Lesson - 1 Definition of Matrix

Please use headphones

Numbers arranged in rows and columns of the rectangular array and enclosed by square brackets [ ] or parenthesis ( ) or pair of double vertical line || || is called a matrix. Matrix is thus, defined as a rectangular array of ordered numbers in rows and columns. The numbers are also known as elements of matrix. A matrix consisting of m rows and n columns is written in the form as:

The first subscript refers to the number of row and the second subscript refers to the number of column to which the element belongs. Thus a 12 belongs to the first row and second column, a2l to the second row and first column, . . . . aij refers to ithrow and jth column. Generally, the dimension or order of the matrix is determined by the number of rows and columns. The matrix is denoted by capital letters like A, B, C. To refer to, a few are

Order of Matrix If the matrix has mn number of elements arranged in m rows and n columns, it is said co be of the order of m by n, which is written as m x n matrix. Remember that: 1 In a matrix, each element has its assigned position in row and column. 2 Two matrices of the same order are equal if the corresponding elements of them are same. If

then A = B if and only if a11 = b 11 ; a12 = b12, a21 = b21 and a22 = b22. 1 If the matrix consists of only one row as it is a row matrix or row vector. 1 If the matrix consists of only one column as

It is a column matrix or column vector. a, matrix is said to be a zero matrix or null matrix if and only if each of its elements is zero. For example,

(f) a matrix containing the number of rows equals to the number of columns, it is known as a square matrix. For example.

is a square matrix of order 3 x 3 or a three rowed square matrix. In this, the elements of 2, 3 and 1 are called the diagonal elements and the diagonal is called the principal diagonal. (g) A matrix containing all diagonal elements as non-zero and all non-diagonal elements are zero, it is called diagonal matrix. For example,

(h) In a matrix if all the diagonal elements are equal, it is known as scalar matrix. For example,

ALGEBRA OF MATRIX (a) Additive of Matrix: The addition of two or more matrices is possible only, if they have the same order,. The sum of matrices is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of the given, matrices. Illustration 1

Solution

Properties of Matrix Addition : i. Matrix addition is commutative, ie A + B = B + A ii. Matrix addition is associative ie (A + B) + Cm A + (B + C) iii. If for any matrix of A of dimension m x n, if exists another matrix B of the same dimension, such that A + B = B + A = 0.(null; matrix). Then B is known as additive inverse (or negative) of A and is denoted by - A. Illustration 2

Solution The equality between two matrices of the same order means that each element of one matrix is equal to the corresponding element of the second matrix. Therefore, X+Y = 2 X+Z = 3 The relationship is a system of simultaneous equations. Z-Y = 0 X+W = 4 Illustration 4 Rectory Company produces A, B and C products. The turnover (in l00units) of these products for 1993 and 1994 regions given below. Find two years total turnover

By addition of matrix, the total turnover of A, B and C products for two years can be calculated

Total turnover is 42600 units. Illustration 5

Find (i) A + B + C; (ii) (A + B) + C; (iii) A + (B + C) (ii) (A +B) +C

(III) A + (B + C)

Find A + B solution

Here, A + B = 0 (or B+ A = 0 ). B an additive matrix is inverse or negative of A. Therefore, the matrix is A +(- A) = 0, an additive inverse matrix is -A. (B) Subtraction of Matrix The subtraction of two or more matrices is possible only if they have the same order It is obtained by subtracting the corresponding elements of the given matrices. Illustration 8

Therefore A + B = B + A but A -B = B A (C) Multiplication of Matrix The product of AB is got by multiplying the corresponding elements of row of A by those of column of B. In other words, the elements of row of AB is obtained by multiplying elements of row of A by the corresponding column elements of B and adding. For this, the number of elements in each row of A is equal to the number of elements in column B. Multiplication of a matrix by a column matrix: Illustration 9 Three persons intend to buy clothes at shop R, the prices of them are given below The per unit price is as : Pant Shirt Bush-shirt Tie Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. 80 60 30 20

Let us write the prices of these clothes in the form of a column so that column becomes:

=(280) + (260) + (160) + (120) =160 + 120 + 30 + 20 =330 If B wishes to buy 1 2 21, the amount paid by him is

=(180) + (260) + (2 30) + (120) =80 + 120 + 60 + 20 =280 If C wishes to buy 3 2 2 1, the amount paid by him is =(380) + (260) + (2 30) + (130) =240 + 120 + 60 + 20 =440 Or, It can be written as:

This shows that

Multiplication of a Matrix by Another Matrix Illustration 10 Three persons intend to buy clothes at shops R1, R2, R3 and R4, the prices are given below. Price Matrix: Shops Price Pant (P) Shirt (S) Bush-shirt (B) 20 Tie (T) Clothes Matrix: A P 2 S 2 B 2 T 1

R1 50 40 20 30

R2

70 60 30 20

R3

60 30 30 20

R4

40 40 30

B C

1 2

2 1

1 4

2 2

Assuming that a person should buy his lot from the same shop, which shop should A prefer. Solution Shops

First row gives the different amounts to be paid by A for the same lot at four (R1, R2, R3 , R4) shops; and so also second row and third row relate the amounts to be paid by B and C at four shops respectively For A and C, it would be better to buy the whole lot from shop R4, and B from shop Rs as the payment would be less. Properties of Matrix Multiplication
1

All the matrices cannot be multiplied by each other. Matrix multiplication

in general is not commutative i.e., AB = BA Remark: Given matrix A of order m x n, and matrix B of order p x q, the ordered pair (A, B) of matrices A and B is said to be conformable if n is equal to p (i.e. the number of columns of A is equal, to the number of rows of B. If p is not equal to n, then AB is not conformable. If AB is conformable, it is not. necessary that BA must also conformable. Ordered pair (A, B) is conformable since n is equal to p (i.e. n= 3, p = 3). Therefore AB is defined. Is BA defined? No, because the number of columns B (q = 2) is not equal to the number of rows in A (m = 3). ii. Matrix multiplication is associative i.e A (BC) = (AB) (when the matrices dimension of A, B or C are m n, n p, p q). iii. Matrix, multiplication is distributive A (B + C) = AB + BC (where the matrices dimension of A, B and C are m n , n p, p q Illustration 11 In family R, men, women and children are 3,2, 1; and in family Q are 1, lr 2. The recommended daily calories are 2000, 1800 and 1500 for men, women and children and proteins are 50, 45, 35 respectively. Calculate the total requirement bf calories as well as proteins for each of the two families. Solution Arrange the given information in matrix form. Man Woman Child The dimensions of two matrices A and B satisfied the rule of multiplication. By multiplying A and B, we can get the total requirement of calories and proteins for R and Q families.

Illustration 12 PQR Company produces three products A, B and C which it sells in two markets X and Y. Data are as

If the unit sales price of A, B and C are Rs.3, Rs. 2, and Rs. 1 respectively, find the total revenue in X and Y market with matrix algebra. Solution Arrange the given information in matrix form

The total revenue received by selling the. Products in market X and Y is Rs. 39000 and Rs. 42000 The Revenue of the PQR company from both the markets is Rs.81000: Illustration 13 If the unit cost of the above three products (given in illustration 12) are Rs. 2.50, Rs. 1.75 and Rs. 0.80 respectively, find profits. Solution Arrange the given data in matrix form

Profit by selling products in X market and Y market is Rs. 6550 and Rs. 6400 respectively. Total profit earned by the PQR Company is Rs. 12950. Illustration 14 A factory employs 40 skilled workers and 20 unskilled workers. The daily wages to skilled and unskilled are Rs. 35 and Rs. 22 respectively. Using matrix, find (i) the number of workers matrix and (ii) the daily payment made to them.

Find AX and if AX = B, find Xi and X2 Solution

which means 3x1 + 2x2 10x1 2x2 Add (1) and (2) 13x1 = Put x1 = 0.77 in (1) 3(0.77) + 2x2 = 7 2x2 = 7 -2.31 2x2 = 4.69 x2 = 2.345 = = 10 7 3 (1) (2)

Please use headphones

D. Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices:

A square matrix A is symmetric matrix of aij = aji for all the values of i & j

Skew Symmetric: A square matrix A is said to be skew symmetric if aij=-aij for all the values of i & j

as transpose of a matrix, denoted by AT Illustration 17 Prove that (A+B)' = A' + B' Let

Transpose of a matrix: If 'A' is a matrix, the matrix obtained by changing rows of A matrix into columns & columns into rows is known

Illustration 18

Prove that (AB) = BA

Lesson 3

Determinant of a Matrix A single number expressing the difference between two or more products is called determinant (Which is denoted by either | A | or det. A). It is represented by a group of numbers enclosed by two vertical lines. For example, a, b, c, d are the elements of the determinants.

and its value is ad-bc. Its value is calculated by taking the difference between the products of the elements of the two diagonals. Determinants are possible for square matrices. Illustration 19

= 6482 = 24 16 = 8 The determinant of a square matrix is of order 1, of order 2, of order 3, etc. Let us define the two important methods which are used to find the determinants to

matrices of order 3 & order 4. Minor The minor of an element of a determinant is the determinant of one lower order, obtained by deleting the row and the column containing that element. Thus, in the determinant of order 3.

Cofactor The cofactor Cij of an element aij is defined as : Cij = (-1)i + jMij where Mij ie the minor of an element aij. Illustration 20 Solution Expand the

determinant by using the elements of the first column, we get

(1500 3150) + 2 (1800 2800) ] = [-1050 + 330 - 2000] = 250

= [1 (3000 4050) -2

Cramer's Rule In this rule, the determinant is known by two simultaneous equations. To solve the equations, (i) alx + b1y = mi and a2x + by =m2, multiply equation (i) by D2 and equation (ii) by bl. a1b2x + b1b2y = m1b2 a1b2x + b2b1y = m2b1 Sub. (2) from (1), then X(a1b2x- a1b2x) = m1b2 -m2b1 Similarly Y(a1b2x- a1b2x) = m1a2 -m2a1 We have the solution No solution exists if the denominator is zero. Illustration 21 Solve by using determinants 4x + 2y = 2 3x 5y = 21 Solution We have, a1 = 4, a2 = 3, b1 = 2, b2 = -5, m1 = 2 m2 = 21

Illustration 22 Find x, y and z for the following equations. x + 6y z = 10 2x + 3y + 3z =17

3x -3y -2z Solution:

=-9

The useful properties of determinants of any order are as : of a determinant remains unchanged, if columns are changed into rows, and rows into columns. 2 If two columns (or row) of a determinant are interchanged, the value of the determinant so obtained is negative of the original determinant. 3 If each element in any row or column of & determinant is multiplied' % a constant number, say K, then the determinant so calculated is K times the original determinant. 4 The value of a determinant in which two columns (or rows) are equal the value is zero. A determinant is said to be linearly dependant if |A| is zero, otherwise independent. Inverse of Matrix In matrix theory, dividing one matrix directly by another does not exist. However, equivalence of division of a unit matrix by any square matrix can be accomplished by a process called inversion of a matrix. In algebra if x y = 1 then x = 1/y or we say that y is inverse of x or x is inverse of y. If A is a matrix and A-1 its inverse, then their product must be equal to the identity matrix (denoted toy I). A x A-1 = I A-1 = 1/A The inverse matrix concept is very useful in solving simultaneous equations in inputoutput analysis as well as regression analysis in economics.
1

The value

Illustration 23 Find the inverse of matrix

Remember that 5 The inverse of the inverse is the original matrix i.e. (A -1) -1 = A. 6 The inverse of transpose of a matrix is the transpose of its inverse, i.e. (A -1 T ) = (AT)-1 , :: 7 The inverse of the product of two non-singular matrices is equal to the product of two inverse in the reverse order i.e. (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1 Lank of Matrix The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent (nonsingular) rows (or columns) in the matrix. The rank of a matrix A is the order of the largest non-zero minor of | A|. The following points should be kept in mind. They are 8 The rank of matrix is not related to any way to the number of zero elements in it. 9 It cannot exceed the number of its rows or columns - whichever is less 10 It is at least one, unless the matrix has all zero elements, 11 The rank of a column of any number of rows matrix, say m x 1 is at most 1, while rank of a matrix of 3 x 50 is at most 3. 12 Rank of the transpose of matrix A is the same as that of A. Note: The straight way to find the rank of any matrix is to look for non-zero

determinant of the highest order which the given matrix contains. Illustration 24 Find the rank of

Therefore, the rank can be atmost be 2. We find that there is atleast one non-zero determinant of order.

Further, each of the 2nd order determinant is also zero. Again the matrix is not null mar-rix. Hence the rank of this matrix is 1. In other words, only 1st order determinant is non-zero, hence the rank is 1. Simultaneous Equations Matrix algebra is useful in solving a set of linear simultaneous equations involving more than two variables. The procedure for getting the solutions is as : Consider the set of linear simultaneous equations.

Let us write the system of equations in matrix form.

Is the matrix of unknown variable X, Y and Z is the matrix formed with the right hand terms in the equations. Note: A is a 23 matrix, x is a 35 matrix and B is a 21 matrix. Linear Equations
Please use headphones

If matrix B is zero then the system AX = 0, Which is said to be homogeneous system otherwise the system is to be non-homogeneous. To solve the equation AX = 0, an elementary operations on the given coefficient matrix A should be done. This elementary operation is called row operation if it applies to rows, and column operation if it applies to columns. The elementary operation is of any one of the three types (1) The interchange of any two row is (or columns), (2) The multiplication (or division) of the elements of any row (or column) by any non-zero number, (3) The addition of he elements of any row (or column) to the corresponding elements of any other row (or column) or multiplied by any number.

To solve homogeneous linear equations, the Guass-Jordon method also called Triangular Term Reduction method is applied. In this, the given linear equation is reduced to an equivalent simpler system, which is studied in both homogeneous and non homogeneous equations. The simplified system is as x1+ b1 x2 + c1 x3 = d1 x2 + c2 x3 = d2 x3 = d3 The non-homogeneous linear equations can be solved by either (i) Matrix method, or (ii) Cramer's method or (iii) Gauss Jordon method. Matrix Method Let AX = B be the given system of linear equations, and A-1 be the inverse pf A. Pre-multiply in both sides of the equation .by A-1 we get A-1 (AX) = A-1 B (A-1A) X = A-1 B IX = A-1 B X = A-1B (I is the identity matrix) The X gives the solution to the given set of simultaneous equations. It is thus, calculated by (i) finding A~1 and (2) post-multiplying AT1 by B. Illustration 25 Solve the equations and find the values by linear equations using the matrix inverse.

Solution The equations for three days cost can be written like :

Given data in

matrix form, AX = B. The matrix of cofactors of elements of matrix A is:

Proof a+10b + 40c = 6950 5000+1075 4030 =6950 5000+750+1200=6950 6950=6950 Illustation 26

Lesson -

4 Set Theory A set is fundamental and all mathematical objects as well as constructions need the set theory. In many fields, scientists plan for construction of their objects in terms of sets In trade, industry and commerce analysis, we have sets of data, sets of items produced, sets of outcomes of decisions and alike. While expressing the words such as family, association, group, crowd, we often used to convey the idea of a set in our day life. Enumerations and calculations leading to numbers form set and which gives a good: insight into the depth of nature. In set, symbols are used, on which its operations, can be done.

Notation A collection of any type of numbers, things, or objects is referred to set. The constituent numbers of it is termed as its elements. These elements may be presented by enclosing them in brackets or may be described in a form with statement of the properties. The sets and their elements are denoted by capital letters A, B, C,and lower case letters a, b, c,................ respectively. A set is known by its elements. A set may be presented either in tabular method (or Roster method), descriptive phrase method or rule method (or set builder). These are discussed with examples. A = {2, 4, 6, 8} is a set of the even numbers 2,4, 6, 8. It means A is a set of all even numbers between 1 and 9 ; and 2, 4, 6, 8 are elements of A. The function of this set is described in tabular form enlisting each element of it within the bracket. This method is known as tabular method. A = { even numbers between 1 and 9 }. In this, the elements of A simply placing a phrase describing the elements of set' within the bracket. This method is called descriptive phrase method. A = {x/x is an even integer, 1 < x < 0}. In this, the set is determined by its elements but not by the description. This method is known as rule method. However, it should be noted that the set A can get in any of the three different ways as shown above, remains the same. Venn Diagram A diagram is said to be Venn diagram if the elements of set represent by points by circular or similarly enclosed curve. For example, V = { a, e, i, o, u}. The Venn diagram shows the letters a, e, i, o, u which are the elements of set V, how belong to that set. A set remains unchanged even if the order of its elements is changed. Thus, the above set can be written as : V = { e,o,i,u,a }

Illustration 28:

Express-the following in the set notation i. ii. iii. iv. v. Integers less than 5 The letters in the word English Integers greater than 199 and less than 201. Even numbers up to 100 The three smallest integers greater than 20 and less than 20.

Solution i {0} ii {e,n,g,l,i,s,h} iii {200} iv {2,4,6,8,10..100} v {21,22,23} and {17,18,19} Illustration 29 Explain the following sets i { x/x is a college having more than 200 students } ii B = {b/b>4} iii C = {c (integer)/c<0} Solution i. Set A consists of the elements x such, that x is a college having more than 200 students. ii. Set B consists of the elements b such that all the numbers greater than 4. iii.Set C consists of the elements c such that c is all numbers less than 0 i.e. C is the set of all negative integers. Finite and Infinite Sets If A set has a finite number of elements, A is said to be finite. The number of elements is denoted by n(A) and can be counted by a finite number. A set is infinite, if it has an infinite number of elements. The elements of such set cannot be counted by a finite number. A set of points along a line or in a plane is known as point set.

Illustration 30 State the following i. A= {a,b,c,y, 1, 4, 6, r} ii: D = { x/x pages in a book } iii. P = { x/x is a natural number } iv. B = { x/x is a number between 5 and 6 } .

v. vi.

Is M = { x/x is a currency note in India } and infinite set. Is K = { x/x is a multiple of 3 } an infinite set.

Solution i ii iii iv v vi A is a finite set n (A) =8 D is a finite set P is an infinite set, {1,2,3..n} B is a finite set No. Yes

Types of Set

b. A set which contains only one element is known as Unit set. c. A set which contains the totality of elements is called Universal set. It is often drawn as a rectangle and is denote by E d. If the two sets have no elements in common, they are disjoint sets. e. If the two sets overlap, that overlapping portion will include the common points between the two sets is known as overlapping set. f. If an element, x belongs to a set A, then it is said to be the membership set. g. If some elements represent having special property in which set-they contain is said to be subset. h. If every element of one set is also an element of another set, the two sets are said to be equal or identical sets. i. Two sets are said to be equivalent if there is a one-to-one correspondence between the elements in two sets. The elements appearance order in each set is immaterial. Equivalence may be expressed symbolically as, A = B or A < > B j. The class of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by P(A). Illustration 31 State the following. ii. A = '{x/x is a tomoto growing a mango } iii A = {a} .

iv . v. vi . vi i. vi ii. ix . x xi xi i xi ii

A = {0} E = { a, b, c, d, E = { tail, head } { rise in supply, constant in supply, fall E = in supply } { odd numbers} and B = { even A = numbers } A = {0,l,2,3}and B = {5,6} A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,8} and B ={2,4,6,8} I belong to a set A and if x does belong to x a set f A = {3,5,7} and B= {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} {commerce, economics } and A = {chemistry , mathematics , Commerce economics} z}

xi A = {2,4,6,8} and B {4,8,2,6} v xv A = {x/x is a letter of the word total and B {total} Solution i A = {x/x is a married bachelor } = ii A = { x/x is a tomoto growing mango } . iii. A = {a} is a unit set, also called singleton set. iv. A = {0} is a unit set containing an element zero. A is not a null set. v. E{ a, b, c, d,..z } is a universal set (It covers all the letters), vi. E = {tail, head } is a universal set (It covers all the possibilities). vii. E ={ rise in supply, constant in supply, fall in supply is a universal set (It covers all the possibilities) . viii. If A = {odd numbers} and B {even numbers}, then A and B are disjoint set. ix. If A ={ 0, 1, 2, 3} and B = { 5, 6}, then A and B are disjoint sets. x. A = { 0,1,2, 3,4,6} and B { 2,4,6,8}, the sets are overlapping (The common points are 2, 4, 6} xi. If x belongs to a set A, and if x does not belong to a set A, then we write X G A, and X & A respectively. xii. A = { 3, 5,7 } and B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, JO }, then A is subset of B. xiii. A - {commerce, economic } and B = { chemistry, mathematics, commerce, economics } then A is subset of B. xiv. If A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 4, 8, 2, 6}, then A = B.. xv. If A = {x/x is a letter of the word total } and B = {otalt } then, A = B. Operations on Sets

Please use headphones

A set may be combined and operated in various ways to get hew sets. The basic operations on sets are classified into four. They are ; (a) Complementation, (b) difference, (c) intersection and (d) union. These are discussed below with suitable examples. a. Complementation If A is a subset of the universal set E, then getting the elements belonging to E but not belonging to A is known as the complement of A.

Solution The unshaded portion of the Venn diagram is referred to the complement of A. Therefore that the complement of a set a to universe set E is the set of all elements of E which are not elements of A. The Complement of A may be written as A1

Illustration 33 If A = {a,b,x,y} and B = { c,d,x,y} Find A-B and B-A Solution A-B = { a,b} B-A = {c,d} c. Intersection: The intersection of two sets Aand B is the set of all elements which belong to both Aand B. Symbolically,

d.Union

i ii

A = {c,f} and B = {c,d,g} A = {c,d} and B = {e,f,g}

Exercise 1. Define matrix. Explain the

operations on Matrices. 1 What is determinant of a square matrix ? Discuss its properties.

What is inverse of matrix? Explain it with example. Explain how the matrix algebra is useful in solving a set of linear simultaneous equations.
1 1

6. If 10000 2000 18000 6800 20000 8000 P Q R = 54500 52500

Prove that P=2.50, Q = 1.25 and R = 1.50.

What is Venn diagram? Explain complement, union, difference and intersection with Venndiagram.
1 1

Explain the following. Addition of Matrices. Transpose of matrix

i. ii.

iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.

Minor and Cofactor Cramer's rule Vector matrix, Rank of Matrix, Zero Matrix Symmetric Matrix Set.

REFERENCES Birkhoff, G. and Maclane, PA., 'Survey of Modern Algebra', The Macmillan Co. MethaandMadnani, 'Mathematics for Economies', Sulthan Chand and Sons, New Delhi, 1979. Monga, G.S., 'Mathematics and Statistics for Economies', Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1982. Raghavachari, M. 'Mathematics for Management -An Introduction', Tata McGraw-Hill, Delhi, 1985. Scarles, S.R. 'Matrix Algebra useful for Statistics', John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1982.

END OF CHAPTER
Lesson - 5 Probability The probability theory has its origin in the games of chance pertaining to gambling. Jerome Cardon, an Italian mathematician was pioneer to write a book on 'Games of Chance' which was published Posthumously in 1663. Credit goes to the French mathematicians Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat who developed a systematic "and scientific procedure for probability theory on solving the stake in an incomplete gambling match posed by a notable French gambler and noble man Chevalier de Mere. A Swiss mathematician James Bernoulli made an extensive study on probability is a major contribution to the theory of probability and combinatory. Contribution to the theory of probability was made by Abraham de Moivre(1667-1754) - The Doctrines of chances and the Revered Thomas Bayes (1702-61) - Inverse Probability. In 19th century, Pierre Simon de Laplace made an extensive research on all the early ideas and published his monumental work under caption 'Theory of Analytical Probability* in 1812 which became pioneer in theory of probability.

Meaning of Probability The word probability is very commonly used in day-to-day conversation, and people have a rough idea about its meaning. We often come across statements like probably it may rain to-day. It means not sure about the occurrence of rain but there is possibility of occurrence of rain. What do we mean when we say the probability to win the match is 0.75. Do we mean that we will win three-fourths of the match. No. we, actually, mean is that the conditions show the likelihood of winning the match is only 75 per cent. Hence, the term probability is sensible numerical expression about uncertainty. In brief, probability is numerical value about uncertainty with calculated risk. If an event is certain not to occur, its probability is zero and if it is certain to occur, its probability is one. The subject probability has been developed to a great extent and to-day, no discipline in social, physical or natural sciences is left without the use of probability. It is widely and popularly used in the quantitative analysis of business and economic problems; and is an essential tool in statistical inferences which form the basis for the decision theory. In other words, the role played by probability in modern science is of a substitute for certainty. Thus, the probability theory is a part of our everyday life.
Please use headphones

Terminology The various terms which are used in defining probability under different approaches are discussed below. Random Experiment:- An operation which produces an outcome is known as experiment. If it is conducted repeatedly under homogeneous conditions and the result of which is not unique but may be any one of the various possible outcomes is called random experiment. In other words, an experiment is said to be random if we cannot predict the outcome before the experiment is carried. Ex. tossing a coin. 2 Trial and Event:- Performing a random experiment is called a trial, and the outcome is referred to event. For example, the result is not unique by tossing a coin repeatedly. We may get either head or tail. Thus, tossing of a coin is a random experiment and getting of a head or tail is an event. 3 Independent and Dependent Events :- If the occurrence of an event does not affect the occurrence of other, such event is said to be independent event. For example, in tossing a die repeatedly, the event of getting 3 in 1st throw is independent of getting 3 in 2nd, 3rd or subsequent throws.
1

Event is said to be dependent, if the occurrence of an event does affect the occurrence of other. For example, if we draw a single card from a deck of cards, probability of getting a king is 4/52. If we do not replace this card, the probability of a king occurring in the next draw will be affected.

Probability of getting a king in the second is 3/51. Hence the event is dependent. (d) Mutually Exclusive Events :Two or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of any one of them excludes the occurrence of all others. For example, if a die is cast, any outcome corresponding to any of the 6 faces excludes the occurrence of remaining 5 faces in that; trial. Hence, all the outcomes are mutually exclusive. (e) Equally Likely Events:The outcomes are said to be equally likely or equally probable if none of them is expected to occur in preference to other. For example, if a coin is cast, the outcomes viz. head and tail are equally likely if coin is unbiased. (f) Exhaustive Events :The total number of possible outcomes of a random experiment is called exhaustive events. For example, if a coin is tossed, we can get head (H) or tail (T). Hence exhaustive cases are 2. If two coins are tossed, the various possible outcomes are HH, HT, TH, TT were HT means head on the first coin and tail on the second coin and so on. Thus in toss of two coins, exhaustive cases are 4 i.e. 2 . In a throw of n coins, exhaustive events are 2 . (g) Simple and Compound Events :Events are said to be simple when the probability of happening or not happening of single events. For example, the probability of drawing a red ball from a bag containing 8 white and 7 red balls. The joint occurrence of two or more events are termed compound events. For example if a bag containing 9 white and 6 red balls, and if two successive draws of 3 balls is made, we are going to find out the probability of getting 3 white balls and 3 red balls in the first and second draw respectively. (h) Complementary Events :Let there be two events A and B. A is called complementary event of B (and viceversa) if A and B are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, For example, when a die is thrown, occurrence of an even number(2,4,6) and odd number (1,3,5) are complementary events. (i) Probability Tree:A probability representation showing the possible outcomes A series of experiments and their representative probabilities is known as Probability tree.

(j) Sample Space :The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is known as the sample space and is denoted by S. In other words, the sample space is the set of all exhaustive cases of the random experiment. The elements of the sample space are the outcomes. Algebra of Sets:The union of two sets of A and B, denoted by AU Bis defined as a: set of-elements which belong to either A or B or both. Symbolically,

In the given figure, we represent the union, difference and intersection of two events by means of Venn diagrams. The region enclosed by a rectangle is taken to represent the sample space whereas given events are represented by ovals within the rectangle.

Permutation and Combination The word permutation means arrangement and the word combination means group or selection. For example, let us take three letters A, B and C. The permutations of these three letters taken two at a time will be AB, AC, BC, BA,CA and CB i.e. 6 in all whereas the combinations of three letters taken two at a time will be AB, BC and CA i.e. 3 in all. The order of elements is immaterial in combinations while in permutations the order of elements is essential. Permutation A permutation of n different objects taken rat a time,xienbted by nPris an ordered arrangement of only r objects out of the n objects. In other words, the number of ways of arranging n things taken r at a time. It is denoted symbolically by nPr .Where, n is total number of elements in the set, r is the number of elements taken at a time ; and p is the symbol which indicates permutation. Thus,

2. Find the number of permutations of the letters a, b, c, d, e taken two at a time. Solution n-5, r=2

= 20

3. In how many ways can 8 differently coloured marbles be arranged in a row. Solution n=8 , r=8

Number of ways we can arrange 8 differently coloured marbles are

4. In how many ways can a committee of 3 persons be chosen out of 8. Solution n=8 , r=3

The required number of ways is given by ncr

6. In how many ways can a committee of 4 men and 3 women be selected out of 9 men and 6 women. Solution 4 men can be selected from 9 in 9c4 ways i.e.

Probability Theorems The computation of probabilities can become easy and be facilitated to a great extent by the two fundamental theorems of probability - the additional theorem and the multiplication theorem which is discussed in foregoing pages. (a) Addition Theorem - Independent Events : The probability of occurring either event A or event B which are mutually exclusive events is the sum of the individual probability of A and B. Symbolically, P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) Proof If an event A can be happen in a1 ways and B in a2ways, then the number of ways in which either event can happen is a1 + a2.If the total number of possibilities is n, then by definition the probability of

either A or B event happening is :

Hence P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) The theorem can be extended to three or more mutually exclusive events. Thus, P (A or B or C) = P (A) + P (B) + P (C) Addition Theorem - Dependent Events If events are not mutually exclusive, the above procedure discussed is no longer holds. For example, if the probability of buying a pen is 0.6 and that of pencil is 0.3, we cannot calculate the probability of buying either pen or pencil by adding the two probabilities because the events are not mutually exclusive. When the events are not mutually exclusive, the above said theorem is to be modified. The probability of occurring of at least one of the two events, A and B which are not mutually exclusive is given by : P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A and B) By subtracting P (A and B) i.e. the proportion of events as counted twice in P (A) +P (B), the addition theorem is, thus, reconstructed in such a way as to render A and B mutually exclusive events. In case of three events : P (A) or (B) or (C) = P (A) + P (B) + P (C) P (AB) P (AC) P (BC) + P (ABC)

Illustration 1 A bag contains 25 balls marked 1 to 25. One ball is drawn at random. What is the probability that it is marked with a number multiple of 5 or 7.

Solution The sample space i.e. the possible outcomes = 25.

1

The sample points in multiple of 5 = 5

Illustration 2 A bag contains 20 balls number 1 to 20. One ball is drawn at random. What is the probability that it is marked with a number multiple of 3 or 4. Solution Possible outcomes Possible outcomes with multiple of = 20. 3= 6(3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 )

Probability of drawing a number multiple of 3 or 4 is not simply adding as done

in illustration (1) because the multiple of 3 and that of 4 are not mutually exclusive. In other words, they contain one event i.e. 12 in both. Hence, probability of two events which are not mutually exclusive i.e. disjoint bases is 1/20. Now, probability of drawing a multiple of 3 or 4,

Illustration 3 From a pack of 52 cards, what is the probability of drawing one card that it is either king or queen. Solution Let us denote drawing of king by A and that of queen by B. We have

Illustration 4 A bag containing 30 balls numbered from l to 30. One ball is drawn at random. Find the probability that the number of drawn ball will be a multiple of (a) 5 or 9 and (b) 5 or 7. Solution

Illustration 5 The probability that a student passes a Chemistry test is 2/3 and the probability that he passes both, a Chemistry test and a English test is 14/45. The probability that he passes at least one test is 4/5. What is the probability that he passes the English test. Solution Let us denote the student passes chemistry test by A and English test by B. Use addition theorem of probability-dependent events. We are given

Illustration 6 Let A and B be the two possible outcomes of an experiment and suppose: P (A) = 0.4 P (A or B) = 0.8 and P (B) = P
2 3

For what choice of P are A and B mutually exclusive. For what choice of P are A and B independent.

Solution
4

We have

P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) P (AB) P (AB) = P (A) + P (B) P (A or B) = P + 0.4 0.8 = P-0.4 If A and B are mutually exclusive P (A or B) = 0 0 = P -0.4 P = 0.4
1

A and B are independent if

P (AB) = P (A) P (B) P 0.4 = 0.4 x P (1-0.4 ) P = 0.4 06P = 0.4

Illustration 7

A person is known to hit the target in 3 out of 4 shots, whereas another person is known, to hit the target in 2 out of 3 shots. Find the probability of the target being hit at all when the both try. Solution

= 17/12 -6/12 = 11/12 = 0.917

Illustration 8 A product is assembled from three components, X, Y, and Z, the probability of these components being defective is respectively 0.01, 0.02 and 0.05. What is the probability that the assembled product will not be defective; 6 Items produced by a certain process each may have one or both the two types of defects, A and B. It is known that 20 per cent of the items have type A defects and 10 per cent have type B defects. Furthermore, 6 per cent are known to have both types of defects. What is the probability that a randomly selected item will be defective.
5

Solution Denote, A, B and C are components of X, Y and Z being defective respectively. We are given:
7

P (A) = 0.01, P (B) = 0.02, P (C) = 0.05.

Probability that at the assembled product will be defective,

Hence, required probability that assembled product not be defective = 1 -0.07831 = 0.92169 or 0.922.
2

We are given

Illustration 9 A salesman has 65 per cent chance of making a sale to each customer. The behaviour of successive customer is independent. If three customers P, Q and R enter, what is the probability that salesman will make a sale to A or B or C. Solution In notation

A B C

= = =

Probability of making sale to P Probability of making sale to Q Probability of making sale to R

P (A) .= . .0.65, P (B) = 0.65, P (C) = 0.65 P(A)or(B)or(C) =P(A) + P(B) + P(C) P(AB) - P (BC) - P (AC) + P (ABC) =0.65 + 0.65 + 0.65 - 0.65 x 0.65 - 0.65 x 0.65 =0.65 x 0.65 + 0.65 x 0.65 x 0.65 =1.95 - 1,2675 + 0,2746 =0.9571 (b) Multiplication Theorem The probability of occurring of two independent events A and B is equal to the product of their individual probabilities. Symbolically, if A and Bare independent, then P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B) Proof If an event A can happen in n1 ways of which a1 are successful, we can combine each successful events in the first with each successful events in the second. Thus, the total number of successful events in both cases is a1 x a2.Similarly, the total number of possible cases is n1 x n2.By definition, the probability of occurrence of both events is:

Therefore, P (A and B) -P (A) x P (B). Illustration 10

Four cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that
8 9 10 11 12 13

They are a king, a queen, a jack Two are kings and two are aces All are diamonds Two are red and two are black There is one card of each suit There are two cards of clubs and two cards of diamonds.

Solution A pack contains 52 cards. We can draw 4 cards from 52 cards, in ncr i.e. 52C4 ways which gives exhaustive number of cases i.e. sample space.
14 A pack of 52.consisting of four each king, queen, jack and ace. So, drawing

a king, a queen, a jack or-ah ace is 4c1i.e.4 ways. Since drawing a king can be associated with any one of the ways of getting a queen, a jack and an ace, the sample points i.e. favorable number of cases are

iii. All diamonds: A pack of 52 contains 13 diamond cards. So, we can draw four diamond cards out of 13

cards in 13C4 ways.

v.One card of each suit

In a pack of 52 cards, there are 13 cards of each suit. We can draw one card of each suit in 13c1 x 13c1 x 13c1 x 13c1

Illustration 11 A bag containing 8 white and 6 red balls. Two balls are drawn in succession at random. What is the probability that one of them is white and the another is red. Solution The sample space or exhaustive outcomes = 14c2

Illustration 12 An Urn contains 8 white and 3 red balls. If two balls are drawn at random, find the probability that (i) both are white, (ii) both are red and (iii> one is of each colour. Solution Total balls in an Urn 2 balls at a time can draw in = = 11 11c2 ways

in

One white ball and one red ball can draw out of 8 and 3 balls respectively

Illustration 13 A bag contains 10 white, 6 red, 4 black and 7 blue balls. 5 balls are drawn at random. What is the probability that 2 of them are red, 2 white and one blue. Solution Total balls No. of balls drawn Draw 5 balls in 27c5ways Possible ways of getting 2 red balls in Possible ways of getting 2 white balls in Possible ways of getting 1 blue ball in Possible ways of getting 2 red, 2 white and 1 blue ball = = 6c2 10c2 7c1 = = 27 5

Illustration 14 A bag contains 8 red and 5 white balls. Two successive drawing of 3 balls are made such that (i) balls are replaced before the second trial, (ii) balls are not replaced before the second trial. Find the probability that the first drawing will give 3 white and the second 3 red balls. Solution Let us define the events, A B P(AB) two draws. = = = Drawings white balls in the first draw Drawing; 3 red balls in the second draw Probability of drawing 3 each of white and red balls in

i. Balls with replacement

Drawing 3 white and 3 red balls in the first and second draw respectively is independent events which needs the multiplication probability theorem to find probability. In first draw, 3 x 3 balls out of (8+5) 13 can draw in 13c3 ways which is the exhaustive number of cases. 3 white balls out of 5 can draw in 5c3 ways. Hence,

ii. Balls without replacement

Illustration 15 An urn containing 5 white; 3 black and 5 red balls. 3 balls are drawn at random. Find the probability that: two of the balls drawn are white, i. ii. iii. one is of each colour none is black at least one is white.

Solution . Total balls is urn = 14. 3 balls can draw out of 14 in 14c3 ways, the exhaustive number of cases (364 ways). i 2 white balls can draw out of 5 in 5 and the remaining out of 14 - 5 = 9 in 9c1 ways. So, the favourable cases are 5c2 9c1 = 90

iv. At least one white ball means none of the three balls is white. That probability of at least one white ball is 1 probability of none of three balls. So, 3 balls out of (3+6) 9 can draw in 9C3 ways. Probability of none of balls white is

Illustration 16 The probability that India wins a cricket test match against Australia is given to be 1/3. If India and Australia play four test matches, what is the probability that (i) India will lose all the four test matches, (ii) India will win at least one test match. Solution In notation, A B = = event that India wins event that India losses

Illustration 17 A University has to select an examiner from a list of 60 persons - 25 of them women ' and 35 men, 15 of them knowing Hindi and 45 not, 18 of them being teachers and the remaining 42 not. What is the probability of the University selecting a Hindiknowing woman teacher. Solution In notation, A B C = = = Woman Hindi Knowing Teacher

Illustration 18 The M.Com. class consists of 60 students, 12 of them are girls and 48 boys, 10 of them are rich and 50 not, 15 of them are fair complexioned. What is the probability of selecting a fair complexioned rich girl. Solution Let us take, A B C = = = Girl Rich Fair complexion

P(A) or (B) or (C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) P(AB) P (BC) P(AC) + P (ABC) = .2 + .17 + .25 .2 .17 - .17 .25 - .2 .25 + .0083

= = Illustration 19

.62 - .4325 + .0083 .1958

The following table shows the subject and educational qualification-wise of 40 teachers of S.K. University. Of 144, one is nominated at random to the University Executive. Find the probability that (i) he has only a Master's degree, (ii) he has

a Ph.D. degree and his subject is commerce, (iii) he has a Ph.D. degree. The data are: Subject Commerce Economics Rural Development Solution Total number of teachers PG Degree only 3 5 4 = Ph.D. Degree 9 12 17 40

15 Probability of nominating a teacher

with PG degree only to the Executive Probability of nominating a teacher with = 9/40
4

Ph.D. degree and his subject is Commerce

1

Probability of nominating a teacher with Ph.D. degree and his subject is Economics 1 Probability of nominating a teacher with Ph.D. degree

12/40

Lesson 6 Conditional Events

Conditional Theorem: If the two events A and B are dependent, the above rule does not hold good. If the events are dependent, the probability of the second event occurring will be affected by the outcome of the first that has already occurred. The term conditional probability is used to describe this situation. It is symbolically denoted by P (B/A). This is read as the probability of occurring B, given A, has already occurred,. Robert L. Birte is defined the concept, conditional probability as : "A conditional probability indicates that the probability that an event will

occur is subject to the condition that another event has already occurred." Symbolically,

Bayes' Rule Computation of unknown probabilities on the basis of information supplied by the past records, or experiment is one of the most important .applications of the conditional probability. The occurrence of an event B only, when, event A is known to have occurred (or Vice-Versa) is said to be conditional probability which is denoted by P (B/A). In other words, probability of B given A. The conditional probability is, thus, occur due to a particular event or reason iscalleditsihv^rse-brp'osteritjri probability. The posteriori probability is computed by Bayes' Rule, named after its innovator, the British Mathematician, Sir Thomas Bayes. The revision of given i.e. old probabilities in the light of the additional information supplied by the experiment or past records is of extreme help to business and management executives in making valid decisions in the face of uncertainties. The Bayes theorem is defined as :

By observing the following diagram, the deviation of the above formula can be drawn

A1 and A2 = The set of events which are mutually exclusive B = An event which intersects each of the events (Observe diagram. The part of B which is within Ai represents the area Ai and B ; and the part of B which is within A2 represents the area A2 and B). F.R. Jolliffee in his book captioned Commonsense Statistics for Economists and Others', has defined the concept of Bayes theorem as : With twisting conditional probabilities the other way round, i.e. given probabilities of the form P (B/Ai) to find conditional probabilities of the form P (Ai/B) where Ai can he described as prior probabilities i.e. probabilities known before anything happens, the probabilities P (A :/B). are described as posterior probabilities i.e. probabilities found after something has happened, and supported experimental evidences. Probability before revision by Bayes' rule is called a priori or simply prior probability, since it is' determined before the: sample' information is' taken in account. A probability which has undergone revision via Bayes' rule is called posterior probability because it represents a probability computed after the sample information is taken into account.

Posterior, probability is also called revised probability in the sense, it is obtained by revising the prior probability with the sample information. Posterior probability is always conditional probability, the condition event being the sample information. Thus,, a prior probability which is unconditional probability becomes a posterior probability which is conditional probability by using Bayes* rule. Illustration 20 Two sets of candidates are competing for the positions of the Board of: Directors of a company. The probability that the first and second sets will win are 0.65 and 0.35 respectively. If the first set wins, the probability of introducing a new product is 0.8, and the corresponding probability if the second set wins is 0.3. What is the probability that the product will be introduced. Solution Let,

A1 A2 B

= = =

the events of first sets of candidates. the events of second set of candidates. the event of introducing a new product.

we are given, P(A1) P(A2) P(B/A1) P(B/A2) = = = = 0.65 0.35 0.80 0.30

Probability of introducing the product = P(B) = P (A1 and B) + P(A2 and B)

Illustration 21 A factory has two machines. Past records show that the first machine produces 40 per cent of output and the second machine produces 60 per cent of output Further, 4 per cent and 2 per cent of products produced by the first machine and. the second machine were defectives. If a defective item is drawn at random, what is the probability that the defective item was produced by the first machine or the second machine. Solution Let A1 A2 = = the event of drawing an item produced by the first machine the event of drawing an item produced by-the second machine

B = the event of drawing defective item produced by either first machine or second machine.

Based on the information given, we can have,

The values derived above can also compute in tabular form, as below. Computation of posterior probabilities

Event

Prior Probability P (A1) (2) 0.40 0.60 1.00

Conditional probability P(B/A1) (3) 0.04 0.02

(1) A1 A2

Joint probability P (A1 and B) (4) 0.016 0.012 P (B) 0.028

Posterior probability P(A1/B) 4-P (B) (5) 0.016/0.02 8 0.012/0.02 8 1.0000

=0.5714 = 0.4286

Conclusion With additional information i.e. conditional probability, the probability of defective items produced by the first machine is 0.5714 or 57.14 per cent and that by the second machine is 0.4286 or 42.86 per cent. And we may say that the defective item is more likely drawn from the output produced by the first machine. Illustration 22 The probability that management trainee will remain with a company is 0.60. The probability that; an employee earns more than Rs. 10,000 per year is 0.50. The probability that an employee is a Management trainee who remained with the or who earns more than Rs. 10000 per year is 0.70. What is the probability that an employee earns more than Rs. 10,000 per year given that he is a management trainee who stayed with the company. Solution Let us define the events, A B P (A) P (B) P (A or B) = = = = = Management trainee will remain with the company An employee earns more than Rs. 10,000. 0.60 0.50 0.70

P (A or B) 0.70 P (AB)

= = =

P (A) + P (B) P (AB) 0.60 + 0.5 0.70 0.4

Probability of an employee earns more than Rs. 10000 per year given that he is a management trainee is 0.67. Illustration 23 Suppose that one of the three men, a politician, a businessman and an academician will be appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of a University. Their probabilities that research activities ments respectively are 0.40,0.25 and 0.35. The probabilities that research activities will be promoted by these people if they are appointed are 0.5, 0.4 and 0.8 respectively. What is the probability that research will be promoted by the new Vice-Chancellor. Solution Let us define the event of appointment of the Vice-Chancellor A1 A2 A3 = = = Politician Businessman Academician

On given information, we have, P (A1) P (B/A1) P (B) = = = = = 0.40, P (A2) = 0.25, P (A2) = 0.35 0.50, P (B/A2) = 0.40, P (B/A3) = 0.80 P (A1) P (B/A1) + P (A2) P (B/A2) + P (A3) P (B/A3) 0.4 x 0.5 + 0.25 x 0.40 + 0.35 x 0.8 0.20 + 0.10 + 0.28 = 0.58

Thus, the probability that research will be promoted by the new Vice-Chancellor is 0.58.

Hence, the appointment of a politician, a businessman and an academician as the Vice-Chancellor will promote research is 0.3448 or 34.48 %, 0.1724 or 17.24 %, and 0.4828 or 48.28 %respectively. Appointment of an academician as the Vice-Chancellor would certainly develop and promote education as it is known by the probability theory. Random Variable and Probability Distribution Random variable we mean a variable value which is computed by the outcome of a random experiment. In brief, a random variable is a function which assigns a unique value to each sample point of the sample space. A random variable is also called a chance variable or stochastic variable, A random variable may be continuous or discrete. If the random variable takes on all values within a certain interval, then it is called a continuous random variable while the random variable takes on the integer values such as 0,1,2, 3 ..... then it is known as discrete random variable.

The function p (x) is known as the probability function of random variable of x and the set of all possible ordered pairs is called probability distribution of random variable. The concept of probability distribution is in relation to that of frequency distribution. While the frequency distribution tells how the total frequency is distributed among different classes of the variable, the probability distribution tells how the total frequency is distributed among different classes of the variable, the probability distribution tells how the total probability of 1 is distributed among various values which random variable can take. In brief, the word frequency is replacing by probability. Illustration 24 A dealer of Allwyn refrigerators estimates from his past experience the probabilities of his selling refrigerators in a day. These are as follows:

No. of refrigerators 5 6 Probability 0.10 0.07

: :

0 0.03

1 0.20

2 0.23

3 0.25

4 0.12

Find the mean number of refrigerators sold in a day. Solution P (X) P (X) = = P (X = Xi) ; 1 = 1, 2, 3 n 0 x 0.03 + 1 x 0.2 + 2 x 0.23 + 3 x 0.25 + 4.0 x 0.12 + 5 x 0.10 + 6 x 0.07 = = 0 + 0.02 + 0.46 + 0.75 + 0.48 + 0.50 + 0.42 2.81

Hence, mean number of refrigerators sold in a day is 2.81. Illustration 25 A die is tossed twice. Getting an odd number is termed as a success. Find the probability distribution of number of success. Solution Getting an odd number in a throw of a die are 1, 3, 5 i.e. 3 in all.

ii)

P (X =1) =

P (S and F) + P (F and S) P (S) P (F) + P (F) P (S)

Thus, the probability distribution of X is : X P (X) 0 0.25 1 0.50 2 0.25

Illustration 26

Four bad apples are mixed accidentally with 26 good apples. Obtain the

probability distribution of number of bad apples in a draw of 3 apples at random.

Solution Denote X the number of bad apples drawn. Now X is a random variable which takes of 0,1,2, 3. There are (26 + 4) 30 apples in all, and the exhaustive number of cases drawing three apples is 30c3. We get

Hence, the probability distribution of X is: X = 0 1 2 3

Illustration 27 An insurance company offers a 40 year old man Rs. 1200 one year term insurance policy for an annual premium of Rs. 15. Assume that the number of deaths per one thousand is four persons in this group. What is the expected gain for the insurance company on a policy of this type. Solution Denote premium by X and death rate P (X). Accordingly,

Expected gain to the insurance

company for having that policy is Rs. 10.20

Illustration: 28 Mr. Gopi, a news paper vendor purchase the newspaper at a special concessional rate of Rs. 1.80 per copy of Hindu paper against the selling Price of Rs. 2.30. Any unsold copies are, however, a dead loss. Mr. Gopi has estimated the following probability distribution for the number of copies demanded. No. of copies : Probability 20 21 0.18 22 0.30 23 0-28 24 0.10 25 008

: 0.05

How many copies should be ordered so that the expected profit will be maximum. Solution Profit per copy Expected post : : 2.30-1.80 = 0.50 paise Profit per copy X Probability of paper Distribution x No. of papers sold. No. of copies Expected profit 50 189 330 322 120 100 20 21 22 23 24 25 Probability 0.05 0.18 0.30 0.28 0.10 0.08 Profit per copy 50 50 50 50 50 50

By purchasing and selling 22 copies of paper, Mr. Gopi will get maximum expected profit of Rs. 3.30. Illustration 29 (a) The monthly demand for Allwyn watches is known to have the following probability distribution. Demand 8 Probability 0.04 : : 1 0.08 2 0.12 3 0.19 4 0.24 5 0.16 6 0.10 7 0.07

Determine the expected demand for watches. Also compute the variance. (b) A random variable has the following probability distribution. X -1 0 1 2

Illustration 30 Ravali, proprietor of a food stall has invented a new item of food delicacy which she calls R-foods. She has calculated that the cost of manufacturing is Rs. 2-per piece and because of its quality it would the sold for Rs. 3per piece. It is, however, perishable and any goods unsold at the end of the day are dead loss. She expects the demand to be variable and has drawn up the following probability distribution. No. of Pieces 15 demanded Probability 2K
1 2

10 K+0.02

11 K +0.05

12 5K-0.03

13 7K+0.03

14 2K+0.02

Find the value of K. Find an expression for her net profit or loss if she manufactures m pieces and only n are demanded ; consider separately the two cases n lesser than or equal to m and n greater than m. 3 Assume that she manufactures 12 pieces. 4 Calculate expected profit for different levels of production. Solution Calculation of the value of K. As we know, the probability of a distribution cannot exceed one. Using the principle 1 = K + P, we
5

get, = = = (K+0.02) + (K+0.05) + (5K-0.02)+ (7K+0.03) + (2K+0.02) + 2K 18 K + 0.1 = 1 18 K = 1.0-0.1 = 0.90

By using K value = 0.05, we can compute the probability distribution of the demand for any day as No. Of pieces demanded 14 15 Probability 0.12 0.10 : : 10 0.07 11 0.10 12 0.23 13 0.38

ii. Determining the expression that n lesser than or equal to m, and n greater than m. If manufactures m pieces on any day the cost (in rupees) is m x 2 = 2 m. If the number of pieces demanded (n) on any day is less than the production m i.e. of n is less than or equal to m, then all the n pieces demanded are sold and the scale proceeds (in rupees) are 3 x n = 3 n. And if the number of pieces demanded on any day is greater than the production i.e. if n is greater than m, then the maximum supply is limited to m pieces (which is actual production) and thus the sale proceeds (in Rs.) are 3 x m = 3m. Hence, Profit = = = Therefore, Profit = = 3m - 2m, if n is less than or equal to m m, if n is greater than m. Sales proceeds - Cost 3n - 2m, if n is less than or equal to m 3n - 2m, if n is greater than m

iii.Calculation of net profit or loss for each level of demand assuming the production of 12 pieces n Profit Probability

10 11 12 13 14 15

10x3-12x2 11x3-12x2 12 x 3- 12 x 2 1 x 12 1 x 12 1x12

=6 =9 =12 =12 =12 =12

0.07 0.10 0.23 0.38 0.12 0.10

The profit for 12 pieces (assumed to have produced only 12) are calculated on using (X). We notice that for the first three cases (i.e. n = 10,11,12) we have n is lesser than or equal to m; and for the remaining three cases (i.e. n = 13,14,15) n is greater than m. iv. Expected net profit S(X) = = = = Profit x Probability 6 x 0.07 + 9 x 0.10 + 12 x 0.23 + 12 x 0.38 + 12 x 0.12 + 12 x 0.10 0.42 + 0.90 + 2.76 + 5.46 4- 5.46 + 1.44+ 1.20 Rs. 11.28

v. Calculation of net profit for different levels of production based on production based on profit = 3n - 2m, if n is less than or equal to m, and profit = m. If n is greater than m, the profits for different levels of demand (n) and production on any day is calculated and is given below. Profit for m Demand Production (m) Probability

(n) 10 11 12 10 10 8 6 11 10 11 9 12 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 14 10 11 12 15 10 11 12 Expected 10.00 10.79 net profit (Rs.)

13 14 15 4 2 0 0.07 7 5 3 0.10 10 8 6 0.23 13 11 9 0.38 13 14 12 0.12 13 14 15 0.10 11.28 10.08 9.74 8.04

Expected net profit calculated as follows :

When production (m) = 10 10 (0.07 + 0.10 + 0.23 + 0.38 + 0.12 + 0.10 ) = Rs. 10.00 m = 11 8 x 0.07 + 11 (0.10 + 0.23 + 0.38 + 0.12 + 10 ) = Rs. 10.79 m = 12 6 x 0.07 + 9 x 0.10 + 12 (0.23 + 0.38 + 0.12 +0.10) = Rs. 11.28 m = 13 4 x 0.07 + 7 x 0.10 + 10 x 0.23 +13 (0.38 + 0.12 + 0.10 ) = Rs. 11.08 m = 14 2 x 0.07 x 5 x 0.10 + 8 x 0.23 + 11 x 0.38 + 14 (0.12 + 0.10) = Rs. 9.74 m = 15, 0.0 x 0.07 + 3 x 0.10 + 6 x 0.23 + 9 x 0.38 + 12 x 0.12 + 15 x 0.10 = Rs. 8.04. From the expected net profit given in table, we conclude that the maximum expected profit is Rs. 11.28 which gets when production (m) is 12: Hence, the production of 12 pieces per day will optimise her (Ravali's food stall enterprise) expected profit. Mathematical Expectation and Variance The concept, mathematical expectation also called the expected value, occupies an> important place in statistical analysis. The expected value of a random variable is the weighted arithmetic mean of the probabilities of the values that the variable can possibly assume. Robert L. Brite is defined the mathematical expectation as : It is the expected value of outcome in the long run. In other words, it is the sum of each particular value within the set (X) multiplied by the probability. Symbolically The concept of mathematical expectation was originally applied to games of chance and lotteries, but the notion of an expected value has become a common term in everyday parlance, This term is popularly used in business situations

which involve the consideration of expected values, Illustration 31 Mr, Reddy, owner of petrol bunk sells on an average of Rs. 80000 petrol on rainy days and on an average of Rs. 100000 on clear days. Statistics from the Meteorological- Department show that the probability is 0.83 for clear weather and 0.17 for rainy weather. Find the expected value of petrol sale and variance. Solution We are given X1 X2 E(X) = = = = = = 80000 P1= 0.17 100000 P2 = 0.83 Pi x 1 x P2 x 2 x 100000

0.17 x 80000 + 0.83 136000 + 83000 Rs. 96600.

Thus, the expected value of petrol sale would be Rs. 96600. E (x)2 = = = Variance = = = = S = = Ex2 P (x)

(80000)2 x 0.17 + (100000)2 x 0.83 1088000000 + 8300000000 9388000000 E(x)2-E(x)]2 9388000000 - (96600)2 9388000000 9331560000 56440000 Rs. 7513

Illustration 32

There are three alternative proposals before a businessman to start a new project. Proposal A - Profit of Rs. 4 lakhs with probability of 0.6 or a loss of Rs. 70000 with probability of 0.35. Proposal B - Profit of Rs. 8 lakhs with probability of 0.4 or a loss of Rs. 2 lakhs with probability of 0.6. Proposal C - Profit of Rs. 4.5 lakhs with probability of 0.8 or a loss of Rs. 50000 with probability of 0.2. For maximising profits and minimising loss which proposal he should prefer. Solution Calculation of expected value of each proposal Formula E(X) = Proposal A: Expected value = Proposal B : Expected value = Proposal C : Expected value = 800000x0.4-200000x0.6 320000-120000 = 200000 450000 x 0.8 - 50000 x 0.2 360000-10000 = 350000 400000x0.6-70000x0.5 240000-24500 = 215500 Pi x 1 + P2 x 2......

The expected value of Rs. 350000 would be in case of proposal C, hence the business man should prefer it. Illustration 33 The probability that there is at least one error in account statement prepared by A is 0.3, and for B and C they are 0.5 and 0.4 respectively. A, B and Prepared 10, 16 and 20 statements respectively. Find the expected number of correct statements in all and standard deviation Solution We are given, X1 =10 P1 = l_o.3 = 0.7 X2 =16 P2= 1-0.5 = 0.5 X3 = 20 P3 = 1 - 0.4 = 0,6 E(X) = P1x1 +P2 X2 P3x 3 0.7 x 10 + 0.5 x 16 -f 0.6 + 20 = 7 + 8 +12 = 27

Thus, expected number of correct statements are 27. Sx2 P(x) = = (x)2 - P(x) (10)2 x 0.7 + (16)2 x 0.6 + (20)^x0.6 70 + 128 + 240 438 Variance = = = = S (x)2 [S(x)]2 438 - (27)2 438 729 -291