.

11.62 How many electron pairs must be around the central to yield the following angles between the pairs: (a) 180
(b) 120 (c) 109.5 (d) 90? Some of these may have more than one answer.

11.63 (a) Draw a Lewis structure for the carbonate ion (CO
3
2
). (b) The three oxygen atoms are known to be
equivalent. Does your Lewis structure show equivalent oxygen atoms? (c) Beginning with the Lewis structure you
drew in (a), what needs to be done to show that the oxygen atoms are equivalent? (d) What is the hybridization on
the carbon? (e) Which orbitals in your structure in (a) are used for bonding electrons and which are used for
nonbonding electrons? (f) The delocalized t system utilizes which orbitals? (g) How many electrons are
delocalized?

11.64 Draw the Lewis structures for the carbonate ion (CO
3
2
) and carbonic acid (H
2
CO
3
) Is the t bond delocalized
in either case? What evidence is there that the t bond is delocalized?

11.65 (a) Draw resonance structures for the oxalate ion (C
2
O
4
2
). The two carbon atoms are connected. (b) What is
the molecular geometry about each carbon atom? (c) Determine the hybridization of each carbon atom. (d) Is the t
bond delocalized?

11.66 In which of the following does atom A obey the octet rule?

11.67 Determine the orbital geometry around the central atom in each of the following.

82


11.68 Determine the hybridization around the central atom in each of the following.

A
A A
A A
A
a
b
c
d e
f
A A
A
g h
i

11.69 (a) What is the ideal bond angle about the central atom in each of the following? (b) Are the actual bond
angles expected to be ideal or not? (c) If the angles are not ideal, are the larger or smaller than expected?

11.70 List the hybridization, and give the number of electron pairs present, for an atom with each of the following
orbital geometries: (a) octahedral (b) trigonal bipyramid (c) tetrahedral (d) trigonal planar (e) linear.

11.71 Xenon reacts with fluorine to produce various xenon fluorides. The product depends on the amount of
fluorine present. The following reactions are known:
Xe(g) + F
2
(g) XeF
2
(g)
Xe(g) + 2 F
2
(g) XeF
4
(g)
Xe(g) + 3 F
2
(g) XeF
6
(g)
(a) Draw the Lewis structure for each of the three xenon fluorides. (b) Predict the molecular geometry of each of the
xenon fluorides. What problem, if any, do you have with xenon hexafluoride? (c) Predict the hybridization of
xenon in each of the three xenon fluorides. (d) Draw a Lewis structure for iodine heptafluoride (IF
7
) and compare it
to the Lewis structure of xenon hexafluoride. (e) The observed geometry for iodine heptafluoride is a pentagonal
bipyramid. A pentagonal bipyramid is similar to a trigonal bipyramid except that there are five equatorial atoms
instead of three. Predict the structure of xenon hexafluoride as related to that of iodine heptafluoride.

11.72 (a) Draw a Lewis structure for the nitrite ion (NO
2
). (b) The two oxygens are known to be equivalent. Does

your Lewis structure show equivalent oxygens? (c) Beginning with the Lewis structure you drew in (a), what needs
to be done to show that the oxygens are equivalent? (d) What is the hybridization on the nitrogen? (e) Which
orbitals in your structure in (a) are used for bonding electrons and which are used for nonbonding electrons? (f) The
delocalized t system utilizes which orbitals? (g) How many electrons are delocalized?

11.73 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) MnCl
2
(b) MnCl
3
(c) FeCl
3
(d)
CrSO
4
(e) CuCl
2
(f) lead(II) oxide (g) tin(IV) fluoride (h) chromium(III) oxide (i) gold(I) chloride (j) nickel(II)
sulfite

11.74 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) manganese(III) oxide (b) SnCl
2
(c)
CuOCN (d) cobalt(III) nitrate (e) PbF
2
(f) copper(II) sulfide (g) MnO (h) chromium(III) sulfate (i) vanadium(IV)
oxide (j) Fe
2
O
3

11.75 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) Fe(ClO
2
)
2
(b) (NH
4
)
2
Cr
2
O
7
(c)
Fe(ClO
3
)
3
(d) MnSO
3
(e) AgF
2
(f) molybdenum(IV) oxide (g) platinum(II) fluoride (h) titanium(III) oxide (i)
vanadium(III) chloride (j) cadmium sulfide.

11.76 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds: (a) chromium(III) dichromate (b) PbCl
4

(c) CuSCN (d) manganese(III) nitrate (e) PbO
2
(f) nickel(II) thiosulfate (g) PtO
2
(h) chromium(III) dihydrogen
phosphate (i) vanadium(IV) oxide (j) Au
2
O
3
.
83


11.77 Boron trichloride is a Lewis acid that will react with Lewis bases like ammonia. (a) Write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction of boron trichloride with ammonia. (b) Draw Lewis structures for all reactants
and products in this reaction. (c) Which atom(s) change molecular geometry during the reaction?

11.78 The compound benzene, C
6
H
6
, is an example of an organic hydrocarbon. The six carbon atoms in benzene are
attached to each other at the corners of a hexagon. One hydrogen atom is bound to each of the carbon atoms.
Benzene is nonpolar. If a chlorine atom replaces one of the hydrogen atoms, chlorobenzene, C
6
H
5
Cl, results.
Chlorobenzene is polar. Replacing two hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms produced dichlorobenzene, C
6
H
4
Cl
2
.
There are different forms of dichlorobenzene some polar and some nonpolar. (a) Draw resonance structures for
benzene. (b) Draw a Lewis structure for chlorobenzene. (c) Draw structures for the different dichlorobenzenes. (d)
Which of your structures in (c) are polar and which are nonpolar?

11.79 The compound benzene, C
6
H
6
, will burn in oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide and water vapor. (a) Write a
balanced chemical equation for this reaction. (b) What are the molecular geometries of all reactants and products?
(c) Using standard heats of formation calculate the heat of reaction. (d) Calculate the heat of reaction using bond
energies. (e) What may be the major source of the discrepancy between your answers in parts (c) and (d)?

11.80 The analysis of a compound found 26.95 percent sulfur, 13.45 percent oxygen, and 59.60 percent chlorine.
The molar mass is about 120 g/mole. Determine the molecular geometry about the sulfur atom

11.81 The analysis of a compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen found 52.1% C, 13.1% H, and 34.7%
O. The molar mass of the compound is about 45 g/mole. There are two compounds with this molecular formula.
Draw the Lewis structures for each of these two compounds.

11.82 A 2.00 mg sample of an unknown hydrocarbon was burned in oxygen. After combustion was complete, the
products were analyzed and found to consist of 6.275 mg of carbon dioxide, CO
2
, and 2.569 mg of water, H
2
O.
Determine the empirical formula of the unknown hydrocarbon. The molar mass of the compound is 28 g per mole.
(a) What is the molecular formula of the compound? (b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion
reaction. (c) Draw the Lewis structure for the compound. (d) What is the hybridization of each carbon atom?

11.83 (a) Using the following data N
2
H
4
(l) + O
2
(g) N
2
(g) + 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 622.2 kJ
2 H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 H
2
O(l) AH = 571.6 kJ
Determine AH for the following reaction: N
2
(g) + 2 H
2
(g) N
2
H
4
(l)
(b) Using bond energies determine the value of AH for the following reaction. (c) Determine the hybridization of
oxygen in H
2
O and the nitrogen in N
2
H
4
.

11.84 A gas sample with a density of 1.80 g/L at 25C at 0.955 atm was analyzed an found to be 52.2 % carbon,
13.0 % hydrogen, and 34.8 % oxygen. (a) Assuming there was only one compound in the gas sample, what is its
molecular formula? (b) Determine the molecular about each non-hydrogen atom.

11.85 (a) Draw Lewis structures for each of the following assuming the atomic arrangement is exactly as shown.
Determine the formal charge for each atom in each structure. Based on the formal charges predict which member of
each set is the more stable. What is the hybridization on the central atom in each structure? (a) dinitrogen oxide:
NON or NNO (b) cyanate ion: OCN
, CNO
, or CON

11.86 (a) Draw resonance structures for the thiocyanate ion. (b) What is the hybridization of the central atom in
each of the resonance structures?

11.87 Hydrochloric acid will react with sodium carbonate to produce unstable carbonic acid and sodium chloride.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction. (b) Write a net ionic equation for the reaction. (c) Identify
the spectator ions in the reaction. (d) Give Lewis structures for all molecules and ions in the total ionic equation.
(e) Which molecules or ions are polar? (f) How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does each of the monatomic
ions possess?

11.88 Determine the hybridization about each carbon atom in each of the following. (a) methane
(b) sodium bicarbonate (c) potassium cyanide (d) calcium oxalate (e) acetic acid

84


11.89 The following ions, NO
2
and NO
2
+
, are known to form, and they have structures related to nitrogen dioxide,
NO
2
. In all cases, the nitrogen is the central atom. The bond angles are 115, 134, and 180. Draw Lewis
structures for the three species, and match the observed bond angles with the Lewis structures. Explain any
deviation from the ideal bond angle.

11.90 The amide ion, NH
2
, and the ammonium ion, NH

4
+
, are similar to ammonia, NH
3
. Draw Lewis structures for
all three and match the Lewis structure with one of the following observed bond angles 109, 107, and 105.

11.91 There are a few compounds known to contain the orthonitrate ion, NO
4
3
. Draw a Lewis structure for this ion
and predict the molecular geometry.

11.92 How many unhybridized p orbitals are present in the central atom in each of the following?
(a) carbon dioxide, (b) hydrocyanic acid (c) methane (d) boron trifluoride (e) nitrogen dioxide

11.93 How many bonds can the central atom with each of the following hybridizations form? (a) sp (b) sp
2
(c) sp
3

(d) sp
3
d (e) sp
3
d
2

11.94 Why does the VSEPR model count single, double, and triple bonds the same?

11.95 The molecule N
2
F
2
exists in two forms. Each form has the nitrogen atoms connected, and each nitrogen atom
has a fluorine atom attached. One of the forms is polar, and the other is nonpolar. Draw the structures for the two
forms and label each as polar or nonpolar.

11.96 Phosphorus forms the following pentahalides PF
5
, PCl
5
, PBr
5
, and PI
5
. Phosphorus pentafluoride has the
same structure in both the gaseous and the solid state. The other three pentahalides have the same structure as the
pentafluoride in the gaseous state, but they form ionic solids. (a) Draw the Lewis structure of each of the
pentahalides in the gaseous state. (b) What is the molecular geometry of each of the pentahalides in part (a)? (c) In
the solid state, phosphorus pentachloride exists as PCl
4
+
ions and PCl
6
ions. Draw the structures of these two ions

and predict the molecular geometry of each. (d) The remaining pentahalides exist as ionic solids containing the
PX
4
+
ion and the X
ion (X = Br or I). Draw the structures of these ions and predict the structures.

11.97 Iodine trichloride, ICl
3
, is capable of behaving as a Lewis acid or a Lewis base. This molecule will even react
with itself to form a dimer (a molecule containing two of the original molecules). When a dimer forms, a chlorine
atom on one ICl
3
behaves as a Lewis base and donates a pair of electrons to the iodine atom in the other ICl
3
. When
this occurs, a chlorine atom on the other molecule donates a pair of electrons to the other iodine atom. (a) Draw a
Lewis structure of iodine trichloride. (b) Draw a Lewis structure of the dimer of iodine trichloride. (c) Predict the
Lewis structure about the iodine in iodine trichloride. (d) Predict the Lewis structure about the iodine atoms in the
dimer.

11.98 Cyclopropane, C
3
H
6
, is an unstable hydrocarbon with the three carbon atoms forming an equilateral triangle.
Each carbon atom is attached to two hydrogen atoms. (a) Draw a Lewis structure for cyclopropane. (b) Predict the
bond angle about each carbon atom. (c) Why does your prediction in part (b) help explain why cyclopropane is
unstable?

11.99 There are three compounds with the formula PCl
3
F
2
. One of the three compounds is nonpolar and the other
two are polar. (a) Draw structures for all three compounds with the formula PCl
3
F
2
. (b) Label each of your
structures in part (a) as polar or nonpolar.

11.100 There are three organic compounds with the formula C
3
H
4
. (a) Draw structures for each of these
compounds. (b) What is the hybridization of each carbon atom in each of your answers to part (a)?

11.101 Draw the Lewis structure for ammonium nitrate and predict the molecular geometry about each nitrogen
atom.

Chapter 12

12.1 What are the three states of matter?
85


12.2 What is the name associated with each of the following phase changes? (a) solid to liquid (b) liquid to gas (c)
solid to gas (d) liquid to solid (e) gas to liquid (f) gas to solid

12.3 What are the two opposing factors that are important in determining the physical state of a substance?

12.4 Compare solids to liquids to gases with respect to internal order and distance between particles.

12.5 How do the physical properties of a liquid and solid reflect the different ordering of the particles present?

12.6 (a) Why do the densities of gases tend to be much less than those of liquids and solids? (b) Why would you
expect the densities of a substance to be similar in the liquid and solid state?

12.7 What is a phase diagram?

12.8 What is the triple point on a phase diagram?

12.9 Define each of the following. (a) critical point (b) critical temperature (c) critical pressure

12.10 Why is the solid-liquid line on phase diagrams nearly vertical, while the solid-gas and liquid-gas lines show
significant variation?

12.11 Explain why the liquid-gas line on a phase diagram ends at the critical point.

12.12 Sketch a general phase diagram. (a) Label the triple point. (b) Label the critical point.

12.13 Sketch a general phase diagram. (a) Indicate on your diagram where melting is important. (b) Indicate on
your diagram where vaporization is important. (c) Indicate on your diagram where deposition is important.

The problem refers to Figure 11.29 in BLBMW
12.14 Answer the following questions by consulting Figure 12.XXX. (a) A sample of carbon dioxide, initially at
56 C and 4.0 atm is compressed at constant temperature to a pressure of 100 atm. What phase changes, if any,
occur? (b) Another sample of carbon dioxide, initially at 80 C and 10 atm is heated at constant pressure to 40 C.
What phase changes, if any, occur? (c) A third sample of carbon dioxide, initially at 100 C and 4.0 atm, is heated
at constant pressure to 25 C. What phase changes, if any, occur?

12.15 Given the data below, construct a phase diagram for oxygen labeling each point and the solid, liquid, and gas
regions. All temperatures are in C, and all pressures are in atm.
Temperature Pressure
Triple point 218.80 0.015
Critical point 118.4 50.15
Normal melting point 218.79
Normal boiling point 187.97
Vapor pressure of solid 219.1 0.013

12.16 Given the data below, construct a phase diagram for radon, labeling each point and the solid, liquid, and gas
regions. All temperatures are in C, and all pressures are in atm.
Temperature Pressure
Triple point 71 0.658
Critical point 105 62
Normal melting point 71
Normal boiling point 62
Vapor pressure of solid 75 0.526

12.17 Two pans of water are placed on a stove and the heat is turned on high. One pan contains 1 L of water and the
other contains 2 L of water. (a) If both pans are heated at the same rate, which will boil first? (b) If the water in the
pan with less water is boiling at 100C, what is the temperature of boiling water in the other pan? (c) Once both
86


pans begin to boil, the heat is turned down on one pan so that it is barely boiling, while the other is left on high and
boils vigorously. How do the temperatures of the water in the two pans compare?


12.18 (a) What are intermolecular forces? (b) List the types of intermolecular forces.

12.19 What are London dispersion forces?

12.20 What is an instantaneous dipole?

12.21 (a) What is the strongest type of intermolecular force that may be present between two nonpolar molecules?
(b) What is the strongest type of intermolecular force that may be present between two polar molecules?

12.22 Where do dipole-dipole forces occur?

12.23 What types of molecules have dipole moments?

12.24 (a) What is hydrogen bonding? (b) What are the requirements for a hydrogen bond to be present?

12.25 List the different types of van der Waal's forces.

12.26 (a) What are the strongest types of intermolecular forces? (b) What are the different categories of
intermolecular forces in this group?

12.27 One member of your study group explains that a substance melts because the intermolecular forces are weaker
in a liquid than in a solid. Explain what is wrong with this statement. You may want to use ice and liquid water in
your discussion.

12.28 (a) In what type of material is ionic bonding the strongest intermolecular force? (b) In what type of material is
covalent bonding the strongest intermolecular force? (c) In what type of material is metallic bonding the strongest
intermolecular force?

12.29 (a) Give three examples of substances where ionic bonding is the strongest intermolecular force. (b) Give
three examples of substances where covalent bonding is the strongest intermolecular force. (c) Give three examples
of substances where metallic bonding is the strongest intermolecular force.

12.30 List the type of intermolecular force that must be overcome in each of the following cases. (a) boiling liquid
bromine (Br
2
) (b) melting iron (Fe) (c) melting solid sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) (d) vaporizing graphite (C) (e) subliming
ice

12.31 Choose the member of each pair that you expect to have the higher melting point. Explain your reasoning in
each case. (a) aluminum fluoride (AlF
3
) or phosphorus trifluoride (PF
3
) (b) xenon (Xe) or argon (Ar) (c) hydrogen
fluoride (HF) or hydrogen chloride (HCl) (d) sodium fluoride (NaF) or calcium oxide (CaO) (e) carbon dioxide
(CO
2
) or silicon dioxide (SiO
2
)


12.32 (a) What is surface tension? (b) What happens to the surface tension if the intermolecular forces increase in
strength?

12.33 (a) What is viscosity? (b) What happens to the viscosity if the intermolecular forces increase in strength?

12.34 (a) What is vapor pressure? (b) What happens to the vapor pressure if the intermolecular forces increase in
strength?

12.35 Define capillary action. Use one or more diagrams to illustrate your definition.

87


12.36 How does the viscosity of a liquid vary with temperature?

12.37 What label refers to a liquid with such a high viscosity that it appears to be a solid?

12.38 What is one way of differentiating between a true solid and an amorphous solid?

12.39 Why is it not possible for an amorphous solid to melt?

12.40 What is a dynamic equilibrium?

12.41 State Le Chteliers principle.

12.42 (a) Define boiling point. (b) Define normal boiling point.

12.43 The following observations have been made concerning liquids. Explain each. (a) The surface of mercury in
a narrow glass tube is concave-down, but the surface of water, in the same tube, is concave-up. (b) Phosphorus
trichloride (PCl
3
) has a higher surface tension than phosphorus pentachloride (PCl
5
).

12.44 The following observations have been made concerning liquids. Explain each. (a) Liquid ammonia (NH
3
)
has a higher viscosity than liquid phosphine (PH
3
). (b) Oil in an automobile engine flows faster as the engine
warms.

12.45 Explain how an increase in the intermolecular forces would affect each of the following properties. (a)
surface tension (b) melting point (c) viscosity (d) heat of condensation (e) vapor pressure
The following problem refers to Figure 11.25 in BLBMW
12.47 Atmospheric pressure at the top of Mount Everest is about 240 mmHg. Use Figure 12.XXX to estimate the
boiling point of water at the top of Mount Everest.

12.48 Chloroform, CHCl
3
, was one of the first anesthetics. Other, safer, compounds are now used in place of
chloroform. The normal boiling point of chloroform is 61.7C and the heat of vaporization for this compound is
31.4 kJ/mole. Calculate the vapor pressure in torr of chloroform at 45.7C.

12.49 Sulfur dioxide melts at 73 C and boils at 10. C. The enthalpy of fusion of sulfur dioxide is 8.619 kJ/mol,
and its enthalpy of vaporization is 25.73 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous sulfur dioxide are 0.995
J/gK and 0.622 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 2.50 kg of solid sulfur dioxide at the
melting point to the vapor phase at 60. C?

12.50 Hydrogen iodide melts at 51 C and boils at 35 C. The enthalpy of fusion of hydrogen iodide is 2.871
kJ/mol, and its enthalpy of vaporization is 44.11 kJ/mol. The specific heats of liquid and gaseous hydrogen iodide
are 0.365 J/gK and 0.228 J/gK, respectively. How much heat is required to convert 220.0 g of solid hydrogen
iodide at the melting point to the vapor phase at 0.0 C?

12.4 Corresponds to BLBMW Sections 12.1-12.3 and 12.5

12.51 (a) Define lattice. (b) How does a lattice relate to a crystalline solid?

12.52 (a) What is a unit cell? (b) How does a unit cell relate to a lattice?

12.53 What are the six parameters used to define a unit cell?

12.54 (a) Sketch a simple cubic unit cell. (b) Sketch a body-centered cubic unit cell. (c) Sketch a face-centered
cubic unit cell.

12.55 What contribution toward the contents of a unit cell do atoms in the following positions supply? (a) corner (b)
body-center (c) face-center (d) edge

88


12.56 (a) What is a closest packed structure? (b) What is the difference between a cubic closest packed structure
and a hexagonal closest packed structure? (c) What is the coordination number of each atom in a closest packed
structure?

12.57 Which type of cubic unit cell is the same as a cubic closest packed structure?
12.58 Examine Figure 12.XXX. Calculate the number of atoms (spheres) present in (a) a simple cubic unit cell, (b)
a body-centered cubic unit cell, (c) a face-centered cubic unit cell.

12.59 The unit cell pictured below is one view of the perovskite structure. The name for this type of structure is
derived from the first substance determined to have this structure. Many ionic materials adopt this structure. The
different types of atoms present are designated A, B, and X.

A X B
(a) Determine the formula for the cell contents of the perovskite structure. (Report the formula with the atoms in
alphabetical order.) (b) Is this a primitive, body-centered, or face-centered structure?

12.60 The platinum(II) sulfide structure is shown below. The approximate geometry around the platinum atoms is
square planar, as indicated by the dashed lines. The geometry about the sulfur atoms is tetrahedral. The cell is
tetragonal with a height of 12.220 , and the other two dimensions are 3.470 .

(a) How many PtS formula units are present in the unit cell? (b) Determine the density of platinum(II) sulfide in
g/cm
3
.

12.61 Gold crystallizes with a face-centered cubic unit cell. Gold atoms may be treated as spheres with a radius of
1.44 . (a) Calculate the number of gold atoms in a unit cell. (b) Each gold atom is coordinated by how many other
gold atoms? (c) Calculate the length of a unit-cell edge. (d) Determine the density of gold in g/cm
3
.
The following two problems refer to Figure 12.26 in BLBMW
12.62 Barium oxide (BaO), like many compounds, adopts the sodium chloride structure (see Figure 12.XXX). The
unit cell edge is 3.90 . What is the density of barium chloride in g/cm
3
?

12.63 The uncommon mineral bunsenite (NiO) adopts the sodium chloride structure (see Figure 12.XXX). The
density of the mineral is 6.806 g/cm
3
. Determine the length of a unit-cell edge.

12.64 Ultrapure silicon may be used to calculate very accurate values of Avogadro's number. Silicon is cubic with a
unit cell edge of 5.430940 . The unit cell contains eight silicon atoms with an atomic mass of 28.0855 amu. The
density of silicon is 2.329143 g/cm
3
. Determine the value of Avogadro's number.

89


12.65 The density of tantalum (Ta) metal is 16.634 g/cm
3
. It is body-centered cubic with a cell edge of 3.3058 .
From these data, calculate Avogadro's number.

12.66 Calculate the density of iron, in g/cm
3
, if it forms in a body-centered lattice with a cell edge of 2.8664 .

12.67 Iron has a density of 7.92 g/cm
3
. The edge of a body-centered cubic iron unit cell is 2.86. Using this
information, calculate Avogadros number.

12.68 Calculate Avogadro's number given that potassium metal is body-centered cubic with a unit cell edge of 5.103
. The density of potassium is 0.977 g/cm
3
.

12.69 Lithium adopts a body-centered cubic lattice with a cell edge of 3.5100 . Determine the radius of a lithium
atom.

12.70 A metal with a density of 0.966 g/cm
3
adopts a body-centered cubic lattice. The lattice edge is 4.2908 .
Determine the atomic weight of the metal.

12.71 A sample of an unknown metal has a density of 5.250 g/cm
3
. X-ray diffraction studies show the metal to be
body-centered cubic with a unit cell edge of 458.1 pm. Determine the atomic weight and identify the element.

12.72 Tungsten metal has a body-centered cubic unit cell. The density of tungsten is 19.3 g/cm
3
. The tungsten
atoms touch each other along the body diagonal of the unit cell. Determine the atomic radius of tungsten atoms in
pm.
12.73 Cesium iodide (CsI) like many compounds adopts the cesium chloride structure (see Figure 12.XXX). The
unit cell edge is 4.57 . What is the density of cesium iodide in g/cm
3
?

12.74 Calculate Avogadro's number given that copper metal is face-centered cubic with a unit cell edge of 3.6150 .
The density of copper is 8.96 g/cm
3
.

12.75 Silver adopts a face-centered cubic lattice with a cell edge of 4.0862 . Determine the radius of a silver atom.

12.76 A metal with a density of 21.472 g/cm
3
adopts a face-centered cubic lattice. The lattice edge is 3.9231 .
Determine the atomic weight of the metal.

12.77 Cesium metal has a body-centered cubic unit cell. The density of cesium is 1.90 g/cm
3
. The cesium atoms
touch each other along the body diagonal of the unit cell. Determine the atomic radius of cesium atoms in pm.

12.5 Corresponds to BLBMW Sections 12.1-12.2 and 12.6-12.8

12.78 What are the four categories of solids?

12.79 Summarize the properties of an ionic solid.

12.80 Summarize the properties of a network solid.

12.81 Summarize the properties of a metallic solid.

12.82 Summarize the properties of a molecular solid.

12.83 Why may a network solid also be called a covalent solid?

12.84 Why do chemists group atomic solids, such as solid xenon, with molecular solids?

12.85 Predict the type of crystal each of the following substances is expected to form. (a) water (H
2
O) (b) silicon
dioxide (SiO
2
) (c) uranium (U) (d) carbon dioxide (CO
2
) (e) ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
)

90


12.86 Indicate the type of crystal each of the following would form upon solidification. (a) Carbon dioxide (b)
Silicon dioxide (c) Calcium chloride (d) Hydrogen fluoride (e) Silver

12.87 Which solid in each pair would be expected to have a higher melting point? (a) water (H
2
O) or hydrogen
sulfide (H
2
S) (b) carbon tetraiodide (CI
4
) or carbon tetrabromide (CBr
4
) (c) carbon (C) or acetic acid (HC
2
H
3
O
2
) (d)
ethylene glycol (CH
2
OHCH
2
OH) or sodium chloride (NaCl) (e) hydrogen fluoride (HF) or barium (Ba)

12.88 A bright yellow solid melts at 968 C. The solid does not conduct electricity, but an aqueous solution of the
solid will conduct electricity. This material is most likely to be which type of solid?

12.6 Summary

12.89 (a) Draw the Lewis structures for water, ammonia, and methane. (b) What two factors, lacking in methane,
make water and ammonia good solvents?

12.95 Sketch how a single water molecule can form part of four hydrogen bonds.

12.101 What is the cost advantage of "high-temperature" superconductors?

12.102 One of the first materials to be termed a "high-temperature" superconductor was the ceramic YBa
2
Cu
3
O
7
.
(a) How does this ceramic differ from previously known superconductors? (b) Determine the average oxidation
state of copper. Assume that all the other elements adopt their normal oxidation states. (c) Related ceramics, where
the Y or Ba atoms are replaced with other materials, are superconductors unless the copper is replaced. Write the
electron configurations for all the ions in this compound. How does the electron configuration of copper differ from
the configurations of other elements?

12.7 Summary

12.103 Rank the following compounds in order of decreasing vapor pressure. (a) CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
3
(b)
CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
OH (c) CH
3
OCH
2
CH
3
(d) HOCH
2
CH
2
OH

12.104 (a) From the following list, choose the compounds that exhibit hydrogen bonding as the strongest
intermolecular force present: nitric acid (HNO
3
), stibine (SbH
3
), methane (CH
4
), sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
dimethylamine ((CH
3
)
2
NH). (b) Choose the substances from the following list that exhibit dipole-dipole attractions
as the strongest type of intermolecular force present: hydrogen chloride (HCl), silicon dioxide (SiO
2
), methanol
(CH
3
OH), sulfur tetrafluoride (SF
4
), krypton difluoride (KrF
2
)

12.105 Each of the following is prevented by either an intramolecular or an intermolecular force; in each case,
decide which type of force is involved. (a) A chlorine molecule (Cl
2
) separates into chlorine atoms. (b) Solid
sodium chloride (NaCl) melts at 25C. (c) Iron (Fe) rusts to give FeO(OH). (d) Water spreads out evenly on a
waxed surface. (e) A diamond vaporizes while setting in a jeweler's display case.

12.106 Molybdenum metal has a body-centered cubic unit cell. The density of molybdenum is 10.2 g/cm
3
. (a)
Determine the edge of a unit cell of molybdenum. (b) The molybdenum atoms touch each other along the body
diagonal of the unit cell. Determine the atomic radius of molybdenum atoms.

12.107 Silicon carbide (SiC) has a three-dimensional structure similar to that of diamond. If one-half of the carbons
are replaced with silicon atoms, a structure results where each carbon is tetrahedrally surrounded by silicon atoms,
and carbon atoms tetrahedrally surround each silicon atom. Silicon carbide has many applications in industry
because it is very hard, nearly as hard as diamond, and has a very high melting point. What type of solid (molecular,
ionic, covalent, or metallic) is silicon carbide?

12.108 It is possible to cool water by evaporation; this is especially effective in the desert. The evaporation of water
from the outside surface of a closed container will cool the water inside the container. What volume of water, in
milliliters, can the evaporation of 25.0 g of water cool from 45.0 C to 20.0 C? The heat of vaporization of water is
40.7 kJ/mol, the specific heat of water is 4.18 J/gC, and the density of water is 1.00 g/mL.

91


12.109 The normal boiling point of ethyl alcohol is 78.4C. The heat of vaporization of this compound is 40.5 kJ /
mol. Calculate the vapor pressure, in atmospheres, of ethyl alcohol at a temperature of 55.0C.

12.110 The normal boiling point of acetone is 56.1C. The heat of vaporization of this compound is 29.1 kJ / mol.
Calculate the vapor pressure, in atmospheres, of ethyl alcohol at a temperature of 25.0C.

12.111 The vapor pressure of diethyl ether at 25.0C is 545 torr. The heat of vaporization of this compound is 26.5
kJ / mol. Calculate the normal boiling point, in degrees Celsius, of diethyl ether.

12.112 What type of phase transition occurs during each of the following changes: (a) dew forms on grass (b) ice
cubes in a freezer slowly disappear (c) when warmed in a pan of a stove, butter changes to a liquid (d) water in a
glass slowly disappears (e) gaseous carbon dioxide forms dry ice (solid carbon dioxide).

Chapter 13

13.1 Give an example of each of the following types of solution. (a) a solid solute in a liquid solvent (b) a liquid
solute in a liquid solvent (c) a gaseous solute in a liquid solvent (d) a gaseous solute in a gaseous solvent (e) a solid
solute in a solid solvent

13.2 (a) List the general characteristics of a homogeneous mixture. (b) List the general characteristics of a
heterogeneous mixture.

13.3 (a) Which process(es) during dissolution require energy? (b) Which process(es) during dissolution release
energy?

13.4 What does the phrase "like dissolves like" mean?

13.5 Oil and water do not mix. What conclusions may be made about the types of intermolecular forces in oil and
water?

13.6 Why is a nonpolar substance like oxygen capable of dissolving in a very polar solvent like water?

13.7 Ionic bonding is a very strong type of intermolecular force. Why is water capable of overcoming this force in
some cases?

13.8 Sodium chloride will dissolve in water. What would be the general characteristics of another solvent that might
dissolve sodium chloride?

13.9 When sodium sulfate (Na
2
SO
4
) dissolves in water, what type(s) of intermolecular forces break, and what
kind(s) form?

13.10 Which of the following solvents are polar, and which are nonpolar? (a) methanol (CH
3
OH) (b) carbon
tetrachloride (CCl
4
) (c) ammonia (NH
3
) (d) bromine trifluoride (BrF
3
) (e) ethane (C
2
H
6
)

13.11 Determine the most important type of solvent-solute interaction in each of the following. (a) iodine (I
2
)
dissolved in carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
) (b) acetone, (CH
3
COCH
3
) dissolved in water (c) sodium chloride (NaCl)
dissolved in water (d) ethanol (CH
3
CH
2
OH) dissolved in water (e) manganese (Mn) dissolved in iron (Fe)

13.12 Explain which member from each of the following pairs is more soluble in water (a) chloroform (CHCl
3
) or
aluminum chloride (AlCl
3
) (b) methanol (CH
3
OH) or methane (CH
4
) (c) diethyl ether, (CH
3
CH
2
)
2
O, or ethanol,
CH
3
CH
2
OH (d) ammonia, (NH
3
) or phosphine (PH
3
) (e) lead(II) sulfide (PbS) or sodium sulfide (Na
2
S)

13.13 Define heat of solution and tell what factors influence its value.

13.14 Define the following terms. (a) hydrated ion (b) hydration energy (c) hydrate (d) water of hydration

92


13.15 Define the following terms as they apply to solutions. (a) solubility (b) saturated (c) unsaturated (d)
supersaturated

13.16 (a) How does a change in temperature affect the solubility of most solids? (b) How does a change in
temperature affect the solubility of gases?

13.17 (a) How does a change in pressure affect the solubility of most solids? (b) How does a change in pressure
affect the solubility of gases?

13.18 What law applies to the solubility of gases?
13.19 Examine Figure 12.XXX. A series of solutions, one for each compound in the figure, are prepared by adding
50.0 g of solute to 100.0 g of water. The solutions are heated to 90C to help the solutes dissolve faster. In which
cases will all the solute fail to dissolve completely?


13.20 Define the following concentration units. (a) molarity (b) mole fraction (c) weight percent (d) volume percent
(e) molality

13.21 Which concentration unit always considers the solute and solvent separately and never combined?

13.22 (a) What units may be used in calculating the weight percent? (b) What units may be used in calculating the
volume percent?

13.23 Calculate the mass percent of solute in each of the following solutions. (a) 25.0 g of sodium chloride (NaCl)
in 1000.0 g of water (b) 0.25 mol of nitric acid (HNO
3
) in 100.0 g of water

13.24 Calculate concentration in parts per million (ppm) of solute in each of the following solutions (a) 0.32 g of
chloride ion (Cl
) in 100.0 g of solution (b) 1.3 10

3
g of lead(II) ions (Pb
2+
) in 1.00 kg of water

13.25 Calculate the mole fraction of solute in each of the following solutions. (a) 1.2 mol of ethanol (CH
3
CH
2
OH)
in 5.2 mol of water (b) 0.55 mol of acetone (CH
3
COCH
3
) in 250.0 g of water (c) 15.5 g of iodine (I
2
) dissolved in
275 g of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
).

13.26 Calculate the molarity of solute in each of the following solutions: (a) 0.62 mol of potassium bromide (KBr)
dissolved in 0.750 L of solution (b) 3.75 g of ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
) dissolved in 0.500 L of solution (c) 5.52
g of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO
4
5H
2
O) dissolved in 675 mL of solution.

13.27 Calculate the molarity of each type of ion in each of the following solutions: (a) 0.75 mol of sodium sulfate
(Na
2
SO
4
) dissolved in 0.650 L of solution (b) 14.3 g of potassium phosphate (K
3
PO
4
) dissolved in 2.50 L of solution
(c) 2.53 g of iron(III) bromide hexahydrate (FeBr
3
6H
2
O) in 875 mL of solution.

13.28 Calculate the molarity of solute in each of the following solutions: (a) 5.3 g of bromine (Br
2
) dissolved in
sufficient chloroform (CHCl
3
) to prepare 250 mL of solution (b) 14.7 g of diethyl ether ((C
2
H
5
)
2
O) dissolved in
sufficient ethyl alcohol (C
2
H
5
OH) to prepare 500. mL of solution (c) 35.2 g of 2-propanol (CH
3
CHOHCH
3
)
dissolved in sufficient water to prepare 100.0 mL of solution.

13.29 A phosphoric acid (H
3
PO
4
) solution was prepared by dissolving 935 g of phosphoric acid in sufficient water to
prepare 1.00 L of solution. The density of this solution is 1.460 g/cm
3
. (a) What is the mass percentage of
phosphoric acid in the solution? (b) What is the mole fraction of phosphoric acid in the solution? (c) Determine the
molality of the phosphoric acid. (d) Calculate the molarity of the phosphoric acid.

13.30 Concentrated hydrofluoric acid (HF) has 40.0 mass percent HF in an aqueous solution. The density of the
solution is 1.128 g/cm
3
. (a) Calculate the molarity of hydrofluoric acid in the solution. (b) What is the molality of
this solution?

93


13.31 Concentrated nitric acid has 68.0 mass percent acid in an aqueous solution. The density of the solution is 1.41
g/cm
3
. (a) Calculate the molarity of nitric acid in the solution. (b) What is the molality of this solution?

13.32 How many moles of solute are present in each of the following: (a) 750. mL of 2.1 M ammonium nitrate
(NH
4
NO
3
) (b) 275 mL of a solution containing 71.8 g of acetic acid (HC
2
H
3
O
2
) in 153 g of water if the density of
the solution is 1.055 g/cm
3
(c) 25.0 g of a solution that is 5.85 mass percent sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

13.33 Describe how to prepare each of these solutions using commonly available laboratory apparatus. (a) 100.0 g
of a 10.0 % potassium bromide (KBr) solution, made from the solid solute and water (b) 100.0 mL of 0.500 M
sodium chloride (NaCl) made from solid solute and water (c) a solution with the mole fraction of ethylene glycol
(C
2
H
6
O
2
) equal to 0.275, made from liquid ethylene glycol and water (d) 275 g of a 0.500 m ammonium nitrate
NH
4
NO
3
) solution, made from the solid solute and water (e) a solution containing 0.100 mol of ammonium ion in
250.0 mL of solution, made from solid ammonium phosphate, (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
, and water

13.34 Oxalic acid (H
2
C
2
O
4
) and its salts are present in plants such as spinach and rhubarb. A 0.580-m oxalic acid
solution has a density of 1.022 g/mL. (a) What is the molarity of this solution? (b) What is the molality of this
solution?

13.35 Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 0.17500 g of CuCr
2
O
7
2H
2
O in enough water to make
1250.0 mL of solution.


13.36 What are colligative properties?

13.37 How does the presence of a solute affect the vapor pressure of a solvent?

13.38 What is an ideal solution?

13.39 What experimental data is necessary to determine if a solution is ideal?

13.40 (a) If a solution is ideal, what can be said about the relative intermolecular forces of the solute and solvent?
(b) If a solution shows a positive deviation from Raoult's law, what can be said about the relative intermolecular
forces of the solute and solvent? (c) If a solution shows a negative deviation from Raoult's law, what can be said
about the relative intermolecular forces of the solute and solvent?

13.41 (a) A solution is prepared by mixing 175 g of chloroform (CHCl
3
) with 275 g of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
).
The vapor pressure of pure chloroform is 375 torr. The vapor pressure of pure carbon tetrachloride is 143 torr.
What is the vapor pressure of the solution? (b) If the observed vapor pressure of the solution were 215 torr, would
the solution be ideal or show a positive or negative deviation?

13.42 What is the vapor pressure of a solution made by adding 25.0 g of glucose, (C
6
H
12
O
6
) to 375 g of water at
80C? Glucose is not volatile, and the vapor pressure of water at 80C is 355 torr.

13.43 (a) At 40C, acetone (CH
3
COCH
3
) has a vapor pressure of 4.00 10
2
mmHg. Glycerol (C
3
H
8
O
3
) has a
negligible vapor pressure at this temperature. How many grams of glycerol must be added to 750.0 g of acetone to
produce a solution with a vapor pressure 15 mmHg lower than that of pure acetone? (b) At 40C, water has a vapor
pressure of 55.3 torr. Calcium chloride (CaCl
2
) has a negligible vapor pressure at this temperature. How many
grams of calcium chloride must be added to 1.00 kg of water to produce a solution with a vapor pressure 7.5 torr
lower than that of pure water?

13.44 A solution made by dissolving 36.6 g of a nonvolatile substance in 242.7 g of CHCl
3
has a vapor pressure of
411 mmHg. At the same temperature, the vapor pressure of pure CHCl
3
is 526 mmHg. Determine the molecular
weight of the substance.

13.45 A solution of 96.6 g of an unknown substance in 800.0 g of carbon tetrachloride has a vapor pressure of 143
mmHg. The vapor pressure of the pure unknown is 85 torr, and the vapor pressure of pure carbon tetrachloride is
94


157 mmHg (all vapor pressures are determined at 30C). Determine the molecular weight of the unknown
substance.


13.46 Which colligative property is each of the following descriptions of concentration used to calculate? (a)
molarity (b) molality (c) mole fraction

13.47 What is the van't Hoff factor?

13.48 Rank the following 0.100 m solutions in order of decreasing melting point. (a) sodium chloride (NaCl) (b)
sucrose (table sugar C
12
H
22
O
11
) (c) aluminum nitrate, Al(NO
3
)
3
(d) barium chloride (BaCl
2
)

13.49 Under what circumstances may the van't Hoff factor not be a whole number?

13.50 What is a semi-permeable membrane?

13.51 Define osmosis and osmotic pressure.

13.52 What is reverse osmosis?

13.53 Which of the following are colligative properties of solutions? (a) osmotic pressure (b) mass percent (c)
density (d) vapor pressure (e) boiling point

13.54 Use the data in the table below to determine the boiling and freezing points of the following solutions: (a) 0.75
m iodine (I
2
) in benzene (C
6
H
6
) (b) 5.3 g white phosphorus P
4
) in 175 g of carbon disulfide (CS
2
) (c) 3.5 g of
ammonium sulfate, (NH
4
)
2
SO
4
, in 175 mL of water. The density of water is 1.00 g/mL.
Solvent melting Boiling K
f
K
b

point (C) point (C) (C/m) (C/m)
Water 0.00 100.00 1.86 0.512
Benzene 5.5 80.1 4.90 2.53
Carbon disulfide 111.5 46.2 3.83 2.34

13.55 Palmitic acid, from palm oil, is a constituent of saturated fats that is useful in making some soaps. A 2.50 g
sample of palmitic acid is dissolved in 0.150 kg of cyclohexane (C
6
H
12
). The freezing point of the solution was
5.25C, as opposed to 6.55C for pure cyclohexane. The freezing point depression constant for cyclohexane is 20.0
C/m. Calculate the molar mass of palmitic acid.

13.56 A solution made by dissolving a 1.00 g sample of iron chloride 100.0 mL of water has a freezing point of
0.46C. What is the formula of the compound?

13.57 A solution made by dissolving 0.100 g of a polymer (very large molecule) in 1.50 g of carbon tetrachloride
has a freezing point depression of 0.61C. If the freezing point depression constant of carbon tetrachloride is
29.8C/m, what is the molar mass of the polymer?

13.58 A solution contains 1.20 g of an organic acid in 75.0 g of cyclohexane. This solution has a freezing point that
is 1.50C lower than that of pure cyclohexane. The freezing point depression constant, K
f
, for cyclohexane is
20.0C/m. Determine the molecular formula of this acid.

13.59 Beeswax contains a number of waxes. Hydrolysis of beeswax results in a variety of compounds. One of the
products, isolated through a chromatographic procedure, is soluble in cyclohexane. A total of 1.25 g of this
compound dissolves in 60.0 g of cyclohexane to produce a solution with a melting point 1.25C lower than pure
cyclohexane. The freezing point depression constant, K
f
, for cyclohexane is 20.0C/m. Determine the molar mass
of this compound.

13.60 You are given three aqueous solutions: 0.80 m sodium chloride (NaCl) 0.80 m methanol (CH
3
OH) 0.60 m
calcium nitrate (Ca(NO
3
)
2
). Rank the solutions in order of increasing freezing point depression.

95


13.61 For water, melting point = 0.00C; boiling point = 100.00C; freezing point depression constant = 1.86C/m;
boiling point elevation constant = 0.512C/m. Determine the freezing point for each of the following. (a) 0.200 m
ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
) (b) 0.200 m ammonium chromate ((NH
4
)
2
CrO
4
)

13.62 What is the boiling point of an aqueous solution with a freezing point of 7.35C?

13.63 A cyclohexane (solvent) solution boils at 83.2C; what is the freezing point of this solution?

13.64 Determine the freezing point of a solution containing 200.0 g of cobalt(II) perchlorate in 200.0 g of water.

13.65 Determine the freezing point of a solution containing 101.50 g of magnesium bromide in 200.0 g of water.

13.66 For water, melting point = 0.00C; boiling point = 100.00C; freezing point depression constant = 1.86C/m;
boiling point elevation constant = 0.512C/m. Determine the freezing point of a solution containing 3.04 g of
ammonium sulfate in 100.0 g of water.

13.67 A solution prepared by dissolving, in 1000.0 mL of water, 0.432 g of compound extracted during the autopsy
of a patients brain has an osmotic pressure of 7.40 mmHg at 25C. Calculate the molecular weight of this hormone.

13.68 A solution prepared by dissolving 6.850 g of a carbohydrate in 100.0 g of water has a density of 1.024 g/mL,
and at 20.0C, the osmotic pressure is 4.61 atm. Calculate the molecular weight of the carbohydrate.

13.69 A solution of a protein contains 0.382 g of the material in 0.500 mL of solution. At a temperature of 25C,
this solution has an osmotic pressure of 2.07 torr. Calculate the molar mass of the protein.

13.70 A liter of blood contains about 150 g of hemoglobin. In order to determine the molecular weight of
hemoglobin, a solution was prepared by dissolving 150.0 g of hemoglobin in enough water to produce 1.000 L of
solution. The resultant solution had an osmotic pressure of 0.056 atm at 25C. Calculate the molecular weight of
hemoglobin.

13.71 A 0.0100 m solution of potassium sulfate (K
2
SO
4
) has an osmotic pressure of 5.0 10
2
torr at 25. (a)
Estimate the van't Hoff factor for this solution based on the chemical formula of potassium sulfate. (b) Determine
the actual van't Hoff factor for this solution. (c) Why do the values in parts (a) and (b) not agree?

13.72 Determine the molecular weight of a protein if a solution prepared by dissolving 3.320 g of protein in enough
water to make 340.0 mL of solution has an osmotic pressure of 10.40 mmHg at 25C.

13.73 The primary solute in seawater is sodium chloride (NaCl). There are approximately 27 g of sodium chloride
dissolved in every kilogram of seawater. The density of seawater is 1.0250 g/mL. Calculate the osmotic pressure
generated by the sodium chloride in seawater.

13.74 Determine the molecular weight of a starch sample if a solution with a volume of 200.0 mL has 1.596 g of
starch dissolved in it. The osmotic pressure of the solution is 4.58 torr at 25C.

13.75 The hormone vasopressin causes, among other things, a reduction in the excretion of water. A solution of this
hormone is prepared by dissolving 0.200 g of this compound in sufficient water to prepare 250.0 mL of solution.
At 30.C, the solution has an osmotic pressure of 13.9 torr. Calculate the molar mass of vasopressin.

13.76 A solution of a polymer contains 0.400 g of material in 1.00 L of water. This solution has an osmotic pressure
of 2.14 torr at 27C. Calculate the molecular weight of the polymer.

13.77 A solution made by dissolving 0.500 g of insulin in 500.0 mL of water has an osmotic pressure of 3.24 torr at
25C. Calculate the molecular weight of insulin.

13.78 Pepsin, an enzyme found in the stomach, is a protein that aids in digestion. A solution made by dissolving
0.600 g of pepsin in 1000.0 mL of water has an osmotic pressure of 0.324 torr at 25C. Calculate the molecular
weight of pepsin.

96



13.80 What is the Tyndall effect?

13.81 (a) How are a suspension and a colloid similar? (b) How are a solution and a colloid similar?

13.82 How might a beam of light be used to distinguish between a solution, a colloid, and a suspension?

13.83 Discuss similarities and differences between colloids and solutions.

13.84 Why, when viewed from an angle, does the light from a movie projector "glow" in a darkened theater?

13.7 Summary

13.89 Sodium stearate (NaC
18
H
35
O
2
) is a common constituent of many types of soap. This compound undergoes
aerobic decomposition. (a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of this compound with oxygen (O
2
)
to yield carbon dioxide (CO
2
), water (H
2
O), hydrogen ions (H
+
), and sodium ions (Na
+
). (b) How many grams of
oxygen are necessary to oxidize 1.00 pounds of this soap?

13.8 Summary

13.95 Dialysis of blood is hemodialysis. The presence of blood cells requires a solution that is isotonic. A typical
isotonic solution has the following quantities of solute dissolved in 100.0 mL of water: 0.6 g of sodium chloride
(NaCl), 0.04 g of potassium chloride (KCl), 0.2 g of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO
3
), and 0.72 g of glucose
(C
6
H
12
O
6
). (a) What is the molarity of each of the solutes, assuming the volume of the solution is equal to the
volume of the solvent? (b) What is the osmotic pressure of this solution? (Hint: Do not forget that some of the
solutes are strong electrolytes.)
13.97 (a) Why is it useful to lower the freezing point of the liquid in an automobile cooling system? (b) Why is it
useful to increase the boiling point of the liquid in an automobile cooling system?

13.98 Why is ethylene glycol better than methyl alcohol as antifreeze? (Hint: The vapor pressure of methyl alcohol
is about 100 mmHg at room temperature, and the vapor pressure of ethylene glycol is less than 1 mmHg at this
temperature.)

13.99 While it is less toxic than methyl alcohol, ethylene glycol (CH
2
OHCH
2
OH) is poisonous. The density of
ethylene glycol is 1.1132 g/mL. A dog may die by ingesting 50 mL of ethylene glycol. How many moles of
ethylene glycol are in 50 mL?

13.100 Equal volumes of water and ethylene glycol (CH
2
OHCH
2
OH) are mixed and added to an automobile
radiator. The density of water is 0.99823 g/mL, and the density of ethylene glycol is 1.1132 g/mL. Calculate the
boiling and freezing points of this solution.

13.101 An antifreeze solution is made by mixing 100.0 mL of water, density 1.0 g/mL, with 100.0 mL of ethylene
glycol (CH
2
OHCH
2
OH), density 1.1 g/mL. The vapor pressure of water at 25C is 24 torr, and the vapor pressure of
ethylene glycol is negligible. (a) What is the vapor pressure of this solution at 25C? (b) Assuming the volumes are
additive, what is the osmotic pressure of this solution at 25C?

13.9 Summary

13.102 Classify each of the following as a strong electrolyte, a weak electrolyte, or a nonelectrolyte in aqueous
solution. (a) nitric acid (HNO
3
) (b) ethanol (C
2
H
5
OH) (c) chlorous acid (HClO
2
) (d) glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
) (e) ammonia
(NH
3
)

13.103 Blood has an osmotic pressure of 7.7 atm at 37C. In cases where a patient needs more liquid in his or her
blood, a saline solution (that is, a sodium chloride solution) may be administered intravenously. What must be done
to the concentration of the saline solution to maintain the osmotic pressure of the blood?

97


13.104 Two solutions are prepared. The first contains 4.32 g of iodine (I
2
) in 250 mL of carbon disulfide (CS
2
), and
the second contains 4.32 g of iodine in 250 mL of carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
). The density of pure carbon disulfide
is 1.263 g/mL, and the density of pure carbon tetrachloride is 1.589 g/mL. Assume the density of each solution is
identical to that of the pure solvent. (a) Determine the mass percent of iodine in each solution. (b) Determine the
mole fraction of iodine in each solution. (c) Determine the molality of iodine in each solution. (d) Determine the
molarity of iodine in each solution. (e) Compare the two values in each case and comment on any similarities and
differences.

13.105 Estimate the percent ionization of a 0.200 m aqueous solution of formic acid, (HCHO
2
) if the solution freezes
at 0.383C.

13.106 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds? (a) HOCN (b) H
2
CrO
4
(c) NH
4
Cl (d)
CrAsO
4
(e) CdCl
2
(f) tin(II) oxide (g) thorium(IV) fluoride (h) radium(III) oxide (i) krypton difluoride (j) sulfur
trioxide

13.107 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds? (a) thiocyanic acid (b) HMnO
4
(c)
(NH
4
)
2
HPO
4
(d) radium(III) nitrate (e) XeF
2
(f) silver(II) oxide (g) PbO (h) molybdenum(III) sulfate (i) tungsten(VI)
oxide (j) As
2
O
3

13.108 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds? (a) HClO
2
(b) HIO
4
(c) Mn(ClO)
3
(d)
Cr
2
S
3
(e) HgF
2
(f) ammonium oxalate (g) plutonium(II) iodide (h) radon difluoride (i) chlorine trifluoride (j)
potassium superoxide

13.109 What is the name or the formula of each of the following compounds? (a) oxalic acid (b) HCN (c) CuOCN
(d) ammonium dichromate (e) UO
2
(f) tin(II) thiosulfate (g) Pu(CO
3
)
2
(h) chromium(II) phosphate (i) vanadium(IV)
bicarbonate (j) N
2
O
3
.
13.110 The cooling system of an automobile contains 3.00 gallons of water and 1.00 gallon of antifreeze (ethylene
glycol, C
2
H
6
O
2
). The density of water is 8.34 lbs/gal, and the density of ethylene glycol is 9.29 lbs/gal. What is the
freezing point of the solution in the automobile in C?

13.111 Determine the molecular formula of a starch sample if a solution with a volume of 200.0 mL has 3.192 g of
starch dissolved in it. The osmotic pressure of the solution is 9.16 torr at 25C. The starch is 40.0 % carbon, 6.67 %
hydrogen, and 53.3 % oxygen.

13.112 When a 24.8 g sample of sodium nitrate dissolves in 500.0 g of water in a coffee-cup calorimeter, the
temperature changes from 25.30C to 22.51C. Determine the heat of solution, in kJ/mol of sodium nitrate, for the
dissolution of sodium nitrate in water. Assume that the specific heat of the solution is the same as that of pure
water.

13.113 Complete and balance the equations for any reactions that occur when mixing the following aqueous
solutions. Then write net ionic equations and identify the spectator ions. (a) nitric acid with calcium hydroxide (b)
hydrochloric acid and lead(II) acetate (c) aluminum nitrate and barium hydroxide (d) ammonium sulfate and
calcium nitrate (e) magnesium chlorate and potassium carbonate

13.114 Why is bromine (Br
2
) more soluble in carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
) than iodine (I
2
) is?

13.115 For very dilute solutions, the molarity and molality are nearly equal. Assuming this is true, what is the
freezing point of an aqueous solution of a nonelectrolyte with an osmotic pressure of 6.6 atm at 25C?

13.116 Liquid mercury is capable of dissolving many substances to produce solutions known as amalgams. Which
of the following substances are most likely to dissolve in liquid mercury? (a) NaCl (b) Na (c) Cl
2

13.117 A solution is prepared by dissolving 5.00 g of mercury(II) chloride in 500.0 mL of water. The solution has a
freezing point of 0.068C. Is mercury(II) chloride a strong electrolyte, a weak electrolyte, or a nonelectrolyte?

13.118 Why will water vapor and carbon tetrachloride vapor form a solution when liquid water and liquid carbon
tetrachloride will not?

98


13.119 You have a solution of potassium nitrate (KNO
3
) and a bottle of solid potassium nitrate. Devise an
experiment to test the solution to determine if it is unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated. Explain what you
would see in each case.

13.120 Potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
) will dissolve in water. At 20C, 100 mL of water will dissolve 6.38 g of
potassium permanganate. At 65C, 100 mL of water will dissolve 25 g of potassium permanganate. (a) How much
potassium permanganate will dissolve in 50 mL of water at 65C? (b) If the solution from part (a) cools to 20C,
what type of solution would be present if no potassium permanganate precipitates? (c) If the solution from part (a)
cools to 20C, what type of solution would be present if potassium permanganate precipitates?

13.121 Either sodium chloride (NaCl) or calcium chloride (CaCl
2
) may be used to de-ice a sidewalk. You have 1.00
pound of each of these compounds. To de-ice the sidewalk you will need to lower the freezing point of water to at
least 10.0C. Which of the two compounds will de-ice more sidewalks?

13.122 An adult male has about 7.0 L of blood. (a) Assuming the density of blood is the same as that of water, how
many grams does the blood weigh? (b) A person is considered intoxicated if the alcohol (ethyl alcohol, C
2
H
5
OH)
concentration in the blood is 0.080%. How many grams of alcohol are present in the bloodstream of a person with
an alcohol concentration of 0.080%? (c) The density of alcohol is 0.79 g/mL. How many milliliters does your
answer to part (b) represent? (d) The body is capable of absorbing about 22% of the alcohol a person drinks. How
much total alcohol must a person drink to lead to the absorption of the volume calculated in part (c)? (e) Typical
liquors are about 80 proof, which corresponds to 40% alcohol. How many milliliters of typical liquor must a person
drink to ingest the volume of alcohol calculated in part (d)?

13.123 Determine the freezing point of a solution containing 65.0 g of aluminum sulfate in 200.0 g of water.

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) in a solution made by mixing 500.0 mL of 0.2500 M sodium

per kilogram of seawater. If the density of seawater is 1.025

(e) Kr, Br, and Br

) (b) beryllium hydride (BeH

) (e) hexafluorosilicate ion (SiF

(b) sulfuric acid, H

(d) carbon dioxide: OCO or COO (e) cyanamide ion: CNN

) (b) cyanate ion (OCN

) (c) bicarbonate ion (HCO

) (d) nitrogen dioxide (NO

(all atoms are attached to the carbon atom).

(sol) (sol = solvated)

) (i) orthonitrate ion (NO

) (e) tetrachloroiodate ion (ICl

) (h) chlorine trifluoride (ClF

) (b) hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO

). (b) The two oxygens are known to be equivalent. Does

, and the ammonium ion, NH

ions. Draw the structures of these two ions

) in 100.0 g of solution (b) 1.3 10

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