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PART 1 MECHANICS

CHAPTER 2 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE


ActivPhysics can help with these problems:
Activities 1.21.9
Section 2-1: Distance, Time, Speed, and
Velocity
Problem
1. In 1996 Donovan Bailey of Canada set a world
record in the 100-m dash, with a time of 9.84 s.
What was his average speed?
Solution
Baileys average speed was (Equation 2-1)
v = x/t = 100 m/9.84 s = 10.16 m/s. (One can
assume that the race distance was known to more than
four signicant gures.)
Problem
2. When races in a track meet are timed manually,
timers start their watches when they see smoke
from the starting gun, rather than when they hear
the gun. How much error is introduced in timing a
200-m dash over a straight track if the watch is
started on the sound rather than the smoke? The
speed of sound is about 340 m/s.
Solution
Suppose the timer stands at the nish line, 200 m
from where the starting gun is red. The time
required for a signal to travel this distance at speed v
is t = r/v = 200 m/v. Because the speed of light is
so great, the pu of smoke is seen after a negligible
delay, as far as conventional watches are concerned,
t = 200 m/310
8
m/s = 0.67 s. The travel time for
a sound signal, however, t = 200 m/340 m/s =
0.59 s, would introduce a signicant error, if times are
recorded to the nearest hundredth of a second. (For a
manually operated timing device, the error due to
human reaction time is about 0.2 s.)
Problem
3. In 1996, Josia Thugwame of South Africa won the
Olympic Marathon, completing the 26-mi, 385-yd
course in 2 h 12 min 36 s. What was Thugwames
average speed, in meters per second?
Solution
v =
r
t
=
(26 + 385/1760) mi
(2 + 756/3600) h
= 11.9
mi
h
5.30
m
s
,
or a little over half the speed of Baileys 100 m dash in
Problem 1. (Runners usually compute their average
pace, 1/ v, which in this case was 5 min 3.4 s per mile.
See Appendix C for the appropriate conversion
factors.)
Problem
4. Human nerve impulses travel at about 10
2
m/s.
Estimate the minimum time that must elapse
between the time you perceive a stalled car in front
of you and the time you can activate the muscles in
your leg to brake your car. (Your actual reaction
time is much longer than this estimate.) Moving
at 90 km/h, how far would your car travel in this
time?
Solution
Suppose the neural path length from the brain to the
leg muscles (the quadriceps) is about 1 m long. The
travel time for nerve impulses is about 1 m/10
2
m/s =
10
2
s. A car moving at 90 km/h would travel
r = v t = (9010
3
m/3600 s)(10
2
s) = 25.0 cm
during this interval.
Problem
5. Starting from home, you bicycle 24 km north in
2.5 h, then turn around and pedal straight home in
1.5 h. What are your (a) displacement at the end of
the rst 2.5 h, (b) average velocity over the rst
2.5 h, (c) average velocity for the homeward leg of
the trip, (d) displacement for the entire trip, and
(e) average velocity for the entire trip?
Solution
(a) r
out
= 24 km (north). (b) v
out
= 24 km
(north)/2.5 h = 9.6 km/h(north). (c) v
back
=
CHAPTER 2 11
24 km(south)/1.5 h = 16 km/h (south).
(d) r
out and back
= 0. (e) v
round trip
= 0.
Problem
6. The Pathnder spacecraft landed on Mars on
July 4, 1997, at which time Mars was
approximately 190 million km from Earth. How
long did it take Pathnders radio signals, traveling
at the speed of light, to reach Earth?
Solution
t = r/ v = (19010
6
km)/(310
5
km/s) =
6.3310
2
s or about 10.6 min.
Problem
7. Australian Chris McCormack won the 1997 world
triathlon championship, completing the 1500-m
swim, 40-km bicycle ride, and 10-km run in 1 h,
48 min, 29 s. What was McCormacks average
speed?
Solution
v = r/t = (1.5 + 40 + 10) km/(1 + 48/60 +
29/3600) h = (28.5 km/h)(1 m/s)(3.6 km/h) =
7.91 m/s.
Problem
8. (a) Find a value, good to one signicant gure, for
the speed of light in feet per nanosecond
(ft/ns)(1 ns = 10
9
s). (b) Electrical signals in
wires travel at about half the speed of light. What
is the maximum possible separation between a
computers central processing unit and its memory
if the central processor is to be able to get a signal
to memory requesting data, and have the data
return, all in 8 ns?
Solution
(a) (310
8
m/s)(3.281 ft/m)(10
9
s/ns) 1 ft/ns.
(b) The time for an electrical signal to make a round
trip over a length of wire, x, is 8 ns = t = 2 x/ v,
where v is one half the speed of light from part (a).
Thus, x =
1
2
v t =
1
2
_
1
2
ft/ns
_
(8 ns) = 2 ft.
Problem
9. You allow yourself 40 min to drive 25 mi to the
airport, but are caught in heavy trac and average
only 20 mi/h for the rst 15 min. What must your
average speed be on the rest of the trip if you are to
get there on time?
Solution
At an average speed of 20 mi/h for the rst
15 min =
1
4
h, you travel only (20 mi/h)(
1
4
h) = 5 mi.
Therefore, you must cover the remaining
(25 5) mi = 20 mi in (40 15) min = 25 min =
5
12
h.
This implies an average speed of 20 mi/
_
5
12
h
_
=
48 mi/h. (Note that your overall average speed was
pre-determined to be 25 mi/(40 h/60) = 37.5 mi/h,
and that this equals the time-weighted average of the
average speeds for the two parts of the trip:
(15 min/40 min)(20 mi/h) + (25 min/40 min)
(48 mi/h).)
Problem
10. Taking Earths orbit to be a circle of radius
1.510
8
km, determine the speed of Earths
orbital motion in (a) meters per second and
(b) miles per second.
Solution
(a) Since it takes 1 y for the earth to travel the full
circumference of its nearly circular orbit,
v = 2R/t = 2(1.510
11
m)/(3.15610
7
s) =
2.9910
4
m/s 30 km/s (an easily remembered
gure). (b) (2.9910
4
m/s) (1 mi/1609 m) =
18.6 mi/s (about 10
4
times the speed of light).
Problem
11. What is the conversion factor from meters per
second to miles per hour?
Solution
1 mi/h = 1609 m/3600 s = 0.447 m/s = (2.24)
1
m/s.
Problem
12. If the average American driver goes 5000 mi each
year on interstate highways, how much less time
did the average driver spend on interstate
highways each year as a result of the 1995 increase
in the speed limit from 55 mi/h to 65 mi/h?
Solution
With an average speed equal to the highway speed
limit, t = r/ v = (5000 mi)/(65 mi/h) = 76.9 h
after 1995, and t = (5000 mi)/(55 mi/h) = 90.9 h
before, a dierence of 14.0 h.
Problem
13. A fast base-runner can get from rst to second
base in 3.4 s. If he leaves rst base as the pitcher
throws a 90 mi/h fastball the 61-ft distance to the
catcher, and if the catcher takes 0.45 s to catch
12 CHAPTER 2
and rethrow the ball, how fast does the catcher
have to throw the ball to second base to make an
out? Home plate to second base is the diagonal of
a square 90 ft on a side.
Solution
At 90 mi/h = 132 ft/s, the ball takes 61 ft/(132 ft/s) =
0.462 s to travel from the pitcher to the catcher. (We
are keeping extra signicant gures in the intermediate
calculations as suggested in Section 1-7.) After the
catcher throws the ball, it has 3.4 s 0.462 s 0.45 s =
2.49 s to reach second base at the same time as the
runner. The distance is

2(90 ft), so the minimum


speed is v =

2(90 ft)/2.49 s = 51.2 ft/s = 35 mi/h. A


prudent catcher would allow extra time for the player
covering second base to make the tag.
Problem
14. Despite the fact that jet airplanes y at about
1000 km/h, plane schedules and connections are
such that the 4800-km trip from Burlington,
Vermont, to San Franscisco ends up taking about
11 h. (a) What is the average speed of such a trip?
(b) How much time is spent on the ground,
assuming that the actual distance covered by the
several aircraft involved in connecting ights is
6700-km and that the planes maintain a steady
960 km/h in ight?
Solution
(a) v = r/t = 4800 km/11 h = 436 km/h. (b) The
actual ight time is t = 6700 km/(960 km/h) =
6.98 h, so 11 h 6.98 h = 4.02 h is spent on the
ground.
Problem
15. If you drove the 4600 km from coast to coast of
the United States at 65 mi/h (105 km/h),
stopping an average of 30 min for rest and
refueling after every 2 h of driving, (a) What
would be your average velocity for the entire trip?
(b) How long would it take?
Solution
If you stopped 30 min for every 2 h of driving at
105 km/h, your average speed would be v =
(2 h/2.5 h)(105 km/h) +(0.5 h/2.5 h)(0) = 84.0 km/h,
and a coast-to-coast trip would take (4600 km)
(84.0 km/h) = 54.8 h. However, this is only
approximate, because the exact travel time does not
include a 30-min stop after the nal segment. (a) To
nd the total time, note that every 2 h 30 min you
would cover a distance x = vt = (105 km/h)(2 h) =
210 km, so it would take you 21 2.5 h = 52.5 h to
travel 21 210 km = 4410 km. You could drive the
nal 190 km in (190 km)/(105 km/h) = 1.81 h, so the
complete trip would take 54.3 h. (b) Overall,
v = 4600 km/54.3 h = 84.7 km/h.
Problem
16. I can run 9.0 m/s, 20% faster than my kid
brother. How much head start should I give him
in order to have a tie race over 100 m?
Solution
The older brother can run 100 m in 100 m/(9.0 m/s) =
11.1 s, while the younger brother takes 20% longer or
13.3 s for the same distance ( v
younger
= v
older
/(120%)).
Therefore, the slower brother should be given a head
start in time of 2.2 s. (Another way to produce a tie is
to give the slower brother a 16.7 m head start in
distance.)
Problem
17. A jetliner leaves San Francisco for New York,
4600 km away. With a strong tailwind, its speed is
1100 km/h. At the same time, a second jet leaves
New York for San Francisco. Flying into the wind,
it makes only 700 km/h. When and where do the
two planes pass each other?
Solution
When the planes pass, the total distance traveled by
both is 4600 km. Therefore, 4600 km =
(1100 km/h)t + (700 km/h)t, or t = 4600 km
(1800 km/h) = 2.56 h. (The planes meet 2.56 h after
taking o.) The encounter occurs at a point about
(700 km/h)(2.56 h) 1790 km from New York City or
(1100 km/h)(2.56 h) 2810 km from San Francisco.
Problem
18. Figure 2-19 shows the position of an object as a
function of time. Determine the average velocity
for (a) the rst 2 s; (b) the rst 4 s; (c) the rst
6 s; (d) the interval from 3 s to 4 s.
Solution
From Fig. 2-19, one can determine the positions of the
object at the times indicated, and the average
velocities from Equation 2-1. (a) v = [x(2 s) x(0)]
(2 s 0) = (2.5 m0)/(2 s 0) = 1.25 m/s.
(b) v = [x(4 s) x(0)]/(4 s 0) = 0/4 s = 0. (c) v =
[x(6 s) x(0)]/(6 s 0) = 2 m/6 s = 0.33 m/s.
(d) v = [x(4 s) x(3 s)]/(4 s 3 s) =
(0 m3 m)/1 s = 3.00 m/s.
CHAPTER 2 13
2
t (s)
1
0
1
2
3
x (m)
1 2 3 5 6 7
figure 2-19 Problem 18.
Section 2-2: Instantaneous Velocity
Problem
19. On a single graph, plot distance versus time for
the two trips from Houston to Des Moines
described on page 24. For each trip, identify
graphically the average velocity and, for each
segment of the trip, the instantaneous velocity.
Solution
Both trips start at the same place (Houston, point A)
x
A
= 1000 km at time t
A
= 0, and end at the same
place (Des Moines, point B) x
B
= 300 km at
t
B
= 2.6 h. (We are using the coordinate system in
Fig. 2-2.) They have the same overall displacement,
x = x
B
x
A
= 1300 km, in the same time period,
t = t
B
t
A
= 2.6 h, and thus the same average
velocity v
AB
= 500 km/h, as explained in the text.
v
AB
is the slope of the straight line AB. AB is also the
graph of the rst trip, a direct ight at constant
velocity, x
1
(t) = x
A
+ v
AB
t for 0 t 2.6 h. (Short
intervals of acceleration at takeo and landing are
ignored.) The second trip, using a faster plane (steeper
slopes when ying), stops for a while in Minneapolis
at x
C
= 650 km (this segment is at) and then
proceeds south to Des Moines (negative velocity and
slope). This trip is shown by three straight segments
ACC

B, and is given analytically by the equations


x
2
(t) =
_

_
x
A
+
_
x
C
x
A
t
C
0
_
t = x
A
+ v
AC
t,
for t
A
= 0 t t
C
x
C
, for t
C
t t
C

x
C
+
_
x
B
x
C
t
B
t
C

_
(t t
C
) = x
C
+ v
C

B
(tt
C
),
for t
C
t t
B
.
(In the graph, we assumed each segment of the second
trip was executed with constant velocity and ignored
takeos and landings as before. The times t
C
and t
C

and velocities v
AC
and v
C

B
were chosen arbitrarily.)
x
C C
x
C
x
B
x
A
t
C
t
A
0 t
C
t
B
B
t
A
Problem 19 Solution.
Problem
20. For the motion plotted in Fig. 2-20, estimate
(a) the greatest velocity in the positive x direction;
(b) the greatest velocity in the negative
x direction; (c) any times when the object is
instantaneously at rest; and (d) the average
velocity over the interval shown.
Solution
(a) A little before 2 s the curve has its greatest
positive slope: x/t [x(2.3 s) x(1.6 s)]/0.7 s
(4 2) m/0.7 s 2.9 m/s. (b) The greatest negative
slope occurs around 4 s: v(4 s) [x(4.3 s) (3.6 s)]
(4.3 s 3.6 s) (3 4) m/0.7 s 1.4 m/s. (c) v(t) =
0 where the tangent is horizontal, near 3 s and 5 s.
(d) v = [x(6 s) x(0)]/6 s 3 m/6 s = 0.5 m/s.
5
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
(d)
(c)
(b)
(c)
(a)
x
x
x
t
t
t

figure 2-20 Problem 20 Solution.


Problem
21. Figure 2-21 shows the position of an object as a
function of time. From the graph, determine the
instantaneous velocity at (a) 1.0 s; (b) 2.0 s;
(c) 3.0 s; (d) 4.5 s. (e) What is the average
velocity over the interval shown?
Solution
The instantaneous velocity at a particular time is the
slope of the graph of x versus t at that point,
v(t) = dx/dt. For a straight line segment of graph,
14 CHAPTER 2
2
t (s)
1
0
1
2
3
x (m)
1 2 4 6 7
figure 2-21 Problem 21.
v equals the average velocity over that segment,
v = x/t. Each of the times specied in this
problem falls on a dierent straight segment of the
graph in Fig. 2-21, whose slopes we determine from
the coordinates of the endpoints of that segment.
(a) v(1 s) = (3 0) m/(1.5 0) s = 2 m/s;
(b) v(2 s) = (3 3) m/(2.5 1.5) s = 0;
(c) v(3 s) = (2 3) m/(3.5 2.5) s = 5 m/s;
(d) v(4.5 s) = [1 (2)] m/(6 3.5) s = 1.2 m/s.
(e) The overall average velocity is v = [x(6 s) x(0)]
(6 s 0) = 1 m/6 s = 0.167 m/s.
Problem
22. The position of an object as a function of time is
given by x = bt + ct
3
, where b = 1.50 m/s and
c = 0.640 m/s
3
. To study the limiting process
leading to the denition of instantaneous velocity,
calculate the average velocity of the object over
time intervals from (a) 1.00 s to 3.00 s; (b) 1.50 s
to 2.50 s; (c) 1.95 s to 2.05 s. (d) Obtain the
instantaneous velocity as a function of time by
dierentiating, and compare its value at 2 s with
your average velocities.
Solution
From the given function, x(t) = bt + ct
3
, and the
denition of average velocity (Equation 2-1), v =
x/t, one obtains: (a) v
a
= [x(3 s) x(1 s)]
(3 s 1 s) = [(1.5 m/s)(3 s 1 s) + (0.64 m/s
2
)(9 s
3

1 s
3
)]/2 s = 9.82 m/s; (b) v
b
= [x(2.5 s) x(1.5 s)]
(2.5 s 1.5 s) = 9.34 m/s; (c) v
c
= [x(2.05 s)
x(1.95 s)]/(2.05 s 1.95 s) = 9.18 m/s. (d) The
instantaneous velocity (Equation 2-2b) is v(t) =
dx/dt = b + 3ct
2
. At t = 2.00 s, v(2 s) = 1.5 m/s +
3(0.64 m/s
3
)(2 s)
2
= 9.18 m/s. As the interval
surrounding 2 s gets smaller, the average and
instantaneous velocities agree better; the values in
parts (c) and (d) dier by less than 0.02%.
Problem
23. A model rocket is launched straight upward; its
altitude y as a function of time is given by
y = bt ct
2
, where b = 82 m/s, c = 4.9 m/s
2
, t is
the time in seconds, and y is in meters. (a) Use
dierentiation to nd a general expression for the
rockets velocity as a function of time. (b) When
is the velocity zero?
Solution
(a) Equation 2-3 can be used to nd the derivative of
each term in the altitude: v(t) = dy/dt = b 2ct.
(b) The velocity is zero when b = 2ct, or t = b/2c =
(82 m/s)/2(4.9 m/s
2
) = 8.37 s.
Problem
24. The position of an object as a function of time is
given by x = bt
4
, where b is a constant. Find an
expression for the instantaneous velocity as a
function of time, and show that the average
velocity over the interval from t = 0 to any time t
is one-fourth of the instantaneous velocity at t.
Solution
From Equations 2-2 and 3, v = dx/dt = 4bt
3
. The
average velocity over an interval from 0 to t, from
Equation 2-1, is v = [x(t) x(0)]/(t 0) = bt
4
/t = bt
3
,
which is just
1
4
of v(t) from above. (Note that v is not
equal to the average of v(0) and v(t).)
Problem
25. The position of an object is given by
x = bt
3
ct
2
+ dt, with x in meters and t in
seconds. The constants b, c, and d are
b = 3.0 m/s
3
, c = 8.0 m/s
2
, and d = 1.0 m/s.
(a) Find all times when the object is at position
x = 0. (b) Determine a general expression for the
instantaneous velocity as a function of time, and
from it nd (c) the initial velocity and (d) all
times when the object is instantaneously at rest.
(e) Graph the objects position as a function of
time, and identify on the graph the quantities you
found in (a) to (d).
Solution
(a) With the aid of the quadratic formula and
factorization, x = t(bt
2
ct + d) = 0 implies t = 0, or
t = (c

c
2
4bd)/2b. Substituting the given
constants, t = 0, t = (4

13) s/3 = 0.131 s and


CHAPTER 2 15
2.54 s. (b) v(t) = dx/dt = 3bt
2
2ct + d. (c) When
t = 0, v(0) = d = 1 m/s. (d) v = 3bt
2
2ct + d = 0
implies t = (c

c
2
3bd)/3b = (8

55) s/9 =
64.9 ms and 1.71 s. (e) The graph of this cubic has
roots from part (a), slope at the origin from part (c),
and relative maximum and minimum from part (d), as
shown.
x
t
slope 1 m/s
0.13 s
1.71 s
2.54 s
0.065 s
0
Problem 25 Solution.
Problem
26. In a drag race, the position of a car as a function
of time is given by x = bt
2
, with b = 2.000 m/s
2
.
In an attempt to determine the cars velocity
midway down a 400-m track, two observers stand
20 m on either side of the 200-m mark and note
the time when the car passes them. (a) What
value do the two observers compute for the cars
velocity? Give your answer to four signicant
gures. (b) By what percentage does this observed
value dier from the actual instantaneous value at
x = 200 m?
Solution
(a) The car passes the rst observer at time
t
1
=
_
x
1
/b =
_
(200 20) m/(2 m/s
2
) = 9.4868 s,
and the second observer at
t
2
=
_
(200 + 20) m/(2 m/s
2
) = 10.4881 s. They
compute the cars (average) velocity to be
v
obs
= (x
2
x
1
)/(t
2
t
1
) = 40 m/1.0013 s =
39.95 m/s. (b) The car reaches x = 200 m at t = 10 s,
where v(10 s) = (dx/dt)
10 s
= (2bt)
10 s
= 40.00 m/s.
The observed velocity diers from this by only
100 (40.00 39.95)/40.00 =
1
8
% 0.13%.
Section 2-3: Acceleration
Problem
27. A giant eruption on the Sun propels solar material
from rest to a nal speed of 450 km/s over a
period of 1 h. What is the average acceleration of
this material, in m/s
2
?
Solution
Equation 2-4, the denition of average linear
acceleration, for this one-hour time interval, gives
a = v/t = (v
2
v
1
)/(t
2
t
1
) =
(450 km/s 0)/3600 s = 125 m/s
2
.
Problem
28. Starting from rest, a subway train rst accelerates
to 25 m/s, then begins to brake. Forty-eight
seconds after starting, it is moving at 17 m/s.
What is its average acceleration in this 48-s
interval?
Solution
During an interval of 48 s = t
2
t
1
, the velocity of the
train (along a linear track) changes from v
1
= 0
(starting at rest) to v
2
= 17 m/s. The average
acceleration is a = (v
2
v
1
)/(t
2
t
1
) =
(17 0) m/s/48 s = 0.354 m/s
2
. (Note that the
intermediate velocity is irrelevant.)
Problem
29. A space shuttles main engines cut o 8.5 min
after launch, at which time the shuttles speed is
7.6 km/s. What is the shuttles average
acceleration during this interval?
Solution
The average acceleration of the shuttle along its
trajectory, from lifto until its main engines
stop, was (Equation 2-4) a = v/t =
(7.610
3
m/s 0)/(8.560 s) = 14.9 m/s
2
1.5 g,
where g = 9.8 m/s
2
, the acceleration due to gravity at
the surface of the Earth, is a frequently used
anthropomorphic unit.
Problem
30. An egg drops from a second-story window, taking
1.12 s to fall and reaching a speed of 11.0 m/s just
before hitting the ground. On contact with the
ground, the egg stops completely in 0.131 s.
Calculate the average magnitudes of its
acceleration while falling and of its deceleration
while stopping.
Solution
The velocity (positive downward) changes from v
1
= 0
to v
2
= 11.0 m/s in 1.12 s while falling with average
acceleration a = v/t = (11.0 m/s) = (1.12 s) =
9.82 m/s
2
. When stopping, the eggs velocity changes
from v
2
= 11.0 m/s to v
3
= 0 in 0.131 s, with average
acceleration a = (0 11.0 m/s)/0.131 s = 84.0 m/s
2
.
16 CHAPTER 2
(A negative sign means that the acceleration is
upward; when the speed is decreasing, this is called a
deceleration.)
Problem
31. An airplanes takeo speed is 320 km/h. If its
average acceleration is 2.9 m/s
2
, how long is it on
the runway after starting its takeo roll?
Solution
If we assume that the airplane starts from rest,
v = 320 km/h = 88.9 m/s at the end of a time
interval t, during which the average acceleration was
a = 2.9 m/s
2
= v/t. Solving for t, we nd
t = (88.9 m/s)/(2.9 m/s
2
) = 30.7 s.
Problem
32. ThrustSSC, the worlds rst supersonic car,
accelerates from rest to 1000 km/h in 16 s. What
is its acceleration, in m/s
2
?
Solution
a = v/t = (1000 km/h 0)/16 s =
(62.5 km/h/s) (1 m/s)/(3.6 km/h) = 17.4 m/s
2
.
Problem
33. Your plane reaches its takeo runway and then
holds for 4.0 min because of air-trac congestion.
The plane then heads down the runway with an
average acceleration of 3.6 m/s
2
. It is airborne
35 s later. What are (a) its takeo speed and
(b) its average acceleration from the time it
reaches the takeo runway until its airborne?
Solution
(a) During the 35 s the plane is actually taking o,
Equation 2-4 gives v = v 0 = at =
(3.6 m/s
2
)(35 s) = 126 m/s = 454 km/h. (b) If we
include the four-minute wait before taking o, the
average acceleration for the entire interval on the
runway is only a = v/t = (126 m/s 0)
(4 min + 35 s) = (126 m/s)/(275 s) = 0.458 m/s
2
.
Problem
34. Under the inuence of a radio wave, an electron in
an antenna undergoes back-and-forth motion
whose velocity as a function of time is described
by Fig. 2-22. From the graph, estimate the
electrons maximum acceleration.
v

(
1
0
4

m
/
s
)
2
t (10
7
s)
0
1
1
2
2 4 8
2 10
4
m/s
1 10
7
s
figure 2-22 Problem 34.
Solution
The graph of v versus t has its steepest slope when
crossing the t-axis. An estimate of the slope at t = 0
gives a
max.
= (dv/dt)
0
(2 10
4
m/s)/(1 10
7
s) =
2 10
11
m/s
2
.
Problem
35. Determine the instantaneous acceleration as a
function of time for the motion in Problem 25.
Solution
From the answer to Problem 25(b), we nd:
a(t) = dv/dt = (d/dt)(3bt
2
2ct + d) = 6bt 2c.
Problem
36. The position of an object is given by x = bt
3
,
where x is in meters, t is in seconds, and where the
constant b is 1.5 m/s
3
. Determine (a) the
instantaneous velocity and (b) the instantaneous
acceleration at the end of 2.5 s. Find (c) the
average velocity and (d) the average acceleration
during the rst 2.5 s.
Solution
(a) v(t) = dx/dt = 3bt
2
, and v(2.5 s) =
3(1.5 m/s
3
)(2.5 s)
2
= 28.1 m/s. (b) a(t) = dv/dt =
6bt, and a(2.5 s) = 6(1.5 m/s
3
) (2.5 s) = 22.5 m/s
2
.
(c) v = [x(2.5 s) x(0)]/2.5 s = (1.5 m/s
3
)(2.5 s)
2
=
9.38 m/s. (d) a = [v(2.5 s) v(0)]/2.5 s =
3(1.5 m/s
3
)(2.5 s) = 11.3 m/s
2
.
Section 2-4: Constant Acceleration
Problem
37. A car accelerates from rest to 25 m/s in 8.0 s.
Determine the distance it travels in two ways:
(a) by multiplying the average velocity given in
Equation 2-8 by the time and (b) by calculating
the acceleration from Equation 2-7 and using the
result in Equation 2-10.
CHAPTER 2 17
Solution
(a) For constant acceleration, Equation 2-8 can be
combined with Equation 2-1 to yield x = v t =
1
2
(v
0
+ v)t =
1
2
(0 + 25 m/s)(8.0 s) = 100 m.
(b) Alternatively, for constant acceleration,
Equation 2-7 gives a = a = v/t = (25 m/s 0)
8.0 s = 3.13 m/s
2
, so Equation 2-10 yields x =
xx
0
= v
0
t+
1
2
at
2
= 0+
1
2
(3.13 m/s
2
)(8.0 s)
2
= 100 m.
Problem
38. Dierentiate both sides of Equation 2-10, and
show that you get Equation 2-7.
Solution
v =
dx
dt
=
d
dt
(x
0
+ v
0
t +
1
2
at
2
) = 0 + v
0
+
1
2
a2t
= v
0
+ at.
Problem
39. If you square Equation 2-7, youll have an
expression for v
2
. Equation 2-11 also gives an
expression for v
2
. Equate the two expressions for
v
2
, and show that the resulting equation reduces
to Equation 2-10.
Solution
Squaring Equation 2-7, v
2
= (v
0
+ at)
2
= v
2
0
+ 2v
0
at +
a
2
t
2
, and equating to Equation 2-11, v
2
= v
2
0
+ 2a
(x x
0
), one nds 2v
0
at + a
2
t
2
= 2a(x x
0
), or
x x
0
= v
0
t +
1
2
at
2
, which is Equation 2-10.
Section 2-5: Using the Equations of Motion
Problem
40. Electrons that paint the picture in a TV tube
undergo constant acceleration over a distance of
3.8 cm. If they reach a nal speed of 1.210
7
m/s,
what are (a) the electrons acceleration and
(b) the time spent accelerating?
Solution
(a) From Equation 2-11, with v
0
= 0 assumed,
a = v
2
/2(x x
0
) = (1.210
7
m/s)
2
/2(0.038 m) =
1.8910
15
m/s
2
. (b) The time can be found from
Equation 2-9 and the given data: t = 2(x x
0
)/v =
2(3.8 cm)/(1.210
7
m/s) = 6.33 ns. (Alternatively,
the value of acceleration from part (a) can be
substituted into Equation 2-7 or 2-10: t = v/a =
_
2(x x
0
)/a.)
Problem
41. A rocket rises with constant acceleration to an
altitude of 85 km, at which point its speed is
2.8 km/s. (a) What is its acceleration? (b) How
long does the ascent take?
Solution
(a) In Equation 2-11 (with x positive upward) we are
given that x x
0
= 85 km, v
0
= 0 (the rocket starts
from rest), and v = 2.8 km/s. Therefore, we can solve
for the acceleration, a = (v
2
v
2
0
)/2(x x
0
) =
(2.8 km/s)
2
/2(85 km) = 46.1 m/s
2
(note the change of
units). (b) From Equation 2-9, we can solve for the
time of ight, t = 2(x x
0
)/(v
0
+ v) = 2(85 km)
(2.8 km/s) = 60.7 s. (We chose to relate t directly to
the given data, but once the acceleration is known,
Equation 2-7 or 2-10 could have been used to nd
t = v/a or t =
_
2(x x
0
)/a, respectively.)
Problem
42. On packed snow, use of computerized anti-lock
brakes can reduce the stopping distance for a car
by 55%. By what percentage is the stopping time
reduced?
Solution
The stopping distance and the stopping time are
related by Equation 2-9, for motion with constant
deceleration. When stopping, v
0
is the initial velocity
and v = 0. Therefore x x
0
=
1
2
v
0
t, or the stopping
distance, x x
0
, is proportional to the stopping time,
t, and both are reduced by the same amount.
(Anti-lock brakes optimize the deceleration by
controlling the wheels to roll just at the point of
skidding.)
Problem
43. Starting from rest, a car accelerates at a constant
rate, reaching 88 km/h in 12 s. (a) What is its
acceleration? (b) How far does it go in this time?
Solution
(a) From Equation 2-7, a = (v v
0
)/t =
(88 km/h 0)/12 s = 7.33 km/h/s = 2.04 m/s
2
.
(b) From Equation 2-9, x x
0
=
1
2
(v
0
+ v)t =
1
2
(0 + 88 km/h)(12 s) = 147 m. (Note the change in
units. Again, we chose equations that relate the
answers directly to the given data; see solution to
Problem 41.)
Problem
44. A car moving initially at 50 mi/h begins
decelerating at a constant rate 100 ft short of a
stoplight. If the car comes to a full stop just at the
light, what is the magnitude of its deceleration?
18 CHAPTER 2
Solution
Since the car stops (v = 0), after traveling 100 ft =
x x
0
, from an initial speed of (55 mi/h)(22 ft/s
15 mi/h) = 73.3 ft/s, Equation 2-11 gives a =
(73.3 ft/s)
2
/2(100 ft) = 26.9 ft/s
2
. The magnitude
of the deceleration is the absolute value of a.
Problem
45. In an X-ray tube, electrons are accelerated to a
velocity of 10
8
m/s, then slammed into a tungsten
target. The electrons undergo rapid deceleration,
producing X rays. If the stopping time for an
electron is on the order of 10
19
s, approximately
how far does an electron move while decelerating?
Assume constant deceleration.
Solution
Assuming the electrons travel in a straight line while
coming to rest (v = 0), Equation 2-9 gives
x x
0
=
1
2
(v
0
+ v)t =
1
2
(10
8
m/s)(10
19
s) =
510
12
m for the stopping distance. (The X rays
emitted are called bremsstrahlung.)
Problem
46. A particle leaves its initial position x
0
at time
t = 0, moving in the positive x direction with
speed v
0
, but undergoing acceleration of
magnitude a in the negative x-direction. Find
expressions for (a) the time when it returns to the
position x
0
and (b) its speed when it passes that
point.
Solution
In this problem we must use a for the acceleration in
Table 2-1. (a) A return to the initial position means
x(t) = x
0
for t > 0. From Equation 2-10, x = x
0
=
x
0
+ v
0
t +
1
2
(a)t
2
, or 2v
0
t = at
2
. Since t = 0, we can
divide to get t = 2v
0
/a. (b) The speed, or magnitude
of the velocity, can be found from Equation 2-7: |v| =
|v
0
+(a)t| = |v
0
a(2v
0
/a)| = | v
0
| = v
0
. The speed
is the same, but the direction of motion is reversed.
Problem
47. The Barringer meteor crater in northern Arizona
is 180 m deep and 1.2 km in diameter. The
fragments of the meteor lie just below the bottom
of the crater. If these fragments decelerated at a
constant rate of 410
5
m/s
2
as they ploughed
through the Earth in forming the crater, what was
the speed of the meteors impact at Earths
surface?
Solution
For a particular fragment (which followed a
straight-line path to the bottom, perpendicular to the
desert surface), we can use Equation 2-11 to nd the
initial speed: v
2
0
= 2(410
5
m/s
2
)(180 m) or
v
0
=
_
(14410
6
m
2
/s
2
) = 12 km/s.
Problem
48. A gazelle accelerates from rest at 4.1 m/s
2
over a
distance of 60 m to outrun a predator. What is its
nal speed?
Solution
From Equation 2-11, v
2
= 2a(x x
0
) = 2(4.1 m/s
2
)
(60 m), or v = 22.2 m/s (almost 50 mi/h).
Problem
49. A hockey puck moving at 32 m/s slams through a
wall of snow 35 cm thick. It emerges moving at
18 m/s. (a) How much time does it spend in the
snow? (b) How thick a wall of snow would be
needed to stop the puck entirely?
Solution
(a) If we assume a constant linear deceleration for
the puck, Equation 2-9 can be used to nd the
time it spends traversing 35 cm of snow: t =
2(xx
0
)/(v
0
+v) = 2(0.35 m)/(32+18)(m/s) = 14 ms.
(b) If we assume the same deceleration for penetrating
any wall of snow, Equation 2-11, with v = 0, gives the
thickness necessary to stop a puck moving with the
same initial speed: x x
0
= v
2
0
/2a. The acceleration
(which is negative when the puck is decelerating) can
be found from Equation 2-7 with the time from part
(a) (or from a second application of Equation 2-11
with data from part (a), etc.): a = (18 32)(m/s)
(0.014 s) = 10
3
m/s
2
. Then any wall of snow thicker
than (32 m/s)
2
/2(10
3
m/s
2
) = 51.2 cm would stop
this puck.
Problem
50. Amtraks 20th-Century Limited is en route from
Chicago to New York at 110 km/h, when the
engineer spots a cow on the track. The train
brakes to a halt in 1.2 min with constant
deceleration, stopping just in front of the cow.
(a) What is the magnitude of the trains
acceleration? (b) What is the direction of the
acceleration? (c) How far was the train from the
cow when the engineer rst applied the brakes?
CHAPTER 2 19
Solution
(a) and (b) The train goes from velocity v
0
=
110 km/h = 30.6 m/s (positive eastward) at t
0
= 0, to
a stop, v = 0, at t = 1.2 min = 72 s. The constant
acceleration was a = (v v
0
)/(t t
0
) = (30.6 m/s)
(72 s) = 0.424 m/s
2
. The magnitude of the
acceleration is the absolute value of this, while its
direction, indicated by the negative sign, was
westward. (c) Equation 2-9 gives the stopping
distance: x x
0
=
1
2
(v
0
+ v)t =
1
2
(30.6 m/s)(72 s) =
1.10 km. (Equations 2-10 or 2-11 and the acceleration
from part (a) could also have been used to obtain the
same result.)
Problem
51. A jetliner touches down at 220 km/h, reverses its
engines to provide braking, and comes to a halt
29 s later. What is the shortest runway on which
this aircraft can land, assuming constant
deceleration starting at touchdown?
Solution
From Equation 2-9 with v = 0, we nd x x
0
=
1
2
v
0
t =
1
2
(220 km/h)(29 h/3600) = 886 m (over half a
mile).
Problem
52. A motorist suddenly notices a stalled car and
slams on the brakes, decelerating at the rate of
6.3 m/s
2
. Unfortunately this isnt good enough,
and a collision ensues. From the damage
sustained, police estimate that the car was moving
at 18 km/h at the time of the collision. They also
measure skid marks 34 m long. (a) How fast was
the motorist going when the brakes were rst
applied? (b) How much time elapsed from the
initial braking to the collision?
Solution
(a) From the given acceleration, 6.3 m/s
2
, the
distance traveled, 34 m, and the nal velocity,
18 km/h = 5 m/s (just before the collision), the initial
velocity (when the braking began) can be calculated:
v
2
0
= v
2
2a(x x
0
), or v
0
=
_
(5 m/s)
2
2(6.3 m/s
2
)(34 m) = 21.3 m/s =
76.7 km/h. (b) The deceleration time interval was t =
(v v
0
)/a = (5 m/s 21.3 m/s)/(6.3 m/s
2
) = 2.59 s.
(The positive x direction is the direction in which the
car was moving.)
Problem
53. The maximum acceleration that a human being
can survive even for a short time is about 200g. In
a highway accident, a car moving at 88 km/h
slams into a stalled truck. The front end of the car
is squashed by 80 cm on impact. If the
deceleration during the collision is constant, will a
passenger wearing a seatbelt survive?
Solution
The passenger, originally moving with velocity v
0
=
88 km/h = 24.4 m/s, comes to rest, v = 0, in a
distance x x
0
= 0.8 m, so the acceleration (from
Equation 2-11) was a = (v
2
v
2
0
)/2(x x
0
) =
(24.4 m/s)
2
/1.6 m = 373 m/s
2
= 38.1g. Such a
person could survive. Without a seatbelt, however, the
stopping distance would not have been 0.8 m (think
about it!) and the passenger would surely not survive
the secondary collision with the interior of the car (see
Problem 86).
Problem
54. A racing car undergoing constant acceleration
covers 140 m in 3.6 s. (a) If it is moving at 53 m/s
at the end of this interval, what was its speed at
the beginning of the interval? (b) How far did it
travel from rest to the end of the 140-m distance?
Solution
(a) x x
0
= 140 m =
1
2
(v
0
+ v)t =
1
2
(v
0
+ 53 m/s)
(3.6 s); therefore v
0
= 24.8 m/s. (b) The acceleration
is a = (v v
0
)/t = (53 24.8) m/s/3.6 s = 7.84 m/s
2
.
Starting from rest, the distance traveled while
reaching a velocity v = 53 m/s is v
2
/2a = (53 m/s)
2

2(7.84 m/s
2
) = 179 m.
Problem
55. The maximum deceleration of a car on a dry road
is about 8 m/s
2
. If two cars are moving head-on
toward each other at 88 km/h (55 mi/h), and
their drivers apply their brakes when they are
85 m apart, will they collide? If so, at what
relative speed? If not, how far apart will they be
when they stop? On the same graph, plot distance
versus time for both cars.
Solution
The minimum distance a car needs to stop (v = 0)
from an initial speed v
0
= 88 km/h = 24.4 m/s, with a
constant acceleration a = 8 m/s
2
, is (Equation 2-11)
xx
0
= v
2
0
/2a = (24.4 m/s)
2
/2(8 m/s
2
) = 37.3 m
(positive in the direction of v
0
). Since 85 m is greater
20 CHAPTER 2
than twice this distance, the cars can avoid a collision,
and they will be 85 m2(37.3 m) = 10.3 m apart
when stopped.
To plot x versus t, using Equation 2-10 for each car,
we need to choose an origin, say x = 0 at the midpoint
of the separation between the cars, with positive x in
the direction of the initial velocity of the rst car,
and t = 0 when the brakes are applied. Then
x
10
= 42.5 m = x
20
, v
10
= 24.4 m/s = v
20
, and
a
1
= 8 m/s = a
2
. A graph of x
1
(t) and x
2
(t) is as
shown.
50
25
25
50
0
0 1 2 3
t 3.056 s
x 5.154 m
x 5.154 m
x
(
m
)
t(s)
Problem 55 Solution.
Problem
56. George, a physics student, leaves his dormitory at
a speed of 1.2 m/s, heading for the physics
building 95 m away. Just as he leaves his dorm,
Amy, another physics student, leaves the physics
building and heads toward George at a steady
1.6 m/s. George immediately spots her and begins
accelerating at 0.075 m/s
2
. Where and when do
the two meet? Plot position-versus-time curves for
both students on a single graph.
Solution
Let the (assumed) straight-line path between the
dormitory and the building be along the x-axis, with
positive direction the way George walks. If both
students leave at t = 0, then x
Geo
= x
Dorm
+ v
0,Geo
t +
1
2
a
Geo
t
2
, and x
Amy
= x
Bldg
+ v
0,Amy
t, where v
0,Geo
=
1.2 m/s, a
Geo
= .075m/s
2
, v
0,Amy
= 1.6 m/s, and
x
Bldg
x
Dorm
= 95 m. The students meet when
x
Geo
= x
Amy
, or x
Bldg
x
Dorm
= (v
0,Geo
v
0,Amy
)t +
1
2
a
Geo
t
2
. If we substitute the given values and use the
quadratic formula to solve for t, then
95 m = (2.8 m/s)t +
1
2
(.075 m/s
2
)t
2
,
and
t =
_
_
(2.8 m/s)
2
4(.0375 m/s
2
)(95 m)
(2.8 m/s)
__
(.075 m/s
2
) = 25.3 s
(where only the solution with t > 0 is meaningful in
this problem). When they meet, Amy and George
are a distance x
Bldg
x
Amy
= v
0,Amy
t =
(1.6 m/s)(25.3 s) = 40.5 m from the physics
building.
X
t
x
Bldg
x
Amy
x
Dorm

x
Geo
Problem 56 Solution.
Problem
57. After 35 minutes of running, at the 9-km point in
a 10-km race, you nd yourself 100 m behind the
leader and moving at the same speed. What
should your acceleration be if you are to catch up
by the nish line? Assume that the leader
maintains constant speed throughout the entire
race.
Solution
Taking x
0
= 0 and t = 0 at the 9-km point (and
assuming a straight path to the nish), we can express
your position (runner A) and that of the leader
(runner B) as x
A
= v
0
t +
1
2
at
2
, and x
B
= 100 m + v
0
t.
Since Bs speed was constant, v
0
= x/t = (9 km +
100 m)/35 min = 0.26 km/min. If both runners nish
simultaneously, x
A
= x
B
= 1 km, so a = 2(1 km
v
0
t)v
2
0
/(v
0
t)
2
. We multiplied and divided by v
0
because the quantity v
0
t (at the nish) equals
x
B
100 m = 1 km100 m = 0.9 km. Therefore
a = 2(1 km0.9 km)(0.26 km/ min)
2
/(0.9 km)
2
= 1.6710
2
km/min
2
= 4.6410
3
m/s
2
.
Problem
58. Youre speeding at 85 km/h when you notice that
youre only 10 m behind the car in front of you,
CHAPTER 2 21
which is moving at the legal speed limit of
60 km/h. You slam on your brakes, and your car
decelerates at 4.2 m/s
2
. Assuming the car in front
of you continues at constant speed, will you
collide? If so, at what relative speed? If not, what
will be the distance between the cars at their
closest approach?
Solution
See the solution to the next problem.
Problem
59. Repeat the preceding problem, now assuming your
initial speed is 95 km/h.
Solution
The position as a function of time for either car,
moving with constant acceleration, is given by
Equation 2-10. Let us choose our origin t = 0 and
x = 0 at the time and place the speeding driver in car
number one notices car number two in front and
applies the brakes, with the direction of initial motion
positive. Then x
10
= 0, x
20
= 10 m, v
10
> v
20
=
60 km/h = 16.7 m/s, a
1
= 4.2 m/s
2
, and a
2
= 0. The
position of the cars is x
1
(t) = v
10
t +
1
2
a
1
t
2
and x
2
(t) =
x
20
+v
20
t, valid for 0 t t

, where t

is the time for


which the accelerations remain constant. (Thus, t

is
either the time the cars collide, if this happens, or the
time when car number one stops decelerating.) The
distance between the cars is x
21
(t) = x
2
(t) x
1
(t).
The condition for a collision is that the quadratic
equation x
21
(t) = 0 have a real root (in which case the
smaller root is t

), and the condition for no collision is


that this equation have no real roots.
The solution of the equation x
21
(t) = 0 =
1
2
a
1
t
2

(v
10
v
20
)t + x
20
follows from the quadratic formula,
t = [(v
10
v
20
)
_
(v
10
v
20
)
2
2 |a
1
| x
20
]/ |a
1
|.
(Since a
1
is negative, we wrote it explicitly as
a
1
= |a
1
|.) Thus, if (v
10
v
20
)
2
2 |a
1
| x
20
, there is
a collision at time t

= [(v
10
v
20
)
_
(v
10
v
20
)
2
2 |a
1
| x
20
]/ |a
1
|, from which the
relative velocity at collision, v
1
(t

) v
20
, can be
calculated. On the other hand, if (v
10
v
20
)
2
<
2 |a
1
| x
20
, there is no collision, and the minimum
distance x
21
can be found by setting the derivative of
x
21
(t) equal to zero, or by physical reasoning.
When v
10
= 95 km/h = 26.4 m/s, (v
10
v
20
)
2
=
(26.4 m/s 16.7 m/s)
2
= 94.5 m
2
/s
2
>
2(4.2 m/s
2
)(10 m) = 84 m
2
/s
2
, so there is a collision
at t

= (9.72 m/s
_
10.5 m
2
/s
2
)/(4.2 m/s
2
) = 1.54 s.
The relative speed at collision is v
1
(t

) v
20
=
v
10
v
20
|a
1
| t

= 9.72 m/s (4.2 m/s


2
)(1.54 s) =
3.24 m/s = 11.7 km/h, where we used Equation 2-7 for
the velocities.
When v
10
= 85 km/h, (v
10
v
20
)
2
= 25 km/h)
2
=
48.2 m
2
/s
2
< 2 |a
1
| x
20
= 84 m
2
/s
2
, and there is no
collision. The relative distance is the quadratic
x
21
(t) =
1
2
|a
1
| t
2
(v
10
v
20
)t + x
20
. One way to
obtain the distance of closest approach is to minimize
this function of time. Setting the derivative equal to
zero gives us dx
21
/dt = |a
1
| t (v
10
v
20
) = 0, or
t
min
= (v
10
v
20
)/ |a
1
| . Then x
21
(t
min
) =
1
2
|a
1
| t
2
min

(v
10
v
20
)t
min
+ x
20
= x
20
(v
10
v
20
)
2
/2 |a
1
| =
10 m(48.2 m
2
/s
2
)/2(4.2 m/s
2
) = 4.26 m. This is in
fact a minimum because d
2
x
21
/dt
2
= |a
1
| > 0.
Another way to obtain the minimum x
21
, without
using calculus, relies on purely physical reasoning. As
long as the velocity of car number one, v
1
(t), is greater
than 60 km/h (the velocity of car number two), it is
gaining ground on car number two, so the relative
distance x
21
is decreasing. When v
1
(t) falls below
60 km/h, car number one loses ground to car number
two and x
21
starts increasing. Therefore, the closest
approach occurs when v
1
(t) = v
10
|a
1
| t = v
20
=
60 km/h, which gives the same t
min
as above.
Section 2-6: The Constant Acceleration of
Gravity
Problem
60. You drop a rock into a deep well and 4.4 s later
hear the splash. How far down is the water?
Neglect the travel time of the sound.
Solution
If we neglect the travel time of the sound, the rock fell
for a time t = 4.4 s, from rest, v
0
= 0, through a
height y
0
y =
1
2
gt
2
=
1
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)(4.4 s)
2
= 94.9 m.
Problem
61. Your friend is sitting 6.5 m above you in a tree
branch. How fast should you throw an apple so
that it just reaches her?
Solution
Equation 2-11 describes the vertical motion of the
apple, whose acceleration is g (positive upward), if
one ignores air resistance, intervening leaves, etc. The
dierence in height between your friend and you is
y y
0
= 6.5 m, v
0
is the initial velocity we desire, and
v is the velocity of the apple when it reaches your
friend. If the apple just reaches her, v = 0. Then
v
2
0
= 0 + 2g(y y
0
), or v
0
=
_
2(9.8 m/s
2
)(6.5 m) =
11.3 m/s. (We chose the positive square root because
v
0
is upward.)
22 CHAPTER 2
Problem
62. A model rocket leaves the ground, heading
straight up at 49 m/s. (a) What is its maximum
altitude? What are its speed and altitude at
(b) 1 s; (c) 4 s; (d) 7 s?
Solution
(a) At its maximum altitude, the rockets vertical
speed is instantaneously zero, so 0 = v
2
0
2g
(y
max
y
0
), or y
max
y
0
= (49 m/s)
2
/2(9.8 m/s
2
) =
123 m. (b) At any time t, the rockets velocity and
altitude are v = v
0
gt, and y y
0
= v
0
t
1
2
gt
2
.
When t = 1 s, v = 49 m/s (9.8 m/s
2
)(1 s) =
39.2 m/s, and y y
0
= (49 m/s)(1 s)
1
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)
(1 s)
2
= 44.1 m. (Note: The altitude is the height
above the ground, y
0
, and v is positive upward.)
(c) v = 49 m/s (9.8 m/s
2
)(4 s) = 9.8 m/s, y y
0
=
(49 m/s)(4 s)
1
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)(4 s)
2
= 118 m. (d) v =
19.6 m/s, y y
0
= 103 m.
Problem
63. A foul ball leaves the bat going straight upward at
23 m/s. (a) How high does it rise? (b) How long
is it in the air? Neglect the distance between the
bat and the ground.
Solution
(a) At the maximum height, v
2
= 0 = v
2
0
2g
(y
max
y
0
), so y
max
y
0
= v
2
0
/2g = (23 m/s)
2

2(9.8 m/s
2
) = 27.0 m. (b) If we neglect the distance
between the bat and the ground (and assume that the
foul ball is not caught), the ight of the ball lasts until
it falls back to its initial height. Then y y
0
= 0 =
v
0
t
1
2
gt
2
, or t = 2(23 m/s)/(9.8 m/s
2
) = 4.69 s.
Problem
64. A Frisbee is lodged in a tree branch, 6.5 m above
the ground. A rock thrown from below must be
going at least 3 m/s to dislodge the Frisbee. How
fast much such a rock be thrown upward, if it
leaves the throwers hand 1.3 m above the ground?
Solution
When it hits the Frisbee, the rocks velocity and
height are v = 3 m/s and y = 6.5 m, while its initial
velocity and height are v
0
and y
0
= 1.3 m. Since
v
2
= v
2
0
2g(y y
0
), we can solve for v
0
: v
0
=
_
(3 m/s)
2
+2(9.8 m/s
2
)(6.5 m 1.3 m) = 10.5 m/s.
(Note: v
0
> 0 since the rock must be thrown upwards.)
Problem
65. Space pirates kidnap an earthling and hold him
imprisoned on one of the planets of the solar
system. With nothing else to do, the prisoner
amuses himself by dropping his watch from eye
level (170 cm) to the oor. He observes that the
watch takes 0.95 s to fall. On what planet is he
being held? Hint: Consult Appendix E.
Solution
The planets surface gravity can be found, since
1.7 m =
1
2
g(0.95 s)
2
, or g = 3.77 m/s
2
. This is closest
to the value listed for Mars, in Appendix E.
Problem
66. The Mars Pathnder spacecraft landed in 1997
and deployed a robot Rover that explored the
Martian surface. Pathnders landing was
cushioned by airbags, and the spacecraft bounced
12 m vertically after its rst impact. Assuming no
loss of speed at contact with the Martian surface,
what was Pathnders impact speed?
Solution
Equation 2-11 (with positive up and a = g
Mars
=
3.74 m/s
2
) can be used to describe the vertical
motion of the Pathnder spacecraft. After rebounding
with vertical speed v
0
from the surface, the spacecraft
would attain a maximum height of y y
0
= 12 m
when its vertical speed was instantaneously zero,
v = 0. Then v
0
=
_
2(y y
0
)g
Mars
=
_
2(12 m)(3.74 m/s
2
) = 9.47 m/s
2
.
Problem
67. A falling object travels one-fourth of its total
distance in the last second of its fall. From what
height was it dropped?
Solution
The total distance traveled by a falling object in a time
t is given by Equation 2-10, with a = g and v
0
= 0
(the meaning of dropped). Thus y
0
y(t) =
1
2
gt
2
. The
distance fallen during the last second (an interval from
t 1 s to t) is y(t 1 s) y(t) =
1
2
gt
2

1
2
g(t 1 s)
2
.
The latter is one-fourth of the former when (cancel o
the common factors of
1
2
g)
1
4
t
2
= t
2
(t 1 s)
2
. Then
t 1 s =
_
3
4
t, or t = 1 s/(1
_
3
4
) = 7.46 s. (We
discarded the negative square root because t is
obviously greater than 1 s.) Substituting this value of
t into the equation for the total distance fallen, we nd
y
0
y(t) =
1
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)(7.46 s)
2
= 273 m. (In a real
CHAPTER 2 23
fall from this height, air resistance should be
considered.)
Problem
68. The defenders of a castle throw rocks down on
their attackers from a 15-m-high wall. If the rocks
are thrown with an initial speed of 10 m/s, how
much faster are they moving when they hit the
ground than if they were simply dropped?
Solution
A stone dropped from a height h = y
0
y achieves a
speed v =
_
2g(y y
0
) =

2gh, while one thrown


downward with initial speed v
0
, attains a speed v

=
_
v
2
0
+ 2gh. For h = 15 m and v
0
= 10 m/s, the
dierence in speed is
_
(10 m/s)
2
+ 2(9.8 m/s
2
)(15 m)
_
2(9.8 m/s
2
)(15 m) = (19.8 17.1) m/s = 2.70 m/s.
(This is the same if the rocks are thrown upward with
v
0
= 10 m/s, but then the attackers would have more
time to get out of the way.)
Problem
69. A kingsher is 30 m above a lake when it
accidentally drops the sh it is carrying. A second
kingsher 5 m above the rst dives toward the
falling sh. What initial speed should it have if it
is to reach the sh before the sh hits the water?
Solution
We are concerned with just the vertical motion of the
sh and bird, which we describe with the y-axis
positive upward and origin at the waters surface. If
the sh is dropped at t = 0, its position is y
Fish
=
30 m(4.9 m/s
2
)t
2
, where drop means v
0,Fish
= 0,
and we substituted the standard value for
1
2
g. Suppose
the second bird starts its dive at t
1
, with an initial
velocity v
0
. Its position is y
Bird
= 35 m + v
0
(t t
1
)
(4.9 m/s
2
)(t t
1
)
2
, where we assume the dive is a
free-fall. The bird catches the sh before either hits
the water if y
Fish
0 when y
Bird
= y
Fish
. If the dive
started without delay, t
1
= 0, and the equation y
Bird
=
y
Fish
= 30 m(4.9 m/s
2
)t
2
= 35 m+v
0
t (4.9 m/s
2
)t
2
gives v
0
t = 5 m. When this is substituted into the
inequality y
Fish
0, one obtains 30 m(4.9 m/s
2
)
(5 m/v
0
)
2
0, or |v
0
| 2.02 m/s. This is the
minimum downward speed necessary for the bird to
catch the sh.
Problem
70. Two divers jump from a 3.00-m platform. One
jumps upward at 1.80 m/s, and the second steps
o the platform as the rst passes it on the way
down. (a) What are their speeds as they hit the
water? (b) Which hits the water rst and by how
much?
Solution
(a) Take t = 0 when the second diver steps from the
platform at y
0
= 3 m (positive up). The rst diver has
an initial velocity of v
0
= 1.80 m/s at t = 0. Then
v
2
1
= v
2
0
2g(y y
0
), and v
2
2
= 2g(y y
0
). At the
waters surface, y = 0, so v
1
=
_
(1.8 m/s)
2
2(9.8 m/s
2
)(3 m) = 7.88 m/s,
and v
2
=
_
2(9.8 m/s
2
)(3 m) = 7.67 m/s.
(b) The divers hit at times we can calculate from
Equation 2-9 for each one: t
1
= 2y
0
/(v
0
+ v
1
) =
2(3 m)/(1.8 m/s 7.88 m/s) = 0.620 s;
t
2
= 2y
0
/v
2
= 2(3 m)/(7.67 m/s) = 0.782 s. The
rst diver hits about 162 ms before the second.
Problem
71. A balloon is rising at 10 m/s when its passenger
throws a ball straight up at 12 m/s. How much
later does the passenger catch the ball?
Solution
The initial (positive upward) velocity of the ball is
12 m/s relative to the passenger who throws it.
Because the passenger is moving upward with constant
velocity of 10 m/s, the initial velocity of the ball
relative to the ground is 22 m/s. Assuming the ball is
acted upon only by gravity (after being thrown at
t = 0), we can write its vertical position as y
B
(t) =
y
0
+ (22 m/s)t
1
2
gt
2
. The balloon carrying the
passenger is acted upon by the buoyant force of the
air, in addition to gravity, so that it ascends with
constant velocity (see Section 18-3). Thus, the vertical
position of the passenger (in the same coordinate
system used for the ball) is y
P
(t) = y
0
+ (10 m/s)t.
The passenger catches the ball when y
B
(t) = y
P
(t) for
t > 0. This implies y
0
+ (22 m/s)t
1
2
gt
2
=
y
0
+ (10 m/s)t, or t = 2(12 m/s)/(9.8 m/s
2
) = 2.45 s.
(Because the balloon is moving with constant velocity,
a coordinate system attached to the passenger, y

P
= 0,
is an inertial frame (see Section 3-5) in which the
balls position is y

B
= (12 m/s)t
1
2
gt
2
. Setting
y

B
= y

P
gives one the same time of ight.)
Problem
72. A conveyer belt moves horizontally at 80 cm/s,
carrying empty shoe boxes. Every 3 s, a pair of
shoes is dropped from a chute 1.7 m above the
belt. (a) How far apart should the boxes be
24 CHAPTER 2
spaced? (b) At the instant a pair of shoes drops,
where should a box be in relation to a point
directly below the chute?
Solution
(a) Since each pair of shoes takes the same amount of
time to fall, a pair lands in a box every 3 s. The
distance between boxes must be (80 cm/s)(3 s) =
2.4 m in order that each pair be boxed. (b) A pair of
shoes falls in a time t, given by 1.7 m =
1
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)t
2
,
or t = 0.589 s. During this time, the distance a box
moves is (80 cm/s)(.589 s) = 47.1 cm, which is how far
the center of a box must be placed (in the opposite
direction to the motion of the conveyer belt) from the
point directly below the chute, at the instant a pair of
shoes drops.
Paired Problems
Problem
73. You drive 14 km to the next town, maintaining a
speed of 50 km/h except for a stop lasting 4.1 min
at a red light. You shop for 20 min, then head
back toward your starting point at a steady 70
km/h. You stop at a gas station 4.4 km from the
town. What are (a) your average speed and (b)
the magnitude of your average velocity between
your starting point and the gas station?
Solution
(a) The average speed is the total distance traveled,
14 km + 4.4 km, divided by the total time spent,
14 km/(50 km/h) + 4.1 min + 20 min + 4.4 km
(70 km/h). Thus, the average speed is 18.4 km
0.745 h = 24.7 km/h. (b) The average velocity is the
total displacement divided by the total time. If we
take the origin at the starting point and the positive
direction toward the next town, x = 14 km4.4 km,
while t is the same as in part (a). Thus, the average
velocity is 9.6 km/0.745 h = 12.9 km/h.
Problem
74. The itsy-bitsy spider climbed 3.7 m up the water
spout, starting at the bottom, in 6.2 minutes. She
paused at the top for a 5.0-min rest. Then down
came the rain, and washed the spider outall the
way to the ground, 0.41 m below the bottom of
the spout, in 2.8 s. What were the spiders
(a) average speed and (b) magnitude of her
average velocity for the entire adventure?
Solution
(a) The average speed = (total distance)
(total time) = (3.7 m + 3.7 m + 0.41 m)/(6.2 min +
5 min + 2.8 s) = 0.694 m/min = 1.16 cm/s. (b) With
origin at the bottom of the spout and the positive
direction downward, the total displacement of the
spider is x = +0.41 m, so its average velocity is
0.41 m/11.2 min = 3.65 cm/min = 0.609 mm/s.
Problem
75. A skier starts from rest, and heads downslope with
a constant acceleration of 1.9 m/s
2
. How long
does it take her to go 20 m, and what is her speed
at that point?
Solution
The equations for linear motion with constant
acceleration are summarized in Table 2-1. Since the
initial velocity is zero, x(t) x
0
=
1
2
at
2
, and the time
to travel 20 m is t =
_
2(20 m)/(1.9 m/s
2
) = 4.59 s.
The velocity at this time is v = at = (1.9 m/s
2
)
(4.59 s) = 8.72 m/s.
Problem
76. Landing on the moon, a spacecraft res its
retrorockets and comes to a complete stop just
12 m above the lunar surface. It then drops freely
to the surface. How long does it take to fall, and
what is its impact speed? (Consult Appendix E.)
Solution
To drop 12 m from rest on the moon (lunar surface
gravity = 1.62 m/s
2
) takes time t =
_
2(y
0
y)/g =
_
2(12 m)/(1.62 m/s
2
) = 3.85 s. The velocity at
impact is v = gt = (1.62 m/s
2
)(3.85 s) =
6.24 m/s, and the speed is the magnitude of this.
Problem
77. A frustrated student drops a book out of his
dormitory window, releasing it from rest. After
falling 2.3 m, it passes the top of a 1.5-m high
window on a lower oor. How long does it take to
cross the window?
Solution
Equation 2-10 gives the distance fallen by the book
when dropped (v
0
= 0) at time t = 0: y
0
y(t) =
1
2
gt
2
.
The book passes the top of the lower-oor window at
time t
1
, given by y
0
y(t
1
) = 2.3 m =
1
2
gt
2
1
, or t
1
=
_
2(2.3 m)/(9.8 m/s
2
) = 0.685 s. It passes the bottom
of the window at time t
2
, given by
y
0
y(t
2
) = 2.3 m + 1.5 m =
1
2
gt
2
2
, or t
2
= 0.881 s.
The time to cross the window is t
2
t
1
= 0.196 s.
CHAPTER 2 25
Problem
78. Launched from the ground, a rocket accelerates
vertically upward at 4.6 m/s
2
. It passes through a
band of clouds 5.3 km thick, extending upward
from an altitude of 1.9 km. How long is it in the
clouds?
Solution
The altitude of the rocket, launched from rest (v
0
= 0)
at ground zero (y
0
= 0 and t = 0), is y(t) =
1
2
at
2
. The
rocket enters the clouds at time t
1
, given by y(t
1
) =
1.9 km =
1
2
(4.6 m/s
2
)t
2
1
, or t
1
= 28.7 s. It leaves the
clouds at time t
2
, given by y(t
2
) = 1.9 km + 5.3 km =
1
2
(4.6 m/s
2
)t
2
2
, or t
2
= 56.0 s. The time spent in the
clouds is t
2
t
1
= 27.2 s.
Problem
79. A subway train is traveling at 80 km/h when it
approaches a slower train 50 m ahead traveling in
the same direction at 25 km/h. If the faster train
begins decelerating at 2.1 m/s
2
, while the slower
train continues at constant speed, how soon and at
what relative speed will they collide?
Solution
Take the origin x = 0 and t = 0 at the point where the
rst train begins decelerating, with positive x in the
direction of motion. Equation 2-10 gives the
instantaneous position of each train, with x
10
= 0,
v
10
= 80 km/h, a
1
= 2.1 m/s
2
, x
20
= 50 m, v
20
=
25 km/h, and a
2
= 0 given. Thus x
1
(t) = v
10
t +
1
2
a
1
t
2
,
and x
2
(t) = x
20
+ v
20
t. The trains collide at the rst
time that x
1
= x
2
, or when x
20
(v
10
v
20
)t
1
2
a
1
t
2
=
0. Using the quadratic formula to solve for the
smaller root, we nd t = [(v
10
v
20
)
_
(v
10
v
20
)
2
+ 2a
1
x
20
]/(a
1
) = [(55 m/3.6 s)
_
(55 m/3.6 s)
2
+ 2(2.1 m/s
2
)(50 m)]/(2.1 m/s
2
) =
4.97 s. The velocity of the rst train at the time of the
collision is v
1
= v
10
+ a
1
t = (80 km/h) (2.1 m/s
2
)
(4.97 s)(3.6 km/h/m/s) = 42.4 km/h. Therefore, the
relative speed at impact is v
1
v
2
= 42.4 km/h
25 km/h = 17.4 km/h.
Problem
80. A parachutist is drifting vertically downward at a
constant 11 m/s. An airplane passes a mere 8.4 m
directly above the parachutist, and the pilot
throws an orange straight downward at 2.2 m/s.
How much later do the orange and parachutist
meet, and what is their relative speed?
Solution
Suppose the orange is released at t = 0 when the
parachutist is at an altitude y
0
(positive upward).
Then y
orange
(t) = y
0
+ 8.4 m(2.2 m/s)t
1
2
gt
2
, and
(since the parachutists velocity is constant)
y
para
(t) = y
0
(11 m/s)t. The orange and parachutist
are at the same altitude (ignoring the possible
inuence of the intervening parachute) when
y
orange
(t) = y
para
(t) and t > 0, or
1
2
gt
2
(8.8 m/s)t
8.4 m = 0. Using the quadratic formula to solve for the
positive root, we nd t = [8.8 m/s+
_
(8.8 m/s)
2
+ 2(9.8 m/s
2
)(8.4 m)]/(9.8 m/s
2
) =
2.49 s. The relative speed of the orange and
parachutist, when they meet, is
|v
orange
(t) v
para
(t)| = |(2.2 m/s) (9.8 m/s
2
)
(2.49 s) (11 m/s)| = 15.6 m/s. (In Chapter 3, we
will see that in order for the orange to start straight
downward, the pilot must throw it downward and
backward, to cancel the planes velocity.)
Problem
81. You toss a hammer over the 3.7-m-high wall of a
construction site, starting your throw at a height
of 1.2 m above the sidewalk. On the other side of
the wall, the hammer falls to the bottom of an
excavation 7.9 m below the sidewalk (see
Fig. 2-23). (a) What is the minimum speed at
which you must throw the hammer for it to clear
the wall? (b) Assuming its thrown with the speed
given in part (a), when will it hit the bottom of
the excavation?
Solution
If we consider just the vertical motion of the hammer,
and ignore air resistance, etc., the equations in
Table 2-1 (with y replacing x and a = g) apply.
(a) Equation 2-11 evaluated at the highest point of the
hammers trajectory gives v
2
0
= 2g(y
top
y
0
), since the
instantaneous vertical velocity at the highest point is
zero. In order to clear the top of the wall,
y
top
y
0
(3.7 1.2) m = 2.5 m (from Fig. 2-23), so
v
0

_
2(9.8 m/s
2
)(2.5 m) = 7.00 m/s. (b) From
Equation 2-10, the hammer hits bottom when
y
0
y
bot
= 1.2 m + 7.9 m =
1
2
gt
2
(7 m/s)t, where
the displacement y
0
y
bot
is shown in Fig. 2-23, and
we used the minimum initial velocity from part (a).
The time in this equation is measured from t = 0 when
the hammer is thrown; therefore t > 0 at the bottom.
The positive root of this quadratic equation is
t = [(7 m/s) +
_
(7 m/s)
2
+ 2(9.8 m/s
2
)(9.1 m) ]
(9.8 m/s) = 2.25 s, which is the time of ight to the
26 CHAPTER 2
7.9 m
3.7 m
1.2 m
figure 2-23 Problem 81.
bottom.
Problem
82. You toss a book into your dorm room, just
clearing a windowsill 4.2 m above the ground.
(a) If the book leaves your hand 1.5 m above the
ground, how fast must it be going to clear the sill?
(b) How long after it leaves your hand will it hit
the oor, 0.87 m below the windowsill?
Solution
Take y = 0 at ground level in the coordinate system
used in the previous problem. (a) Since the vertical
instantaneous velocity is zero at the top of the
trajectory, v
2
0
= 2g(y
top
y
0
). For the book to clear
the sill, y
top
y
sill
; therefore v
0

_
2g(y
sill
y
0
) =
_
2(9.8 m/s
2
)(4.2 m1.5 m) = 7.27 m/s. (Neglect of
air resistance is a fair approximation, provided the
book doesnt open during its ight.) (b) To nd the
time of ight to the oor, we need to nd the larger
root of Equation 2-13 (since the book passes the
height of the oor on the way up rst), with
y
r
y
0
= (4.2 0.87 1.5) m = 1.83 m, and
v
0
= 7.27 m/s. This is t = [(7.27 m/s)+
_
(7.27 m/s)
2
2(9.8 m/s
2
)(1.83 m)]/(9.8 m/s
2
) =
1.16 s.
Supplementary Problems
Problem
83. A car accelerates away from a red light at
2.5 m/s
2
until its speed reaches 10 m/s. It travels
at that speed for 8.0 s, then brakes to a stop at
the next red light with deceleration 4.0 m/s
2
.
What is the distance between lights?
Solution
The distance covered by the car, accelerating from rest
(v
0
= 0) to a speed v = 10 m/s, away from the rst
stoplight, is (x x
0
)
accel.
= (v
2
v
2
0
)/2a =
(10 m/s)
2
/2(2.5 m/s
2
) = 20 m (see Equation 2-11).
Traveling at a constant speed of v = 10 m/s for the
next t = 8.0 s, the car covers a distance of
(x x
0
)
no accel.
= vt = (10 m/s)(8.0 s) = 80 m (see
Equation 2-10 with a = 0). Finally, the distance
covered decelerating (a = 4.0 m/s
2
) from speed
v
0
= 10 m/s to rest (v = 0), at the second stoplight, is
(xx
0
)
decel.
= (0 (10 m/s)
2
)/2(4.0 m/s
2
) = 12.5 m
(see Equation 2-11 again). The total distance covered
between the stoplights is the sum of these three
distances, or approximately 113 m. (Note: we
redened t = 0 and x
0
for each of the segments of the
cars motion.)
Problem
84. Consider an object traversing a distance , part of
the way at speed v
1
and the rest of the way at
speed v
2
. Find expressions for the average speeds
(a) when the object moves at each of the two
speeds for half the total time and (b) when it
moves at each of the two speeds for half the
distance.
Solution
In either case, the average speed is the total distance
divided by the total time, or v = /t. (a) The total
distance is the sum of the distances covered at each
speed, =
1
+
2
= v
1
_
1
2
t
_
+ v
2
_
1
2
t
_
=
1
2
(v
1
+v
2
)t, so
v
a
=
1
2
(v
1
+ v
2
). (b) The total time is the sum of the
times traveled at each speed, t = t
1
+ t
2
=
_
1
2
/v
1
_
+
_
1
2
/v
2
_
=
1
2
(v
1
+ v
2
)/v
1
v
2
, so v
b
= 2v
1
v
2
/(v
1
+ v
2
).
(In general, v is the time-weighted average of the
separate speeds.)
Problem
85. You see the trac light ahead of you is about to
turn from red to green, so you slow to a steady
speed of 10 km/h and cruise to the light, reaching
it just as it turns green. You accelerate to
60 km/h in the next 12 s, then maintain constant
CHAPTER 2 27
speed. At the light, you pass a Porsche that has
stopped. Just as you pass (and the light turns
green) the Porsche begins accelerating, reaching
65 km/h in 6.9 s, then maintaining constant
speed. (a) Plot the motions of both cars on a
graph showing the 10-s period after the light turns
green. (b) How long after the light turns green
does the Porsche pass you? (c) How far are you
from the light when the Porsche passes you?
Solution
(a) Let the stoplight be at x = 0 and turn green at
t = 0. Then
x
You
(t) =
_

_
(10 km/h)t +
1
2
_
60 km/h 10 km/h
12 s
_
t
2
,
0 t 12
116.7 m + (60 km/h)(t 12 s), t 12 s.
x
Porsche
(t) =
_

_
1
2
_
65 km/h
6.9 s
_
t
2
, 0 t 6.9 s
62.29 m + (65 km/h)(t 6.9 s),
t 6.9 s.
Before plotting x versus t, we rst calculate that
x
You
(6.9 s) = 46.72 m, x
You
(12 s) = 116.7 m,
x
Porsche
(6.9 s) = 62.29 m, x
Porsche
(12 s) = 154.4 m.
(b) Evidentally, the Porsche passes you before 6.9 s,
150 m
100 m
50 m
0 s 4 s 8 s 12 s
t
x
(First twelve sec)
Porsche
You
Problem 85 Solution.
while both cars are accelerating, so x
You
= x
Porsche
implies:
(10 km/h)t +
1
2
_
50 km/h
12 s
_
t
2
=
1
2
_
65 km/h
6.9 s
_
t
2
,
or t = 3.81 s.
(c) When the cars pass, both are at the same position:
x
You
(3.81 s) = x
Porsche
(3.81 s)
=
1
2
_
65 km/h
6.9 s
_
(3.81 s)
2
= 19.0 m
from the green light.
Problem
86. In the accident of Problem 53, calculate the
relative speed with which a passenger not wearing
a seat belt collides with the dashboard. Assume
the passenger undergoes no deceleration before
striking the dashboard, and that the passenger is
initially 1 m from the dashboard.
Solution
The velocity of the dashboard, which decreases from
v
0
to zero with acceleration a = v
2
0
/2(0.8 m) from
Problem 53, is v
dash
= v
0
+ at . It comes to rest in a
time t
s
= v
0
/a = 1.6 m/v
0
after the start of the
accident and remains at rest thereafter, v
dash
= 0 for
t t
s
. Without a seat belt, the passenger continues to
move with velocity v
0
. In time t
s
, he or she has
moved a distance v
0
t
s
= 1.6 m and so is still
1 m + 0.8 m1.6 m = 0.2 m away from the
dashboard. The relative velocity of the passenger and
the dashboard is the full 88 km/h when the secondary
collision occurs, with probably lethal consequences.
(Note: we did not need the numerical value of t
s
,
which is (1.6 m)/(24.4 m/s) = 65.5 ms, to answer the
question.)
Problem
87. The position of a particle as a function of time is
given by x = x
0
sint, where x
0
and are
constants. (a) Take derivatives to nd expressions
for the velocity and acceleration. (b) What are the
maximum values of velocity and acceleration?
Hint: Consult the table of derivatives in
Appendix A.
Solution
(a) For x(t) = x
0
sin t, dx/dt = v(t) = x
0
cos t and
dv/dt = d
2
x/dt
2
= a(t) =
2
x
0
sin t =
2
x(t).
(b) Since the maximum value of the sine or cosine
functions is 1, v
max
= x
0
and a
max
=
2
x
0
. (The
motion described by x(t) is called simple harmonic
motion; see Chapter 15.)
Problem
88. Ice skaters, ballet dancers, and basketball players
executing vertical leaps often give the illusion of
hanging almost motionless near the top of the
leap. To see why this is, consider a leap that takes
an athlete up a vertical distance h. Of the total
28 CHAPTER 2
time spent in the air, what fraction is spent in the
upper half (i.e., at y >
1
2
h)?
Solution
We assume that the height of the leaper (actually, her
center of mass, as in Figure 10-11) is given by
Equation 2-10, with vertical position y measured
positive upward and a = g. Then y(t) y
0
=
v
0
t
1
2
gt
2
. The quadratic formula gives two times
when the leaper passes a particular height,
t

= [v
0

_
v
2
0
2g(y y
0
)]/g, the smaller, t

, going
up and the larger, t
+
, going down. The time spent
above that height is just t(y) = t
+
t

=
(2/g)
_
v
2
0
2g(y y
0
). The initial velocity for an
upward leap of height h is v
0
=

2gh (see Problem 61,


for example), so t(y) = 2
_
2/g
_
h (y y
0
). The
total time spent in the air is the time spent above the
ground, y y
0
= 0, or t(y
0
) = 2
_
2/g

h, and the
time spent in the upper half, above y y
0
=
1
2
h, is
_
1/2 = 70.7% of this.
Problem
89. A faucet leaks water at the rate of 15 drops per
second. At the instant one drop leaves the faucet,
another strikes the sink below, and two additional
drops are in between on the way down. How far is
it from the faucet to the sink bottom?
Solution
Drops appear at the faucet every 1/15 of a second.
Under the conditions stated (one drop at the faucet,
two in the air, and one striking the sink), the time of
fall for one drop is 3(1/15) s = (1/5) s, so the distance
fallen (starting from rest) is y
0
y =
1
2
gt
2
=
1
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)(0.2 s)
2
= 19.6 cm.
Problem
90. The depth of a well is such that an object dropped
into the well hits the water going far slower than
the speed of sound. Use the binomial theorem (see
Appendix A) to show that, under these conditions,
the depth of the well is given approximately by
d =
1
2
gt
2
_
1
gt
v
s
_
.
where t is the time from when you drop the object
until you hear the splash, and v
s
is the speed of
sound.
Solution
The depth of the well is d =
1
2
gt
2
1
, where t
1
is the time
for free fall from rest (see Equation 2-10). The travel
time for the sound of the splash to reach you is d/v
s
.
The total time is the sum of these, t = t
1
+ d/v
s
=
t
1
+ gt
2
1
/2v
s
. The quadratic formula yields
t
1
= (v
s
/g)[
_
1 + 2gt/v
s
1], from which d as a
function of t can be obtained simply by squaring. The
expression is complicated, so the approximation
stated, that the speed of impact, gt
1
, is much smaller
than v
s
can be considered. Since gt = gt
1
+(gt
1
)
2
/2v
s
,
this approximation is equivalent to assuming gt v
s
.
Therefore, one can expand the square root in t
2
1
in
powers of gt/v
s
, using the binomial theorem from
Appendix A, written in the form
(1+x)
1/2
= 1+
x
2

1
2!
_
x
2
_
2
+
3
3!
_
x
2
_
3

35
4!
_
x
2
_
4
+
Then
t
2
1
=
_
v
s
g
_
2
_
1 +
2gt
v
s
2
_
1 +
2gt
v
s
+ 1
_
=
_
v
s
g
_
2
_
2 +
2gt
v
s
2
_
1 +
gt
v
s

1
2
_
gt
v
s
_
2
+
1
2
_
gt
v
s
_
3

5
8
_
gt
v
s
_
4
+
__
= t
2
_
1
gt
v
s
+
5
4
_
gt
v
s
_
2

_
.
Multiplication by
1
2
g gives the desired expression for d.
(There are faster, but sloppier ways to solve this
problem, but one doesnt get the correct coecients
for the higher order terms, and the full power of the
binomial expansion isnt appreciated.)
Problem
91. A student is staring idly out her dormitory
window when she sees a water balloon fall past. If
the balloon takes 0.22 s to cross the 130-cm-high
window, from what height above the top of the
window was it dropped?
Solution
If the balloon was dropped from height y
0
at time
t = 0, then its height at any later time is
y = y
0

1
2
gt
2
. When it passes the top of the window,
y
1
= y
0

1
2
gt
2
1
, and when passing the bottom,
y
2
= y
0

1
2
gt
2
2
. The length of the window is
1.3 m = y
1
y
2
=
1
2
g(t
2
2
t
2
1
) =
1
2
g(t
2
t
1
)(t
2
+ t
1
).
But t
2
t
1
= 0.22 s (the time required to cross the
window), so t
2
+ t
1
= 2(1.3 m)/(9.8 m/s
2
)(0.22 s) =
1.21 s. Combined with the value of the dierence in
times, we nd that t
1
=
1
2
(1.21 s 0.22 s) = 0.493 s.
Finally, the height above the top of the window is
y
0
y
1
=
1
2
gt
2
1
=
1
2
(9.8 m/s
2
)(0.493 s)
2
= 1.19 m.
CHAPTER 2 29
Problem
92. A police radar has an eective range of 1.0 km,
while a motorists radar detector has a range of
1.9 km. The motorist is going 110 km/h in a
70 km/h zone when the radar detector beeps. At
what rate must the motorist decelerate to avoid a
speeding ticket?
Solution
The speed of radar waves (310
5
km/s) is so great
compared to the speed of a motor vehicle, we can
neglect any motion of the car during the travel times
of the radar signals. The motorist has 0.9 km to slow
down from 110 km/h to 70 km/h. This requires a
constant acceleration of
a = (v
2
v
2
0
)/2(x x
0
)
or
a =
(70 km/h)
2
(110 km/h)
2
2(0.9 km)(3600 s/h)
= 1.11 km/h/s = 0.309 m/s
2
.
(The deceleration, or magnitude of a, must be at least
1.11 km/h/s to avoid getting a ticket.)

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