Proceedings ICAME 09

Proceedings International Conference
on
Advances in Mechanical Engineering ICAME-2009

August 3-5, 2009
Editor
Dr. R. Venkata Rao
Department of Mechanical Engineering
S. V. National Institute of Technology

Surat-395007, Gujarat, India
PREFACE
The international conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering is scheduled to be held during August 3-5, 2009. The main objective of this conference is to bring together experts from academic institutions, industries and research organizations and professional engineers for sharing of knowledge, experience in the emerging trends related to Mechanical Engineering education and research. There has been an overwhelming response to the call for papers. All together 700 abstracts have been received from the researchers and academicians of the leading institutes and organizations all over the world. However, only about 385 abstracts have been accepted and the authors have been asked to submit the full length papers. Subsequently, about 228 high quality papers have been finally selected based on the recommendations of the reviewers for presentation and inclusion in the proceedings. By and large these technical papers give a true account of current research and development trends in the field of Mechanical Engineering. We are extremely thankful and grateful to the authors of the papers, reviewers, national and international advisory committee members, faculty and staff members of the department of Mechanical Engineering and student volunteers for their cooperation and sincerity. We are deeply indebted to Dr. P.D.Porey, Director and Sh. H.A. Parmar, Registrar of our Institute for their constant support and encouragement in making this international conference a success.
(Dr. R. Venkata Rao) Convener ICAME 2009 Professor & Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering
CHAIRMANS MESSAGE
Mechanical Engineering is one of oldest, broadest, and well established of the engineering disciplines. Simultaneously, the discipline is also constantly changing and evolving in response to new scientific discoveries and societal needs. The global technological changes are forcing the Mechanical Engineering fraternity to resort to innovative ideas and methods in the areas of computer aided engineering, robotics and automation, computational techniques, instrumentation technology, materials
development and advanced manufacturing methods. The Mechanical Engineering Department at the Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology (SVNIT) Surat reflects the old-yet-new character of the discipline itself. Since 1961 the department is playing a significant role in the building up of a sound technological base in the country through the active interaction of its faculty and alumni with major industries, national laboratories and other research and development institutions in India and abroad, and has stimulated a continuous quest for challenging new directions in teaching, research and development activities. I am happy that the international conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering is scheduled to be held in the Mechanical Engineering Department of SVNIT during August 3-5, 2009. This is the first time that such a conference is being held in Western part of India. I am confident that this conference enables the delegates to share their research experiences and ideas for the growth of technology in the Mechanical Engineering field. I congratulate the organizers and the authors for their contribution and cooperation in bringing out the proceedings successfully. I am sure that the contents of the proceedings will go a long way in dissemination of knowledge. Mumbai 1st August 2009 (Dr. W.R. Sherekar) Chairman
DIRECTORS MESSAGE
I am happy to note that the Department of Mechanical Engineering of Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology (Surat) is organizing an International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering during August 3-5, 2009. The conference is concerned with the latest in theoretical, mathematical and scientific developments in Mechanical Engineering as well as applications of established techniques to new domains. In the modern world, this type of conference is very relevant to meet the emerging fields. I believe that this conference will provide an international technical forum for experts and researches from both the academia and industry to meet and exchange new ideas and present their findings of ongoing research in various disciplines of Mechanical Engineering. I am confident that the technical papers of the conference provide an opportunity to rapidly disseminate research results that are of timely interest to the mechanical engineering fraternity. I warmly welcome all the participants for the fruitful technical sessions. Hearty congratulations to the organizers and best wishes for the success of the conference.
Surat 1st August 2009
(Dr. P.D. Porey) Director
REGISTRARS MESSAGE
I am very happy to know that, the Department of Mechanical Engineering of this Institute is organizing a three days international conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering during August 3-5, 2009. I understand that, the above international conference will promote the areas of study, teaching and research activities in field of technical education to the participants and budding technocrats and they will prove their skills equipped with human & social values required to provide integration of technical skills, social character, leadership, self confidence, creativity and renovation for mankind and all round growth of an individual. I feel the importance in troubleshooting problems in our day-to-day work and for preparing the future academic and administrative action plan. SVNIT produces very good quality technocrats and in years to come, SVNIT will be known as one of the premier global institutes because we are on the path of achieving academic excellence. The Research & Development plays a very crucial role in the Institutional Development. No one can deny the role of technology; it can only be acquired through innovation. We have the capability to create the all round growth of the Institution by focusing our attention on state of art teaching and research. I understand that, about 700 papers have been received out of which 228 high quality papers have been finally selected and researchers from all over the world are participating in the above conference. I am confident that the topic of the conference will be useful for academic enhancement and excellence. I would like to warmly welcome all the participants for a rejuvenating session. I wish a total success for the Conference.
Surat 1st August 2009
(Sh. H.A.Parmar) Registrar
ABOUT THE DEPARTMENT OF MECANICAL ENGINEERING
Dr. R. Venkata Rao, Head of the Department
The Department of Mechanical Engineering was established since the inception of college (1961). The Department offers number of courses at under graduate and post graduate levels and has facilities for research leading to doctoral degree in Mechanical Engineering. The total faculty strength (regular) is 45 and the department is in the process of recruiting more faculty members. Apart from regular teaching, the Department is actively engaged in testing, consultancy, and research & development services to support various industries in and around Surat. The interaction with industry is further strengthened by providing need based industrial courses, workshops and training programs. The subjects taught are broadly divided into three main streams i.e. (i) Thermal Engineering & Fluid Machinery, (ii) Design & Machine Dynamics, (iii) Production & Industrial Engineering. All these streams are supported by various laboratory facilities and cater to the academic needs of the students. The Department is well established with the following laboratories: 1. Sophisticated Instrument Center (A Central Facility) 2. Workshop (A Central Facility) 3. Hydraulics and machines 4. Turbomachines 5. Internal Combustion & Automobile Engg. 6. Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 7. Boiler House & Heat transfer
8. Alternative Sources of Energy 9. Computer Aided Design (CAD) 10. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) 11. Dynamics 12. Robotics 13. Cryogenics 14. Machine Tools 15. Metal Forming 16. Metallurgy 17. Simulation 18. Metrology 19. Ergonomics 20. Tribo-maintenance 21. Fuels & Lubricants 22. Industrial Automation The Department is offering the following AICTE approved UG and PG programmes: B.Tech: Mechanical Engg. Production Engg.
From academic year 2009-2010, Production Engineering seats are merged with the Mechanical Engineering and no fresh admissions in B.Tech. (Production Engineering) M.Tech: Ph.D. The Department is actively engaged in research activities with the financial assistance from MHRD, DST, CSIR, BRNS, etc. Turbo Machines Mechanical Engineering Industrial Process Equipment Design CAD/CAM Thermal System Design
M.Tech. (Research) for working professionals from reputed industries / research labs
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Dr. J.P. Davim, UA, Portugal Dr. Daizhong Su, NTU, UKy Dr. Zizka, TUL, Czech Republic Dr. O.Solomin, MSTU, Russia Dr. A. Gunasekaran, UMD, USA Dr. D.T. Pham, CU, UK Dr. K. Athre, UTT, West Indies Dr. M. Parnichkun, AIT Thailand Dr. R. Shankar, IIT Delhi Dr. Joneja, HKUST, Hong Kong Dr. I.K. Bhat, NIT Hamirpur Dr. V. K. Jain, IIT Kanpur Dr. P.S. Mehta, IIT Madras Dr. S. G. Deshmukh, IIITM, Gwalior Dr. O.P. Gandhi, IIT Delhi Dr. P.V.M. Rao, IIT Delhi Dr. P.K. Jain, IIT Roorkee Dr. M.K. Tiwari, IIT Kharagpur Dr.K.K. Padmanabhan, Ex-Chairman,IIIE, Mumbai Dr. D.R.P. Raju, DST, N. Delhi Mr. M. Kulkarni, DST, New Delhi Mr. Dinesh Gupta, Satyakiran Engineers, New Delhi Mr. P.K. Nilosey, L&T Mumbai
INDEX
Thermal and Fluids Engineering Stream
Paper Code TF-1 TF-2 Paper Title Thermodynamic Analysis Of R-404a/R-508b Cascade Refrigeration System A. D. Parekh, P. R. Tailor, V. H. Oza Thermo-Hydraulic Performance Analysis Of Solar Air Heater Having Compound Roughness Elements On The Absorber Plate Apurba Layek Lubricant Analysis Of Compression Ignition Engine By Using Pongamia Oil Methyl Ester Ajay V. Kolhe, J.G.Suryawanshi, Anant G. Nagpure Technological Feasibility Study For 5 MW Solar Power Plant In India Using Analytical Heirarchy Process R.S.Walia, M.M.Goud, A. Saini, Akash Joshi, Ankush Bajoria, Ishan Dwivedi Heat Transfer Through Windows: A Review Anuranjan Sharda, Sudhir Kumar Photovoltaic-Battery System Design Space For A Remote Indian Location Arun P Investigation Of Water Hammer Phenomena For A Simple Pipe Subjected To Sudden Closing Of Valve Patel Atul J., Patel U.A., Patel A.R. Waste Heat Recovery Possibilities For A Typical Indian Hospital Mahesh Shelar, S.D. Bagade, G.N. Kulkarni Loss Evaluation For Pulse Tube Cryo Cooler Bansi Raja J. M. Patel Experimental Study Of Performance Characteristics Of 4-Stroke Diesel Engine Using Cotton Seed Oil Bhavik D. Upadhyay, Sachin D. Daxini , Sitansh D.Golwala Effect On The Performance And Environmental Characteristics Of A CI Engine Fuelled With Jatropha Biodiesel-Diesel Blends Bijan Kumar Mandal*, Samiddha Palit, Sudip Ghosh, Somnath Chakraborti Transient Modelling Of Soot Formation And Its Burnout In Methane-Air Diffusion Flame A.K. Chowdhuri, A. J. Bhowal, B. K. Mandal Experimental Study On The Performances Of Spark Ignition Engine With AlcoholGasoline Blends As Fuel Somnath Chakraborti, Achin Kumar Chowdhuri And Bijan Kumar Mandal Performance Assessment Of A Solar- Powered Lithium Bromide-Water Absorption Cooling System With Flat-Plate Collectors K.K.Datta Gupta, Samir Chakravarti, B.K.Mandal, A.K.Chowdhuri And S.Ghosh Reliable Electro-Pneumatic System For Food Irradiator M.Chandra, P.G.Jose, K.Mahajan, R.L.Suthar Mathematical Modeling And Geometrical Study Of Scroll Compressor Used In Automobile Air Conditioning Chirag Trivedi, Hemant Nagarsheth Experimental Analysis Of Performance Of Thermal Barrier Coated Diesel Engine Gosai D.C, Modi A. J. Optimization Of Epistemic Uncertainty Using Dual Interval Fuzzy Vertex Method Case Study Solute Transport Through Groundwater D. Datta, H.S. Kushwaha Experimental Investigations Of Laminar Separation Bubble For A Flow Past An Airfoil At Varying Angle Of Attack And Reynolds Number Deepakkumar M. Sharma, K.Poddar A Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Nanofluid: A Review D. S. Chavan, A. T. Pise Experimental Analysis Of A Domestic Refrigerator Model Working With LPG Dipak J. Parmar, Bhargav M. Chavada Page No. 1 6
TF-3
11
TF-4 TF-5 TF-6 TF-7 TF-8 TF-9 TF-10
16 21 26 31 36 41 46
TF-11
51
TF-12
56
TF-13
61
TF-14 TF-15 TF-16 TF-17 TF-18
66 71 75 80 85
TF-19 TF-20 TF-21
90 95 100
TF-22
TF-23
TF-24
TF-25
TF-26 TF-27 TF-28 TF-29 TF-30 TF-31
TF-32
TF-33
TF-34
TF-35 TF-36 TF-37
Design Of Plate Fin Type Counter Flow Heat Exchanger For Joule Thomson Cryocooler K.T.Dodiya, M.I.Vyas Performance Analysis Of A Multi Cylinder Diesel Engine Using Jatropha BiodieselDiesel Blends Duraid F. Maki*, M. A. Ekbote and P. Prabhakaran Design Of System For Recovery Of Refrigeration Effect During LNG Regasification Process Gaurang P. Patel, and Bharti V. Dave Coast Down Time Analysis Used As A Condition Monitoring Parameter To Experimentally Assess The Effect Of Misalignment For Forward Curved Centrifugal Blower G.R. Rameshkumar, B.V.A Rao, K. P. Ramachandran Design, Instrumentation And Automation Of Pelton Turbine Model (5kW) G. G. Waghmare Performance Prediction Of Egr Distribution System For C. I. Engine Using Computational Fluid Dynamics Ganesh P. Bhoj, B. S. Gawali, M. V. Kulkarni Influence Of Nozzle Number On The Performance Of Vortex Tube Jaykumar D.Golhar, A.N.Pawar, R.B.Tirpude Experimental Investigations Of Oscillating Combustion Technology And Optimization Of Thermal Energy Of A Diesel Fired Furnace J.Govardhan, G.V.S.Rao Effect Of Heat Transfer On The Performance Of An Air Standard Diesel Cycle Hemant B. Mehta, Omprakash S Bharti Testing And Performance Of Petrol Start Diesel Run Engine As Per Is:7347: By Making Modifications In Petrol Start Kerosene Run Engine Hemang J. Parekh, Chirag J. Parekh, Jay M. Pujara, K.P.Trivedi Hybrid Optimization Of The Power Output Of A PEM Fuel Cell Base On Generalized Steady-State Electrochemical Model A. Shokuhi-Rad1, N. Nariman-Zadeh, M. Naghash-Zadegan, M.A. Roudbari Thermal Analysis Of Scheffler Solar Receiver Used For Steam Generation Using CFD I.I.Sayyad, B.S.Gawali, G.S.Deshpande Estimation Of Luminous Efficacy And Exterior Illuminance Of Daylight To Design Solar Daylighting Systems J. M. Patel, P. K. Shah Opportunity For Renewable Energy From Water Hyacinth; Concerning On Control And Utilization Pravakar Mohanty, Jitendra Rathore, Jigisha Parikh Titanium Dioxide Solar Cell And Its Future Application K.N.Wagh, R.S.Shelke A Numerical Investigation Of Multi- Louvered Compact Plate Fin Heat Exchanger For Circular Tube With Hydrophilic Coating S.Kalaiselvam, P.Bharathidasan Measurement Of Physical Parameters Of Four Stroke Single Cylinder I.C. Engine Using DAQ Umesh Kantute, Nilaj N. Deshmukh, S.H.Kulkarni Prediction Of Cavitation Inside Mini-Sac Diesel Injector Nozzle Using Computational Fluid Dynamics Shrinath S. Korgavkar, B.S.Gawali, M.V.Kulkarni Application Of EGR For NOx Control In LPG- Diesel Dual Fuel CI Engine Krishna Murthy, Mahesha G T, Shrinivasa Rao B R,Samaga B.S. Boat Hull Slamming Analysis Using Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) Method With Abaqus/Explicit Kunal Baxi, Rupal Vyasa, Sridharababu I R Dynamics Of Liquid Mixing At The Tube Junction And Effects Of Additives V. N. Lad, B. Kishore And N. Undegaonkar Numerical Analysis And Comparison Of Phase Change Process In Rectangular And
105
110
116
121
126 131 136 141 146 151
156
161
166
171 176 181
TF-38
186
TF-39 TF-40 TF-41 TF-42 TF-43
191 196 201 206 211
TF-44
TF-45
TF-46
TF-47 TF-48
Cylindrical Latent Heat Thermal Storage System Patel P. M, Rathod M. K., Banerjee J. Solar Water Distillator With Pre-Heater: The Need Of Healthy World Manish V. Sharma, Yogesh Dhote, Y. M. Jibhakate Experimental Investigation Concerning The Effects Of Jatropha Curcas Oil Percentage On A Diesel Engine 1 Mohd. Yunus Khan, Ehteshamuddin Khan, Md. Kamil Rashid, Md. Saheem Haider , Shahbaz Ahmad Improvement In The Operating Characteristics Of 4-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine Using Variation In Compression Ratio Yadav Milind S., Kelkar Avadhut A. ,Mokashi Onkar A.,Chikhale Vinit V., Khatu Vaibhav N. Simulation And Performance Enhancement Of The Single Cylinder Gas Engine Y.K.Madaria And P.Srinivasa Rao Numerical Analysis Of Transition From Stratified To Slug Type Of Two-Phase Flow Patterns Mahesh J Vaze, Jyotirmay Banerjee Application Of DOE Using Taguchi Approach In Reduction Of Valve Seat Leakage In Cylinder Head Assembly Of 45 HP Tractor : A Case Study Manisha S.Lande, S.K. Ganguly Numerical Prediction Of Velocity And Temperature Distributions In A Diffusion Flame Under Reduced Gravity Conditions Manjula Das (Ghatak), Sujoy Kumar Mukherje, Bijan Kumar Mandal Effect Of Rayleigh Number On Natural Convection In A Square Enclosure Mukul Bisoi, Kamal Kanti Dattagupta And Bijan Kumar Mandal Heat And Mass Transfer Study Of Liquid Desiccant With Solar Cooling Technology Naresh Kumar, G. Srivastava Expansion Pressure Range And Effect Of Pressure On Tube To Tubesheet Joint Nikunjkumar G. Patel, K.P.Desai, R.D.Molia Comparative Analysis Of Different Types Of Layouts Of Run-Off- River Hydropower Scheme Bhosale Nilesh Raghunath, S.K. Singal Flow Measurements In 0.55m Low Speed Wind Tunnel Niyati Shah, Jaydeep Trivedi, Mathur N.B. Analysis Of A Downdraft Biomass Gasifer Using Kinetic Model Of The Reduction Zone: Effect Of Particle Size Prokash C. Roy, Amitava Datta, Niladri Chakraborty An Experimental Comparison Of Performance & Exhaust Emission Of 4 Stroke 4 Cylinder Diesel Engine Using Esterified Jatropha, Mustard Oil & Palm Oil With Diesel Fuel P.D. Patel, S.M.Patel, V.R.Bhatt, M.A.Shaikh Effect Of Variation In CR Using Annands Heat Transfer Model And Combustion Analysis Of LHR Diesel Engine Performance A. N. Pawar, J.D Golhar, R.P.Borudkar, K.R. Bhageriya) Use Of Advanced Emission Efficient Technology Of Fuel-Cat To Improve Engine Performance And Exhaust Emissions Of I.C. Engine Pinkesh R. Shah, Divyang R. Shah, S.M. Bhatt, Dharmendra Gor Fly Ash Handling And Utilization Pooja Khitoliya, Rajesh Purohit CFD Based Analysis On Cavitation In Francis Turbine Pardeep Kumar and R.P. Saini Emission Reduction In DI Diesel Engine Using Catalyst Diesel Particulate Filter R.Anand, G.R.Kannan Performance And Emission Characteristics Of A DI Compression Ignition Engine Using Carbon Nanotubes Blended Diesel J. Sadhik Basha & R.B. Anand Discharge Measurement In Penstock Of Small Hydropower Stations Using ClampOn Type Ultrasonic Transit Time Flowmeters S. S. Rao, R. P. Saini, B. K. Gandhi
217
222
227
232 237
TF-49
242
TF-50 TF-51 TF-52 TF-53 TF-54 TF-55 TF-56
247 252 257 262 267 272 277
TF-57
282
TF-58
288
TF-59 TF-60 TF-61 TF-62 TF-63
293 298 303 307 312
TF-64
317
TF-65 TF-66 TF-67
TF-68
TF-69
TF-70
TF-71 TF-72 TF-73 TF-74
Cryogenic Application Of Composites Materials Rajiv Sharma, V. L. Tanna and B.V. Dave Reliabilty Engineering In Distribution Wing Of Power Sector - A Global Scenario Rakesh Kr.Sinha Analysis Of Performance, Combustion And Emissions On A Variable Compression Ratio Diesel Engine Fueled With Cotton Seed Methyl Ester V.Rambabu, V.J.J Prasad, T.Subramanyam, B.Satyanarayana Influence Of Injection Pressure On Performance And Emission Of Neem Methyl Ester- Fuelled Diesel Engine Ramesha D.K, Premakumara G, Gnanendra.P.M, Ravikumar. M Exploring Regions Of Application Of Single And Double Axis Solar Tracking Systems M. A. Kadam And S. B. L. Garg Simulated Solar Still Performance Using With And Without Water Film Cooling Of Top Glass Cover Sitansh D.Golwala, Alpesh Mehta, Bhavik D. Upadhyay Design And Development Gas Carburettor For Operation Of Motor Cycle S. I. Engine By Using Up-Graded Bio-Gas Fuel S. D. Yadav, Bimlesh Kumar, S. S. Thipse Studies On Power Generation Potentials Of Woody Biomass Species M. Kumar, S. K. Patel Robust Control Of Variable Compression Ratio Engines S. M. Besarati, K. Atashkari, A. Hajiloo, N. Nariman-Zadeh
322 327 332
337
342
347
352 357 361
TF-75
TF-76
TF-77
TF-78
TF-79 TF-80 TF-81 TF-82 TF-83 TF-84 TF-85 TF-86
TF-87
Experimental Analysis Of Lower Blend Concentration Of Esterified Cottonseed Oil For CI Engine 366 J G Suryawanshi, P. T. Nitnaware, S S Hatwalane Discharge Measurement In Penstock Of Small Hydropower Stations Using ClampOn Type Ultrasonic Transit Time Flowmeters 371 S. S. Rao, R. P. Saini, B. K. Gandhi Finite Element Analysis And Experimental Study Of Convective Heat Transfer Augmentation From Horizontal Rectangular Fin By Triangular Perforations 376 Kumbhar D.G., N.K.. Sane, Chavan S.T. Design Of Water Conductor System For Ultra Low Head Hydropower Project A Case Study 381 S.V. Jain, S.K. Singal Analysis Of Rib Roughened Surface Of Solar Air Heater By Using CFD Software 386 S. V. Kadam, S. R. Patil, S. V. Karmare, D. S. Chavan Investigation Of Natural Convection Heat Transfer From An Array Of Heat Sources In A Rectangular Enclosure 391 S.Venkatachalapathy, M.Udayakumar, P.K. Nomesh A Mathematical Approach For Paraboloid Dish Collector Designing 396 Subhash Y. Kamdi, Rajesh E. Thombre, Subroto Dutt Design Modification In Cross-Flow Turbine 401 Md Asif Saghir And R.P. Saini Convective Heat Transfer Studies Of A Cylindrical Heater Using Digital Interferometry 406 Willi Bastin And V.Sajith Solar Energy and its Application 411 B. Sampath Kumar, B.S.Samaga Preparation And Characterization Of Bio Diesel From Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs) 416 Saroj K.Padhi, R. K. Singh Modelling And Stress Simulation Of Centrifugal Compressor 421 Phull Gurlovleen Singh, Satish Kumar, Saroj Kumar Mohapatra Three Dimensional CFD Analysis Of Wind Turbine Blade For Aeroelastic Applications 426 R. A. Savanur, Sharanappa V. Sajjan, Vidyadhar Y. Mudkavi A Mathematical Model For Predicting Off-Design Performance Of Cryogenic Turboexpander 431 Subrata K. Ghosh, Sanjoy K. Ghoshal, Ranjit K. Sahoo, Sunil Kr. Sarangi
TF-88 TF-89 TF-90
TF-91
TF-92 TF-93 TF-94
Experimental And CFD Analysis Of Peak Energy Estimate In A Typical Calandria Based Reactor Bijja Sunil Deol, S.D.Ravi, And N.K.S.Rajan Production Of Biodiesel From Vegetable Oils Using Transesterification Process Suresh D. Mane, R.M. Kanasogi An Experimental Study Of Exhaust Emissions In Passenger Vehicles Operating On E10 Shailesh Kumar Trivedi, Trinath Mahala Study And Analysis Of Non-Conventional Space Conditioning Systems Installed At Universal Medicap, Vadodara Vanita N. Thakkar Production, Optimization And Characterization Of Pongamia Biodiesel (Pongamia Methyl Ester) V. Sitaram Prasad, S. K. Mohapatra New Biogas Plant Methane Gas As Well As Electricity Generation Vinayak P. Walikar High Accuracy Numerical Approach For Mixed Convection Boundary Layer Flow Over An Inclined Plate V. Arun Visvanath, K. Venkatasubbaiah
436 440 445
450
456 462 467
Design and Dynamics Stream

Paper Code DD-1 DD-2 Paper Title A New Method For Mechanisms Identification Ashok Dargar, Ali Hasan, R. A. Khan Stochastic Buckling Analysis Of Laminated Composite Plates With Circular Cutouts Achchhe Lal Determination Of Safe Load For Thin Plates With Random Geometrical Imperfections Subjected To Uniform Axial Compression Raviprakash AV, Adhithya Plato Sidharth A, Prabu B., Alagumurthi N Structural Optimization Of Front Pedestal Of Cement Mixer Truck Akash Jani, Nilesh D. Ghetiya, Arshi Riaz Siddiqi, Sridharababu Inala Finite Element Analysis Of Ring Type Compressor Valve Seat S. P. Chavan, A. K. Jadhav Extraction Of Non Stationary Characteristics Of Rolling Element Bearings For Fault Diagnosis Using Wavelet Analysis Deputy Commandant Angello Innocent, Animesh Chatterjee. Simulation Of PRA Friction Force For Single Cylinder Four Stroke SI Engine Under Motorized Condition. Atul S. Chaudhari B. M. Sutaria D. V. Bhatt Development Of Hybrid Aluminium Matrix Composite For Brake Disc Balasubramanya H.S, Shivalingappa D , M. Prasanna Kumar , Srinivas J. Setty Analysis Of Slip Damping In Layered And Jointed Welded Structures Using Finite Element Approach Bhagat Singh , B. K. Nanda Evaluation Of Digging Force And Pump Capacity Using Principle Of Soil Mechanics For Mini Hydraulic Excavator B.P. Patel , C.P. Patel , P.M. Pate Study Of Wall Shear Stress Through Asymmetric Double Stenosed Coronary Artery S. Chakrabarti D. K. Mandal Design Considerations For Chassis Frame Design Cycle And Modifications Chirag Patel, Piyush Gohil Wave Propagation In Rotating Elastic Media With Voids D. Grover, J. N. Sharma Stress Distribution Around Pressurized Rectangular Hole In An Infinite Isotropic Plate Subjected To In-Plane Infinity D S Sharma, Patel Nirav Page No. 473 478
DD-3 DD-4 DD-5 DD-6
483 488 492 497
DD-7 DD-8 DD-9
502 507 512
DD-10
517
DD-11 DD-12 DD-13 DD-14
522 527 532 537
DD-15 DD-16 DD-17 DD-18 DD-19 DD-20
Topology Optimization For Increasing The Modal Frequency Of A Marine Drive Shaft Housing Darshan Vaishnav, Mitesh Mungla, Devashish Sarkar, Sridharababu Inala Design, Modeling & Analysis Of Differential Gear Box Of Sensor Paver Machine Bhavik Patel, Sneh Patel, Rajesh Patel, Jinesh Patel, D.A. Patel Dynamic Modeling Of 6 DOF PUMA Robot Anurag Verma, M.M.Gor Design Analysis Of Two-Piece 3-Rings Large Bore Piston A.Gurusamy, Vela Murali Aerodynamic Shape Optimization Of Existing Railway Trains Lokender Singh, B K Gandhi, K M Singh Rupture Analysis Of Spot Weld Under Static Load Using FEM And Validation By Experimental Results K.V.Mohankumar, C.Jebaraj Plasma Electrolytic Oxidised (PEO) Coated Al-Si Alloy Cylinder Liner For Lightweight Engine Blocks K. Mistry, M. Priest, S. Shrestha Optimization Of Dynamically Loaded Forged Steel Cranskshaft For Cost And Weight Reduction With Changes In Crank Geometry K. D. Kothari, R. L. Jhala , R.M. Bhoraniya, D.D. Kundaliya Artificial Intelligence In Mechanical Design Milind S Kirkire, V B Suryawanshi Modal And Static Structural Analysis Of Two Wheeler Chassis Kumar Bhatt, Vijay Chaudhary, Sundaram Rout Optimization Of Differential Gear Box Housing By Using CAE Manoj M.Patil, J.G.Gajendragadakar, Deepak Nidgalkar Localization And Identification Of Damage In The Cracked Cantilever Beam Using Artificial Intelligence Mihir Kumar Sutar, DRK Parhi Green Design: Past, Present And Future Minhaj Ahemad A.Rehman, R.R.Shrivastava, R.L.Shrivastava Study Of Flange Contact For A Railway Truck On Curved Track Nilotpal Banerjee Implementation Of ASME Section VIII Division 2 Edition 2007 P. B. Gujarati, D. P. Vakharia, P. B. Kiri Analysis Of Influence Of Internal Radial Clearance On Fatigue Life Of Cylindrical Roller Bearing P. H. Darji, D. P.Vakharia Bending Stress Analysis Of Profile Shifted Gears: A Parametric Study Paramanand Nandihal, V. B. Math, M. S. Hebbal Optimization Of Planar Four-Bar Motion Generator Using Burmester Curve Methodology Prashant Kambali, V. B. Math, S. G. Sarganachari Analysis Of Sport Utility Vehicle Chassis By Using Computer Aided Engineering Pravin N. Shitole, A.K.Kale, Deepak Nidgalkar Design And Analysis Of High Pressure Door With Stiffened Plate Hujare Pravin P, Hujare Deepak P Finite Element Analysis Of Transverse Vibration Of A Jointed Beam R. C. Mohanty, B. K. Nanda Reducing Manufacturing Cost And Weight By Geometry Optimization For A Steering Knuckle Without Changing Attachment Geometry R. L. Jhala, K. D. Kothari, S.S. Khandare Genetic Algorithms - A Robust Method For Optimum Design Of Machine Elements Rajesh C Sanghvi Stress Analysis Of A Rectangular Plate With An Elliptical Hole: An Experimental and FEA Approach Yeshwant M. Sonkhaskar, Gajanan R. Nikhade Prototype Development Of A Disc Coupling By Rapid Prototyping Process Sriram Venkatesh, Ramya C.S, B.T.Swathi
542 546 551 556 561 566
DD-21
571
DD-22 DD-23 DD-24 DD-25 DD-26 DD-27 DD-28 DD-29 DD-30 DD-31 DD-32 DD-33 DD-34 DD-35 DD-36 DD-37 DD-38 DD-39
576 581 585 589 594 598 603 608 613 618 623 628 633 638 643 648 653 658
DD-40 DD-41
DD-42
DD-43
DD-44 DD-45
DD-46 DD-47 DD-48
DD-49
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Modelling and Kinematic Analysis of a 2-DOF PKM in CATIA A. B. Koteswara Rao*, L. V. Suryam, and Pradeep Jayasimha Evaluation And Simulation Of Semi Active Suspension System For Multi-Utility Cars By Modified Skyhook Control Theory Using Half Car Model Dabhi Shyam K, Chirag Patel Eddy Current Proximity Probe Gap Voltage Trending A Tool To Diagnose Machinery Journal Bearing Problem Sanjiv K Kamble Evolution Of Mathematical Function Based On Statistical Methods For Determination Of Geometrical Parameters For Known Natural Frequency Of Structural Elements S.M Khot, N. P. Yelve, H. Paretkar, K. Kapadia, N. Sehgal, V. Hariharan Design Of Driving Pinion And Ring Gear Of Autogenous Mill Shankarachar.M.Sutar Stress And Free Vibration Analysis Of Gas Turbine Blade During Temperature Excursion At Start-Up S. Narasimha, G. Venkata Rao Studying Effect Of Multiaxiallity On Creep Properties Of 316l(N) SS Weld Joint With Circumferentially Notched Bar S.R.Charde, D.R.Peshwe, R.K.Paretkar, M.D.Mathew A Simple Finite Element For Non-Linear Analysis Of Composite Plates S S Choudhary, V.B. Tungikar Structural Design, Analysis And Optimization Of Head Stock: A Machine Tool Structure Case Study S. D. Daxini, B. D. Upadhyay , Y. D. Vora Product Design And Finite Element Analysis Of Wheel Loaders Rear Chassis Using Concurrent Engineering Approach Samruddhi Patel, Rupal Vyasa, Divya Bhatt, Manish Bhavasar Periodic, Quasi-Periodic And Chaotic Motion Analysis Of A High Speed Rotor Supported By Rolling Element Bearings S. H. Upadhyay, S. P. Harsha, S. C. Jain On The Stability Of Articulated Vehicle Sanjoy K. Ghoshal*, Subrata K. Ghosh Multi-Objective Design Optimization Of Rolling Element Bearings Using A Modified ABC Optimization Technique V. J. Savsani, R. V. Rao, D.P. Vakharia Synthesis Of Slider Crank Mechanism With Optimal Transmission Angle Sharangouda, V. B. Math, S. G. Sarganachari Investigation Of Pisco-Mechanical Properties Of Sisal Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composite. B.Shivamurthy. Siddaramaiah, N. A. Jnanesh , Manujesh.B.J Finite Element Study Of Serrated Chip Formation Amrita Priyadarshini, Surjya K. Pal, Arun K. Samantaray Synthesis Of Adjustable Planar Four-Bar Mechanism For Function Generation Syed Abbas Ali, V. B. Math, S. G. Sarganachari, C. M. Veerendrakumar Interaction Between An Arbitrarily Oriented Crack And A Circular Hole In Infinite Composite Plate Subjected To In-Plane Loading At Infinity V G Ukadgaonker, D S Sharma Manufacture Of Slotted Array Antenna Vimal K Jain, Theenathayalan.K, K.Ramesh Kumar, D R Yadav Analysis Of A Four Link Revolute Type Model Using Forward Kinematics And Geometric Approach V. M. Daiya, H. J. Nagarsheth Real- Time Colour Based Obstacle Detection And Avoidance System For Wheeled Mobile Robot V. U. Rathod, W. S. Rathod Modelling And Fatigue Analysis Of Truck Wheel Using Computational FEM/FEA Vipul Patel, Kiran Patel, Subakanth Ruthiran, Kandrap Joshi
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Paper Code PI-1 PI-2 PI-3 PI-4 PI-5 PI-6 PI-7 PI-8 PI-9 PI-10 PI-11 PI-12 Paper Title Optimization Of Weld Bead Geometry And Parameters Of Different Welding Processes Using Various Computational Methods - A Review Kamble A.G, R. Venkata Rao, Siddhartha Gupta Study Of Effect Of Material Property Variation On Tube Hydroforming Process Mali A. Y., Gangurde S. R. Determination Of Optimal Process Parameters In Metal Injection Moulding For Bilayer Of 316l-SS & Fe Combinations Ashish D. Urade Effect Of Cryogenic Cooling On Machinability Of Nimonic C-263 During End Milling Bikramjit Podder, D.R.Yadav, S. Paul ISO10303 STEP AP224: A Key Of CAD CAM Integration Through Automatic Manufacturing Feature Extraction Borkar B R, Dr. Puri Y M, Hase V J Evaluation Of Efficiency Of Flat Panel Used In Coal Mining Industry - A Case Study Bhavesh P. Patel, Kaushik V. Patel, Shailesh J. Patel Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Based OEE Analysis: A Denovo Approach Dillip Kumar Biswal, Samiran Mandal, Siddhartha Ray, Bijan Sarkar Prediction Of Cutting Forces And Surface Roughness During End Milling Of CI-25 Using Artificial Neural Network S. B. Chandgude, M. Sadaiah Robust M Estimator For Surface Roughness Estimation Using Machine Vision Jayesh D Chauhan, Chintan K Modi, Kavindra Jain, Kunal Pithadiya Quality Function Deployment And Value Analysis The Most Powerful Product/Service Development Techniques P.B .Patel,D.K. Dave,S.N.Pandya Erosive Wear Behaviour Of Laser Cladded Surfaces Of Ni & Co Based Alloys S. Raja Kiran, B.K. Gandhi, D.K. Dwivedi, C.P. Paul, L.M. Kukreja Comparison Of Single And Multi-Objective Optimization Of Quality Responses Of Peripheral Milling Process By Taguchi Method Dhananjay C. Katpatal, S. Rajpal, Sanjeev Sinha A Case Study On Implementation Of Global Standard Inspection Process GSIP In A Reputed Automobile Company D. U. Panchal, B. Prajapati, Rajendra J. Jani Investigations Into Turning Of Cylindrical Components Using Wire Electrical Discharge Machine V. Janardhan, G.L. Samuel Integrating Product Design With An Assembly Line For Maximum Efficiency S. R. Gangurde, M. M. Akarte Tool Wear Prediction Using Artificial Neural Network M.M.Gor, Anurag Verma Ultra Precision Machining Of Spherical Cavity In Sapphire T.L.Govindankutty, M. Jilani, S.B.Jawale, R.L.Suthar, Arvind K Jain Enablers For Utilisation Of New Technologies Using ISM Approach Harwinder Singh, J S Khamba A Review Of Research On Response Parameters In Electric Discharge Machining Jujhar Singh, P.S.Satsangi, R.S. Walia, V. P. Singh Effect Of Heat Distribution Parameters On Weld Thermal Cycles -A Finite Difference Analysis Joy Varghese V M , Suresh M R, Siva Kumar D A Comparative Experimental Study On The Reuse Type Wire EDM J. B. Valaki, G. R. Khunt Parametric Study On Surface Finish In Roller Burnishing Of En-8 Material Using Taguchi Techniques Jawalkar. C.S., R.S. Walia Development And Evaluation Of Electrical Property Of Short Carbon Fiber Reinforced Aluminium Metal Matrix Composite K.S. Sridhar, B. K. Muralidhara, C.K. Umesh, V.K. Basalalli Page No. 771 775 780 785 790 795 800 805 810 815 820 825
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Lateral Extrusion Of Some Complex Form: A Three-Dimensional Analysis L.N.Patra, S.K. Sahoo, U. C. Paltasingh, B. Sahoo, P.R.Samantaray Comparative Analysis Of Various Parameters In Near Dry EDM For Nickel Based Alloy S.P.Lathkar, Rajiv B., G.S.Lathkar, B.B.Ahuja, S.K.Basu Control Chart Pattern Recognition Using CART Analysis Monark Bag, Susanta Kumar Gauri, Shankar Chakraborty Prediction Of Material Removal Rate Using Recurrent Elman Networks In Electrical Discharge Machining Of D2 Steel Raja Das, M K Pradhan, C K Biswas Spray Forming And Characterization Of Al-Graphite Alloys Manish, Devendra Singh Quality Function Deployment For A Hospital In An Urban Area: A Case Study Avanish Dhongade, Pooja Doke, Mohan Khond Rapid Prototyping: Application In Defence Projects P. K. Verma, D.R. Makwana, Umesh Kumar, A. A. Tapkire Manufacturing Of Rocket Motor Skirt Manish Malpani, G. Gopi, Ramesh Kumar Effect Of ISR Cycle On Mechanical Properties Of CrMoV Welded Steel S.B.Maurya, A.J.Lewis, M.K.Ghosh, J.V.Menghani, S. A. Channiwala An Experimental Investigation To Find The Optimum Process Parameters In EDM Navdeep Malhotra, Hari Singh The Effect Of FSW Process Parameters On Tensile Strength Of AA5083-H321 Aluminium Alloy N. Shanmuga Sundaram, N. Murugan Cost Effective Selection Of Process Parameters In Multi-Pass Milling Operation P.J. Pawar, R. V. Rao A Simple Approach For Minimization Of Burr Formation Using Edge Beveling Of Alloy Steel Workpieces P.P. Saha, Santunu Das Analysis Of Roundness In Straight Turning Using Response Surface Method P. S. Kalos, K. N. Nandurkar, B. B. Ahuja, L. G. Navale NRBFN Based Modeling Of Edmed Job Surface Integrity Konda. L. K. , Saha. P, Dey. P. P Implementation Of ZSS As A Poka Yoke Device To Reduce Breakdowns In Bucket Elevator Of Food Processing Industry Vishal J. Pandya, J. H. Mistry Optimization Of Weld Bead Geometry For Pulsed GTA Welding Process For Aluminium Alloy 6061 By Taguchi Method Pawan Kumar, Kishor P Kolhe, Som Ashutosh, C K Datta Comparison Of The Performance Of Ti-Al-N Coated Cermet Tool With The Ti[C,N] Mixed Alumina Cutting Tool And The Uncoated Cermet Cutting Tool A. Poomari, B. Mohan, A. Rajadurai, A. Senthil Kumar, M. Adam Khan Effect Of Magnesium Addition On High Temperature Wear Behavior Of A356 Alloy M. S. Prabhudev, T. M. Chandrashekharaiah, S. A. Kori An Investigation Of Machinability Of Sic Particle Reinforced Al-MMC Rajesh Kumar Bhushan, S Das, Sudhir Kumar Effect Of Welding Parameters On Performance Of FSW of 6061 Aluminium Alloy Ratnesh K.Shukla, Pravin K.Shah Some Investigations On Ultrasonic Welding Process For Metals Using Regression Analysis R. S.Barot, J.B.Valaki Influence Of Surface Methodology Of EDM Process For Pure Titanium Using Modified Taguchi Method R. Srinivasan, A. Palanisamy, R. Soundararajan, P.Muthukumar Some Study Aspect Of External Cylindrical Grinding Machine Parameters Using Taguchi Techniques J.L.Ramdatti, M.A.Popat Comparison Of Statistically Controlled Rapid Casting Solutions Of Brass Alloys Using Three Dimensional Printing R. Singh, J.P.Singh
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Supplier Selection Using PROMETHEE Method Vijay Manikrao Athawale, Prasenjit Chatterjee, Shankar Chakraborty Selection Of Facility Layouts Using ELECTRE II Method Prasenjit Chatterjee, Shankar Chakraborty Characterization Of Weld Quality And Process Stability In Pulsed MIG Welding Using Sensor Signals Kamal Pal, Surjya K. Pal Analysis Of Total Aerosol Emission From Electrical Discharge Machining Process Jose Mathew, S. P. Sivaprakasam, K. R. Balasubramanian, K. Renjith Throughput Estimation Of Serial Production Lines S.S. Das, S.S. Mahapatra Optimization Of Surface Roughness, Material Removal Rate And Cutting Tool Flank Wear In Turning Using Extended Taguchi Method U. Khandey, S. Datta, S. Sankar Mahapatra, A. Bandyopadhyay A Mathematical Approach For Machine Cell Formation In CMS Kaushik Mishra, Chiranjiv Mohanty, Sarthak Sambit Singh, Siba Sankar Mahapatra Applying Integrated Supply Chain In Manufacturing Industries Sarojrani Pattnaik, Mihir Kumar Sutar Abrasive Wear Study Of Flame Sprayed Co-Based Composite Coatings Sat Pal Sharma, D. K. Dwivedi, P. K. Jain An Experimental Investigation For Determination Of Effects Of Machining Parameters On Surface Roughness In EDM Of WC-Co S. Mehta, A. U. Rajurkar Effect Of Welding Parameters On Weld Bead Geometry And Metal Transfer In Synergic MIG Welding R. P. S. Sisodia, M.S. Niranjan, Reeta Wattal Estimation Of Surface Roughness In Turning Using Back Propagation Neural Network S.J.Rajpal, V.V.Dongaonkar, Chennabasava Gouda Study The Effect Of Temperature On Material Properties Of EDD Steel Using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) R.S. Sanghvi, M. Azharuddin, Sai K.J.G, K.Srikesh, K. Mahesh, A.K.Gupta, S. K.Singh Application Of Support Vector Regression In Hydro-Mechanical Deep Drawing Swadesh Kumar Singh, Amit Kumar Gupta Fractal Dimension Modeling In Grinding Using Artificial Neural Network T. K. Barman, P. Sahoo Coating Deposition By Cold Gas Dynamic Spray Process- A Review Tarun Goyal, T.S.Sidhu, Dr. R.S.Walia Automated Process Planning In Manufacturing Using Knowledge Management Deepali Tatkar, Venkatesh Kamat Data Envelopment Analysis As A Decision Making Method In Site Selection For The Plant Location V. P. Darji, R. V. Rao Effect Analysis Of Nose Radius On Surface Roughness In CNC Turning Of EN8 V. N. Modi, Jatin V. Panchal, Ankit K. Modi, Rutvij A. Manek ELECTRE As A Decision Making Method In The Manufacturing Environment R. V. Rao, B. K. Patel Fuzzy LINMAP As A Decision Making Method In The Manufacturing Environment R.V. Rao And D. Singh A Genetic Algorithm Approach For Minimizing Makespan In Job Cell Scheduling Problems Seema Linggi, C. Murali Krishna, A. Mandal, M. Chandrasekaran
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
Thermodynamic Analysis of R-404a/R-508b Cascade Refrigeration System

1
A. D. Parekh1*, P. R. Tailor2, V. H. Oza3 S. V. National Institute of Technology-395007, Gujarat, India * corresponding author (e-mail :adp@med.svnit.ac.in)
The present work deals with thermodynamic analysis of cascade refrigeration system using ozone friendly refrigerants pair R404A and R508b. R404A is a ternary near azeotropic mixture composed of HFC-125/HFC-143a/HFC134a (44/52/4 wt %) and R508b is a relatively new formulation consisting of 46% of R23 with the remainder being R116. These refrigerants have no ozone depleting potential, are non-flammable and as they are an azeotropic mixture there is no problem of temperature glide. A thermodynamic analysis of R404A/R508B cascade refrigeration system was carried to optimize the design and operating parameters of the system. The design and operating parameters considered in that study include (1) Condensing, subcooling, evaporating, and superheating temperatures in the R404A high temperature circuit (2) temperature difference in the cascade heat exchanger and (3) Condensing, subcooling, evaporating, and superheating temperatures in the R 508B low temperature circuit. 1. Introduction In low temperature refrigeration application including rapid freezing, storage of frozen food, liquefaction of petroleum vapour, manufacturing of dry ice etc. where the required evaporating temperature between -40 oC and -90 oC, the cascade system is often a convenient option, provided two suitable working fluids are chosen. A commonly used refrigerant pair in the past has been R12, R502 and R13 for the high pressure and low-pressure stages respectively in cascade refrigeration system. These refrigerants have been phased out since 1996 in the developed countries, and should be totally phased out by 2010 in developing countries as per Montreal Protocol and its amendments from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [1, 2]. It becomes impendence to look for new refrigerants to substitute for R12, R-502 and R13. Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) was reported to be used as a cascade refrigerant for achieving temperatures around -80 oC [3]. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also used in the lowtemperature stage in two-stage cascade refrigeration systems [4], for which the lowest refrigeration temperature is limited above -55 oC because of its high triple-point temperature. Mixtures especially exhibiting azeotropic phase equilibrium behaviors show good potentials in cascade refrigeration systems. Phase equilibrium measurements of two binary systems of R170+ R23 [5] and R170+R116 [6] show positive azeotropic vaporliquid phase equilibrium and therefore can be used as alternative refrigerants in the low-temperature stage of the two-stage cascade refrigeration system. Carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide binary mixture [7] is also used in low temperature cycle with R404a in high temperature cycle and experimental results were compared with R23 in low temperature cycle and R404a in high temperature cycle. The present work deals with thermodynamic analysis of cascade refrigeration system using ozone friendly refrigerants pair R404A and R508b.A thermodynamic analysis of R 404A R508B cascade refrigeration system was carried to optimize the design and operating parameters of the system. 2. Cascade refrigeration system
A schematic layout and T-S plot of two stage cascade system using two refrigerants as shown in Fig.1.The compressed refrigerant vapour from the lower stage is condensed in a heat exchanger, usually called cascade condenser, which is also the evaporator of the next higher stage refrigerant. The only useful refrigerating effect is produced in the evaporator of low
temperature cascade system. The high temperature cascade system uses a refrigerant with high boiling temperature. The low temperature cascade system uses a refrigerant with low boiling temperature.
Fig.1 Schematic and corresponding T-S diagrams for a cycle 3. Thermodynamic Analysis
The cycle is modeled modularly incorporating each individual process of the cycle. Steady flow energy equation and mass balance equation has been employed. The following assumptions has been considered to simplify the calculation, 1. Heat transfer in cascade heat exchanger with the ambient is negligible. 2. The compressor process in the compressor is adiabatic and irreversible. 3. The expansion process is isenthalpic 4. Pressure drop in the connecting pipes and heat exchangers are negligible. 4. Results and discussion
Computational model is developed for carrying out the performance analysis of the system using the Engineering equation solver software. To find the effect of particular parameter on system other parameters are fixed for system. The input data assumed for the computation of results are furnished below. 1. The low temperature circuit (LTC) evaporator temperature (Te) is varied from -90 oC to -55 oC. 2. The high temperature circuit (HTC) condensing temperature (TC)H is varied from 30oC to 55oC. 3. The cascade condenser temperature difference (TD)cas is varied from 2.5oC to 12.5oC.
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Fig.3 Effect of high temperature circuit (HTC) condensing temperature on COP, RE and WD
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Fig.7 Effect of low temperature circuit condensing temperature on COP at different degree of subcooling and superheating
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Fig.8 Effect of low temperature circuit condensing temperature on mass flow ratio at different degree of subcooling and superheating
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Fig.9 Effect of low temperature circuit condensing temperature on COP at different isentropic efficiency of compressor
4. Low temperature circuit condensing temperature (TC)L is varied from -55 oC to 0oC. 5. Isentropic efficiency of compressor and effectiveness of heat exchanger is taken 0.8 and 0.75 respectively.Mass flow rate of refrigerant is assumed 0.19 kg/min in LTC circuit. 7. Degree of subcooling (DSC) and Degree of superheating (DSH) is varied from 0 oC to 12oC. Fig.2 depict the variation of COP, RE and WD with the low side evaporator temperature (Te) which is varied from the -90 oC to -55 oC. The other parameters of system such as high side condensing temperature (Tc = 35 oC), Temperature difference in cascade condenser ((TD)cas = o o 2.5 C), degree of superheating in both stages ((DSH)both = 4 C ), degree of subcooling in both o stages ((DSC)both = 4 C ), Efficiency of high and low side compressor (c1=0.8, c2 = 0.8),Effectiveness of cascade heat exchanger (HE = 0.75) were held constant. The overall COP of the system increased from 0.533 to 0.870 as decrease in pressure ratio across low side reduced work done and increased refrigerating effect. The COP of low temperature circuit increased from the 1.945 to 7.592 but of high temperature circuit remained same. The COP of system deteriorated from 0.747 to 0.427 when high side condenser temperature was increased from 25 to 50 0C keeping other parameters constant (Fig.3) as high side compressor work and hence high side COP decreased. There is no variation in RE and (COP)L. Fig.4 displays the effect of low side condensing temperature (TC)L on COP of high side and low side. The COP of high side increased with (TC)L whereas that the COP of low side decreased as (TC)L increased. Hence the optimal value of (TC)L and corresponding maximum COP of system exist. From fig.4 reveals that the COP was maximum, 0.7554 at (TC)L = -30oC. The RE and WD both decreases with (TC)L, so one has to obtain the value corresponding to maximum COP. The system COP reduced by about 17.12 % when temperature difference in cascade condenser was increased from 2.5 to 12.5 oC as shown in Fig.5. This is intuitive as increase in temperature difference causes heat transfer to occur through finite temperature difference resulting in external irreversibility in the system thereby decreasing the system performance. The effect of having different and the same degree of subcooling and superheat in both cycles of the R-404A/R-508B cascade system was separately and jointly analyzed keeping the other operating parameters constant (Fig.6). Reference COP is 0.6012 at 0 degree of subcooling and superheating in the both circuit. It was observed that the rise in the COP of the system by higher amount in the case of subcooling in the both circuit than the subcooling separately in each circuit keeping superheating in the both circuit at 0 oC. The COP of system increased by the 22.1% when subcooling both circuit from 0 to 12 oC. Similarly there is slightly rising in the COP of the system in the case of jointly or separately superheating the high and low temperature circuit. Fig.7 depicts the change in the maximum COP of the system (COPMAX) at different values of superheating and subcooling as the condensing temperature in the cascade condenser (TC)L is varied between -55 oC and 0 oC. COPMAX increased marginally with an increase in superheat while increased considerably with increase in subcooling. It increased from a value of 0.622 at (DSH)both = 0 oC by 1.15% at (DSH)both = 6 oC and 0.622 at (DSC)both = 0 oC by 11.49 % at o (DSC)both = 6 C. The mass flow ratio (mH/mL) decreased with rise in (Tc)L for different degree of subcooling and superheating (Fig.8). Difference in value of mass flow rate reduces at higher (Tc)L. Ratio of mass flow (mH/mL) reduced by more amount in case of subcooling from 0 to 6 oC than the superheating from 0 to 6 0C for fixed value of (Tc)L.Fig.9 depicts COPMAX at different values of isentropic efficiency in both compressor with (TC)L. COPMAX shifts upward proportionally with an increase in isentropic efficiency. 5. Conclusions
A thermodynamic analysis of R404A/R508B cascade refrigeration have been presented in this study to optimize the design and operating parameters of the system and following inferences are drawn.
1. The COP of the system increased from 0.533 to 0.870 as low temperature circuit (LTC) o o evaporator temperature (Te) is varied from -90 C to -55 C. 2. The COP of system deteriorated from 0.747 to 0.427 when high temperature circuit (HTC) condenser temperature is increased from 25 oC to 50 oC keeping other parameters constant. 3. The COP of high temperature circuit increased whereas the COP of low temperature circuit decreased as (TC)L increased. Hence the optimal value of (TC)L where COP found maximum is o -30 C and corresponding maximum COP of system found 0.7554. 4. The COP of system reduced by about 17.12 % when temperature difference in cascade condenser was increased from 2.5 to 12.5 oC. 5. The rise in COP of the system by higher amount in the case of subcooling in the both circuit than the subcooling separately in each circuit. There is little rise in the COP of the system in the case of jointly or separately superheating the high and low temperature circuit 6. COPMAX increased marginally with an increase in superheat while increased considerably with increase in subcooling. 7. The mass flow ratio (mH/mL) decreased with rise in (Tc)L for different degree of subcooling and superheating. 8. Maximum value of COP shifts upward proportionally with an increase in isentropic efficiency of compressor. Nomenclature COP H HFC ODP max Coefficient of performance Enthalphy (kJ/kg) Hydrofluorocarbons Ozone depletion potential maximum S RE T WD H, L Entropy (KJ/kg K) Refrigerating effect (W) Temperature (oC) Work done (W) High,low
References [1] Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. United Nations Environment programme (UNEP), 1987. [2] UNEP Assessment report of the technology and economic assessment panel, UNEP Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya.,2007 [3] Kruse,H.,Ru ssmann,H. The natural fluid nitrous oxide - an option as substitute for low temperature synthetic refrigerants.International Journal of Refrigeration, 29 (5), 2006, 799 806. [4] Nicola G.D., Giuliani G., Polonara F., Stryjek, R. Blends of carbon dioxide and HFCs as working fluids for the low temperature circuit in cascade refrigerating systems. International Journal of Refrigeration, 28, 2005,130140. [5] Zhang, Y., Gong, M.Q., Zhu, H.B., Wu, J.F Vaporliquid equilibrium data for the ethane + trifluoromethane system at temperatures from 188.31 K to 243.76 K. Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 51 (4), 2006,14111414. [6] Zhang, Y., Gong, M.Q., Zhu, H.B., Wu, J.F. Vaporliquid equilibrium measurements and correlations for an azeotropic system of ethane + hexafluoroethane, Fluid Phase Equilibria 240 (1), 2006, 7378. [7] DiNicola, G., Giuliani, G., Polonara, F., Santori, G., Stryjek, R. Cascade Cycles Operating with CO2 + N2O Binary Systems as Low Temperature Fluid: Experimental Results, International Congress of Refrigeration, 2007, Beijing.
Thermo-hydraulic performance analysis of solar air heater having compound roughness elements on the absorber plate
Apurba Layek NIT Durgapur -713 209, India e-mail: apurba_layek@yahoo.co.in The thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index of the chamfer rib-grooved surface is studied experimentally and compared with the square rib-grooved surface for the range of flow Reynolds number from 3000 to 20000, most suitable for solar air heater. The effect of roughness parameters on thermohydraulic performance parameter index has been studied. The maximum thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index for chamfered rib-groove roughened surface is observed of about 2.08 for the relative roughness pitch of o 6, relative groove position of 0.4 and chamfer angle of 18 for relative roughness height of 0.04. 1. Introduction
One of the techniques of increasing the heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plates of solar air heater and flowing air is using the turbulence promoters in the form of artificial roughness. The artificial roughness on absorber plate may be created, either by roughening the surface randomly with a sand grain/ sand blasting or by providing regular geometric roughness either by gluing, machining, welding or casting. The presence of artificial roughness in the form of projections mainly creates turbulence near the wall or breaks the laminar sub-layer and thus enhances the heat transfer coefficient. However, it also results in an undesirable increase in the pressure drop due to the increased friction. Thus the design of the absorber surface of solar air heater should, therefore, be executed with the objectives of high heat transfer rates with low friction penalty. To balance useful energy gain and friction power, thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index as coined by Webb [6] is considered a suitable quantity for the optimization of solar air heaters having different roughness elements and can be expressed as;
Nu Nu s f / f s
1/ 3
A value of this thermo-hydraulic performance parameter greater than one is considered to be an acceptable proposition, indicate a surface is potentially beneficial for the enhancement of thermal performance without serious effect of increased pumping power. It is reported [8] that the chamfering of the rib top enhances the frequency of shedding of vortices and as a result the heat transfer coefficient and the friction factor increases. It is also reported that the chamfering of the rib makes the free shear layer to reattach nearer to the rib on downstream side. Zhang et al [9] reported that the addition of grooves in between adjacent square ribs enhance the heat transfer capability of the surface considerably with a very small pressure drop increase. It is believed that the groove induces an additional vortex which deflects the flow to reattach nearer to the rib and is responsible for this enhancement in heat transfer coefficient and friction factor. In the study of chamfered ribgroove roughened surface the rib height equals the groove depth for the entire study. The cross section of the chamfered rib-groove roughness can be expressed in the form of the following roughness parameters; i.e. chamfer angle and dimensionless parameters e.g. relative roughness pitch, P/e, relative groove position, g/P and relative roughness height, e/Dh. The study has been done for the flow Reynolds number in the range of 3000 to 21000 most suitable for solar air heater. The range of roughness parameters for this study has been decided on the basis of practical considerations of the system and operating conditions of the solar air heater and is given in Table 1 with the range of the other surfaces. 2. Experimental Program The schematic diagram of the experimental set up including the test section is shown in Fig. 1. The flow system consists of an entry section, an exit section, a flow meter and a
centrifugal blower. The duct is 2600 mm long, 150 mm wide and 30 mm deep and is fabricated from plywood panels of 19 mm thickness. The test section is 1200 mm long and has a cross section of 150 mm width 30mm depth. The entry and exit lengths were 800 mm and 600 mm respectively. It may be noted that ASHRAE Standard 93-77 recommends minimum entry and exit length of 5 WH and 2.5 WH , i.e. 336 mm and 168 mm respectively. Consequently, the flow can be assumed to be fully hydraulically developed in almost the entire test section. An electric heater having a size of 1200 mm 150 mm was fabricated by combining series and parallel loops of heating wire wound on asbestos sheet, to provide constant surface heat flux. The backside of the heater is insulated with 50 mm glass wool and 19 mm plywood panels to minimize the heat losses. The absorber plate is 6 mm thick aluminum plate with integral rib roughness prepared on its bottom side by machining (i.e. on top broad side of the air flow rectangular duct). The topside of the entry and exit section of the duct is covered with smooth commercial available 12 mm plywood panels. The mass flow rate of air through the duct is measured by means of a calibrated orifice meter (calibrated against a standard Pitot tube) in the flow line connected with an inclined manometer, and the control valve provided to regulate the flow. The coefficient of discharge of the orifice plate having the mean value of 0.612 with standard deviation of 0.005 has been used during computation. The copper-constantan of 0.3 mm diameter (24 SWG) thermocouples has been used to measure the average air and absorber plate temperatures at different locations as shown in Fig. 2. The thermocouples output is fed to a digital voltmeter through a selector o switch and is used to indicate the output of the thermocouples in C. The temperature o measurement system is calibrated to yield temperature value within 0.1 C. The pressure drops across a 1000 mm length of test section is measured by a micro-manometer of ACINBetz type, having a least count of 0.1 Pa. The test runs to collect relevant heat transfer and flow friction data under steady state conditions were conducted. Sixty one numbers of
Fig. 1: Experimental set-up roughened surfaces of varying geometries have been used for the study in addition to a smooth duct for which data under similar conditions have been collected for the purpose of comparison with roughened ducts. Eight values of flow rates were used for each roughened surface at a fixed heat flux. It takes about 2 to 3 hours to attain a steady state before the data were recorded. The following parameters were measured: (i) Temperatures of the heated plate at 16 points (12 along axial direction and 4 in span wise direction) (ii) Inlet air temperature and outlet air temperature at 5 points in the span wise direction of the duct. (iii) Pressure drop across the test section recorded under adiabatic condition. (iv) Pressure difference across the orifice meter. For all the plates, the span wise plate temperature has been found to be nearly uniform o with a deviation of 0.5 C. After a downstream distance, ranging from 5-6 hydraulic diameters, the gradient of plate temperature has been found to be nearly constant, indicates establishment of the thermally fully developed flow. It has been found that the departure of plate temperature from fully developed constant gradient line is small and its effect on the average value of mean plate and mean bulk air temperature difference that is Tpm Tfm, can
be neglected. The drop in the plate temperature near the end section appears to be due to the end effect. 3. Data processing: Mass flow rate, m of air has been determined from the pressure drop Po (measured across the orifice plate, having area of cross section of orifice plate Ao) using the relation.
2. .( P )o m Cd Ao o 1 4
0 .5
The heat transfer coefficient (h) for the test section is calculated from: h Qu / A p Tpm Tfm , where, the heat transfer rate Qu, to the air is given by: Q u m Cp To Ti Ap is the heat transfer area, assumed to be the corresponding smooth plate area. Since, the plate temperature changes along the stream-wise direction, the mean plate temperature designated as Tpm, the area weighted mean value of the experimentally obtained plate temperatures has been employed and Tfm is the bulk mean air temperature. The heat transfer coefficient, h, has been used to determine the Nusselt number as, (Nu = h Dh/ k). The friction factor was determined from the measured values of pressure drop, p across the test length (Lf) of 1.0 m (between two points at 640 mm and 1640 mm from inlet) using the equation: f 2p D h / 4 L f G 2 , where, G m/WH is the mass velocity of air. The thermo-physical properties of air employed in the calculation of heat transfer and friction parameters were picked up from available tables in Duffie and Beckman [2] corresponding to average air temperature. Further, the effect of humidity on thermo physical properties has been neglected since the relative humidity values during the experimentation were low and variation was small, ranging between 20 -35 %. The uncertainties [3] of the values of the Reynolds number, Nusselt number, Friction factor and thermo-hydraulic performance parameter are estimated to be 1.05, 2.59, 10.18 % and 4.5 % respectively for Re = 3000 and those for Re = 20000 are 0.97, 6.18, 1.76 % and 7.02 % respectively. 4. Validity test: Experimentation on roughened plates was preceded by data collection on smooth rectangular duct. The smooth duct results have been presented in Fig. 2 (a) & (b) along with predicted values obtained from the available correlations. The friction factor for smooth rectangular duct is given by modified Blasius relation [4] as; f s 1.0875 0.1125H / W f c , where, friction factor in smooth circular tube, f c 0.0791Re 0.25 for 4000 Re 10 5 and the Nusselt number is given by Dittus and Boelter correlation [5] as; Nus 0.023Re0.8 Pr0.4 , for 104 Re 1.24 x105 . The average absolute deviations of the experimental values of Nusselt number and friction factor from those predicted by correlation has been found to be are 2.49 % and 2.32 % respectively. Thus a good agreement between the predicted and experimental values ensures accuracy of the experimental data collected with the present setup. 5. Results and Discussion The values of thermo-hydraulic performance parameter are presented in Fig. 3 as function of Reynolds number and relative roughness pitch for fixed relative groove position of 0.4, relative roughness height of 0.03 and chamfer angle of 18o. It can also be observed that the thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index increases with increase in Reynolds number for all the cases. This can be attributed to the fact that with increase in Reynolds number the Nusselt number increases but the friction factor decreases. It is well known that increase in Reynolds number increases turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation rate, which leads to increase in the turbulent intensity and thus increases the Nusselt number. The rate of increase in Nusselt number for roughened surface is much more than the smooth surface. Simultaneously the rate of increase in friction factor with Reynolds number for roughened surface is also much more pronounced than the smooth surface. The chamfered rib-groove surface having relative roughness pitch of 6 shows the best thermo-hydraulic performance. It can be seen that the chamfered rib-groove duct has higher thermo-hydraulic
performance than the square (un-chamfered) ribbed grooved duct having similar operating conditions.
60 50 Dittus Boelter Equation 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.01 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.005 0.004 Modified Blasius
Nusselt number (Nu)
40 30 20 10 0 2000 Experimental data Absolute average deviation 2.49 % 6000 10000 14000 18000 22000
Friction factor ( f)
Experimental data Absolute average 2000 6000 10000140001800022000 Reynolds number (Re)
Reynolds number (Re)
Fig. 2: (a) Nusselt number & (b) Friction factor versus Reynolds number for smooth surface.
2.0
2.0 P/e = 6
Thermohydraulic performance ()
1.9
g/P = 0.4 = 18o e/Dh = 0.03
1.9
= 18o e/Dh = 0.03
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6
Symbol
P/e
4.5 6 7 8 10 10, square rib-groove
1.6 Symbol g/P 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000
1.5
1.5
1.4
4000
8000
12000
16000
20000
1.4
Figure 3: Thermo-hydraulic performance index as function of relative roughness pitch.

1.80
Symbol
Figure 4: Thermo-hydraulic performance index as function of relative groove position.

2.1 2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3
Thermo-hydraulic performance index
1.75 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.40 4000
0o (Square rib groove) 5o 12o 15o 18o 22o 30o
P/e =
P/e = 10 g/P = 0.5 e/Dh = 0.03
2000
0.03 Symbol 0.022 0.04 0.035 6000 10000 14000 18000 22000
8000
12000 Reynolds number (Re)
16000
20000
Figure 5: Thermo-hydraulic performance index as function of chamfer angle.
Figure 6: Thermo-hydraulic performance index as function of relative roughness height.
The thermo-hydraulic performance parameter is plotted in Fig. 4 as function of Reynolds number and relative groove position for fixed values of relative roughness pitch of 6, relative o roughness height of 0.03 and chamfer angle of 18 . It is seen that the performance parameter for the entire range of Reynolds number studied, the surface having relative groove position of 0.4 has the maximum value while that of 0.3 the lowest. It can also be seen that the thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index increases with increase in relative groove position, attains a maxima for the relative groove position of 0.4 and decreases with further increase in relative groove position. It can also be observed that there is substantially large change of thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index for the change in relative groove position from 0.3 to 0.4 possibly due to the fact that at relative groove position of 0.3 the
groove lies in the wake zone, or in other words the groove remains suppressed under the recirculation zone formed behind the rib, the effect of the groove in contributing turbulence to enhance the Nusselt number, drops significantly and simultaneously its effort to draw the free shear layer towards the rib becomes ineffective. It seems that the flow reattaches over the groove and the combined turbulence level due to the reattachment and that caused by the groove reaches a high level causing an increase in the heat transfer coefficient for a relative groove position of 0.4. Placing the groove further downstream, beyond the relative groove position of 0.4, the reattachment apparently does not take place over the groove and the level of turbulence decreases leading to a decrease in heat transfer. Fig. 5 depicts the effects of chamfer angle, where it can be seen that the thermohydraulic performance index increases with increase in chamfer angle attains a maxima for o the chamfer angle of 18 and with further increase in chamfer angle it decreases. Large change in thermo-hydraulic performance parameter can be observed in the range of chamfer o o angle of 5 - 12 , indicates that chamfering causes the frequent shedding of vortices generated over the rib top. Fig. 6 depicts that the increase in relative roughness height increases the thermo-hydraulic performance monotonously. This can be attributed to the fact that the enhancement ratio increases exponentially with the increase in relative roughness height for all the range of Reynolds number, as at higher relative roughness height, the rib protrudes into the turbulent zone to increase heat transfer rate at a much faster rate. 6. Conclusions
This results of the experimental study for flow of air in rectangular duct with transverse chamfered rib-groove roughness on one broad wall, which is subjected to uniform heat flux. It is observed that the geometry of the chamfered rib groove roughness has strong effect on thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index. The main findings are; i) The maximum thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index occurs for the relative o roughness pitch of 6, relative groove position of 0.4, and chamfer angle of 18 but it increase monotonously with an increase in relative roughness height. ii) The value of maximum thermo-hydraulic performance parameter index is 2.08 and it occurs for relative roughness height of 0.4. iii) It is observed that the thermo-hydraulic performance parameter for chamfered rib-groove roughened surface is the highest for the Reynolds number lower than about 12000. This range of Reynolds number incidentally is most suitable for solar air heater. References [1] Bhagoria J. L., Saini J. S. and Solanki S. C. Heat transfer coefficient and friction factor correlation for rectangular solar air heater duct having transverse wedge shaped rib roughness on absorber plate, Renewable Energy, 25, 2002, 341-369. [2] Duffie, J A and Beckman, W. A. Solar Engineering of thermal Processes, Wiley, New York. 1980. [3] Kline S. J. and McClintock F. A. Describing uncertainties in single sample experiments. Mechanical Engineering, 75, 1953, 3-8. [4] Rosenhow W. M. & Hartnett J. P. Hand book of heat transfer, Mc Graw Hill, 1973, 7- 122. [5] Sadik Kakac, R. K. Shah and Aung W. Hand book of single- phase Convective heat transfer. Wiley, New York. 1987. [6] Webb, R. L. and Eckert, E. R. G. Application of rough surfaces to heat exchanger design, International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer, 15, 1972, 1647-1658. [7] Webb R. L., Eckert E. R. G. and Goldstein R. J. Heat transfer and friction in tubes with repeated rib roughness, International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer, 14, 1971, 601-617. [8] Williams F., Pirie M. A. M. and Warburton C. Heat transfer from surfaces roughened by ribs. ASME/Augmentation of heat transfer. New York. 1970, 36-43. [9] Zhang Y. M., Gu W. Z. and Han J. C. Heat transfer and friction in rectangular channel with ribbed or ribbed-grooved walls. ASME/Journal of heat transfer. 116, 1994. 58-65.
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Lubricant Analysis of Compression Ignition Engine by Using Pongamia Oil Methyl Ester
Ajay V. Kolhe1*, J.G.Suryawanshi 2, Anant G. Nagpure3
1*
Kavikulguru Institute of Technology & science, Ramtek 441106, Dist. Nagpur 2 V. N. Institute of Technology, Nagpur 3 Konkan dyanapeeth college of Engg. Karjat * Corresponding author (Email: ajay.kolhe4@gmail.com)
The combustion related properties of vegetable oils are somewhat similar to diesel oil. Neat vegetable oils or their blends with diesel, however, pose various long-term problems in compression ignition engines, e.g., poor atomization characteristics, ring-sticking, injector coking, injector deposits, injector pump failure, and lube oil dilution by crank-case polymerization. These undesirable features of vegetable oils are because of their inherent properties like high viscosity, low volatility, and polyunsaturated character. Pongamia oil methyl ester (POME) was prepared by transesterification process using methanol for longterm engine operations. The physical and combustion-related properties of the fuels thus developed were found to be closer to that of the diesel oil. A neat biodiesel (POME) was selected as fuel. Results reported from AAS tests confirmed substantially lower wear and thus improved life for biodiesel operated engines. 1. Introduction
The worlds economy depends upon the burning of fossil fuels equivalent of some 180 million barrels of oil each day. The need to exploit bio-origin-based alternative fuels to quench the worlds energy thirst has long been realized. By now, it has been conclusively realized that internal combustion engines form an indispensable part of modern life style. They play a vital role in transportation and modern mechanized agricultural sector. Ever since the advent of the IC engines, vegetable oils have been tried as an alternative to the diesel fuel. The inventor of the diesel engine, Rudolf Diesel, used peanut oil as a diesel fuel for demonstration at the 1900 world exhibition in Paris. Therefore, the process of utilizing Biodiesel in the IC engines for transport as well as other applications, is gaining momentum. The international energy agency has recognized biodiesel as an alternative fuel for the transportation sector. The process of transesterification yields vegetable oil esters. Vegetable oil esters have better fuel properties compared to neat vegetable oils. Their viscosity reduces, volatility increases, and they lose their polyunsaturated character after transesterification. The stoichiometry of the overall transesterification reaction requires 1 mole of triglyceride for 3 moles of glycerol. Transesterification process breaks the triglycerides present in vegetable oils into two components, fatty acid esters, and glycerol. Glycerin is a valuable by-product, which is used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, toothpaste, and many other commercial products. Biodiesel is often blended with petroleum diesel to offset its high production cost. Pure 100 percent neat methyl esters of rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, tallow, Jatropha, pongamia and other fats and oils can be used as diesel fuel with little or no modifications of the engine. Biodiesel from Karanj oil shows no corrosion on piston metal and piston liner whereas biodiesel from Jatropha curcas has slight corrosive effect on piston liner. In the present investigation, biodiesel was prepared from Karanj oil and its properties were analyzed to ascertain its suitability as biodiesel. 2. Experimental set up
For the present work, pongamia oil methyl ester was prepared using methanol in the presence of potassium hydroxide as catalyst, and then separating by-product glycerol formed
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in the esterification reaction. The use of pongamia oil methyl ester in compression ignition engines was found to develop a very compatible engine fuel system with low emission characteristics. The physical and combustion related properties of the fuels thus developed by the Process of esterification were determined in the laboratory and most of them were found very close to that of diesel oil. The constant speed experimental test unit, manufactured by Kirloskar oil engine Ltd., India, is a compact, portable captive 4.41 kWh gen-set run by diesel fuel. It is widely used in the country mostly for agricultural purposes and in many small and medium scale commercial purposes. This is a single-cylinder four-stroke air-cooled system that develops 4.41 kW power output in pure diesel mode. It has a provision of loading electrically, and is flexibly coupled with a single-phase alternator. Detailed specifications of the engines used in present investigations are given in Table 1 Engine Tests After developing the appropriate fuel, it was tested on the engine through a series of engine tests. In the long-term endurance test, the effect due to the use of biodiesel on various parts of the engine and diesel fuel was studied. For this purpose, two similar new engines were subjected to similar loading cycles and operating conditions. Technical specifications of the test engine. Manufacturer Kirloskar oil engine Model Single cylinder C.I.Engine I.S.Rating(1500rpm) 4.41kw (6 bhp) Bore 87.5mm Stroke 110 mm Displacement 662 cm3 Nozzle pressure 210 bar Compression ratio 17.5:1 Preliminary Runs The purpose of preliminary run for both the engines is that they should be made trouble free, by operating both the engines for their running-in period. Under the preliminary run, constant speed engines are subjected to a preliminary run of 49 hours at the rated speed under the operating temperature specified by the manufacturer, in nonstop cycles of seven hours each, conforming to the following cycle pattern. During the preliminary run, attention was paid to engine vibration and quietness. Oil pressure was checked time to time. Long-Term Endurance Test The lubricating oil from the oil sump was drained off and the engines were refilled with SAE 30 grade of fresh lubricating oil as specified by the manufacturer and the engines were then ready for long-term endurance test. Then both the engines were run for 10 cycles each of 16 hours continuous running at rated speed. The first engine was using 100 percent biodiesel, and the second engine was using neat diesel oil as fuel. Atomic Absorption spectroscopy: Atomic absorption spectroscopy was used for quantitative and qualitative analysis of wear debris of lubricating oils. The data was correlated with the extent of wear, the performance characteristics of either lubricating oils or diagnosis of failure of moving components. Atomic absorption spectroscopy works on the principle of absorption interaction, where atoms in the vapor-state absorb radiation at a certain wavelength that are well defined and show the characteristics of a particular atomic element. Elemental analysis of lubricating oil by atomic absorption spectroscopy: The test of AAS was done to evaluate the concentration of various metals present in the lubricating oil samples from POME fueled and diesel-fueled CI engines. This gave a fair idea about the wear of different parts, material compatibility of the new fuel with the existing engines. In the present study, since many sliding components were involved, it was anticipated that the wear debris originating from different metallic parts appeared in the lubricating oil. Hence, various elements such as Fe, Cu, Zn, Cr, Cd, Ni, Co, and Pb were analyzed by AAS. Graphical representation for lube oil concentration: i) Iron. The iron in wear debris could be because of wear of the cylinder liner, piston, rings, valves, valve guides, gears, shafts, bearing, rust, and crankshaft. The results on concentration of iron as a function of oil usage are shown in graphs. It is clearly seen that for both the systems, iron increased at a higher rate during the endurance test. The most
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important observation was that lubricants from POME fueled system indicated a lower increase in iron content and hence lesser wear, which is because of improved lubricating efficiency of biodiesel fuel.
Fe Concentration (ppm)
14 0 12 0 10 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 2 1 Hours of lube oil usage 4 9 Dies el PM E 14 0 12 0 10 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 3 2 6 9 4 6 Hours of lube oil usage 12 8 16 0
Fe Concentration(ppm)
DIESE L
PM E
Figure 1. Iron concentration as a function of lube oil usage
Figure 2. Iron concentration as a function of lube oil usage.
ii)Copper. The copper in wear debris comes from wear of bearings, and bushings. The results on concentration of copper as a function of oil usage are shown in graphs.. It is evident that for both the systems in pre test, copper increases at a constant rate. An important observation is that lubricant from POME fueled system indicates percent lower copper content till first 64 hours and thereafter higher wear rate.
3 0 2 5
Cu Concentration(pp
Dies el
PM E
Cu35 Concentration(ppm)
30
Diesel
PME
2 0
25
1 5
20
1 0
15
5
10
0 0 2 1 Hours of lube oil usage 4 9
0 0 32 64 96 128 160
Figure 3. Copper concentration as a function of lube oil usage
Hours of lube usage Figure 4. copperoil concentration as a function of oil usage
iii) Zinc: The zinc in wear debris could be because of wear of bearings, brass components, neoprene seals, etc. The results on concentration of zinc as a function of oil usage are shown in graphs. The main zinc source in the engine is ZDDP, an additive in lubricating oil. An important observation is that lubricant from POME fueled system indicated lower zinc content increases, hence lower wear of zinc containing components and lower lubricating oil consumption. v)Lead. The lead in wear debris could be because of wear of bearings, paints, and grease addition. The concentration of lead as a function of oil usage is shown in graphs. For both the systems, lead increased at a steady rate. Lubricant from the POME fueled system indicated approximately a 50 percent lower increase in lead during pre test. During main test there steady increase in wear All these observations suggested better additional lubricity properties of biodiesel fuel apart from fuel value, confirming the results of physical wear measurements.
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50 0 45 0 40 0 35 0 30 0 25 0 20 0 15 0 10 0 5 0 0
Zn Concentration(ppm) )
Dies el PM E
325
Zn Concentration(ppm)
320
Diesel
PME
315
310
305
300
295
290 0 2 1 Hours of lube oil usage 4 9 0 32 64 96 128 160 Hours of lube oil usage.
Figure 5. Zinc concentration as a function of lube oil usage.
Figure 6. Zinc concentration as a function of lube oil usage.
140 250
Pb Concentration Pb Concentration(ppm)
Diesel PME 120
Diesel
PME
200
100
80 150 60 100
40
50
20
0 0 0 0 21 Hours of lube oil usage 49 32 64 96 128 160
Figure 7. Lead concentration as a function of lube oil usage 3. Discussions
Figure 8. Lead concentration as a function of lube oil usage
The wear of various vital parts reduced up to 30 percent because of additional lubricity properties of biodiesel. These results of wear measurements by physical methods were also confirmed by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Oil analysis studies proved to be a powerful tool to estimate not only the condition of the engines, but of other moving parts as well. Moreover, these tests provided valuable and relevant information on the effect of fuel chemistry on the lubricating oil system. Ash content, which mainly represents wear debris, was found to be lesser in the case of a 100 percent biodiesel-fueled system. One of the most interesting studies conducted on the lube oils was for the estimation of individual wear of engine vital parts such as piston, piston rings, cylinder liner, etc. Atomic absorption spectroscopy studies on lub oils indicated that biodiesel fuel led to lesser wear of engine moving parts in terms of lesser amount of metallic debris ~such as Fe, Cu, Zn, Mg, Cr, Pb, and Co present in lube oil samples. Each element, which is present in oil in the form of wear debris, originated from a different moving part. Such an analysis strongly demonstrated that not only the performance characteristics but also wear characteristics of moving parts are better for a 100 percent biodiesel-fueled engine system. Atomic absorption spectroscopy studies on lube oils indicated that biodiesel fuel led to lesser wear of engine moving parts in terms of lesser amount of metallic debris ~such as Fe, Cu, Zn, Mg, Cr, Pb, and Co present in lube oil samples. Each element, which is present in oil in the form of wear debris, originated from a different moving part. Such an analysis strongly
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demonstrated that not only the performance characteristics but also wear characteristics of moving parts are better for a 20 percent biodiesel-fueled engine system. 4. Conclusions
Based on the studies presented, it is concluded that the fuels of bio-origin are superior in wear performance to conventional fuels, environment-friendly, biodegradable, and do not add to global warming problems. Biodiesel can be readily adopted as a substitute fuel to the existing diesel engines, which are widely used in the rural agricultural sector of the country. A diesel engine can perform satisfactorily on biodiesel fuel without any engine hardware modifications. Esterification has been found to be an effective technique to prevent all longterm usage problems associated with utilization of vegetable oils such as fuel filter plugging, injector coking, formation of carbon deposits in the combustion chamber, ring sticking, and contamination of lubricating oils. References [1] Agarwal A.K., Bijwe and Das,Wear assessment in a biodiesel fueled compression ignition engine, ASME,Vol.125, Jully 2003. [2] Agarwal A.K., Bijwe and Das, Effect of biodiesel utilization of wear of vital parts in compression ignition engine, ASME, Vol.125, April 2003. [3] Agrawal Deepak, Sinha S., Agrawal A., Experimental investigation of control of NOx emissions in Biodiesel-fueled Compression ignition engine., 6 December 2005, Renewable Energy. [4] Labeckas G., Slavinskas S.., The effect of rapeseed oil methyl ester on a direct injection diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions., Energy Conversion and Management 11(2005),1-14. [5] D. Karonis, G. Anastopoulos, E. Lois, S. Stournas, F. Zannikos and A. Serdari, Assessment of the Lubricity of Greek Road Diesel and the Effect of the Addition of Specific Types of Biodiesel, SAE paper No.1999-01-1471 [6] G.Anastopoulos, E.Lois, S.Stournas, F.Zannikos and A. Serdari; Assessment of the Lubricity of Reek Road Diesel and The Effect Of The Addition of Specific Types of Biodiesel.SAE, 1999-01-1471 [7] Harold K. Speidal and Irshad Ahmed,Biodegradability characteristics of current and newly developed alternate fuels. SAE,1999-01-3518. [8] L.Schumacher, S.C.Borgelt,Hires,Wetherell and Nevils, 100000 Mile of Fueling 5.9L Cummins Engines With 100%Biodiesel.SAE.962233.
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Heat Transfer Through Windows: a Review

Anuranjan Sharda , Sudhir Kumar
* *
National Institute of technology, Kurukshetra Haryana, India Corresponding author (e-mail: anuranjansharda@gmail.com)
Traditionally in India, windows were designed with a sole aim of controlling the indoor climate so as to provide comfort to the user. The prime objective was to control the heat flow through the window: inside to outside in winters and outside to inside in summer. With the coming up of Malls, Multiplexes etc., there is very little concern shown for designing according to the climate, with indigenous materials. The aim of the paper is to bring an insight into the field by presenting out the research carried out by researchers on the process of heat flow through windows and its control for reduction in energy use. 1. Introduction Over the years, many studies have been performed that document the effect of windows on residential energy use but the study is limited to the colder climates of Europe and North America. The authors intend to review the research done in this area so that this effort acts as a guideline for proper understanding of energy transfer process. To start with, various models developed and recommended by researchers for predicting the incident solar radiation on the vertical or tilted surfaces particularly for building energy use, are discussed. Thereafter the basic physical phenomena governing heat transfer along with the thermal and solar optical parameters viz. Shading coefficient, Solar heat gain Coefficient (SHGC), visible transmittance and U-factors are presented and the related work done on their determination is also reviewed The paper discusses the different modes of heat transfer occurring at various surfaces of windows. 2. Incident Solar radiation or irradiance
The total solar radiation incident on any surface, Gt, comprises of three components: beam radiation Gb, ground reflected diffuse radiation Gdg and diffuse radiation from sky Gds. and is expressed as Gt= Gb + Gds + Gdg The three components can be evaluated individually as explained in the following sections. 2.1 Beam Radiation: The beam solar radiation that reaches a surface is related to the various solar angles and local latitude. According to Duffie and Beckman [1], for a tilted surface with degree, the angle of incidence of beam radiation, , is given by
cos sin sin cos - sin cos sin cos cos cos cos cos cos sin sin cos cos cos sin sin sin
(1)
where, is the local latitude, is the hour angle, is called surface azimuth, and is the solar declination. The beam solar radiation on a tilted surface can be obtained by multiplying a ratio Rb developed by Hottel and Woertz 1942 [1], to the horizontal beam solar radiation. The ratio Rb is defined as the ratio of beam radiation on a tilted surface, GbT to that on a horizontal surface, Gbh and can be expressed as,
R b G bT / G bh (G bn cos ) / (G bn cos z ) cos / cos z
(2)
where, Gbh is the horizontal beam radiation, Gbn is the direct normal radiation to the surface. Thus beam radiation on a tilted surface can be evaluated by, (3) G bT G bh .R b G bh (cos / cos z )
21
2.2
Ground Reflected radiation:
The inclined surface with degree to the horizontal has a view factor to the ground of (1-cos )/2. If the ground has a reflectance of for the total solar radiation, the reflected radiation from the ground, GgT can be written as, G gT (G b G dh ). . {(1 - cos )/2} (4) where Gdh is the horizontal diffuse radiation. The ground reflectance is 0.2 where there is no snow and 0.7 for a fresh snow cover. 2.3 Diffuse radiation: Various isotropic and anisotropic models are available for estimating diffused radiations and these models differ in the assumed diffuse radiance distribution at different states of cloudiness. 2.3.1 Isotropic models: These models considered diffused radiations to be isotropically distributed and thus include three components: beam or direct, isotropic diffuse and diffusely reflected from the ground. a) Hottel model: According to this model proposed by H.C. Hottel [2] the atmospheric transmittance for beam radiation transmitted through clear atmosphere, Tb is Gbn/Gen (or GbT/GeT) and is given in the form
Tb a o a 1 exp( - k / cos z )
(5)
Hottel presented two visibility haze models for calculating the constants ao, a1, and k for the standard atmosphere for altitudes less than 2.5 km from ao* a1* and k* as 23 km visibility haze model ao*=
* *
5km visibility haze model ao*=

2 2 * *
0.4237 0.00821(6-A)
0.2538 0.0063(6-A) 2
2 2
a1 = 0.5055 + 0.00595(6.5-A) k = 0.2711 + 0.01858 (2.5-A)
a1 = 0.7678 + 0.0010(6.5-A) k = 0.249 + 0.081 (2.5-A)

* * *
where, A is the altitude of the observer in kilometers. Correction factors were applied to ao a1 and k to allow for changes in climate types. The * * * values for these correction factors ro= ao/ao , r1=a1/a1 and rk = k/k are also provided according to different types of climate. The clear sky beam radiation is then given as Gcnb= Gen Tb where Gen is obtained as under (6)
G en G sc {1 0.033 cos (360n / 365)}
b) Liu and Jordan Model: Liu & Jordan [3] assumed the diffuse radiation to be made up of two components; sky and ground diffuse solar radiation and assumed isotropic distribution of diffuse radiation. The diffused irradiation from sky and ground is expressed as:
G d -sky G en . Td . sin . [(1 cos ) / 2] G d -ground G en ( Td Tb ) g .sin .[(1 - cos )/2]
(7) (8)
where [(1+cos)/2] is the view factor from window to sky, [(1-cos)/2] is the view factor from window to ground, is the tilt angle between the surface and horizontal, is the solar altitude, g is the ground and Td is the diffused transmittance which can be determined as follows:
Td 0.271 - 0.294 Tb
(9)
This model gives accurate results under a completely cloudy sky but becomes unreliable for a clear sky, due to the presence of circumsolar and horizon brightening anisotropic effect. 2.3.2 Anisotropic models In these models diffuse radiation is composed of three parts: isotropic, circumsolar diffuse (concentrated in the sky near the sun) and horizon brightening (concentrated in the sky near the horizon). Different anisotropic models are explained below.
22
a) The Hay & Davies model: According to this model proposed by Hay & Davies (1980) [4], an anisotropic index AI is used to weigh the circumsolar and the isotropic irradiance components. The index is used to account for the circumsolar anisotropy under clear sky conditions at the circumsolar area of the sky since that area is usually brighter than the sky on average. AI is defined as follows, (10) A I G b / G en The diffuse radiation on an inclined surface in the Hay & Davies model can be expressed as, (11) G dT G d [ (1 - A I ).{(1 cos ) / 2} A I ( cos / cos z ) ] b) The Reindl model: Reindl et al. [5] added a horizon brightening diffuse term to the Hay & Davies model to form their model. The magnitude of the horizon brightening is controlled by a modulating function f, which is given by,
f (G b / G tot ) , where, Gtot is the total horizontal radiation.

Thus, the diffuse radiation on an inclined surface in the Reindl model can be evaluated from the equation:
G dT G d [(1 - A I ).{1 f sin 3 ( / 2)}.{(1 cos ) / 2} A I ( cos / cos z ) ] (12)

Dorota A. Chwieduk [6] presented a comparative analysis of different models and recommended anisotropic model for modelling solar energy incident on a building envelope. The author showed that the irradiation calculated using the isotropic sky model for such surfaces in summer months is lower by 1015% than irradiation calculated using the anisotropic model and such underestimation of solar gains can lead to unsuitable design concepts and construction of a building that result in poor indoor thermal comfort. 3. Heat Gain through windows Windows with both good looks and desired controls for heat flow requires a thorough understanding of mechanism of how glass responds to solar heat gain and thereafter measures needs to be taken to control that heat transfer. Normal clear glass is almost transparent to high frequency solar radiation, but is a barrier to low frequency or long wave radiation. The solar heat energy passing through the glazing warms up the various internal surfaces by absorption and these internal surfaces then become heat radiators of low frequency re-emitted heat which is trapped inside causing the temperatures to rise.
Absorbed solar radiation conducted through the frame Reflected solar radiation Glazing absorbed solar radiant heat Outward flowing fraction of glazing absorbed radiation Directly transmitted solar radiation through the glazing (includes both light and heat)
Inward flowing fraction of glazing absorbed radiation Heat conducted through glass
Heat conducted through frame
Figure 1: Basics of heat transfer through windows (CII: Srinivas presentation on Energy Efficiency through Green Building Concepts) In the past, shading coefficient was used to represent the heat flowing through windows and was defined as the solar gain through a given fenestration compared to what the solar gain would have been through an unshaded opening of the same size and orientation glazed with a standard single pane of 1/8" double strength clear window glass. However complexity of modern glazing systems could not be adequately evaluated by the single shading coefficient. Hence ASHRAE [7] devised an alternate method for determining this heat. According to this method, the total instantaneous energy flowing through a window,
23
Q, consists of two terms. The first one being the thermal energy flow (due to the difference in temperature of indoor and outdoor conditions) and the second one, the direct solar energy flow (due to the transmitted irradiance)
Q UA pf (t out - t in ) (SHGC) A pf G t
(13)
where, U is overall coefficient of heat transfer (or U-factor defined as the rate of heat transfer through the window per unit area and per unit temperature difference of the window), tin is the interior air temperature, tout is the exterior air temperature, Apf is total projected area of fenestration, SHGC is solar heat gain coefficient and Gt is the incident total irradiance. 3.1 Thermal Energy Flow Dariush Arasteh et al [8] showed that complete window heat transfer can be considered as the area weighted sum of three window component areas: the center of glass area, the edge of glass area (that area within 2.5 in. of the sightline), and the frame area. The author also presented algorithms for calculating heat transfer through each of these areas.
Q window Q center Q edge Q frame U window A window ( Toutdoors - Tindoors )
(14) (15)
Uwindow
Ucenter Acenter Uedge Aedge Uframe Aframe Awindow
where, Awindows is the window area, Acenter is the area of center section, Aedge is the area of edge section and Aframe is the area of frame section. 3.2 Solar Energy Flow Solar energy entering through a window has two components, first is the radiation entering the fenestration directly i.e. solar transmittance of the glazing system, Ts and the second component is the inward-flowing portion, Ni of the absorbed solar radiation where s is solar absorptance of a single pane of glass. SHGC is hence calculated as
Q window Q center Q edge Q frame U window A window ( Toutdoors - Tindoors )
(16) (17)
(SHGC) (Ts N i s )
Michael Rubin [9] developed a complete set of calculation procedures for determining the solar transmittance, reflectance and absorptance of a window composed of an arbitrary number of partially transparent layers. Michael Rubin [10] also developed a general procedure for calculating the net energy flux through the glazed area of the window composed of an arbitrary number of solid layers. Dariush Arasteh [11] explored window material and design parameters which influence edge heat transfer using 2D heat-transfer modelling with ANSYS. Finlayson et a1 [12] revised the calculations procedures by Rubin and presented the computer program for calculating the thermal and optical properties necessary for heat transfer analysis of fenestration products. With the improvement of technology in this area various fenestration products flooded the market. J Karlsson [13] et al presented a simple model to compare various advanced windows in different geographical locations, orientations and buildings using only the balance temperature as input. 4 Control of heat transfer through windows Shading devices as well as coated or tinted glass can be used to control heat transfer through windows. Gouri Datta [14] studied the thermal performance of buildings for four different cities in Italy and concluded that external fixed horizontal louvers of proper design for south windows were effective in not only reducing cooling loads of a building in summer but also reduced overall annual primary energy loads of a building. Shading devices which are used to control heat transfer may either be the integral parts of the building, i.e., architectural solutions, or industrially manufactured devices, such as window treatments, or shading and coating. The category of architectural solutions includes overhangs and vertical fins, window set-back, light shelves etc. whereas window treatments include a variety of devices that are attached to the exterior (awnings, italian awnings, exterior venetian blinds, overhangs, baffle
24
screens) or interior (venetian blind, screen, roller blind,) of windows. Table 1 below presents comparison of exterior and interior shading devices. Table1: Comparison of exterior and interior shading devices
Exterior shading devices Usually of fixed type etc. More effective in reducing cooling loads by blocking solar heat gain Also blocks a significant amount of diffuse daylight but are not effective under cloudy skies More expensive Interior shading devices Usually movable type- manually operated or motorized Less effective in reducing cooling loads since the solar gain has already been admitted into the work space. Exercise dynamic control, to minimize the energy consumption for lighting, heating and cooling while offering a comfortable indoor environment under continuously changing outside conditions Less expensive
5.
Conclusions
A complete study of heat transfer right from solar radiation incident on windows to those entering through them has been thoroughly reviewed. After discussing various models for solar radiations incident on a surface it is concluded that anisotropic models gives more accurate results over isotropic models. Through a comprehensive understanding of basic physics involved in the heat transfer through windows, manufacturers can design more energy efficient window combined with good modern looks. However much needs to be done in India for controlling heat transfer through windows as optimum shading system depends on the location and weather considerations in which it is to be used. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Duffie J.A., Beckman W.A. Solar engineering of thermal processes. John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, 1980 Hottel, H.C. A simple model for estimating the transmittance of direct solar radiation through clear atmospheres. Solar Energy 18, 1976, 129134. Liu, B. and Jordan, R.The interrelationship and characteristic distribution of direct, diffuse and total solar irradiance. Solar Energy, Vol 4, No. 3, 1960, 1-19. Fung Yu Yan. Energy Performance of Semi-transparent PV Modules for Applications in Buildings. PhD. thesis at Hong Kong Polytechnic University in May, 2006, 48-49. Reindl, D. T., Beckman, W. A. Duffie, J. A., Evaluation of hourly tilted surface radiation models. Solar Energy, Vol. 45, no. 1, 1990, 9-17. Dorota A. Chwieduk., Recommendation on modeling of solar energy incident on a building envelope. Renewable Energy 34, 2009, 736-741. ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals (SI), SI edition, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Condition Engineers Inc., Atlanta GA, 2005, Chapter 31, Fenestrations. Dariush Arasteh, Susan Reilly, and Mike Rubin. A versatile procedure for calculating heat transfer through windows. ASHRAE Transactions, 1989, Vol 95, Pt. 2(2). Michael Rubin, Solar optical Properties of windows. Journal of Energy Research, Vol 6, 1982, 123-133. Rubin, M.D. Calculating heat transfer through windows International Journal of Energy Research, Vol 6, 1982, 341-349. Dariush Arasteh. An Analysis of Edge Heat Transfer in Residential Windows. Journal of Building Physics, 14, 1991, 295-310 E.U. Finlayson, D.K. Arasteh, C. Huizenga, M.D. Rubin and M.S. Reilly. WINDOW 4.0: Documentation of Calculation Procedures- A Report supported by the Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Division of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DEAC03-76SF00098. 1993. J. Karlsson, B. Karlsson, A. Ross. A simple model for assesing the energy performance of windows Energy and buildings 33, 2001, 641-651 Gouri Datta. Effect of fixed horizontal louver shading devices on thermal performance of building by TRNSYS Simulation. Renewable Energy, 23, 2001, 497-507.
[13] [14]
25
Photovoltaic-Battery System Design Space for a Remote Indian Location

Arun P S V National Institute of Technology Surat, 395007, Gujarat, India Corresponding author (email: arun.p@med.svnit.ac.in) Photovoltaic-battery systems are a sustainable option for meeting the electrical energy requirements of isolated locations. Design space approach for sizing photovoltaic-battery systems is illustrated in this paper for a remote Indian island (Sagardeep, 22.65oN, 88.45oE). Design space corresponds to the set of all feasible system configurations capable of meeting the site demand, represented by plotting a sizing curve. Sizing curve connects the combinations of the photovoltaic array ratings and the corresponding minimum battery capacities capable of meeting the specified load, plotted on photovoltaic array rating vs. battery capacity diagram. The sizing methodology relies on time series simulation of the overall system based on energy balance. System design depends on the solar resource and demand profiles of the site and the equipment characteristics. In the present work, sets of sizing curves are generated based on the insolation profile corresponding to an averaged day, averaged day of the month receiving minimum solar insolation and by using hourly solar insolation for a complete year. Since measured data for the entire year is not available for the location, hourly data is generated based on Graham algorithm. Systematic comparison of the sizing obtained for each of these cases is presented. Existing photovoltaic-battery system present in the site is identified in the generated design space. Any system configuration on the sizing curve and the design space is expected to meet the site demand. Detailed simulation of a representative configuration from the design space is carried out with Hybrid2 code for assessing the system performance. 1. Introduction
Photovoltaic-battery systems are a sustainable option for meeting the electrical energy requirements of isolated locations. Sizing of a photovoltaic-battery system involves the determination of the array rating (in terms of the peak power (Wp) required and the capacity of the battery bank. The existing sizing methods range from simple correlations relating the array rating and battery capacity to detailed mathematical model based procedures. Sandia labs have provided simple calculations to obtain an independent design of the photovoltaic array and battery bank [1]. Mathematical modeling procedures have been found quite useful in the design of the overall system. It has been observed that simulation time step, input and output power profiles have a major effect on the system sizing [2]. Optimum techno economic analysis of photovoltaic systems for remote electrification has also been carried out for various remote locations [3].Software tools like RETScreen [4], HOMER [5], Hybrid2 [6] etc. are also available for the design of photovoltaic-battery systems. However it is beneficial for the designer to adopt methods which enable the set of all feasible system configurations or the design space to be explored. Design space approach aims at identifying the set of all feasible system configurations of photovoltaic-battery bank configurations capable of meeting a specified demand. The system sizing based on design space approach has been illustrated for various options of isolated power generation like battery integrated diesel generator systems [7], photovoltaic-battery systems [8], wind-battery systems [9] etc. In this paper, design space approach for sizing photovoltaic-battery systems is illustrated for a remote Indian island (Sagardeep, 22.65oN, 88.45oE). Comparison of system sizing based on various input solar insolation profiles for the site is presented. The detailed simulation of a representative configuration from the design space is carried out using Hybrid2 code. The usefulness of the simulation tool for assessing the system performance is illustrated. It is
26
shown that for a system designed based on hourly insolation data for a year, the demand is always met but has energy dump to the extent of 28 MWh. 2. Generation of the photovoltaic-battery system design space for Sagardeep island The schematic of the photovoltaic-battery system configuration is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Schematic of a photovoltaic-battery system

The components include photovoltaic modules, battery bank, charge controller and inverter. The design space system sizing methodology for photovoltaic-battery systems for a given load profile and solar insolation profile employs a time series simulation based on system energy balance [8]. This sizing methodology is used for generating the set of feasible photovoltaic-battery system configurations for a remote island in India named Sagardeep. The site has an existing photovoltaic-battery system with an array rating of 26 kWp and battery bank capacity of 192 kWh [10]. Sagardeep is located in the south western corner of the Ganges delta and is one of the largest islands in the Sunderban region of India. Renewable energy based decentralized power generation has been suitable for locations like Sagardeep due to the technical difficulties in extending the grid and to protect the delicate ecosystem of this region. As photovoltaic-battery integrated systems have been chosen as one of the options for power generation, the design space approach may be used to explore the sizing options. For this, the set of feasible photovoltaic-battery configurations may be identified by plotting the sizing curve. The inputs for sizing include the time series data of appropriate time step (one hour) for the load, solar insolation and the equipment characteristics. It may be noted that the system sizing depends on the resource and demand profiles which are site specific. To have a conservative design, the system planner may utilize the resource data corresponding to the periods of its minimum availability. But this may lead to over-sizing of the system. The system sizing can be based on an averaged representative day for the site. Data of this type are readily available in resource handbooks. To capture the seasonality of the resource, variation over the entire year or several years for the specified time step would be ideal. But such extensive database is seldom available for most locations. The same is applicable to the load data. For Sagardeep, the hourly solar insolation profile for an averaged day for each month is available. The seasonal load variations are also reported for the site [10]. The variation in the solar insolation and electrical demand for an averaged day is shown in Figure 2. For illustration and comparison, the sizing curves are generated initially based on a representative day for the minimum insolation month (December). Sizing curves are also plotted based on an averaged representative day. The sizing curves along with the existing system configuration are shown in Figure 3. It is observed that relatively higher capacities of battery storage are required for a given array rating when minimum insolation months solar resource is considered. This is essentially a worst scenario approach leading to over-sizing. The sizing curve generated by considering hourly variation of the solar insolation for an entire year for the site compared with that obtained with an averaged day profile is illustrated in Figure 4. The hourly solar insolation data for one year is generated synthetically using the
27
function in HOMER software which utilizes Grahams algorithm [5]. The input parameters used in the sizing are given in Table 1. For all cases, the sizing curve and the region above it represent the set of all configurations capable of meeting the specified demand [8].
Figure 2. Variation in solar insolation and electrical demand for an averaged day
Table 1. Input parameters for system sizing [8]

Photovoltaic array efficiency, % Inverter efficiency, % Net charging efficiency, % Net discharging efficiency, % Battery depth of discharge, % 10 90 85 85 50
Figure 3. Sizing curves based on averaged day and minimum insolation month
Figure 4. Sizing curve based on hourly data for a year
The sizing curve obtained using the hourly solar insolation data for a complete year provides higher system capacities as compared to that based on an averaged day and the minimum insolation months profile. This is attributed to the fact that all the minimum insolation periods which prevail in the year are accounted in this case. This also leads to system over-sizing. The system planner needs to make the appropriate decision regarding the data to be input for the system sizing. The decision has to be made considering the expected system reliability and economic considerations. However the sizing methodology is capable of taking up data corresponding to any time scale and time step. After generating the design space it is of
28
interest to assess the actual system performance considering the discrete configurations of photovoltaic array and battery bank. For this, the number and type of photovoltaic modules, battery bank and the converter need to be specified. 3. System Simulation
The sizing curve and design space provides the system planner the set of feasible configurations for meeting the site demand. For a photovoltaic-battery system, the photovoltaic array rating (Wp) and the battery bank capacity (kWh) is represented in the design space. In this section the detailed simulation of representative configurations from the design space for Sagardeep is presented. Hybrid2 is useful software for assessing the long term performance of isolated systems. The simulation inputs include the details of the site in terms of the renewable resource, electrical demand and the system configuration. The time step of simulation considered for the present study is one hour. The sizing curve generated based on hourly insolation data for a year is considered. The configuration details of one of the systems (30 kWp, 749 kWh) selected from the design space (Figure 4) is given in Table 2. The equipment characteristics corresponding to the photovoltaic module, battery bank and the inverter are based on the data provided in the library of the software. Table 2. System configuration Array Capacity Module details 30 kWp 561 modules of 53 Wp Siemens M55 PV panels, VOC = 21.7 V, ISC = 3.4 A, VMP = 17.4 V, IMP = 3.05 A Exide E120-9 Tubular Deep Cycle Modular Battery, 12 V, 500 Ah, 20 cells in series and 6 in parallel Present
Battery
MPPT
Figure 5. Variation in battery charge, battery power and system losses The resource (hourly solar insolation data) and demand data used are the same as considered in the example for generating the design space. The variation in some of the major system parameters like the battery capacity and system losses over a day are shown in Figure 5. The battery charge falls towards the evening to meet the load through the inverter. The battery bank gets fully charged during the sunshine hours. The system losses are mostly
29
due to battery discharging and inverter power conversion when the load is being met. The simulation results indicate that the unmet load for the year is zero but about 28 MWh of energy is generated in excess for the present system. The system configuration is a conservative design as it is based on the sizing curve relying on hourly solar insolation data for a year. The energy losses account to be about 36.4% of the energy demand. Simulations may also be carried out for several configurations selected from the design space to assess the relative performance. 4. Conclusions
The generation of photovoltaic-battery design space for a remote island in India is presented in this paper. The effect of various insolation profiles on the system sizing is illustrated for the site. It is observed that by considering the hourly variations in the solar insolation for a year, a conservative system design is obtained as it incorporates all the periods of minimum resource availability. The system planner needs to make an appropriate decision regarding the choice of resource input depending on the availability of data. The system over-sizing may be avoided by reasonable choice of expected reliability and considering economic constraints. Detailed simulation of the system configurations obtained from the design space may be carried out using simulation tools like Hybrid2. It helps in monitoring and analyzing the different parameters of interest for a given system. Further it assists in assessing the relative performance of various systems belonging to the design space. This would help in the appropriate selection of the preferred system configuration incorporating technical and economic constraints. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Prof. S. Bandyopadhyay and Prof. R. Banerjee, Department of Energy Science and Engineering, IIT Bombay for their guidance and support. Author would like to thank NREL for providing Hybrid2 software. References [1] Sandia National Lab, 2008. http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/docs/Wkshts1-5.html [2] Notton, G., Muselli, M., Poggi, P. and Louche, A. Autonomous photovoltaic systems: Influences of some parameters on the sizing: Simulation time step, input and output power profile. Renewable Energy, 7, 1996, 353-369. [3] Kaldellis, J.K. Optimum techno economic energy autonomous photovoltaic solution for remote consumers throughout Greece. Energy Conversion and Management, 45, 2004, 27452760. [4] CETC, 2004. http://www.retscreen.net/ang/t_software.php [5] NREL, 2007. www.nrel.gov/homer/includes/downloads/HOMERBrochure_English.pdf [6] RERL,2007. http://www.ceere.org/rerl/projects/software/hybrid2/Hy2_users_manual.pdf [7] Arun, P., Banerjee, R. and Bandyopadhyay, S. Optimum sizing of battery integrated diesel generator for remote electrication through design-space approach. Energy, 33, 2008, 11551168. [8] Arun, P., Banerjee, R. and Bandyopadhyay, S. Optimum Sizing of Photovoltaic Battery Systems Incorporating Uncertainty Through Design-Space Approach, Solar Energy, 83(7), 2009, 1013-1025. [9] Roy, A., Arun, P., and Bandyopadhyay, S. Design and Optimization of Renewable Energy Based Isolated Power Systems, SESI Journal, 17(1-2), 2007, 54-69. [10] Moharil, R.M. and Kulkarni, P.S. A case study of solar photovoltaic power system at Sagardeep Island, India. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Article in Press.
30
Investigation of Water Hammer Phenomena for a Simple Pipe Subjected to Sudden Closing of Valve
1
Patel Atul J.,
Patel U.A.,
Patel A.R.
1,2
U. V. Patel college of engg. Ganpat University, kherva. Mehsana 3 Fac. of Tech. & Engg. The M. S. Uni. of Baroda, Vadodara.
Paper present investigation of a flow induced water hammer. Objective of the paper is to analyze the effect of suddenly stopping or accelerating a fluid by closing and opening a valves. For the different stem position of the valves one gets the different plots of pressure with respect to time and space. Paper also discusses in detailed what are the effects of the pressure. Simulation of different opening and closing times of a simple valve is also treated for different stem positions. The classical formulation of water hammer problem was applied and a numerical code is developed using MATLAB software. Then, the effect of closing of the valve at different times and different stem positions is analyzed as a special parameter to find the maximum pick and drop in the pressure and also control the maximum pressure. The method chosen to solve the system of equation is the MacCormak technique. This numerical technique discretized the resulting partial differential equation in the space and time domain. For transient part the method of characteristic is applied, this is the preferred method to solve the time integration. Limitation of this technique is when nonlinear terms are included, therefore the MacCormak predictor corrector method is used to solve for the nonlinear terms. 1. Introduction
Present work deals with the water hammer induced transient flow analysis. Here a generalize code which is written using Matlab. A simple one dimensional system is considered for the analysis. Similar technique can also be extended for two dimensional system. Purpose of investigation is to analyze transient flow to study the effect of suddenly stopping or accelerating a fluid by closing and opening a valves. For the different stem positions of the valves, different plots of pressure with respect to time and space are obtained. Model used for this is a simple pipeline that connects two reservoirs. Simulation of different opening and closing times of a simple valve is also treated for different stem positions. The classical formulation of water hammer problem was applied and a numerical code has been developed. The effect of closing the valve at different times and different stem positions is analyzed as a special parameter to find maximum rise in the pressure and also control the maximum pressure. For the piping system one need to consider certain assumptions, on the base of that we have taken some of them like pure liquid all the time without presence of air or bubbles is made, therefore the cavitations effect is not considered in the present model. Under this assumption, the study of air valve[7] and entrapped bubbles[12] are not considered. Further to this a pipe with thick wall is considered. The method chosen to solve the system of equation is the MacCormak technique. This numerical technique discretized the resulting partial differential equation in the space and time domain [8]. For the transient part the method of characteristic is applied, this is the preferred method to solve the time integration [1] [9]. 2. Governing equation
Nomenclature: a= Water hammer (pressure) wave speed Cd = Discharge of coefficient
31
f q = Friction factor
g = Gravitational force K= Pipe stiffness p = Pressure
p0 = Applied load = Density

Re= Reynolds number t =Time V= Flow velocity = Deflection Under typical operating conditions of the piping system, it is necessary to analyze the transient condition by solving the Navier-Stoke equation and the momentum equation. In order to derive the mathematical model for this problem some simplifications will be taken into account, considering axisymetric flow, no shearing and 1D model. Under these assumptions it is possible to neglect the viscous term in the momentum equation, but the friction losses is intended for using unsteady model.
p V a2 0. t x V 1 dp fV V 0 . t dx 2D
(1) (2)
Where f is the friction factor. Bergant and [2] based on experimental results recommend the original Brunoe model as an effective model. Brunoe [3] model for the friction factor is:
f fq
kD V V . V V t x
(3)
Where f q is the quasi-steady friction factor, which is plotted for different Reynolds number
(Re VD / v) and relative roughness e ks / D from the Moody diagram. The coefficient k
is called the Brunoes friction coefficient. It can be predicted analytically using Vardys [4] shear decay coefficient C*.
C* . 2
(4) (5a) (5b)
The Vardys shear decay coefficient C* is given by: 0.00476 Laminar Flow
7.41 Re log(14.3/ Re
3.
0.05
Turbulent Flow
Boundary conditions
Independent of flow oscillation is assumed that the reservoir of the pipe line will maintain constant level, thus maintaining constant inlet hydraulic pressure Pi The boundary condition is expressed mathematically as under
pn
inlet
gH Pi .
(6)
32
The volumetric flow rate can be given as
Q0
valve
Cd A0 2 p0 / .
(7)
Where the subscript 0 refers to steady state conditions, Cd is the discharge coefficient and A0 is the area of open valve. An schematic of the model with it corresponding boundary conditions is shown in Fig. 1
Figure 1. Transient Flow Model The volumetric flow as a function of valve steam depends on the type of valve and is specified by the manufacturer. Commonly the volumetric flow plotted as a percent of the maximum volumetric flow at the acting pressure of the system. [5] [10] Fig. 2 shows a typically closeopen curve [11] for a valve. Fig. 2 indicated the flow position at different stem position of the valve. This is a general diagram which is used here as a reference.
Figure 2.
flow position V/s stem position
From the figure there are no of relationships of the flow position at the time of different stem positions are given.
Vn
valve
Cd F (l )
AT A0
pn
Vv .
(8)
Where, F(l) is the percent of caudal obtained from Fig. 2 and l the stem position. AT the area of valve totally open and A0 the area of the valve partially open, according with the stem position l. As an initial condition a constant velocity profile and pressure in the pipe is used:
V0 Vinitial , and p0 Pinitial
(9)
33
4.
Numeric discretization
The system of equations to solve is:
(15) Then, for the spatial and temporal discretization the MacCormak is used. The MacCormak method is a two step predictor corrector finite different. The MacCormak method can solve linear partial differential equations (PDE), nonlinear PDE and system of PDE [8].
p V a2 0. t x V 1 dp fV V 0. t dx 2D V ( x, 0) Vinitial p( x, 0) Pinitial p (inlet , t ) P V (valve, ) V
(10) (11) (12) (13) (14)
t Vi 1n Vi n . x t t Vi n 1 Vi n pi1n pi n Vi n f 2 D Vi n . x pi n1 pi n a 2
(16) (17)
In the second final step, a first order backward difference approximations based on the provisional values is used. This is the corrector formula.
1 n n 1 2 t n 1 n 1 pi pi a x Vi Vi 1 . 2 t 1 t n Vi n 1 Vi n Vi n 1 pi n 1 pi 1n 1 Vi n f Vi . 2 x 2D pi n1
(18)
(19)
The Predictor-Corrector method comprises two parts: a predictor formula which generates an estimate of a new value for the dependent variable and a corrector formula which aim to improve upon the predictor value.
Figure 3. Generation of pressure wave with respect to time and space in a small simple pipe
34
The Mac Cormak method is conditionally stable and convergent. The stationary condition given by the Courant number less than one. For this system of equation it is necessary to satisfy the courant conditions in the two equations.
Cn1 a 2
t t 1 . 1 and Cn1 x x
(20)
Here, when x is imposed, the t can be found as a last equation. 5. Result and discussion
It is observed from the figure that pressure levels at the time t = 0, is all same. With the transient condition applied the pressure in the pipe increases, after certain lapse of time. This lapse is attributed to the inertia of the pipe. With the passage of time the pressure variation in the pipe increases. This variation is same for all the length of the pipe and changes only with the time. This change is very high in the vicinity of the length where valve is located. This is attributed by a pressure wave for a very short span of the pipe. References [1] [2] M. CHaudhry,Hydraulic Engineering, Jhon Wile & Sons Inc., New York, 1998. B. Brunone, U.M. Golia, and M. Greco, Some remarks on the momentum equation for fast transients. Int. Meeting on Hydraulic Transients with Column Separation, 9th Round Table, IAHR, Valencia, Spain, PP 140-148,1991. J. D. Hoffman, Numerical Methods for Engineers and Scientists, McGraw- Hill Inc. Singapore, 1993. A. E. Vardy, and J. M. B. Brown, On Turbulent Unsteady Smooth-Pipe Flow. Int. Conf. on Pressure Surges and Fluid Transients, BHR Group, Harrogate, England, PP. 289311, 1996. B. Fitzgerald and C. Linden, The Control Valves Hidden Impact on the bottom Line (Part 1), Valve Manufacturers Association, 2003. S. Sisavath, X. Jing, C. C. Pain and R. W. Zimmerman, Creeping Flow Through an Axisymmetric Sudden Contraction or Expansion, Transactions of the ASME, 124,pp.273-278. M. A. Chaiko and K. W. Brickman, Models for Analysis of Water Hammer in Piping with Entrapped Air, Transactions of ASME, Vol. 124,pp. 194-204, 2002. H. M. V. Samani and A. Khayatzadeh, Transient flow in pipe networks J.of Hydraulic Research, Vol. 40, NO. 5, pp. 637-644, 2002. D. Stephenson, Effect of Air Valve and Pipe work on Water Hammer Pressures, J. of Transportation Engineering, pp. 101-106, March 1997. C.S. Beard, Control Valves, Instrument Publishing company, Pittsburgh,1957. D. R. Yang, Actuator And Control Valve Selection, Lecture III, Dept. of Chemical and Biological Engineering Korea University, 2001. R. S. Gupta,Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems,Waveland Press Inc., Illinois, 1989. M. Moran and H. Shapiro, Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, Jhon Wile & Sons, inc., New York, 2000.
[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
35
Waste Heat Recovery Possibilities for a Typical Indian Hospital

Mahesh Shelar1, S.D. Bagade1, G.N. Kulkarni2 College of Engineering Pune Maharastra India K K Wagh Institute of Engineering, Education and Research, Panchavati Nashik.422003.Maharastra India 1 Corresponding Author (E-mail: maheshnshelar@yahoo.co.in)
1 2
Hospitals have standby diesel generators to cater to their power and cooling load during load shedding hours. Heat recovery possibilities therefore exist. Waste heat recovery based vapour absorption machines could be used with diesel generators to offset some of the cooling demand. The capacity of vapour absorption machine must be such that it allows maximum heat recovery from the diesel generator. The paper identifies the contribution of cooling demand that can be economically met by waste heat based vapour absorption machine for cogeneration-cooling system in a selected 750 bed hospital. Three scenarios for the selected hospital are analyzed to arrive at the appropriate diesel generator capacity and vapour absorption contribution in the total cooling load. 1. Introduction
Compulsory Load management or load shedding by the utilities for few hours is a common load management strategy in India. Use of standby captive power generation facility is therefore common to meet the load during load shedding hours. Diesel generators are commonly used as a standby power source in India. Energy balance of diesel generators or natural gas engines show considerable waste heat recovery potential [1,2]. Waste heat recovery from diesel exhaust could be used to offset some of the cooling demand by use of the vapour absorption machines(VAM). Simultaneous generation of two forms of energy popularly known as cogeneration could therefore be a waste heat recovery strategy from captive diesel generators. Use of cogeneration-cooling for meeting the power and cooling demand should lead to a selection of smaller capacity generator. Such cogeneration cooling applications can be feasible where waste heat is available [3]. This could be economically attractive if the capital costs of the waste heat recovery based vapour absorption machines are recovered in a reasonable period of time through fuel savings. They could be thermodynamically efficient [4,5]. This obviously depends on the contribution of cooling demand in the total power demand. Hospitals have reasonable cooling demand for air conditioning if operation theatres, intensive care units (ICUs), special and deluxe rooms, and common wards and out patient departments (OPDs) are conditioned [6]. However there could be cases where only operation theatres and intensive care units are conditioned during load shedding. Another possibility is meeting the cooling demand of special and deluxe rooms in addition to those of earlier mentioned option. We can assume a case of air conditioning even the out patient departments and common wards for some hospitals. In all these scenarios the contribution of cooling demand met from waste heat recovery based vapour absorption machines in the total demand is vital. The aim of the study undertaken by the authors and reported in this paper was to identify the contribution of cooling demand that can be economically met by waste heat based vapour absorption machine for cogeneration-cooling system in a selected 750 bed hospital under the three scenarios. We express this in terms of contribution of VAM in total cooling capacity. We also determine the simple payback period for all the three scenarios.
36
2.
Methodology
Load survey for a hospital located in Nasik, Maharashtra was conducted to obtain data of connected power load and also to estimate the cooling load. The cooling demand was calculated by cooling load estimation technique. Based on the cooling loads obtained for different rooms a load curve for three scenarios were estimated. Scenario one includes the cooling load of operation theatres, intensive care units and special and deluxe rooms. Scenario two includes the cooling demand of out patient departments in addition to the scenario one. The third scenario adds the cooling demand of common rooms. The power demand obtained from load survey remains approximately the same under the three scenarios. Cooling demand is significant as compared to the power demand under all the scenarios. Hence the entire cooling demand cannot be met by the waste heat based vapour absorption machines. Hence cooling demand is met by combination of compressor driven and heat driven machines. Contribution of waste heat recovery based cooling is therefore progressively increased to ascertain the economical option for all the three scenarios. Economical viability is determined by calculating simple payback period. The capital costs of diesel generator and vapour absorption machines are obtained from the suppliers.Similiarly data on fuel consumption rate, exhaust gas temperature and exhaust flow rate were obtained from one supplier. 3. Load Survey Findings of the hospital
The estimated load curves for scenarios one, two and three are shown in Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3 respectively. The maximum cooling demand for the three scenarios obtained in tonnes of refrigeration is expressed as kWe assuming the coefficient of performance of vapour compression refrigeration system (VCR) as three. This cooling demand is reflected in the load curves for respective scenarios. (Figures 1, 2 and 3)
Figure1. Load curve for first scenario
37
Figure 2. Load curve for second scenario
Figure 3. Load curve for third scenario Since the period of load shedding hours cannot be predicted, the consumer has to select a diesel generator to meet the maximum demand which is about 180 kWe, 260 kWe and 360 kWe respectively. However with waste heat recovery some of the cooling load can be offset. This cogeneration strategy will enable the user to choose a generator of smaller rating as well lesser fuel consumption rate. This waste heat recovery option is of vapour absorption machine. Since cooling load is significant it has to be met jointly by VCR and VAM systems. Choice of the diesel generator is based on this load sharing as also from the fact that the waste exhaust heat energy from the diesel generator decides the upper limit of VAM for that generator. Table 1 discusses the selection of diesel generator with increasing VAM contributions in the total cooling load in scenario one. Similar selection is done for scenarios two and three shown in Table2 and 3 respectively. We assume COP for VAM as unity.
38
Table 1. Possible VAM Contribution in Scenario 1. VAM contribution in total cooling load of 60 tons VAM contribution in kWe assuming COP as unity kWe load to be met by DG obtained by subtracting VAM kWe from total kWe load of 180 kW 166 157 145 134 123 kVA rating available in market Waste heat available for VAM in kWth Waste heat required for VAM in kWth Can this generator operate the said capacity VAM on exhaust heat Selection based on Maximum heat recovery
20% 33% 50% 66% 80%
14 23 35 46 56
210 200 180 166 155
200 187 176 161 150
51 86 130 173 206
Yes Yes Yes No No
Selected
Table 2. Possible VAM Contribution in Scenario 2. VAM contribution in total cooling load of 125 tons VAM contribution in kWe assuming COP as unity kWe load kVA Waste Waste Can this to be met rating heat heat generator by DG available available required operate obtained in for VAM for VAM the said by market in kWth in kWth capacity subtracting VAM on VAM kWe exhaust from total heat kWe load of 260kW 230 300 340 110 Yes 210 260 280 180 Yes 186 230 250 270 No 162 200 194 365 No 141 175 170 438 No Table 3. Possible VAM Contribution in Scenario 3. kWe load to be met by DG obtained by subtracting VAM kWe from total kWe load of 360 kW 309 277 234 223 158 kVA rating available in market Waste heat available for VAM in kWth Waste heat required for VAM in kWth Can this generator operate the said capacity VAM on exhaust heat Selection based on Maximum heat recovery
20% 33% 50% 66% 80%
30 50 74 98 119
Selected
VAM contribution in total cooling load of 215 tons
VAM contribution in kWe assuming COP as unity
Selection based on Maximum heat recovery
20% 33% 50% 66% 80%
51 83 126 137 202
400 350 300 275 200
465 415 352 235 195
188 312 468 620 750
Yes Yes No No No
Selected
39
The economic viability of the selected options was assessed using the simple pay back period (SPP) criteria for a load shedding of four hours. The assumptions and economic analysis are given in table 4. Table 4. Economic assessment of selected D.G. and VAM configurations. Size D.G. 180 kVA, VAM 30 TR D.G. 260 kVA, VAM 42 TR D.G. 350 kVA, VAM 71 TR 4. Conclusions Fuel Consumption in Lit. 40 55 73 D.G. Cost in Rs. 1500000 1800000 2200000 VAM Cost in Rs. 1200000 1300000 1500000 SPP 2 Years 1.5 Years 2 Years
The load curve of the hospital for all the three scenarios considered reveals that the cooling load is significant and meeting it entirely by vapour compression systems will need a larger capacity diesel generator as a standby when the load shedding by the utilities is unpredictable and for larger period of more than four hours. A strategy could be meeting the cooling load partially by exhaust based diesel generators. Our analysis done for all the three scenarios reveals that about 30% of cooling load can be met by vapour absorption systems thereby reducing the size of selected diesel generator. This strategy of cogeneration cooling could also make economical sense for hospitals with similar load profiles and in areas where daily load shedding by utilities is unpredictable and for larger period. References [1] [2] [3] Tyagi Amitkumar, Handbook on Energy Audit, The Energy Research Institute, 2003, 128130. Zhi-Gao Sun, Energy efficiency and economic feasibility analysis of cogeneration system driven by gas engine, Energy and Buildings, Volume 40, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 126-130 A. Sala, I. Flores, J.M. Sala, J.A. Milln, I. Gmez, L.M. Lpez, Cogeneration technology for the metal-processing sector, Applied Energy, Volume 85, Issue 6, June 2008, Pages 516-527. Aysegul Abusoglu, Mehmet Kanoglu, First and second law analysis of diesel engine powered cogeneration systems, Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 49, Issue 8, August 2008, Pages 2026-2031. M. Mostafavi, B. Agnew, Thermodynamic analysis of combined diesel engine and absorption unit-turbocharged engine with intercooling, Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume 16, Issues 8-9, August-September 1996, Pages 733-740. C.J. Renedo, A. Ortiz, M. Maana, D. Sili, S. Prez, Study of different cogeneration alternatives for a Spanish hospital center, Energy and Buildings, Volume 38, Issue 5, May 2006, Pages 484-490.
[4]
[5]
[6]
40
Loss Evaluation For Pulse Tube Cryo Cooler

Bansi Raja 1* J. M. Patel2 L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad - 380015, Gujarat *Corresponding author (E-Mail: bansi14.raja@gmail.com) Due to various advantages and increasing demand of pulse tube refrigerator, the experiment on pulse tube refrigerator using air as working fluid has been carried out and the minimum achievable temperature is 245K with 9.5W refrigeration power, however there are various losses which minimizes the efficiency of pulse tube refrigerator, one of the major among all is due to regenerator ineffectiveness which greatly depends on regenerator material as well as on regenerator configuration. In the present work attempt is made to evaluate and to minimize the major loss and thereby increasing the overall capacity of pulse tube refrigerator. As mentioned above the regenerator ineffectiveness is one of the major loss which minimizes the overall capacity of pulse tube refrigerator, however regenerator effectiveness greatly depends on regenerator material as well as mesh size, With this concept the theoretical and practical analysis using the various formulas of regenerator, with different material and mesh size # 180 stainless steel 304 (In previous experiment the material was #150 phosphor bronze) has been carried out. With the help of above method losses in the pulse tube refrigerator have been minimized E.G. The initial capacity for which it has been designed was 9.5 W However due to various losses in it which are of 2.6 W (Major losses are due to heat transfer through conduction, convection, radiation) its overall capacity becomes 9.5W (original Refrigeration Power) - 2.6W (Losses) = 6.9W (Net Refrigeration Power). Therefore by theoretical evaluation, from the above loss, the major loss which was due to regenerator ineffectiveness have been analyzed, and with the help of different material the regenerator effectiveness has been increased,also the attempt has been made to decrese the lowest achievable cold end temperature. So the major loss (Loss Due to regenerator ineffectiveness) has been reduced and the lowest cold end temperature is 211K from 247K. 1. Introduction
In the last few years there has been increasing demand of cryocoolers for cooling of infrared sensors used on satellites and in tanks, missiles, high temperature super conductors, low noise amplifiers, superconducting quantum interference devices etc. Cryocoolers have potential applications in high resolution imaging sensors and high performance missile systems, where a compact low cost cooling medium is of critical importance. [5] 2. Pulse tube refrigerator
High reliability in cryocoolers that has been studied for many years. One approach to increase the reliability is the elimination of some moving parts in the mechanical refrigerators. Due to absence of any moving part in cold region and also their improved thermodynamic efficiency the pulse tube refrigerators are now winnig the race of these applications. Pulse tube refrigerators have their origin in an observation that W.E Gifford made while working on a compressor while he was at A.D. Little in the late 1950s. He noticed that a tube which branched from the high pressure line and was closed by a valve was hotter by the valve than at the branch. He recognized that there was a heat pumping mechanism that resulted from pressure pulses in the line.[4]
41
3.
Practical analysis of losses using experimental set up
A pulse tube cooler is a device for cooling fluid to low temperature .It is a closed system that uses oscillating air pressure at one end (typically produced by a compressor) to generate an oscillating gas flow in the rest of the system.This gas flow can carry heat away from a low temperature point (cold heat exchanger) if the conditions are befitting [1]. Lowest temperature of the pulsetube refrigerator depends on various parameters e.g. regenerator material, regenerator configuration, pressure drop, regenerator mesh size etc. [2]. In the present work attempt has been made to minimize the temperature of the pulse tube by varying above parameters. For this purpose experiment on the pulse tube refrigerator has been carried out using air as working fluid, the design specification of pulse tube for this experiment are :L=400mm, D=19.6mm,(pulse tube) Ph= 10 bar,Pl=1 bar ,L=120mm, D=23 mm(regenerator),Regenerator matrix material = 304 Stainless steel, Regenerator mesh size= #180
Figure 1. Experimental set up of PTR
4.
Loss Evaluation for Pulse tube Cryocooler
The system which has been designed for refrigeration capacity 9.5W with lowest cold end temperature of 247 K,by changing some parameters its lowest cold end temperature has been reduced to 211K.
42
As mentioned above , one of the important parameters to reduce the temperature is regenerator matrix material and regenerator mesh size, In this particular experiment regenerator material is #180 stainless steel 304 (In the previous work experiment has been carried out using #150 Phospher Bronze)[3] With the help of above experiment the major advantages achieved are : (A) Regenerator effectiveness have been increased from 0.9958 to 0.9966 (B) The lowest cold end temperature achieved is 211K from 247K Various losses for Pulse tube refrigeration system are due to [2] 1. Q= Loss due to Regenerator ineffectiveness
1- mr c pTh -Tc
(1)
=0.854 W
Figure 2. Volumetric heat capacity of some regenerative materials
2.
Loss due to conduction through regenerator housing
Q K s.s.304Drotr

= 0.378 W
h Tc
Lr
(2)
43
3.
Loss due to conduction through regenerator matrix material
Kmg Ar
=0.183 W
h Tc
Lr
(3)
4.
Loss due to conduction through pulse tube
K s.s304 D pot p Th Tc

Lp
(4)
= 0.226 W 5. Loss due to radiation
Q pv Ap Fpv Tv 4 Tpa 4 rv Ar Frv Tv 4 Tra 4
= 1.01 W The final capacity of pulse tube refrigerator can be given as Net refrigerating Power =Gross refrigeration power-Various losses Table 1. Comparative analysis Previous Experiment Gross Refri.Power Gross refrigeration power-Various losses Net Refri.Power Net Refri.Power Recent Experiment
(5)
9.5W
9.5W
=9.5-(0.89+0.62+0.295+0.16+0.89)
=9.5(0.85+0.37+0.295+0.22+1.01)
=9.5-2.6 6.9W
=9.5-2.643 =6.857W
Efforts are still being carried out to minimize the various losses and thereby increasing the capacity PTR. 5. Conclusions
From the above analysis we see that by changing various parameters of the PTR, the lowest cold end temp can be reduced to 211K from 247K (within the given fixed parameters), however there is not much increase in the capacity of PTR, so the effort should be carried out further to increase the capacity.
44
References [1] W.E. Gifford, R.C. Longsworth Pulse Tube RefrigerationAdvances in cryogenics engg. Vol-10-B plenum press newyork 1965 [2] B.S.Gawali and N.K.Sane ,Experimental Investigation on pulse Tube Refrigerator, Proceeding of the eighteenth International Cryogenic Engineering Conference (ICEC 18),200,p.527 [3] Ray Radebaugh (1990) A reveiew of Pulse tube Refrigeration; Advances in Cryogenic Engineering conference (ICEC 19), Grenoble, France (2002) [4] A.R. Jha Cryogenic Technology and applications Elsevier academic press, oxford UK [5] Randall F. Barron Cryogenic Systems, Oxford University press, Newyork (1985)
45
Experimental Study Of Performance Characteristics Of 4Stroke Diesel Engine Using Cotton Seed Oil
Bhavik D. Upadhyay Sachin D. Daxini , Sitansh D.Golwala
1,2 1* 2 3
A. D. Patel Institute of Technology, New V.V.Nagar-388121, Gujarat, India. 3 G.H.Patel College of Engg. And Tech., V V Nagar 388 120 * Corresponding author (e-mail: bhavikadit@yahoo.co.in) Reserves shortage and price increase are causing a growing substitution of fossil fuels with fuels derived from vegetable origin. This paper demonstrates experimental study to evaluate the use of various blends of cotton seed oil with diesel fuel, in blend ratios 0/100, 10/90, 20/80, 40/60 and 60/40 in a fully instrumented, four-stroke, High Speed Direct Injection (HSDI) diesel engine. The tests were conducted using each of the above fuel blends or neat fuels, with the engine working at low, medium and high load. In this task, brake power, fuel consumption, brake specific fuel consumption, indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake thermal efficiency and indicated thermal efficiency were measured. The differences in the performance from the base line operation of the engine, that is, when working with neat diesel fuel, were determined and compared, as well as the differences between cotton seed oil and their blends.
1.
Introduction
The world is presently confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. Indiscriminate extraction and lavish consumption of fossil fuels have led to reduction in underground carbon-based resources. It requires increased efforts in the research and development of alternative methods of producing of these fuels from renewable resources. In India this applies more extensively for petroleum fuel. Local and recurring resources, abundant availability and machine compatibility are the most important considerations, which need alternative to diesel as well as petrol. In this context, vegetable oils have figured high on the list of research. Large numbers of such oils have been studied for their potential as a diesel substitute. These include Palm oil, Tobacco seed oil, Cashew nut sheel liquid, Mustard oil, Karanj oil, Jatropha oil, Rapeseed oil and cottonseed oil. In the last few years, Kose et al., 2002 and Royon et al., 2006 conducted a study of the production of bio-diesel using various vegetable oils which shows significant progress in the field of alternative fuel [1,2]. The main problem of the production of bio-diesel is the high cost of the catalyst which is used in esterification of the cotton seed oil. However, pure cotton seed oil reduces the incidence of catalyst cost. Rakopoulos et al. had performed tests using various blends of cotton seed oil or its methyl ester (Bio-Diesel) with diesel fuel at a medium and high load. He had analyzed volumetric fuel consumption, Exhaust Smokiness and exhaust-regulated gas emissions [3]. However, in that study, production of methyl ester of cotton seed oil was necessary. Due to this problem, we can test the use of pure cotton seed oil as an alternative of conventional fuel like diesel. Objective of this paper is to test the potential of pure Cotton Seed Oil as a substitute for the diesel fuel. Cotton seeds are obtained as a by-product of cotton industry. 2. Comparison of Properties
The comparison of properties of Cotton Seed Oil and standard specification Diesel Oil is clearly shown in Table 1.
46
Table 1. Comparison of various properties of cotton seed oil with diesel oil
Oil Properties ( ) Viscosity at 40 C 2 Density (kg/cm ) Cetane Number Calorific Value (Kcal / kg) Sulphur content % of O2 by wt. Water Content % by vol. Ash Content Flash point ( C ) Pour point Specific Gravity At 30 C Cloud Point Copper Strip Corrosion Carbon residue Acid Value Total Glycerine Contents Free Glycerine Diesel Oil 2 to 5 820-860 at 15 48 min. 10,170 0.25 0 0.05 0.01 66 15 0.82 / 0.84 0.30 0.07 Cotton seed Oil 31.76 CS 913 39 9390 NIL 0.45 0.30 245 0.9173 +6C Negative 0.36 % 0.2 2.39 % 0.81 %
(%)
The important properties, which are responsible for better combustion and directly affected to the performance are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Properties of fuel

Properties Calorific Value(kJ/kg) Specific Gravity 3. Diesel 42420 0.83 B10 42090 0.838 B20 41780 0.847 B40 41160 0.863 B60 40540 0.88
Experimental Setup and Procedure
According to the scope and objectives of the project, an experimental setup was prepared consisting of a 4-Stroke Single Cylinder Diesel Engine coupled with rope brake dynamometer and arrangements for measurement of fuels consumption. Cooling water circulation was provided for dissipating the heat from the engine to maintain the controlled thermal condition of the engine. Engine specifications of the experimental setup are as stated in Table 3.
Table 3. Engine specification

Brand Manufactured By Type Engine No. KW R.P.M. Bore Stroke Cylinder Head Clearance Compression Ratio Capton Vertical Single Cylinder 4-Stroke Compression Ignition Water Cooled Vertical Diesel Engine. Dhoraji Engineering Works,1-W Udyog Nagar, Rajkot Vertical Single cylinder 4-Stroke Compression Ignition water cooled vertical diesel Engine. 9835 5.9 (8 hp). 850 114.3 mm (4) 139.7 mm 1.52 to 1.65 mm 18:1
47
Injection pressure Specific Fuel Consumption Governing Fuel Lubricating Oil Cubic Capacity Weight Of Engine(Net) Weight Of Engine(Gross) Lubricating Oil Sump Capacity Fuel Tank Capacity Nozzle Nozzle Holder Fuel Pump Fuel Pump Plunger Fuel Injection Timing by Spill Valve Tappet Clearance
140 Kg/cm 268 gm/KW.hr Class B-1 HSD ( High Speed Diesel ) SAE 30 1.43 320 Kg 420 Kg 5 lit. 10 lit. DL 30 S 1202 9 430 031 264 9 410 032 032 H.P.P.K Z MICO Starts from 20 Before TDC Inlet Valve 0.45 mm Outlet Valve 0.70 mm
3.1
Speed Measurement Engine speed is measured by using digital tachometer with a range of 0-2000 rpm and its least count is 1 rpm. 3.2 Temperature Measurement Temperature measured included air inlet temperature, the engine exhaust temperature, cooling water inlet and outlet temperature and ambient temperature. All the above temperature was measured with digital thermometer. Readings may be affected if the unit is operated within radio frequency electromagnetic field strength of approximately 3 volts per meter, but the performance of instrument will not be permanently affected and in this experiment there is no chance of producing electromagnetic field due to absent of electric circuit. Specifications and other details of the digital thermometer are as stated in Table 4.
Table 4.
Specifications of digital thermometer
Measurement Range - 50 to + 400C (- 58 to + 750F) Operating Range 0 ~ 50C (32 ~ 122F) Accuracy, (Tobject = 15-35C, +/- 1.0 C (1.8F) Tambient = 25C) Emissivity 0.95 fixed Resolution(-9.9 ~ 199.9C) 0.1 C/ 0.1 F Response Time (90 %) 1 Sec Distance : Spot 9:1 Battery Life Typ.18, min 14 hours continuous use Dimensions 175.2 X 39.0 X 71.9 mm Weight 179 grams including batteries(AAA 2 pcs) # The thermometer will automatically shut off if left idle for more than 1 Sec. 3.3 Dynamometer Rope brake dynamometer consists of a rope wrapped round on the flywheel of the engine from which the Brake power is to be measured. It is the simplest type of dynamometer. This dynamometer is very extensively used for testing engine for brake power because it is inexpensive and easy to fabricate. 4. Experimental Work Experimental work carried out in this project consist of two parts
48
1. Preliminary experimentation towards making of the setup. 2. Engine performance studies under diesel, and diesel with Cotton Seed Oil The experimental work towards engine performance evaluation was done in two steps. The steps are as follows: 1. Base data generation 2. Performance evaluation under pure diesel and diesel with Cotton Seed Oil. 4.1 4.2 Base Data Generation Engine was checked for all its setting parameters using high speed diesel as fuel.
Test Procedure 2 For the engine, Fuel Injection Pressure was maintained constant at 155 Kg/Cm and Injection Advance Angle was kept 20 before TDC. Load on the engine was varied from no load to 8Kg, 16 Kg, 24 Kg, 32 Kg, 40 kg & 46 Kg of rated load. Following readings were taken for each load applied on the engine. (I) Speed of the engine (II) Time in seconds for 100 ml fuel consumption (III) DBT, WBT of ambient air and height difference between two limbs of manometer (for measurement of air flow) (IV) Cooling water inlet & outlet temperature and mass flow rate. (V) Exhaust gas temperature and back pressure Complete load range from no load to over load was investigated for fuel consumptions, exhaust temperature and exhaust emission. It is necessary to underline that, at all points of operation the machine was thermally stabilized before nothing down the observations. Exhaust gas temperature was taken as the indicator of the thermal stabilization. In addition, at least two consecutive sets of observation were taken and compared at each load before proceeding to the next load. Reproducibility of the results was further ensured by conducting the whole exercise with increasing as well as decreasing loads. 4.3 Performance evaluation of various blends of diesel and cotton seed oil with different proportions In this phase of experimental work, the engine was operated on diesel fuel with different percentage of CSO. Methodology used was identical with that of high-speed diesel operation with respect to change of loads, recording of fuel consumption, exhaust emission and various temperatures. Experiments were conducted on 4 different blends of pure cotton seed oil with diesel. The following different blends were tested on the engine. 1. 90% diesel and 10% CSO. 2. 80% diesel and 20% CSO. 3. 60% diesel and 40% CSO. 4. 40% diesel and 60% CSO. 4.4 Graphical Representation of the Result
0.9 0.8
M echanical E fficiency (% )
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Brake Powe r (KW) Diesel Diesel(60%)+CSO(40%) Diesel(90%)+CSO(10%) Diesel(40%)+CSO(60%) Diesel(80%)+CSO(20%)
Figure 1. Brake power(kW) Vs BSFC(gm/kWhr)
Figure 2. Brake power(kW) Vs Mechanical effi.(%)
49
45 40
Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)
350
Exhaust Gas Temp. (Degree Centigrade)
300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Brake Power (KW) Diesel Diesel( 90%) + CSO(10%) Diesel(40%) + CSO(60%) Diesel(80%) + CSO(20%)
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 Brake Power (KW) Diesel Diesel(60%) + CSO(40%) Diesel(90%) + CSO(10%) Diesel(40%) + CSO(60%) 5 6 7
Diesel(80%) + CSO(20%)
Diesel(60%) + CSO(40%)
Figure 3. Brake power (kW) Vs Brake thermal efficiency(%)

5. Conclusions
Figure 4. Brake power (kW) Vs Exhaust gas temperature ( C ).
The following conclusion can be drawn based on the results and discussions: 1. Higher brake specific fuel consumption is obtained in the case of cotton seed oil but in case of the blend of 10% cotton seed oil with 90% diesel at higher load the brake specific fuel consumption reduces little than diesel and this is because of at higher temperature the viscosity of cotton seed oil and ultimately the viscosity of the bland decreases. This is shown in Figure 1. 2. The mechanical efficiency increased with increase in load in all blends of cotton seed oil with diesel but it is less than pure diesel because the loss due to friction (frictional power) in case of the blends of diesel with cotton seed oil(3.1 KW) is more as compared with diesel(1.3 KW). This higher frictional loss is due to higher viscosity of the cotton seed oil. 3. The brake thermal efficiency increased with increase in load with all the blends of cotton seed oil with diesel but it is less as compared with pure diesel because the higher calorific value of the cotton seed oil is 6.42% (39.30 MJ/Kg) lower than the diesel. 4. The temperature of exhaust gas is also little high in case of the different blends of cotton seed oil with diesel because due to little incomplete combustion of the cotton seed oil unburned carbon particles formed and they absorb more heat during combustion so the exhaust temperature is little higher than the diesel fuel. References [1] D.Royon, M. Daz, G.Ellenrieder, S.Locatelli, Enzymatic production of Biodiesel from cotton seed oil using t-butanol as a solvent, Bioresource of Technology 98, 2007, pp. 648-653. Kose O., Tuter M., Aksoy H. A., Immobilized Candida antarctica Lipase catalyzed alcoholysis of cotton seed oil in a solvent-free medium, Bioresource Technology 83, 2002, pp. 125-129. Rakopoulos, Constantine D., Antonopoulos, Kimono A., Dimitrios C., Kakaras, Emmanuel C., Pariotis, Efthimios G., Characteristics of the performance and emissions of a HSDI diesel engine running with cotton seed oil or its methyl ester and their blends with diesel fuel , International Journal of Vehicle Design, Inderscience, Volume 45, Number 1-2, 11 May 2007, pp. 200-221(22). William H. Crouse & Donald L. Anglin, Automotive Mechanics, Tata Mcgraw-Hill Publishing Company ltd, New Delhi,1986, pp 132-135
[2] [3]
[4]
50
Effect on the Performance and Environmental Characteristics of a CI Engine Fuelled with Jatropha Biodiesel-diesel Blends
Bijan Kumar Mandal , Samiddha Palit, Sudip Ghosh, Somnath Chakraborti Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah 711103, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: bkm375@yahoo.co.in) An experimental investigation of performance and emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine using different blends of diesel and biodiesel obtained from jatropha oil has been carried out. It is observed that BSFC increases as we increase the percentage of biodiesel in the blends. Brake thermal efficiency is found to decrease with the percentage of biodiesel in the fuel. The maximum efficiency for pure diesel is found to be 29.6%, whereas pure biodiesel has maximum efficiency of 21.2%. The exhaust gas temperatures increase with the load for all fuel blends. Pure biodiesel gives higher exhaust 0 0 temperature (320 C) than pure diesel (260 C). NOx emission increases with load as well as with the percentage of biodiesel in the blended fuel. The maximum HC emission is 1350 ppm at 5.25 kW for pure biodiesel (B100) and 1790 ppm for pure diesel for the same load. CO emission also followed the same trend of decreasing emission from pure diesel to low blend biodiesel. 1. Introduction
*
The expected shortage of conventional petro-diesel and the strict emission norms have encouraged scientists and researchers to investigate the possibilities of use of biofuels as major compression ignition engine fuels. Among the various renewable and sustainable alternative fuels, biodiesel shows promising future in replacing petro-diesel al least to some extent. Biodiesel can reduce our dependence on conventional/non-renewable fossil fuels as well as improve environment quality in metro cities, urban and rural sectors by reducing obnoxious automotive/vehicular emissions [1,2]. It has a superior cetane number of greater than 50 (range 49-54) as compared to petro-diesel [3]. Biodiesel does not contain any aromatic compounds and it has relatively high flash point of which makes it safer to transport and handle. Transesterification process employed to manufacture biodiesel yields by-product glycerol which has many applications in industry, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and food industries [4]. Biodiesel reduces such as life cycle CO2, particulate matter (PM), CO, SOx, volatile organic compound (VOCs) and unburned hydrocarbon significantly [5, 6]. These above-said merits make biodiesel fuel a very attractive and benign alternative to petroleum based diesel with applications in railway locomotives, stationary agri-gensets, road transport such as long route trucks, city garbage trucks and school bus fleet, etc. Several studies on the performances and emissions of compression ignition engines, fuelled with pure biodiesel and its blends with diesel oil, have been carried out and reported in the literature. Pramanik [7] investigated BSFC for different of biodiesel with diesel and observed that BSFC increases with higher blends of biodiesel with diesel. Pradeep and Sharma [8] reported that NOx emission is higher in jatropha-fueled engine compared to diesel fueled engine. Murillo et al. [9] investigated the engine performance and emission results of biodiesel derived from cooking oil in outboard diesel engines. They found a maximum increase of BSFC by 11.4%, lowering of CO emissions by 12% and an increase of NOx emissions upto 20%. Jatropha curcas is one of the non-edible oils, which has an estimated annual production potential of 200 thousand metric tones in India and it can be grown in wasteland. Biodiesel from jatropha oil is free from sulfur and still exhibits excellent lubricity. It is a much safer fuel than diesel because of its higher flash and fire point. Presence of oxygen in the jatropha biodiesel reduces the energy content of fuel and significantly contributes to NOx emissions. However, presence of oxygen facilitates complete combustion and reduces CO and HC emissions. This improves the emission characteristics of the engine.
51
3.
Experiment
The experiment was carried out on a double Table 1: Engine Specifications cylinder, constant speed, direct injection diesel Ignition type CI (4-stroke) (compression ignition) engine. The specification of the No of cylinder 2 engine is given in table 1. The engine was directly coupled Manufacture Kirloskar to a hydraulic dynamometer of maximum load capacity 20 Type AV2 kgf. The load was varied by adjusting load wheel on the top Engine No 11.1001/81801 of the engine. Water pressure was kept constant at 1.5 RPM 1500 2 BHP 10 (7.35KW) kg/cm . The torque and the fuel consumption rates were SFC 199 G/bhp-hr measured for different loads and fuel blends. The fuel Bore Diameter 80 mm. blends were prepared by mixing different percentages of Stroke Length 110 mm. biodiesel with pure diesel. The percentages of biodiesel in the blends were taken to 0% (pure diesel), 10%, 20%, 40%, 50% and 100% (pure biodiesel). The exhaust gas temperatures were measured using thermocouple. The amount of different pollutants in the exhaust gases was directly measured with the help of a gas analyzer, which measured CO, HC and NOx emissions. 4. Results and discussion
The calorific values of different biodiesel-diesel blends are calculated using weighted average method. Brake power, brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of the engine for different blends of the fuel at different loads are calculated using standard formula. The variations of different performance and emission characteristics parameters with load (brake power) are presented graphically in the next section. 4.1. Engine performance
Figure 1 indicates the variation of brake thermal efficiency of the engine with load for different jatropha biodiesel/diesel blends. The figure shows that initially with increasing brake power, the brake thermal efficiencies of the pure jatropha biodiesel fuel, diesel and the blends increase and the maximum thermal efficiencies for different cases are obtained in between 5.0 to 5.5 kW brake power. The efficiencies then decrease with further increase of load. It can be observed from the graph that pure jatropha biodiesel, diesel and its blends follow similar trend but brake thermal efficiencies decrease with the increase of biodiesel percentages in the blends. The maximum efficiencies of the engine are found to be 29.6% for pure diesel and 21.2% for pure biodiesel. It is also observed that maximum efficiency for pure diesel is obtained at higher load (76.0% of full load) compared to its jatropha biodiesel blends. The maximum efficiency is obtained at 66.67% of full load for pure jatropha biodiesel oil. The drop of thermal efficiency with increase of biodiesel percentage may be due to poor combustion characteristics of the vegetable oil due to high viscosity and low volatility. The variations of brake specific fuel consumptions (BSFC) of different blended fuels and those of pure biodiesel and pure diesel are presented in Fig. 2. BSFC is found to decrease with increase of the loads from 1.00 to 5.5 kW and tends to decrease with further increase in load. However, the rate of decrease is more initially. The blends as well as jatropha biodiesel follow the similar trend to that of diesel. But, the BSFC in case of the blends is found to be higher than that of diesel oil in the entire load range. This is mainly due to the combined effects of the relative fuel density, viscosity and the heating value of the blends. It may be noted that blend containing 10 % jatropha biodiesel and 90 % diesel (B10) has BSFC very close to that of diesel oil. From the nature of the curve, it is also observed that the rate of decrease is maximum up to loads 4.0 to 4.5 kW that is approximately 55.0 to 61.0% of the full load. The most possible reason for that is the higher density of the blends containing a higher percentages of jatropha biodiesel oil lead to more discharge of fuel for the same displacement of the plunger in the fuel injection pump, there by increasing BSFC [10].
52
32 28 Pure diesel B10 B20 B40 B50 B100
0.8
0.7
Brake thermal efficiency (%)
24 20 16 12 8 4 1 2
0.6
Pure Diesel B10 B20 B40 B50 B100
BSFC(kg/kWh)
4 5 6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
Brake power (kW)
Brake power (kW)
Figure 1. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power for different blends of diesel and biodiesel. 4.2. Exhaust temperature
Figure 2. Variation of BSFC with brake power for different blends of diesel and biodiesel.
Figure. 3 shows the variations of exhaust gas temperature with load in the range of 0.0 to 6.0 kW for diesel, biodiesel and its blends. The results show that the exhaust gas temperature increases with load for each blend as well as for pure diesel and pure biodiesel 0 0 fuel. The maximum exhaust gas temperatures are 320 C and 265 C for pure biodiesel (B100) and pure diesel fuel respectively. The exhaust gas temperature increases with increases of biodiesel percentage in a blended fuel for corresponding load. It is interesting to note that although the calorific value of jatropha biodiesel is lower than conventional diesel, the flame temperature with biodiesel is always greater than diesel for a particular load. 4.3. Engine emissions
Figure 4 shows the amount of CO emission at different loads for different blended fuels as well as pure biodiesel and pure petro-diesel. The CO emission is found to decrease with higher percentages of biodiesel in the blended fuels. The maximum CO emissions using pure diesel and pure biodiesel are found to be 340 ppm and 260 ppm respectively at the same load of around 5.2 kW. Hence a 24 % reduction in CO emission is noted. The possible reason of CO emission is the presence of oxygen in the biodiesel fuel, which augments the complete combustion of the fuel and thereby reduces CO emissions. Shi et al. [11] pointed out that higher cetane number of biodiesel is also responsible for lowering the CO emissions from diesel engines. The variation of hydrocarbon (HC) emission with load for various blends of biodiesel and diesel are depicted in Fig. 5. The HC emission is also found to decrease with higher percentages of biodiesel in the blended fuels. The maximum HC emissions using pure diesel and pure biodiesel are found to be 1350 ppm and 1790 ppm respectively at the same load of around 5.2 kW. The percentage reduction in CO emission from the engine is found to be 32% using pure biodiesel instead of diesel fuel. Pinto et al. [12] suggested that presence of oxygen in biodiesel leads to more complete and cleaner combustion. Rakopoulos et al. [13] reviewed emissions from biodiesel fueled engines and concluded that HC emissions decreased in oxygen-rich environment. The extra oxygen may come from either oxygenated fuels or oxygen enriched air. Monyem et al. [14] identified higher cetane number of biodiesel to be responsible for lower emissions from biodiesel fueled engines. The higher cetane number reduces the combustion delay or ignition lag resulting in lower emissions of total hydrocarbons.
53
340
350 Pure diesel B10 B20 B40 B50 B100 Pure Diesel B10 B20 B40 B50 B100
320
Exhaust gas temperature ( C)
300
300
280
CO (ppm)
1 2 3 4 5 6
250
200
260
240
150
220
100 1 2 3 4 5 6
Brake power (kW)
Brake power (kW)
Figure 3. Exhaust gas temperature Variation with brake power for different blends of diesel and biodiesel.
Figure 4. Variation of CO emission with brake power for different blends of diesel and biodiesel.
Figure 6 presents the NOx emission from the engine using different diesel/ biodiesel blended fuels and also pure diesel and pure biodiesel. NOx emission increases with the increase of load for each blend as well as for pure diesel and pure biodiesel. The maximum NOx emission for full load is 746 ppm and minimum is 334 ppm for diesel fuel. The NO x emission for B100 is 927 ppm for maximum load and 403 ppm for minimum load. NO x emission is found to increase with the increase of biodiesel percentage in the blends. B10 gives very close result with the pure diesel. The increased NO x emission with biodiesel is attributed to the increased flame temperature. The increase in flame temperature may be either due to the increased adiabatic flame temperature or less heat dissipation by radiation as a result of lower soot emission with biodiesel. Another possible reason is the advanced injection of biodiesel because of the quicker pressure rise produced by the fuel pump (due to the higher bulk modulus or lower compressibility of biodiesel) resulting in rapid propagation of fuel towards the injectors. However the injection advance is not measured in this work.
2000 1800 1600 Pure Diesel B10 B20 B40 B50 B100
1000 900 800 700 Pure Diesel B10 B20 B40 B50 B100
NOx (ppm)
HC (ppm)
1400 1200 1000 800 600 1
600 500 400 300 200
Brake power (kW)
Brake power (kW)
Figure 5 Variation of HC emission with brake power for different blends of diesel and biodiesel.
Figure 6. Variation of NOx emission with brake power for different blends of diesel and biodiesel.
54
5.
Conclusions
The performances and emissions from a CI engine have been investigated experimentally using different blends of diesel/biodiesel (derived from jatropha). It is observed that the brake thermal efficiency decreases with the increase of biodiesel in the blends of biodiesel and diesel. The maximum efficiencies of the engine are found to be 21.2% and 29.6% with pure biodiesel and pure petro-diesel respectively. Brake specific fuel consumption for pure jatropha biodiesel (B100) is higher than diesel fuel for any particular load. Exhaust gas temperature measured using B100 is higher than pure diesel. It is due to the presence oxygen molecule in the jatropha biodiesel which leads the complete combustion of the fuel and it results higher NO x generation in the exhaust gas. NOx emission increases with load as well as biodiesel concentration in the blending. There is a considerable amount of CO and HC emissions reduction when pure biodiesel or its blends with diesel are used as the fuel. Considering performance, emission and economic point of view, B20 is the best alternative fuel blend for the replacement of conventional diesel fuel. References [1] [2] Akintayo, E. T. Characteristics and composition of Parkia biglobbossa and Jatropha curcas oils and cakes. Bioresource Technology, 92, 2004, 307-310. Geyer, S. M. M. J. Jacobus, S.S. and Lest, Z. Comparison of diesel engine performance and emissions from neat and transesterified vegetable oils. Transactions of the ASAE, 1984, 375-381. Schwab, A.W. Bagby, M.O. and Freedman, B. Preparation and properties of diesel fuels from vegetable oils. Fuel, 66, 1987, 1372-1378. Srivastava, A. and Prasad, R. Triglycerides-based diesel fuels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 4, 2000, 111-133. Sharp, C. A. Howell, S.A. and Jobe, J. The effect of biodiesel fuels on transient emissions from modern diesel engines, part-I regulated emissions and performance. SAE Tech, Paper No. 2000, 1967. McCornic, R. Graboski, M.S. Herring, A.M. and Alleman, T.L. Impact of biodiesel source material and chemical structure of emissions of criteria pollutants from a heavy duty engine. Environmental Science Technology, 35, 2001, 1742-1747. Pramanik, K. Properties and use of jatropha curcas oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition engine. Renewable Energy, 28, 2003, 239-248. Pradeep, V. and Sharma, R.P. Use of HOT EGR for NOx control in a compression ignition engine fuelled with bio-diesel from Jatropha oil. Renewable Energy, 32, 2007, 11361154. Murillo, S. Miguez, J. L. Porteiro, J. Granada, E. and Moran, J. C. Performance and exhaust emissions in the use of biodiesel in outboard diesel engines. Fuel, 86, 2007, 1765 1771. Szybist, J. P. Song, J. Alam, M. and Boehman, A. L. Biodiesel combustion, emissions and emission control. Fuel Processing Technology, 88, 2007, 679-691. Shi, X. Yu, Y. He, H. Shuai, S. Wang, J. and Li, R. Emission characteristics using methyl soyate-ethanol-diesel fuel blends on a diesel engine. Fuel, 84, 2005, 1543-1549. Pinto, A. C. Guarieiro, L. L. N. Rezende, J. C. Ribeiro, N. M. Torres, E. A. Lopes, E. A. et al. Biodiesel: an overview. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, 16, 2005, 13131330. Rakopoulos, C. D. Hountalas, D. T. Zannis, T. C. and Levendis, Y. A. Operational and environmental evaluation of diesel engines burning oxygen-enriched fuels: a review. SAE Paper, No. 2004-01-2924, 2004. Monyem, A. Van Gerpen, J. H. and Canakci, M. The effect of timing and oxidation on emissions from biodiesel-fueled engines. Transactions of the ASAE, 44, 2001, 35-42.
[3] [4] [5] [6]
[7] [8] [9]
[10] [11] [12]
[13]
[14]
55
Transient Modelling of Soot Formation and its Burnout in Methane-Air Diffusion Flame
A.K. Chowdhuri , A. J. Bhowal , B. K. Mandal
1 1* 2 1
Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah 711103, India 2 Heritage Institute of technology, East Kolkata Township, Kolkata-700107 * Corresponding author (e-mail: achinkumar_becs@redifmail.com)
A simplified numerical model of soot formation and its burnout during the transient development of a laminar axi-symmetric co-flowing confined diffusion flame has been developed. The numerical scheme is based on explicit finite difference technique. The model predicts velocity, temperature, soot mass concentration and soot number density for each grid points of the computational zone at different time frames. No soot is formed in the flame when the temperature is less than about 1300 K. Initially, surface growth contributes more towards soot formation compared to that of nucleation. Soot burnout takes place at high temperature in the oxygen-enriched zone beyond the flame. 1. Introduction
Research in the field of combustion engineering has shifted its focus from improving the combustion efficiency to reducing combustion generated pollutant emission over the last few decades Soot is an atmospheric pollutant formed in hydrocarbon combustion, which causes respiratory illness and increases mortality. Soot is formed due to incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in the reducing atmosphere. Soot particles in flame also play a major role in radiant heat transfer from the flame. Although the literature on combustion and soot formation is vast, the soot chemistry and its interaction with fluid mechanics and heat transfer are not yet fully understood. The soot formation in diffusion flame is normally much higher than in premixed flame. Therefore, better understanding and control of soot forming processes in hydrocarbon combustion are required. With the advancement of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), numerical modeling of reacting flows and soot formation in flames has become popular. Kennedy et al. [1] used a one-equation model for the conservation of soot volume fraction to describe the soot formation and oxidation in an ethylene-air laminar diffusion flame. Syed et al. [2] and Moss et al. [3] used two equation models for soot volume fraction and number density in laminar diffusion flames with different fuels. Syed et al. [2] considered surface growth to be a function of the aerosol surface area, while Moss et al. [3] took it to be dependent on number density. Smooke et al. [4] considered the soot formation rate to be a function of acetylene, benzene, phenyl and molecular hydrogen concentrations. Burnout of soot due to oxidation also controls its emission level. The soot formation behaviour can be entirely different during flame development in a mixture following ignition compared to that in a steady flame. Often the time for flame development is so small that a clear picture becomes difficult to get experimentally without an extremely sophisticated setup. Hence, a numerical experimentation based on finite difference method on soot formation has been performed in this work to capture the variations in short time intervals. 2. Model Formulation
An axi-symmetric laminar diffusion flame in a confined physical environment is considered with fuel (methane) admitted as a central jet and air as a co-flowing annular jet. The inner fuel tube diameter is 12.7 mm and the outer tube diameter is 50.4 mm. The dimensions are the same as that of the earlier experimental work of Mitchell et al. [5] and the numerical work of Smooke et al. [6]. The combustion process is simulated with a detailed numerical model, which is developed for solving the transient governing equations for a laminar, reacting flow with appropriate boundary conditions along with appropriate conservation equations of soot mass concentration and soot number density.
56
2.1
Soot model
The soot model is based on the works of Syed et al. [2] and Moss et al. [3]. Nucleation, surface growth, coagulation and oxidation effects are taken into account in the formation of the model equations. The conservation equations are formed for soot mass concentration (s fv) and number density (as n/No) and the respective source terms for the conservation equations are as follows:
d s f v s f v 2 3 n1 3 362 s dt
2
2 s
f v2
ox
(1) (2)
d n n N d t No o The expressions for , , and appearing in the above equations are given by T C 2 T 0.5 X c exp T
(3)
C T 0 .5
(4)
T (5) C T 0.5 X c exp T C (6) In the above equations, N o is Avogadro number, s is the soot particulate density 3 (=1800 kg/m ), T and T are activation temperatures for nucleation and surface growth respectively, C , C, C , C are the model constants, Xc is the mole fraction of the parent fuel species and and T are the local mixture density and temperature, respectively. The model constants and activation temperatures for methane fuel are taken from Syed et al. [2]. The specific rate of soot oxidation ( ox ) is calculated using the model of Lee et al. [7] as
ox 1.085 10 5 PO T
2 1 2
exp 19778/T
(7)
Conservation equations for the soot mass concentration and number density are solved in the present model along with the gaseous species in the computational domain. The generalized conservation equations for soot mass concentration and number density can be expressed as 1 (8) r v r v z 1 r Vtr Vt z S . t r r z r r z The above equation is applicable both for the soot mass concentration (s fv) and number density (n/No) and accordingly will assume the respective variable value. The thermophoretic velocity vector (Vt ) needed for soot particles is calculated following Santoro et al. [8] as 3 Vt T (9) 4 1 8 T where, the accommodation factor () has been taken as unity. Eqs. (1) and (2) form the source terms ( S ) of the conservation equations of the soot mass concentration and number density, respectively. The soot volume fraction ( f v ) is then calculated from the mass concentration solution and density of soot particle. .3. Numerical scheme
The conservation equations of mass, momentum, energy and species concentrations along with the conservation equations of soot mass concentration and number density are solved simultaneously, with appropriate boundary conditions, using explicit finite difference
57
technique taking into account the transient terms in the equations. The algorithm is based on the SOLA scheme proposed by Hirt and Cook [9] and modified in certain aspects to comply with the present model. The solution is explicitly advanced in time satisfying the stability criteria till a steady state convergence is reached and the final solution simulates a steady flame. The inlet fuel jet velocity and the inlet air jet velocity are calculated as 4.50 cm/s and 9.88 cm/s respectively from their respective mass flow rates. The temperatures for both the fuel and air inlet streams are taken to be 300 K. No soot is considered to enter with the flow through the inlet plane. Axi-symmetric condition is considered at the central axis, while at the wall a no-slip, adiabatic and impermeable boundary condition is imposed. 4. 4.1 Results and discussion
Validation of the numerical code The numerical code for the reacting flow is validated by comparing the predictions against experimental results of Mitchell et al. [5] for temperature and species concentrations. The soot model employed in the present work is calibrated against the experimental results of Smooke et al. [4] for the same burner configuration and input conditions. 4.2 Transient flame development The development of the flame is studied by drawing the flame contour at different time frames (Fig.1) after (a) (c) (b) ignition. A small, thin close-tipped flame is observed 0.05 s after the ignition [Fig. 1(a)]. At 0.10 s, the flame has elongated covering a wider area [Fig. 1(b)]. After 0.15 s, the flame shape almost takes the conventional over-ventilated shape, but a small wing is also observed [Fig. 1(c)]. The wing in the flame is to due to the (e) (f) (d) consumption of any fuel, which earlier escaped out with the flow. At 0.20 s, the main flame, established above the burner rim [Fig. 1(d)], takes the shape of the steady flame. However, at this time a second flame is also observed much above the main flame. This is due to burning of the escaped fuel through the central region before the flame is Figure 1. Development of diffusion flame with established. At 0.40 s only the main time after ignition (a) t = 0.05 s, (b) t = 0.10 s, (c) flame is seen [Fig. 1(e)] without any t = 0.15 s, (d) t = 0.20 s, (e) t = 0.40 s, (f) t = 0.80 additional secondary flame. The results s. of 0.40 s and 0.80 s [Fig. 1(f))] do not show any difference in the flame structure. This shows that the flame reaches its stable position even before 0.40 s after ignition. 4.3 Soot distribution in transient flame The soot distributions have been studied by plotting soot volume fraction with radial distance from the centreline at different axial heights for different time frames. The axial heights considered here are 2 cm, 4 cm, 6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm above the burner tip. For all the time frames, soot concentration beyond 12 cm axial height is significantly low. The radial distributions of soot at different axial heights for times 0.05 s, 0.10 s, 0.15 s, 0.20 s, 0.40 s and 0.80 s have been presented in figures. 2-7 respectively. For the above plot, the radial distance considered is only upto 0.008 m (not the full computational domain) as the soot volume fraction beyond this is practically nil in all the cases. From figure 2, it can be observed that at time t = 0.05 s after ignition, the soot volume fraction is very low and soot is confined to a very narrow zone. This is because the temperature in the flame is relatively less and the time is also too short to cause a significant nucleation or growth of the soot particles. It is observed that the soot formation in a methane diffusion flame hardly initiates
58
below a threshold temperature, which is about 1300 K. The increase in temperature plays a major role in more soot formation. At 0.10 s, the maximum soot volume fraction reaches a value of 6510-8 at an axial position of 6 cm above the burner [Fig. 3]. At axial position of 2 cm, the soot volume becomes less in comparison to the previous time. This is due to the entrainment of air towards the axis and also the acceleration produced due to high temperature gases. At higher axial positions no soot is observed. As the flame develops with time and elongates downstream, the soot-containing zone also shifts axially above the burner -8 tip.The maximum soot volume fraction at 0.15 s after ignition is 12010 , which is much more than the peak values of the earlier time. This maximum soot concentration is noticed at an axial position of 12 cm and radial position of 0.003 m [Fig. 4]. Even at 10 cm height above -8 the burner the maximum soot volume fraction has a value of 8510 . The region over which the soot particles are found to exist in good proportion has also increased along with the increase in the volume fraction, indicating an increase in the overall quantity of soot particles formed.
70 60 50 40
70 60
120
z = 12 cm
100
50
z = 6 cm
80
fv x 108
z = 10 cm z = 8 cm z = 6 cm z = 4 cm z = 2 cm
fV x 10
fV x1 08
z = 4 cm z = 2 cm
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
40 30 20 10 0 0.000
60 40
30 20 10 0 0.000
z = 2 cm
20 0 0.000
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
Radial distance (m)
Radial distance (m)
Radial distance (m)
Figure 2. Radial distributions of soot at different axial heights at time t = 0.05 s after ignition.
70 60 50
70
70 60 50
z = 10 cm
60
z = 10 cm
50
z = 10 cm z = 8 cm
z = 8 cm
40
8
8
z = 8 cm
40
40
fV x 10
fV x 10
30 20 10 0 0.000
z = 6 cm z = 12 cm z = 4 cm z = 2 cm
fV x 10
z = 6 cm
30 20 10
30 20 10 0 0.000
z = 6 cm z = 12 cm z = 4 cm z = 2 cm
z = 12 cm z = 4 cm z = 2 cm
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0 0.000
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
Radial distance (m)
Radial distance (m)
Radial distance (m)
Subsequent to this time, the peak soot concentration falls and at 0.20 s (Fig. 5) the highest soot volume fraction is 6710-8. The higher soot formation during the earlier time was due to the accumulated fuel in the chamber that remained unburnt due to the absence of the flame front surface. This fact is further augmented by the increase in soot oxidation. Another observation from the figures is that the soot intensive zone, having the maximum soot volume fractions, shifts radially towards the axis with time. Interestingly, the second flame, observed at this time (t = 0.20 s), is found to be non-sooty. This is because the soot formed around the main flame gets mostly oxidized before it reaches the second flame. The
59
relatively low fuel concentration in the second flame region does not help in fresh nucleation of soot. The soot distributions at different axial positions at 0.40 and 0.80 s after ignition are similar (Fig. 6 and Fig.7). The flame reaches its steady state before 0.4 s, and the transience in the domain continues till 0.80 s only because of adjustments above the flame region. The soot formation primarily occurs inside the flame region. Therefore, the soot distribution does not change much once the flame becomes stable. The illustrations in the last three figures show that soot volume fractions fall sharply beyond 10 cm height. The soot volume fraction values are quite low at 12 cm height compared to that at 10 cm height, the maximum value -8 being 2210 . Beyond this outside the flame (flame height being around 11 cm) the particles get oxidized subsequently, because of the high temperature and oxygen in the core. 5. Conclusions
A numerical model is developed to study the transient soot formation in a laminar confined methane-air co-flow diffusion flame following the ignition process. It is observed that after the ignition, no soot is form till the flame temperature increases above a critical value of around 1300 K. Following this, as the time elapses and the temperature in the flame front increases, the soot volume fraction increases due to soot nucleation and surface growth up to References [1] Kennedy, I. M. Kollmann, W. and Chen, J.Y. A model for the soot formation in laminar diffusion flame. Combustion & Flame, 81, 1990, 73 85. [2] Syed, K.J. Stewart, C.D. and Moss, J.B. Modelling soot formation and thermal radiation in buoyant turbulent diffusion flames. Proc. Combustion Institute, 23, 1990, 1533-1539. [3] Moss, J. B. Stewart, C. D. and Young, K. J. Modelling soot formation and burnout in a high temperature laminar diffusion flame burning under oxygen-enriched conditions. Combustion & Flame, 101, 1995, 491 - 500. [4] Smooke, M. D. McEnally, C. S. Pfefferle, L. D. Hall, R. J. and Colket, M. B. Computational and experimental study of soot formation in a coflow, laminar diffusion flame. Combustion & Flame, 117, 1999, 117- 139. [5] Mitchell, R.E. Sarofim, A.F. and Clomburg, L.A.Experimental and numerical investigation of confined laminar diffusion flames. Combustion & Flame, 37, 1980, 227 -244. [6] Smooke, M.D. Mitchell, R.E. and Keys, D.E. Numerical solution of two-dimensional axisymmetric laminar diffusion flames. Combustion Sc. and Tech., 67, 1989, 85 - 122. [7] Lee, K. B. Thring, M. W. and Beer, J. M. On the rate of combustion of soot in a laminar soot flame. Combustion & Flame, 6, 1962, 137 - 145. [8] Santoro, R. J. Yeh, T. T. Horvathand, J. J. and Semerjian, H. G. The transport and growth of soot particles in laminar diffusion flames. Combustion Science & Technology, 53, 1987, 89 - 115. [9] Hirt, C. W. and Cook, J. L. Calculating three-dimensional flows around structures and over rough terrain. Journal of Computational Physics, 10, 1972, 324 338.
60
Experimental Study on the Performances of Spark Ignition Engine with Alcohol-Gasoline Blends as Fuel
Somnath Chakraborti, Achin Kumar Chowdhuri and Bijan Kumar Mandal Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah, INDIA * Corresponding author (e-mail: achinkumar_becs@redifmail.com) The fast depletion of fossil fuels and the detrimental effects on human health as well as on the environment due to the pollutant emissions from the engines are of growing concern. Hence the production of energy from alternative sources and its impact on environment are among the main strategic tools implicated in the sustainable development of society. In this paper, the performance characteristics have been studied experimentally for a spark ignition engine running with different gasoline-alcohol (ethanol and methanol) blends as alternative fuels. In general, the addition of alcohol with gasoline increases brake thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency and also brake specific fuel consumption. The maximum exhaust gas temperature decreases with addition of alcohol to gasoline indicating lower emission level. 1. Introduction
*
The demand of energy is ever increasing for the industries as well as automobiles. Internal combustion engines are the major sources of energy for automobiles. These engines consume mainly petroleum products like petrol (gasoline) and diesel as fuels. It has been anticipated that the petroleum reserve will be exhausted soon if some alternative fuels, at least partially do not replace petrol and diesel. The alternative fuel should have reasonably good thermal efficiency, low pollution level and should be available for a long time. There are many candidates like natural gas, alcohol and hydrogen. Biogas and natural gas are similar in many ways and form and ideal fuels for S.I. engines. It has been possible to run internal combustion engines on these fuels with minor modifications in the inlet manifold. But these fuels have been mainly tried for stationery engines and to some extent in automobile engines. Hydrogen gas has been suggested as a universal non-polluting fuel. But ways and means have yet to be formalized for cheap production, storing, transportation and adopting it to internal combustion engines and using it safely. Alcohols, namely methanol and ethanol have shown great promise to be used as transportation fuels. Methanol can be produced from biomass and coal, but the main source of its production is natural gas. Kowalewicz [1] reviewed and analyzed the use of methanol as a fuel for spark ignition engines. He reported that a neat methanol engine has 30% more efficiency than a regular engine, not only due to high compression ratio but also due to methanols higher heat of vaporization that cools the air in the engine to a larger extent, thus increasing the density and allowing more air in. This results in a leaner fuel mixture, possibly lowering emission of CO due to more complete combustion. Another benefit of using methanol is that it has a low combustion temperature, which results in less formation of NOx, a precursor to smog in urban settings. The added advantage of using ethanol and methanol as fuels is that they are renewable biomass fuels. These fuels can also be produced from a variety of materials and waste products like molasses, potato, beet root, cassava, paper industry waste, agricultural waste etc. In spite of many benefits achieved with the use of alcohol as fuel, it has some limitations also which prohibits 100% substitution of gasoline by alcohol. For example, gasoline has a boiling point varying from 310C to 2210C depending upon its composition, whereas methanol has a boiling point of 650C, creating a problem in cold starting applications. Other problems include corrosion of car parts that are made from lead, magnesium or aluminium, and a possibility of explosion since saturated methanol-air mixtures are explosive at ambient temperature. Another main concern with the substitution of gasoline by alcohol is that the heating value of alcohol is much less than that of gasoline. The heating value of methanol is half that of gasoline.
61
Bridgeman [2] showed the utilization of ethanol-gasoline blends as a motor fuel and found an increase in power and less gaseous pollutant emissions. El-Eman and Desoky [3] conducted a four-cylinder engine study to investigate the effect of using ethanol as an alternative fuel on a spark ignition engine. Palmer [4] blended gasoline with different amounts of ethanol during testing and observed an increase of engine power by 5% with 10% ethanol in the blend. Abdel-Rahman and Osman [5] used 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% ethanol blended gasoline in a variable compression ratio engine. They reported that the optimum blend rate was found to be 10% ethanol with 90% gasoline. Yksel and Yksel [6] made a simple modification of the carburetor system and used 60% ethanol and 40% gasoline blend to test the engine performance and emission characteristics of a four-cylinder SI engine. They reported that the torque output of the engine increased slightly whereas the CO, CO2 and HC emissions decreased greatly with the use of ethanol-gasoline blended fuels. The effect of ethanol addition to gasoline on SI engine performance and exhaust emissions was investigated experimentally and theoretically by Bayraktar [7]. He carried out the experimental works with the blends containing ethanol upto 12% by volume. The best result was obtained for 7.5% ethanol experimentally and 16.5% ethanol theoretically without any modification to the engine design. Liu et al. [8] experimented on a 3-cylinder port fuel injection engine to study the performance and emission characteristics using methanol/gasoline fuel blends. They reported that the engine power and torque decreased with the increase fraction of methanol in the fuel blends without any retrofit of the engine. They also observed 30% reduction in HC emission and 25% reduction in CO emission when the engine was fueled with M30 (30% methanol + 70% gasoline). The literature review reveals that the gasoline-alcohol blends with low proportion of alcohol can be used without any engine modification, but pure alcohol requires major modification to the engine design and fuel system. Hence, the use of gasoline-alcohol blends in SI engine is more practical than using alcohol alone. This motivates the authors to carry out this research work for a comparative study of SI engine performance using gasolinemethanol and gasoline-ethanol blends. The percentage of alcohol in the mixture has been varied up to relatively higher values in comparison to the results available in the literature. 2. Energy balance of alcohol
Table A: Life cycle energy yield of The total fuel energy expended in producing biofuels and petroleum based fuels alcohol including fertilization, farming, harvesting, transport, fermentation, distillation and distribution, as well as the fuel used in building the farm and fuel Fuel Energy Net energy plant equipment - should not exceed the energy yield (loss) or gain contents of the product. The terms input energy Gasoline 0.805 (-19.5%) efficiency and life cycle energy yield are commonly Diesel 0.843 (-15.7%) used in the literature to assess the renewability of a Ethanol 1.34 34% fuel. Life cycle energy yield is defined as the units of Biodiesel 3.20 220% fuel product energy for every unit of fossil energy consumed in its life cycle. If the life cycle energy yield is less than unity (i.e. negative fuel energy balance), many of the expected environmental and sustainability advantages of alcohol fuels would not be realized in a system. According to a study in 1998 co-sponsored by United States Department of Energy and USDA [9], ethanol yields 1.34 units of energy per unit of fossil energy consumed in its life cycle. A comparative study of energy yield of petroleum based fuels (gasoline and diesel) and biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel were also published in their report as shown in Table A.
3.
Experiment
The experiments were carried out on a single cylinder, air-cooled, four-stroke, spark ignition, vertical type BRIGGS and STRATTON engine having a fixed compression ratio of 5.3. The engine has a bore of 76.2 mm and a stroke of 82.84 mm. The engine is coupled to an electrical resistance type dynamometer. A single phase 110 volts, 22 amps, 5 kW
62
alternators is used as dynamometer for loading the engine. The fuel was supplied to the engine by gravity from a fuel tank of 6 litters capacity. The engine sucked air directly from the atmosphere through a surge tank of 500 times the swept volume of the engine. The temperature of the exhaust gas has been measured with the help of a thermocouple. Tests were conducted under steady state condition to study the comparative performances of the engine, using four gasoline-ethanol and four gasoline-methanol blends. Methanol and ethanol were separately mixed with the gasoline. Mixing different percentages of alcohol with gasoline varied the amount of alcohol in gasoline-alcohol blends. The percentages of alcohol considered in this work are 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% by volume. 4. Results and discussion
The heating (lower) values and densities of different alcohol-gasoline blends have been calculated by weighted average method. The brake thermal efficiency, the volumetric efficiency, the brake specific fuel consumption and maximum exhaust temperature are calculated from the experimental results for different gasoline-alcohol blends for the assessment of engine performance. The variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power has been shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 respectively for gasoline-ethanol and gasolinemethanol blends respectively. It is observed that the brake thermal efficiency increases in general with the addition of ethanol or methanol. As the brake thermal efficiency depends upon power, fuel consumption and heating value, the variation of the above-mentioned parameters varies the brake thermal efficiency. The addition of ethanol into gasoline increases brake power and fuel consumption, but on the other hand decreases heating value of the blended fuel. The combined effect is in favour of efficiency. Another reason for the increase of brake thermal efficiency is supposed to be alcohols advantage during combustion resulting faster burning and higher peak pressure than those of pure gasoline and also during expansion, lower burned gas temperature provides reduced heat transfer to the cylinder walls. Figures 1 and 2 also show that the efficiency is not always increasing with addition of alcohol. The possible reason may be that the existing carburetor is designed for gasoline and hence it is not so efficient with gasoline-alcohol mixture as fuel. Better performance can be achieved by modifying the carburetor in favour of alcohol.
22
22
20
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Brake Power (kW)
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 0.2
gasoline 10% ethanol 20% ethanol 30% ethanol 40% ethanol
gasoline 10% methanol 20% methanol 30% Methanol 40% methanol

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Brake power (kW)
Figure 1. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power for different gasoline-ethanol blends.
Figure 2. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake power for different gasoline-methanol blends.
The variation of volumetric efficiency with brake power for different percentages of ethanol and methanol in gasoline has been presented in figures 3 and 4 respectively. The general trend is that it increases with increase of alcohol percentage in the mixture. The reason is that the latent heats of vaporization of alcohols are more than that of gasoline. High latent heat of vaporization causes more cooling of intake charge that increases the density of
63
the charge resulting in more charge entering into the cylinder, thereby increasing volumetric efficiency. Since the latent heat of vaporization of methanol is more than that of ethanol, the effect is more prominent with methanol. One of the major problem with the gasolinemethanol blends is the water absorption, which causes methanol and gasoline to separate into two different phases. These problems become more severe with higher percentage (>15%) of alcohol. Figure 4 shows that volumetric efficiency becomes maximum with 10% methanol in the blend, which is lower than the corresponding percentage of ethanol in the blended fuel.
50 48 46
Volumetric efficiency (%)
52
44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 0.2
48 44 40 36 32 28 24
gasoline 10% methanol 20% methanol 30% methanol 40% methanol
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Brake power (kW)
Brake power (kW)
Figure 3. Volumetric efficiency vs brake power for different gasolineethanol blends.
Figure 4. Volumetric efficiency vs brake power for different gasolinemethanol blends.
The variation of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with brake power for different percentages of alcohol in the alcohol-gasoline blends has been plotted in figures 5 and 6 for ethanol and methanol respectively. The figures reveal that brake specific fuel consumption increases with addition of alcohol in both the cases. This happens due to the lower heating values of alcohols in comparison to that of gasoline. As the heating value of methanol is less than that of ethanol, the effect is more prominent with methanol than with ethanol for the same percentage of alcohol in the gasoline-alcohol mixture.
1.8
1.6
1.6 1.4
BSFC (kg/kW-hr)
BSFC (kg/kW-hr)
1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2
1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4
Gasoline 10% Methanol 20% Methanol 30% Methanol 40% Methanol
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
Brake Power (kW)
Brake power (kW)
Figure 5. Brake specific fuel consumption vs brake power for different ethanol-gasoline blends
Figure 6. Brake specific fuel consumption vs brake power for different methanol-gasoline blends
64
The maximum exhaust gas temperature, somewhat qualitatively indicates the level of pollutant emission from the engine. Hence the maximum exhaust gas temperatures vs percentages of alcohol in the mixture have been plotted in figure 7 for both gasoline-ethanol and gasoline-methanol blends. The figure shows that the exhaust gas temperature decreases with increase in percentage of alcohol in the blends. This is due to the higher values of latent heat of vaporization of alcohols, which decreases the inlet charge temperature and pressure. The values of latent heat of vaporization at atmospheric pressure are 0.49, 1.601 and 2.01 kJ/kg-K for gasoline (isooctane), ethanol and methanol respectively. So after compression the charge temperature for gasolinealcohol mixture becomes less than what would have been for gasoline. Hence temperature of the combustion products becomes less. 5. Conclusions
260
Maxi. exhaust temperature (0C)
250
240
230
methanol ethanol
220 0 10 20 30 40
Percentage of alcohol (%)
Figure.7. Maximum exhaust temperature vs. % of alcohol in gasoline-alcohol blends.
An experimental investigation of the effect of using different blends of alcohol (methanol and ethanol) and gasoline as fuel on the performance of a single cylinder spark ignition engine has been carried out. The percentage of alcohol by volume in gasoline has been varied from 10% to 40%. It is observed that the thermal efficiency of the engine increases with the increase of percentage of alcohol in the fuel. The volumetric efficiency of the engine also increases with the addition of alcohol in the fuel. The effect is more pronounced in case of methanol. However, the brake specific fuel consumption increases with the increase of alcohol in the blended fuels. The exhaust gas temperature is found to decrease with alcohol addition to gasoline. It may be concluded that alcohol-gasoline blends can be used as a fuel for SI engine fuel with the conventional or slightly modified carburetor system. References [1] Kowalewicz, A. Methanol as a fuel for spark ignition engines, a review and analysis. Proc. Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1993, 1993207 (D1), 43- 51. [2] Bridgeman, O.C. Utilization of ethanol gasoline blends as motor fuels. Industrial Engineering Chemistry, 28,1936,1102-1109. [3] EI-Emam, S.H. and Desoky, A.A. A study on the combustion of alternative fuels in Spark-ignition engines. Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 10,1985, 497-504. [4] Palmer, F.H. Vehicle performance of gasoline containing oxygenates. International Conference on Petroleum Based and Automotive Applications, London, UK: Institution of Mechanical Engineers conference publications, 1986, MEP: 33 46. [5] Abdel-Rahman, A. A. and Osman, M.M. Experimental investigation on varying the compression ratio of SI engine working under different ethanol-gasoline fuel blends. International Journal of Energy Research, 21,1997, 31-40. [6] Yksel, F. and Yksel, B. The use of ethanol-gasoline blend as a fuel in an SI engine. Renewable Energy, 29, 2004,1181-1191. [7] Bayraktar, H. Experimental and theoretical investigation of using gasoline-ethanol blends in spark-ignition engines. Renewable Energy, 30, 2005,1733-1747 [8] Li, S., Clemente, E.R.C., Hu, T. and Wei, Y. Study of spark ignition engine fueled with methanol/gasoline fuel blends. Applied Thermal Engineering, 27, 2007, 1904-1910. [9] Sheehan, J., Camobreco, V., Duffield, J., Graboski, M. and Shapouri, H. Life cycle inventory of biodiesel and petroleum diesel for use in an urban bus, Final Report, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, May, 1998,NREL/SR-580-24089
65
Performance Assessment of a Solar- Powered Lithium Bromide-Water Absorption Cooling System with Flat-Plate Collectors
K.K.Datta Gupta*, Samir Chakravarti, B.K.Mandal, A.K.Chowdhuri and S.Ghosh Bengal Engineering and Science, University, Howrah, West Bengal, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: k.dattagupta@rediffmail.com) A general theoretical study on the design and optimization of the solar-operated LiBr-H2O cooling cycle has been undertaken. The results of the study show that in general, for fixed initial conditions and given system cooling capacity, there exists an optimum generator temperature at which the required collector area is minimum. From the study it has also been revealed that for a single stage LiBrH20 system flat-plate collectors with two covers are preferable. 1. Introduction
Because of rapid depletion of fossil fuels associated with increasing greenhouse gasses and ozone layer depletion, increasing research activities in absorption cooling system using solar energy are going on. Since the demand for cooling, weather for comfort or for food preservation, is generally greatest at the time of maximum solar radiation, the seasonal variation of solar insolation may be matched very well with the demand for cooling. The utilization of solar energy as the heat input to the generator of absorption cooling systems has been reported by numerous researches. These include efforts by ward [14], Alizadeh et al. [1], malk and Siddiqu [9], Florides et al. [6], Mittal et al. [11], mazloumi et al. [10] and Farahat et al. [4]. The basic conclusion of these papers is the demonstrative ability of solar flat-plate collectors to achieve required temperature necessary for operation of LiBrH2O cooling system. Ward [14] has studied the technical and economic feasibilities of solar operated absorption cooling system vis--vis the conventional cooling systems. Based on performance comparison of LiBr-H2O and NH3-H2O cooling systems, Alizadeh et al. [1] have demonstrative that LiBr-H2O is simpler and operates with higher cooling ratio and heat exchanger parameter. Mittal et al. [11] have reported the effects of hot water inlet temperatures on COP, solar fractions and surface area of cooling system components. Ardehali et al. [2] developed a simulation model for analyzing the performance of a LiBr-H2O solar-assisted absorption cooling system with an auxiliary heating source. Farahat et al. [4] performed an exergetic optimization of flat-plate solar collectors. Fathi et al. [5] developed a model for an irreversibility study on absorption refrigerator. Using laws of thermodynamics, Florides et al. [6] evaluated the characteristics and performance of a single stage LiBr-H2O absorption machine by the necessary heat and mass transfer equations. Kilic and Kaynakli [8] presented the performance of single effect absorption cooling system. Malik and Siddiqui [9] carried out an economic analysis for optimizing generator temperatures in the absorption cycle. The objective of this paper is the conjugate analysis of the solar collector and absorption refrigeration system to predict the overall system performance with the help of a computer program. Finally, a scheme has been evolved to evaluate the relative amount of collector material required for an optimum system performance. 2. 2.1 Mathematical modelling Absorption refrigeration system
Fig.1. shows the schematic diagram of a solar-operated LiBr-H2O absorption cooling system which consists of an absorber, a generator, a condenser and an evaporator. Several assumptions were made to simplify the analysis, two important ones are that the working
66
fluids were in equilibrium at the specified points, and the pump work is negligible. The energy and mass balances on each component, as a control volume, lead to the following equations: Evaporator: QE mw h10 h9 (1) Absorber: (2) QA mss h6 mwh10 mws h1 wh7 mss h4 mws h3 Generator: QG m (3) Condenser: QC mw h7 h8 (4) mw = m1 (x 6 - x1 ) x 6 (5) Finally,
COP = QE . QG
(6)
IT
Solar collector
Rejected heat ( QC )
Condenser
7, mw
Vapor Weak 3 Solution
Generator
Input heat ( QG ) 4 Strong Solution
m ws
8
Expansion Valve
Solution heat exchanger
9
10, m w
m ws
1
Absorber
Expansion Valve
Evaporator
Heat extracted ( Q E )
Rejected heat ( Q A )
Figure 1. Schematic of solar-operated LiBr-water absorption system
2.2
Solar collector
A flat-plate collector is the most simple and widely used means to converts solar radiation into useful heat. The useful heat gain QU by the working fluid is [3] QU Ac FR S - U c T fi - Ta (7)
Where FR is collector heat removal factor and S is the absorbed solar radiation. S I T e
(8)
Where e is the effective transmissivity-absorptivity product and I T is the solar radiation flux on the collector plane. F U c Ac m w C pw 1 exp (9) FR m w C pw U c Ac Where F is the collector efficiency factor. Collector loss coefficient U c is given by [12] U c U t U b U s (10)
67
Top loss coefficient U t is given by [12]

2 2 T PM T a T PM Ta N 1 Ut 0.252 2N f 1 1 hw C T PM T a N T c 0.0425N(1- c ) g N f PM Where, 9 30 Ta f 1 0.091N , h w h 2 316.9 w
1
(11)
C=
204.429 (Cos )2 L0.24
h w 0.86Re 1 / 2 a C Pa V Pr 2 / 3 Thermal efficiency of the solar collector is given by [3] T fi Ta FR e U c FR IT
(12)
3.
Computational simulation
LiBr-H2O cooling cycle has been analysed by evaluating the thermodynamic properties of the working fluids expressed in polynomial equations given by [7, 13]. The simulation has been carried out for specific temperatures and pressures in the evaporator and condenser, 0 0 0 while the generator temperature has been varied from 65 C to 95 C taking a step of 1 C. For solar collectors, the transmissivity-absorptivity product e of the cover-absorber system has been taken from [13]. Top loss coefficient U t for N number of covers, bottom loss U b and side loss U s coefficients have been evaluated from the equations given by [13]. The collector heat removal factor FR has been calculated using the procedure followed by [3] 4. Results and discussion
0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81
TE = 8 C TE = 6 C TE = 4 C
0 0 0 0
0.5
Collector efficiency,
N= 2
N 1 2 3
()e 0.82 0.73 0.65
COP
0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 70 75 80
0.4
N
g = 0.88
N=
=1
TA = 3 2 C TC = 4 5 C
0.3
0.2
IT = 850 W /m
= 20
0
85
Generator temperature, TG ( C)
Figure 2. Effect of generator temperature on COP.
90
95
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Collector fluid inlet temperature, ( C)

Figure 3. Collector efficiency as a function
of collector fluid inlet temperature
68
Fig.2. shows the variation of COP with generator temperature for three evaporator temperatures of 00C, 40C and 80C at constant absorber and condenser temperatures of 300C and 450C respectively. It is observed that for a particular evaporator temperature, COP first increases with generator temperature, reaches a maximum, and then falls gradually. Fig.3. shows the variation of collector efficiency with collector fluid inlet temperature for one, two and three cover systems. It is seen that the efficiency of collector decreases with increasing values of collector fluid inlet temperatures. The graph also demonstrates the effect of number of cover(s) on the performance of a collector. Normally increase in the number of covers increases the optical losses and decrease the thermal losses. So at higher operating temperatures, multi-cover flat-plate collectors may be preferable. The variation of COP and efficiency of a collector with generator temperature is depicted in Fig.4. The result clearly indicates the optimum generator temperature for a solar-operated absorption cooling system. Fig.5. shows the variation of COP and required collector areas with generator temperatures for a cooling load of 10 TR which demonstrates that the minimum collector area required for the purpose is collector with two cover system.
260
0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.15 0.45 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 0.45
0.85 0.80
0.75 0.70
Ta = 3 0 C
0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20
COP
TC = 45 C Ta = 3 0 C
N= 3
0
=1
TA = 32 C
220 200 180 160 140 120
0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 65
N=2
70
75
80
85
0
Ge n e r a t o r t e mp e r a t u r e, TG ( C)
Figure 4. Effect of generator temperature on performance 5. Conclusions
Gen er a t or t emp er a t u r e, T ( C ) G
Figure 5. Effect of generator temperature on COP and collector area,
In the design and optimisation of the performance of an absorption cooling system, the most important variable which needs careful attention is the generator temperature because other parameters of the system depends on the existing initial conditions, and consequently are fixed. For flat-plate operated LiBr-H2O systems the influence of number of glazing on the collector efficiency in the operating regime of the generator temperature should be carefully studied. . Nomenclature
A CP
FR F IT QU
Area (m ) Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kgK) Heat removal factor Collector efficiency factor 2 Incident solar flux (W/m ) Useful heat by collector (W)
L
N Pr Q
Spacing between plate and glass cover (m) Number of cover Prandtl number Heat transfer (kW)
69
Collector area, AC (m2)
Collector efficiency,
N= 1 0 TA = 3 2 C
0.40
TE = 8 C
240
COP
Re S T Tsh U V W h hf
Reynolds number Absorbed solar flux (W/m 2) 0 Temperature (K, C) 0 Degree of superheat ( C) 2 Collector loss coefficient (W/m K) Wind speed (m/s) Tubes spacing (m) Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) Tube to fluid heat transfer coefficient
2
(W/m K) hw Wind heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) Mass flow rate (kg/sec) m p Pressure (kPa) x LiBr mass fraction in solution Greek symbols Collector efficiency Emmisivity Collector tilt angle (degree) References
Density of air (kg/m ) Effective transmissivity absorptivity product Fin efficiency Subscripts A Absorber Condenser C E Evaporator Generator G PM Mean plate Air a Convective b Bottom c Collector fi Collector fluid inlet
a e
fo g s ss t
w
ws
Collector fluid outlet Glass cover Side Strong solution Top Water Weak solution
[1] Alizadeh, S., Bahar, F. and Geoola, F., Design and Optimization of an Absorption Refrigeration System Operated by Solar Energy. Solar Energy, 22, 1979, 149-154. [2] Ardehali, M.M., Shahrestani, M. and Charles, C. A., Energy simulation of solar assisted absorption system and examination of clearness index effects on auxiliary heating. Energy Conversion and Management, 48, 2007, 864-870. [3] Duffie, J.A. and Beckmen W.A., Solar engineering of Thermal processes. Wiley, New york,1991. [4] Farahat, S., Sarhaddi, F. and Ajam, H., Exergetic optimization of flat plate solar collectors. Renewable Energy, 34, 2009,11691174. [5] Fathi, R., Guemimi, C. and Ouaskit, S., An irreversible thermodynamic model for solar absorption refrigerator. Renewable Energy, 29, 2004, 1349-1365. [6] Florides, G.A., Kalogirou, S.A., Tassou, S.A. and Wrobel, L.C., Design and construction of a LiBr water absorption machine. Energy Conversion and Management, 44, 2003, 2483-2508. [7] Jeter, S.M., Lenard, J.L.Y. and Teja, A.S., Properties of lithium bromide-water solutions at high temperatures and concentrations -Part IV: vapour pressure. ASHRAE Transactions, 98(1), 1992, 167-72. [8] Kilic, M. and Kaynakli, O., Second law-based thermodynamic analysis of water-lithium bromide absorption refrigeration system, Energy, 32, 2007, 15051512. [9] Malk, I.H. and Siddiqui, M. A., Optimazation of generator temperature in the heat operated absorption cycle. Energy Conversion and Management, 37, 1996, 433-445. [10] Mazloumi, M., Naghashzadegan, M. and Javaherdeh, K., Simulation of solar lithium bromidewater absorption cooling system with parabolic trough collector. Energy Conversion and Management, 49, 2008, 28202832. [11] Mittal, V., Kasana, K.S. and Thakur N.S., Modelling and Simulation of a Solar Absorption Cooling System for India. Journal of Energy in South Africa, 17, 2006, 65-70. [12] Sukhatme, S.P., Solar energy. New York, 1996 [13]Talbi, M.M. and Agnew., Exergy analysis: an absorption refrigerator using lithium bromide and water as the working fluids. Applied Thermal Engineering, 20, 1992, 619630. [14] Ward, D.S., Solar Absorption Cooling Feasibility. Solar energy, 22, 1979, 259-268
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Reliable Electro-Pneumatic System for Food Irradiator

M.Chandra, P.G.Jose, K.Mahajan, R.L.Suthar Centre for Design and Manufacture, Bhabha Atomic Research Center,Mumbai, India (e-mail: mchandr@barc.gov.in) Irradiation is a process in which food is passed through an irradiation chamber where it is exposed to gamma rays. These high-energy rays are strong enough to break chemical bonds, destroy cell walls and cell membranes, and break down DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNA), the substance that carries genetic information in all cells. Irradiation kills most bacteria, molds, and insects that may contaminate food. Irradiation also delays the ripening of fruits and sprouting of vegetables, permitting the produce to be stored for longer periods of time, which in turn permits export of food items from our country. Because irradiation involves minimal heating, it has very little effect on the taste, texture, and nutritive value of food.[2] This paper describes about design and reliability of the pneumatic control system in irradiation field, which is being used for food irradiation without affecting the valuable human life. Use of naturally available and most reliable gravitational force for safety application in this design is considered to be of prime importance. 1. Introduction
The irradiation source Cobalt-60 that is being used for irradiation of food and other items will always be stored in de-mineralized water pool below ground level to avoid unwanted atmospheric exposure. During the process of irradiation the Cobalt-60 source will be brought above the ground level through the guiding mechanism and positioned in front of the food to be irradiated. The Source will remain in this position for scheduled exposure time. High-energy gamma rays that will be emitted from the Cobalt-60 source will penetrate the food item and break the chemical bonds. The exposure time will vary for the type of item to be irradiated. After scheduled exposure, the source will be sent back to its original position (in the water pool). Subsequently food will be removed and stored for future use. 2. Pneumatic control system
The whole sequence of food irradiation operations is being controlled by electropneumatic control system. The schematic layout of the operating system is shown in Figure-1. The movement of Source is controlled by two long special type of double acting pneumatic cylinders. These cylinders are connected in parallel and the operation is controlled by one pneumatic control system. Figure-1 shows the operation of one of the cylinder. The source is connected with these cylinders by parallel stainless steel wire ropes. The operation of the cylinders is controlled by pneumatic control system. The pneumatic control system was meticulously designed with utmost care to avoid any radiation accidents. The source will go inside the water pool automatically from Exposure condition or its any inbetween positions, in case of any of the following conditions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Failure of electric power supply Failure of air supply Malfunction of Control valves Failure of piston seal Rupture or looseness of wire rope.
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Figure 1. Pneumatic circuit for Cobalt-60 food irradiator Figure 1. Pneumatic circuit for Cobalt-60 food irradiator (1) Ball valve, (2) Air Filter, (3) Pressure regulator, (4) Lubricator, (5) Soft start valve, (6) Hand slide valve, (7) Pressure switch, (8) 3/2-way valve, (9) Pressure control valve, (10) 5/2-way valve, (11) 3/2-way valve, (12) Quick exhaust valve, (13) One-way flow control valve, (14) Cylinder, (15) Micro switch, (16) Stainless wire rope, (17) Cobalt-60 source, (18) Food & (19) De-mineralized water pool.[1] 3. Working principle
Initially the Cobalt-60 source will be in the water pool. First the electric supply is switched ON then the valve S1 (item no.8) will come to opened position and the valves S2 & S3 will remain at closed position. When the air supply is switched ON the air will flow through Ball valve (item no.1), Filter (item no.2), Regulator (item no.3), Lubricator (item no.4), Soft-start valve (item no.5), Hand slide valve (item no.6), Valve S1 (item no.8) port 1&2 , Pressure control valve (item no.9), Valve S2 (item no.10) port 1&2, flow control valve (item 13) and will pressurize the side-B of the pneumatic cylinder (item no.14). This ensures that the Cobalt-60 source is always in the water pool unless it is brought out for irradiation. During the process of irradiation, valves S2 & S3 will be activated electrically and they will come to ON position. Air will now flow through ports 1&4 of valve S2 (item no.10), ports 1&2 of valve S3 (item no.11), ports P&A of quick exhaust valve (item no.12), flow control valve (item no.13) and sideA of the pneumatic cylinder. This will increase the pressure at side-A of the cylinder (item no.14) and push the piston towards side-B. As steel wire rope of
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the Cobalt-60 source is connected with the piston the source will be raised to irradiation position. After preset time, the electric supply to the valves S2 & S3 will be cut off and they will come to closed position. Air will flow through the port 1&2 of the valve S2 to side-B of the pneumatic cylinder (item no.14). The increase in pressure at side-B and low pressure at sideA will move the piston towards side-A and subsequently the Cobalt-60 source will move to its stored position. 4. Various operating conditions
Following various expected operating conditions were considered and designed to function efficiently: 4.1 Failure of electric power supply
In case of electric power failure during the movement of the source or when it is positioned in front of food for irradiation, the valve S1(item no.8) will come to closed position and the air supply will be stopped at inlet port-1 of this valve. As there is no air pressure at side-A of the pneumatic cylinder (item no.14), force required to hold the weight of the Cobalt60 source will be very less. Hence source will start moving (downwards) towards its stored position (in the water pool) and come to rest at lowest level (safe position) due to gravitational force. This movement brings the piston towards side-A of the cylinder. Trapped air in side-A of the cylinder will be released automatically through port-R of the quick exhaust valve (item no.12). Speed of the source is controlled by flow control valves assembled on both sides of the inlet port of the cylinder. 4.2 Failure of air supply
In case of failure of air supply during the movement of the source or when it is positioned in front of the food, air pressure at side-A of the cylinder will be very less and this will be sensed by the pressure switch PS1 (item no.7). Subsequently valve S1 (item no.8) will return to closed position and the air supply will be stopped at inlet port-1 of this valve.The source will go down to its stored position due to gravitational force. Air at side-A will be exhausted through port-R of the quick exhaust valve (item no.12). 4.3 Malfunction of control valves
In case of malfunction of any one of the control valves S-1, S-2 & S-3 (item no.8, 10, 11) air supply will be restricted and stopped at their inlet port-1 and hence source will move towards its stored position due to gravitational force. 4.4 Failure of piston seal
In case of failure of piston seal of the cylinder force at side-A of the cylinder will not be sufficient enough to hold the weight of the source. The source will move downwards to its stored position due to gravitational force. 4.5 Rupture or loose of connecting wire rope
Stainless steel wire rope which is connected between the piston and source is sensed by two micro switches (one for each cylinder). These switches will be ON when the rope is in tight condition. The steel rope may become loose if the source is in imbalanced condition at its guide ways. As soon as the rope becomes loose, the micro switch fitted to sense the tightness of the rope will become OFF and subsequently the electric supply to the control valve S-1 (item no.8) will be OFF. As a result of this, air supply will be stopped at inlet port-1 of the valve S-1 and further flow of air will not take place to operate the piston. As there
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will not be sufficient pressure at side-A of the cylinder the source will go downwards to its stored position due to gravitational force. 4.6 Ideal condition
When air and electric supply are ON for all the control valves, piston seals are in working condition, wire ropes are tight and source is in correct balanced condition the source will move to its irradiation Exposure position and perform its function and go to its stored position safely after preset time. 5. Approval of safety committee
The electro-pneumatic control system was inspected thoroughly after simulating all the above operating and accidental conditions (from 3.1 to 3.6) by concerned safety committees and acceptance was given for food irradiation. This system is now being used in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, regularly. 6. Applications
Irradiation is used for wheat, wheat flour, white potatoes, spices, pork, seafood and some fresh produce like onions, tomatoes, mushrooms, strawberries, mangoes and poultry. It is also used to control the outbreak of several food-borne illnesses. Irradiation was approved to curb pathogens in raw meat including ground beef, steak, and pork chops. Irradiation plays a vital role in space applications to preserve some meals to be taken by astronauts during long-term space missions. The irradiation process is also being used for sterilization of hospital equipments / instruments. 7. Conclusions
Use of nuclear energy for peaceful application is explained in this paper. As human safety is considered as one of the prime factors, more attention has been paid to avoid any unexpected Gamma rays exposure. Use of naturally available and most reliable gravitational force to take back the Cobalt-60 source to its stored safe position (inside the water pool) is emphasized in this design. References [1] Festo product range catalogue , Festo AG &Co. P.O.Box D-73726 Esslingen, Germany. [2] Manual on training course for operators of radiation processing facilities for food, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India- 400085 July 19 August 11, 2004
74
Mathematical Modeling and Geometrical Study of Scroll Compressor used in Automobile Air Conditioning
Chirag Trivedi*, Hemant Nagarsheth, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: chirag.nit@gmail.com, hjn@med.svnit.ac.in) Different compressors are used for automotive air conditioning with an increasing use of scroll compressors. Scroll Compressors have less moving parts, less friction, balance and rotary motion, reduced vibration, and noise, low power. Research on compressors usually involves experimental and theoretical work can be taken on compressors for research. The working of the compressors can be investigated by modeling as a part of research. In the present work modeling of the scroll compressor is attempted considering the geometrical analysis. The compression process variables considered are flow rate, velocity, viscosity, density, internal leakage, pressure, and temperature. With the help of the model it is possible to compute mass flow rate, electric power, discharge temperature, outlet pressure. An involute profile of the scroll compressor outlet is generated. The governing equations of the involute are converted to cycloidal profile. Based on involute profile the shapes are generated and corresponding equations are developed. By giving proper inputs to the variables corresponding outputs are computed. Nomenclature CFD Greek word Computational Fluid Dynamics Initial involute angle End involute angle X - Coordinate of involute profile Y - Coordinate of involute profile
x y
Subscript i o
Inner involute Outer involute
1.
Scroll Geometry
Scroll geometry is one of the main factors influencing the efficiency of the compressor. Area and volume are functions of orbiting angle of the different chambers of the compressor which are estimated [8, 9]. Fundamental equations were solved by considering vectors and vector series of scroll profile is developed [6, 7]. Three dimensional equations were developed considering the cartesian coordinate system and transformed into cylindrical coordinate system. Scroll limit varies with arc angle at every . Three turns of the scrolls are required to complete the length of one scroll repeat at the interval of 6. Presently for investigation scroll shape of compressor is considered to be an involute of a circle, Figure 1. Scroll profile is developed around common base circle of sett by a constant distance and makes an involute profile [1, 2, 3].
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Y Outer Scroll Involute
Inner Scroll Involute (xi, yi)
(xo, yo)
Base circle
Figure 1. Scroll profile Considering Figure 1. the coordinates of points on inner involute and outer involute are given below: For inner involute,
xi a (cos( i i ) sin( i i )) yi a (sin( i i ) cos( i i ))

For outer involute, (1)
xo a(cos( o o ) sin( o o )) yo a (sin( o o ) cos( o o ))

When i is an odd and reduce the desecrates coordinate,
n
(2)
x i
0
[ x i 1 sin x (i 1) xi 2 cos x (i 1)(i 2) xi 3 sin x (i 1)(i 2)(i 3) x i 4 cos x ... x sin s x cos x] {xi 1 cos x (i 1)[ x i 2 sin x (i 2) x i 3 cos x n
0
(3)
y Ci i (i 2)(i 3) x i 4 sin x (i 2)(i 3)(i 4) x i 5 cos x ... x sin s x cos x ]} r cos
(4)
when i is and even integer discretization of scroll profile process chambers,

n
[ x i 1 sin x (i 1) x i 2 cos x (i 1)(i 2) x i 3 sin x (i 1)(i 2)(i 3) x

i 1 n i 4
x1 i
0
i 4
cos x ... ( 1)
i 2
k 1 2
i3
(5)
sin ] r sin
cos x
(6)
{x cos x (i 1)[ x y1 Ci i (i 2)(i 3) x

0 k 1 2
sin x (i 2) x
sin x (i 2)(i 3)(i 4) x i 5 cos x
... ( 1)
sin ]} r cos
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The simultaneous equations, Equation (1) - (6) are demonstrate conjugate [4, 5] scroll th profiles of general functional integrates. Figure 2. depicts complete scroll envelope of i and th j scroll of based on developed equation of scroll type compressor processes.
Figure 2. 2. Results and Discussion
Complete scroll profile and chambers
Simulation and software practice is carried out with CFD package, including FLUENT and GAMBIT. The complete scroll geometry, Figure 3, is prepared in GAMBIT with dimensions and carried out meshing with single size of tetrahedral mesh, equal node point. The suction state of refrigerant is at 95,000pa and discharged pressure is 3, 50,000pa is rated on scroll compressor. Simulated results of scroll compressor and pressure variation with respect to scroll orbiting angle are shown in Figure 4. Pressure as a function of orbiting angle is plotted in Figure 4. For a given refrigerant, R134a, in suction chamber 1 until refrigerant is discharged through chamber 7. It can be seen that for orbiting angle of 0 to 180 and 180 to 360, initially pressure in suction chambers (1) (2) are slightly lower than suction line pressure and just before suction chamber is entirely closed, pressure in suction chamber rises due to a decrease of suction pocket volume, area and flow resistance at small suction port. It can be seen that refrigerant stays in compression chamber (3) until chamber (3) becomes chamber (5) at orbiting angle of 480. Chamber (5) becomes chamber (7) at orbiting angle of 600. Refrigerant in chamber (7) keeps being discharged until orbiting angle reaches 1080 when chamber (5) is open to chamber (7). Shortly after chamber (5) opens to chamber (7), pressure of refrigerant in chamber 7 decreases because pressure of chamber (5) is lower. Since volume of chamber (7) decreases afterwards, pressure of chamber (7) goes up again and is fully discharged after an orbiting angle of 1200 and again same cycle will repeat. Temperature of refrigerant as a function of orbiting angle is plotted in Figure 5. It can be seen that minimal increment in temperature of refrigerant until orbiting angel reaches 480. Afterwards, temperature of refrigerant continuously increases in compression chambers up to orbiting angle 1200. After that in refrigerant discharge chamber, there is again minimal change in temperature approximated one to two Kelvin changes in temperature. Here, in this simulation, refrigerant leakage, and heat dissipation by, convection and conduction is neglected between scroll wall and refrigerant. Dimensions of scroll geometry are same as calculated and verified with another scroll compressor.
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Figure 3.
Pressure Distribution in Scroll Compressor Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Pressure Distribution in Scroll Compressor
Figure 6.
Temperature Distribution in Scroll Compressor
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Figure 7. 3. Conclusions
Compressor COP Vs Compressor Speed
Scroll compressor used in 1.8ltr gasoline engine is considered for the purpose of geometry of the scroll. The data and required parameters were obtained practically. By using this data a model was generated using CFD tool. The necessary equations for a 2D and 3D area were developed to be used further for the calculation of volume for suction, compression, and discharge. Applying the required boundary conditions simulation was carried out considering the appropriate input values of pressure, mass flow and temperature the results were obtained for corresponding pressure, temperature and mass flow at the outlet of the scroll. Simulation carried out with CFD tool by considering the appropriate boundary conditions, inputs, pressure, temperature, mass flow rate and required property of refrigerant R134a. Figure 6. depicts compressor COP with respect to speed of scroll compressor. It can be seen that at 1000rpm of engine COP is 2.49. At 1500rpm COP is 1.96 and it is continuously decreases to 1.7 with increasing speed at 4000rpm of engine. These data were obtained by simulation of compressor by virtual rotation of scroll type geometry. Maximum COP can be obtained at 1000rpm of engine and can achieve better cooling of passenger compartment of car. References [1] Baolong Wang, Wenxing Shi, Xianting Li, Qisen Yan. Numerical research on the scroll compressor with refrigeration injection. Applied Thermal Engineering, 28, 2008, 440449. [2] Chin-Huan Tseng, Hy-Choung Chang. Family Design of Scroll Compressor with Optimization, Applied Thermal Engineering, 26, 2006, 1074-1086. [3] Lian-sheng Li, Peng-cheng Shu, Young-zhang Yu. The Effect of the Scroll Warps on the Performance of Scroll Compressor, International Journal of Refrigeration, 20, 1997, 326331. [4] Yu Chen, Nils P. Halm, Eckhard A. Groll, James E. Braun. Mathematical modelings of scroll compressorspart I: compression process modeling. International Journal of Refrigeration, 25, 2002, 731750. [5] Yin-Ren Lee, Wen-Fang Wu. On the Profile Design of a Scroll Compressor, International Journal of Refrigeration, 18, 1995, 308-317. [6] M. K. Jain, S. R. K. Iyengar, R. K. Jain. Computational Methods for Partial Differential Equations. Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, 1994. [7] M. K. Jain, S. R. K. Iyengar, R. K. Jain. Numerical Methods Problems and Sokutions. New Age International Publications, New Delhi, 2005. [8] R. Byron Bird, Warren E. Stewart, Edwin N. Lightfoot. Transport Phenomena. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pre. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006. [9] Kreyszig. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Fifth Edition. New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi, 1995.
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Experimental Analysis of Performance of Thermal Barrier Coated (TBC) Diesel Engine

Gosai D.C., Modi A. J.
*
Shri S.V.M. Institute of Technology, Bharuch 392001, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: ashishjmodi@gmail.com) An attempt has been made to study the performance of a diesel engine by insulating the combustion chamber by ceramic material attaining an adiabatic condition. The cycle average gas temperature and metal surface temperature are higher in adiabatic engine. Many researchers have carried out a large number of studies on LHRE (Low Heat Rejection Engine) concept. In the case of LHR engines almost all theoretical studies predict improved performance but many experimental studies show different picture. An experimental investigation of the performance of a ceramic coated engine was carried out and the results were compared to the base engine. Multi cylinder vertical water cooled self governed diesel engine piston top surface cylinder head and liners were fully coated with Partially Stabilized Zirconia (PSZ).The engine was run at a constant medium speed variable load condition experienced in most urban driving conditions and various measurements like fuel flow, exhaust temperature, exhaust emission measurement and exhaust smoke test were carried out. The results indicate improved fuel economy and reduced pollution levels for the Thermal Barrier Coated (TBC) engine. 1. Introduction
Energy flows and energy efficiencies in the operation of a modern automobile are expressed in terms of simple algebraic approximations. One purpose is to make a cars energy use and the potential for reducing it accessible to non-specialists with technical backgrounds. The overall energy use depends on two factors, vehicle load and power train efficiency. The former depends on speed and acceleration and key vehicle characteristics such as mass. The latter depends on heat-engine thermodynamic efficiency, and engine and transmission frictions. The analysis applies to todays automobiles. 2. Engine Coatings
There are three main types of coatings, and their names are self explanatory. Thermal-barrier coatings hold heat in, heat-dissipating coatings let heat out, and low-friction coatings remove power-robbing and heat-inducing friction. There are also a few coatings that are purely cosmetic-they look good, are very durable and clean up easily. Virtually every part on a car can be coated, from the suspension to the pistons. 2.1 TBC Thermal Barrier Coatings
The most commonly used TBC is a ceramic-based material thats applied to the top of the piston and to the combustion chamber and valve faces in the cylinder head. The TBC holds more heat in the chamber, instead of letting it dissipate through the piston, valves and head (where it is then absorbed by the cooling system). This theoretically increases cylinder pressure and pushes harder on the piston, making more power. The TBC also protects the aluminium piston from the intense heat, so the air/fuel mixture can be leaned slightly for maximum power without burning through the piston. And, since the amount of heat radiated into the rest of the engine is reduced (since its contained in the chamber), the operating and oil temperatures of the engine come down. This is also beneficial to the piston rings, improving their radial tension and sealing ability. TBCs are also used on intake and exhaust
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ports and headers to improve scavenging and lower the under hood temperature. They are also used on the underside of an intake manifold to keep hot oil from elevating the intake charge temperature. 3. Objective The objective of this study is to understand the effect of insulation on the diesel engine performance. The performance was checked with respect to performance characteristics of heat transfer, combustion and emission. The experiments were conducted on both base engine as well as thermal barrier ceramic coated engine at different load conditions and different speeds. Table1. Specifications Engine Specification Plasma Coating Specification 1. Engine Multi cylinder vertical water cooled self governed diesel engine developing 10 H.P. at 1500 rpm. Lubricating oil -20w/40. Lubricating oil quantity required 7Ltrs. 2. Dynamometer 6 KVA capacity alternator coupled to the engine with load arrangement. 3. Measurement a. Calibrated burette for fuel intake measurement. b. Orifice meter Fitted to the air inlet tank with water manometer for air intake measurement. c. Multichannel digital temperature measurement at various points. d. Exhaust gas calorimeter to measure heat carried away by exhaust gas. e. Measure the water flow rate of engine jacket and calorimeter. The thermal barrier coating of zirconia (ZrO2) is selected because of its better wear resistance, low thermal conductivity, high thermal shock resistance and high melting point (about 2800 0C) [9]. Plasma process parameters for zirconium oxide (ZrO2) are: 1. Material specification: -22 5 Microns 2. Stabilizer agents Bond coat: NiAl (Ni95%, Al-5%) 3. Coating thickness: 500 Microns 4. Power required: 32.5 KW. 5. Voltage: 65 V 6. D. C. current: 500Amp. 7. Plasma generating gas: Argon (Ar) 8. Powder deposition distance: 70 to 90 mm. 9. Powder feed rate: 20-25 Grams / min. 10. Pressures: 120 Psi. 11. Plasma process type: D. C. Arc
Figure 3.1 Schematic of Experimental Set-up
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3.1 4. 4.1
Testing The following tests were carried out: Performance test Heat balance test Smoke test Results and discussion
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) It is found in case of coated engine that up to full load condition, the SFC is little more than that of the base engine and after full load the SFC is less (Refer figure 4.1). This is due to higher operating temperature due to which the combustion characteristics are improved.
Figure 4.1 Variation in SFC with different Brake Power 4.2
Figure 4.2 Variation in BTE with different Brake Power
Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) It is seen from figure 4.2 that there is 1.5% increase in brake thermal efficiency at full load conditions. This is due to reduced loss of heat in coolant and greater availability of engine in the combustion chamber. About 15% more heat is used in break power as compared to base engine. 4.3 Mechanical Efficiency (ME) It is seen from figure 4.3 that there is an increase of about 10% in mechanical efficiency mostly at all loads conditions for an adiabatic engine when compared to standard engine. This is due to the thermal barrier coated layer that reduces heat loss. 4.4 Volumetric Efficiency It is found that the volumetric efficiency of coated engine is 3% to 6% less than the base engine (Refer figure 4.4). This is due to higher operating temperature of coated engine. This can be overcome by providing turbocharger. 4.5 Heat loss in exhaust gas It is found that heat in exhaust for an adiabatic engine is 15% more than the standard engine. As the exhaust gas temperature increase substantially due to high cycle gas temperature and surface temperature of combustion chamber, the higher heat in exhaust gas (Refer figure 4.5). This can overcome by adopting the turbocharger or raking bottoming cycle or with the help of suitably designed heat exchanger the heat lost to exhaust can be successfully recovered and supplied back to the engine.
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Figure 4.3 Variation in ME with different Brake Power 4.6
Figure 4.4 Variation in VE with different Brake Power
Heat balance sheet It is seen that there is an average of 36% more heat goes with coolant as compared to base engine. This is due to more operating temperature of coated engine and saving of radiation losses. Heat lost by radiation and unaccounted losses are reduced by 77%. This is due to the thermal barrier incorporated in order to save the heat flow from the combustion chamber.
Figure 4.5 Variation in Heat loss in Figure 4.6 Heat Balance emission Table 2. Heat balance sheet Base Engine TBC Engine (%) (%) Total heat generates 100 100 Heat to Brake Power 18.76 21.52 Heat to Jacket Cooling 32.58 42.43 Heat to Exhaust 19.74 20.47 Heat to unaccounted loss 28.92 15.58 4.7 Effect of coating on efficiency at different speed of engine (RPM)
The effect of ceramic coating on effective efficiency for different loads is as shown in figure 4.7. As noted by I. Taymaz, K. Cakir and A. Mimaroglu [10], Ceramic material has low thermal conductivity; ceramic coating provided better heat insulation for to engine system. Thus, higher operating temperature can be achieved and the cooling requirements can be reduced.
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Figure 4.7 Variation in Heat loss in emission

4.8 Smoke test
Figure 4.8 Variation in Smoke Level with BP
Graph shows the variation of smoke level with brake power of the engine for zirconium coating engine with base engine. It is observed from figure 4.8 that the smoke level increase in all load condition. But there is a reduction in smoke level in all load condition of zirconium coated engine. Due to adiabatic condition inside the combustion chamber the perfact combustion of fuel takeing place and therefore the smoke level at the exhaust reduces in case of TBC engine. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conclusions The following conclusions could be arrived, based on the experimental results. The general performance of the TBC engine is found to be better than the base engine. The SFC was 5-10% lower than that is in the base engine. The mechanical efficiency of the TBC engine is found to be 10-16% higher than the base engine, and an overall increase of 10-15% in brake thermal efficiency. The smoke emission from the TBC engine was 45.74% lower than that in the base engine. Moreover the NOx levels in the exhaust were also reduced. The heat balance sheet indicates that some amount of heat wasted in the base engine, is utilized to increase the brake power in the TBC engine and some amount of heat is lost in exhaust gas. The radiation loss and other unaccountable losses are also reduced by 10-15% than that in the base engine.
References [1] Juji Suzuki, Tadashi Suzuki, Takaaki Kanazawa, Akihiko Suda, Hideo Sobukawa, Masahiro Sugiura, Devlopment of Three-Way Catalyst Using Composite Alumina-ceriaZirconia, SAE Paper 2003-01-0811, March 2003. [2] Y. Miyairi, Computer Simulation of An Lhr Di Diesel Engine, SAE Paper 880187, February 1988. [3] S. Jaichandar, P. Tamilporai, Low Heat Rejection Engines An Overview, SAE Paper 2003-01-0405, March 2003. [4] I.Taymaz, K. Cakir, A. Mimaroglu, Experimental study of effective efficiency in a ceramic coated diesel engine, Surface & Coating Technology 200(2005) 1182-1185. [5] N. Nedunchezhin and S. Ddhandapani, Experimental investigation of thermal barrier coated two stroke SI engine performances I C engines and combustion, P.K.Bose Editor, narosa publishing house New Delhi, pp208 215. [6] T. Morel, E.F. Fort and P.N. Blumberg, Effect of Insulation Strategy and Design Parameters on Diesel Engine Heat Rejection and Performance, SAE Paper No. 850506.
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Optimization of Epistemic Uncertainty Using Dual Interval Fuzzy Vertex Method Case Study Solute Transport through Groundwater
D. Datta , H.S. Kushwaha
1 1* 2
Health Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 085, India 2 Director, Health, Safety & Environment Group, B.A.R.C, Mumbai-400 085, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: ddatta@barc.gov.in)
The advent of computational techniques based on soft computing such as fuzzy set theory, evidence theory, possibility theory and random set theory provide the opportunity to revisit the epistemic uncertainty existing in groundwater flow and transport simulation. Epistemic uncertainty is due to imprecision, lack of information or vagueness of the parameters of a model and this is basically quantified using fuzzy sets. Uncertainties of the model parameter are represented as fuzzy number and fuzziness of these numbers are presented in terms of dual intervals. An algorithm based on dual interval coupled with fuzzy vertex method, named as DIFVM has been developed and implemented to optimize the epistemic uncertainty of the model output. A series of deterministic sub models, each executed for a certain alpha cut level of all the fuzzy parameters is the theme of the algorithm. A detail of the DIFVM algorithm is presented in the paper and as an illustration of the DIFVM, the transport of solute through groundwater is presented as a case study.
1.
Introduction
The primary objective of this paper is to introduce a new algorithm, referred to as Dual Interval Fuzzy Vertex Method (DIFVM) for quantifying the epistemic uncertainty with optimization. Problems of groundwater pollution from agriculture, industry and waste disposal activities generally predict the concentration of the contaminants when transported through groundwater. Frequently, the accuracy of the predicted concentration depends on the large volume of the experimental data related to the measurement of parameters of the specified model. However, in practice, experimentally measured values of model input parameters may not be sufficient due to cost and other difficulties leading to uncertainty in the predicted concentration. Uncertainty of this kind is basically termed as epistemic uncertainty (EU) [1]. EUs are characterized degrees of belief and cannot be quantified by frequency based information [1]. Moreover, imprecision or insufficiency in measurements results the fuzziness of the data and hence EUs are quantified using fuzzy sets, supports of which are nothing but a series of intervals. Literature survey reveals that optimization methods for dealing with uncertainties are based on stochastic, interval and fuzzy mathematical programming (SMP, IMP, and FMP) [2,3]. Among these three methods, FMP can deal with vagueness and ambiguity, where uncertainties are handled in a direct way without a large number of realizations. In view of the forms of uncertainties, FMP methods can be classified into three different categories, such as (a) Fuzzy Flexible programming (FFP), (b) Fuzzy Possibilistic Programming (FPP) and (c) Robust Programming (RP) [2,3]. Among a number of FPP methods developed to address the epistemic uncertainty, the vertex method proposed by Dong and Shah (1987) is most appropriate tool for quantifying the fuzziness (ambiguity) of a model [3]. Uncertainties in the experimental outcomes of the model parameters can be represented as interval values [minimum, maximum], and at the same time, the lower and upper bounds of these intervals may be again fuzzy in nature, resulting to dual intervals. The paper demonstrates the theory of DIFVM and its implementation in optimizing the epistemic uncertainty. As an illustration, a case study of solute transport through groundwater is presented in the paper.
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2.
Theory of DIFVM
DIFVM is an analytical tool to analyze the uncertainty based on dual interval number with fuzzy vertex method. Vertex method is based on -cut analysis. Dual interval implies that lower and upper bounds of an interval number are further expressed as interval number due to the ambiguity present in those bounds; each such interval numbers are represented as triangular fuzzy number (TFN) with primary bounds (lower and upper) as the most likely or possibilistic values (Figure 1). Bounds of an interval number in the present work are represented using triangular membership functions for convenience of calculation. In DIFVM, based on -cut representation of a fuzzy number, a series of deterministic sub models with respect to each lower and upper bounds are executed. Optimization of epistemic uncertainty of the model output is based on these deterministic sub models.
1 0.9 0.8 0.7
Membership Values
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
5 6 Values of X
10
Figure 1. Dual Interval Triangular Fuzzy Number [[1, 2, 4], [5, 7, 9]] 2.1 Mathematics with Dual Interval number
An interval number with known lower and upper bounds but unknown distribution can be defined as follows: x x L , xU r x | x L r x U (1) L U L U where x and x represent the lower and upper bounds of x , respectively. If x = x ,
x becomes a deterministic number, i.e., x = x L = xU . The sign of an interval number x is

defined as follows:
1 Sign ( x ) 1
x 0 , U L U L x 0 , where x 0 if x 0 and x 0, x 0 if x 0 and x 0 (2)
Binary operation, o { +, -, , } on two interval numbers x and y , can be formulated as: (3) x o y min x o y , max x o y , x L x xU , y L y yU Arithmetic operation on two interval numbers can be written as
x y [ x L y L , x U y U ], x y [ x L yU , xU y L ] , x y min{ x y}, max{ x y} , x y min{ x y}, max { x y} .
(4)
Degree of uncertainty of an interval number [3] is defined as

UD ( x ) xU x L 100 % xU x L
(5)
Dual interval number can be represented as

x x L , x U x Lo , x Hi

opt
, x
L
Lo
, x Hi
(6)
Using the operations defined (equations 4), the optimum bounds of the model output can be written as (7) c [ [ c Lo , c Hi ] L , [ c Lo , c Hi ] U ]
opt opt opt opt
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2.2
Fuzzy vertex method and its algorithm
Fuzzy vertex method introduced by Dong and Shah (1987) is based on the -cut concept of a fuzzy set and interval analysis [4]. Using the -cut concept, each fuzzy variable characterized by a convex membership function (for example, triangular membership function) can be converted into a group of intervals with various -cuts. Intervals with same -cut level from all fuzzy variables can be processed through interval analysis, resulting in an interval function associated with an -cut level. At a particular -cut level, the interval function can be represented as
c f ( x 1 , x ,...., 2 x ), n
(8)
where, c [( c
) , ( c U ) ], and
[a , b ] j j
The interval analysis is equivalent to solving two deterministic problems, one for minimization problem on the lower bound of c and the other for maximization problem on the upper bound of c at a specific -cut level. Thus, final solutions in vertex method are U (9) ( c L ) min{ f ( x1 , x ,...., x )}, and (c ) max{ f ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )} 2 n Details of fuzzy set can be found elsewhere in [5]. Algorithm of DIFVM developed for present work is represented as follows: Step 1. Construct the dual intervals of the input uncertain parameters and convert each of the intervals into a fuzzy number by using a suitable membership function. Step 2. Discretize the range of membership grade [0,1] into a finite number of -cut levels. Step 3. Construct the representative intervals for each fuzzy set at the specified -cut levels. n Step 4. Take one end point from each of the intervals (under an -cut level), there are 2 combinations for n fuzzy sets. n Step 5. Solve 2 deterministic sub models for each lower and upper bound of the model output function. Step 6. Integrate the solutions of the sub models by max-min rule and report the final solution of dual interval for the output function at any -cut level as c [(c L ) , (cU ) ] 3. 3.1 Case study Governing Equation of Solute Transport through Groundwater For the purpose of the illustration of DIFVM, one dimensional solute movement in a steady flow with a step input concentration C0 at x = 0 and a reflection boundary condition (i.e., c x 0 ) at x = l has been modelled. The analytical solution of the governing one dimension advection dispersion equation with the prescribed initial and boundary conditions can be written as [5]
c c0 2 erfc x t 4D Lt x exp D L erfc x t 4D Lt
(10)
where, is the seepage velocity, DL is the longitudinal dispersion coefficient, x is the location (downstream distance) and t is the time of observation. For an isotropic aquifer, the longitudinal dispersion coefficient, DL is defined as the product of longitudinal dispersivity (L) and the seepage velocity (), i.e., DL= L. The second term in the equation (10) can be neglected due to its insignificant contribution to the concentration. As a result, the concentration becomes a monotonic function of seepage velocity and longitudinal dispersivity. The model parameters seepage velocity (), and dispersivity () are considered as fuzzy because of the insufficiency of their experimentally measured values and the insufficiency is due to constraint of the associated cost. Measured values of fuzzy parameters are reported as [minimum, maximum], an interval number. However, due to imprecision in measured data, these minimum and maximum values are further reported in the range of max and min; thus overall leading to dual interval valued numbers.
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3.2
Results and discussion Combination of experimentally measured values and experts judgement results the dual interval of input parameters and L which are given as = [ [1.6, 2.0], [2.9,3.2] ] m/day and L = [ [9.0,9.3], [18.5,20.8] ]m. The other input parameters of the model are considered as fixed and their values are: C0 = 100 mg/L, x = 1220 m and t = 400 and 800 days. In this work, five -cut levels (0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1) are considered for generating the various deterministic values of the dual interval fuzzy input parameters and these values are presented in Table 1. Four deterministic sub models of equation (11) based on different combinations of dual intervals of velocity and dispersivity such as (lower, lower), (upper, upper), (lower, upper) and (upper, lower) at each -cut levels have been executed to generate concentrations of the solute at x = 1220 m for time, t= 400 days and 800 days separately. Tables 2 and 3 present the corresponding results. Table 1. Dual interval values of fuzzy parameters at various -cut levels
Alpha 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 (LI) LB UB 1.6 2 1.65 1.95 1.7 1.9 1.75 1.85 1.8 1.8 (UI) LB UB 2.9 3.2 2.95 3.175 3 3.15 3.05 3.125 3.1 3.1 L (LI) LB UB 9 9.3 9.05 9.275 9.1 9.25 9.15 9.225 9.2 9.2 L (UI) LB UB 18.5 20.8 18.825 20.55 19.15 20.3 19.475 20.05 19.8 19.8
Note: LI: Lower Interval, UI: Upper Interval, LB: Lower bound, UB: Upper bound
Table 2. Dual Interval Concentrations (mg/l) at t=400 and 800 days [(lower, lower) and (upper, upper) combinations]
Alpha Levels 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 Concn (LI), 400 days LB 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0007 UB 0.0288 0.0127 0.0052 0.0020 0.0007 Concn (UI), 400 days LB 38.6055 42.4743 46.2836 50.0000 53.5958 UB 60.8613 59.0432 57.2242 55.4074 53.5958 Concn (LI), 800 days LB 65.1309 73.8608 81.1279 86.8639 91.1741 UB 98.7428 97.8483 96.4361 94.2930 91.1741 Concn (UI), 800 days LB 99.9801 99.9874 99.9922 99.9952 99.9971 UB 99.9993 99.9990 99.9986 99.9980 99.9971
Table 3. Dual Interval Concentrations (mg/l) at t=400 and 800 days [(lower, upper) and (upper, lower) combinations]
Alpha Levels 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 Concn (LI), 400 days LB 0.0082 0.0191 0.0410 0.0819 0.1533 UB 1.0660 0.6996 0.4413 0.2664 0.1533 Concn (UI), 400 days LB 33.8988 39.2156 44.6174 50.0000 55.2669 UB 65.3684 62.9218 60.4165 57.8616 55.2669 Concn (LI), 800 days LB 60.2574 66.6159 72.4343 77.6280 82.1549 UB 94.0831 91.9680 89.3134 86.0574 82.1549 Concn (UI), 800 days LB 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 UB 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000 100.0000
Membership values of dual interval based fuzzy concentrations of the deterministic sub models for varied combinations of velocity and dispersivity, at a location x = 1220 m from the point of discharge at two different time (t = 400 and 800 days) are as shown in Figures 2 and 3. The results indicate that a different combination of uncertain inputs lead to varied upper and lower bounds of concentrations. For example, the minimum and maximum values of concentration for = 0 for combination (lower, lower) at time 400 days [Table 2] are: 0.0, 0.029, 38.61 and 60.86 (i.e., c=0 = [ [0.0, 0.029], [38.61, 60.86] ], whereas the other combination for the same time and for similar value of (i.e., = 0) results the dual interval of the concentration [Table 3] as c=0 = [ [0.01,1.07], [33.9,65.4] ]. The concentration of solute at 400 days for = 1 from Table 2 can be observed as [0, 53.6] and the same from Table 3 can be noted as [0.15, 55.3]; both are single intervals because the triangular membership functions for fuzzy sets are used in the work. Each -cut level denotes a subset of elements that belong to a fuzzy set at least to a membership degree of (also named as degree of plausibility). Under a lower degree of plausibility intervals are wider and the intervals are L, L bound narrower for higher degree of plausibility. An average concentration, i.e. [cavg = (copt +
88
copt + copt + copt )/4] can be calculated at each -cut level. The average concentrations at time t = 400 and 800 days from Table 2 are {24.87, 25.38, 25.88, 26.35, 26.80} and {90.96, 92.92, 94.39, 95.29, 95.58} respectively under -cut levels of 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1. Considering the average concentration under = 0 as a reference one, variations of average concentrations (cavg) at t= 400 days will be 0.51 under = 0.25, 1.01 under = 0.5, 1.48 under = 0.75, and 1.93 under = 1. The marginal variation of average concentration with -cut level (i.e., cavg/) at t = 400 days will be 2.04 when = 0.25, 2.02 when = 0.5, 1.97 when = 0.75, and 1.93 when = 1, indicating that the marginal variation of average concentration decreases with the increase of -cut level.
Membership Function of Fuzzy Concentration 1 0.9 0.8 0.7
Membership Value
1 0.9 Membership Function of Fuzzy Concentration
L, U bound
U, L bound
U, U bound
Upper Interval at t = 400 days

Membership Value
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
Upper interval at t=400 days
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
Lower Interval at t = 800 days
Lower interval at t=800 days
10
20
30
40 50 60 Concentration
70
80
90
100
10
20
30
40 50 60 Concentration
70
80
90
100
Figure 2.
Membership values of Fuzzy Concentration (mg/l) Combination: [L, L] and [U, U] of and
Figure 3.
Membership values of Fuzzy Concentration (mg/l) Combination: [L, U] and [U, L] of and
4.
Conclusions
In this work, optimization of the epistemic uncertainty associated with contaminant or solute transport through groundwater is presented using new algorithm DIFVM. DIFVM can handle epistemic uncertainty associated with experimentally measured values represented as dual intervals. The algorithm is illustrated with the analytical solution of one dimensional model of solute transport through groundwater. The computation is carried out using MATLAB 7.0. DIFVM can be applied on numerical solution of the solute transport problem. Inclusion of cost in groundwater management problem can be a better perspective for optimization of associated uncertainty issues and DIFVM can be one of the tools for this purpose. However, DIFVM has difficulties in dealing with uncertainties expressed as random variables. Future work is being carried out to integrate DIFVM with stochastic variables for handling stochastic uncertainty. References [1] [2] Kushwaha, H.S. Uncertainty Modeling and Analysis. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India, ISBN 978-81-907216-0-8, 2009. Maqsood, I., Huang, G.H., and Yeomans, J.S. An interval-parameter fuzzy two-stage stochastic program for water resources management under uncertainty, European Journal of Operational Research 167, 208225, 2005. Huang, G.H., Moore, R.D. Grey Linear Programming, its solving approach, and its application, International Journal of Systems Science, 24, 159-172, 1993. Dong, W. Shah, H.C. Vertex method for computing functions of fuzzy variables, Fuzzy Sets and Systems 24, 6578, 1987. Dou, C., Woldt, W., Bogardi, I., Dahab, M. Numerical solute transport simulation using fuzzy sets approachJournal of Contaminant Hydrology 27 (12), 107126, 1997.
[3] [4] [5]
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Experimental Investigations of Laminar Separation Bubble for a Flow past an Airfoil at varying Angle of Attack and Reynolds Number
Deepakkumar M. Sharma , K.Poddar Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, UP, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: dmsharma@iitk.ac.in) Wind tunnel experiments were carried out on NACA 0015 airfoil model to investigate the formation of laminar separation bubble on the upper surface of the airfoil by varying angle of attack from -5o to 25o with respect to the free stream velocity at constant Reynolds number varying from 0.2E06 to 0.6E06. Pressure signals were acquired from the pressure ports selected at the mid-span of the airfoil model along the chord. Static aerodynamics characteristics such as Lift, Pressure drag, Pitching moment and Centre of pressure were obtained from the surface pressure distribution along the mid-span of airfoil. The flow separation here was found to be a trailing edge turbulent boundary layer separation preceded with a laminar separation bubble. As the angle of attack is increased the separation bubble moves towards the leading edge of the airfoil and finally gets shredded or burst at a particular angle of attack resulting into Leading edge turbulent flow separation which induces the static stall condition. The flow separation process is critically analyzed and the existence of laminar separation bubble is quantified with the increase in angle of attack and Re. 1. Introduction
*
For a flow past a given airfoil, at low angle of attack, the effects of viscosity are confined to a thin region near the surface of the airfoil known as the boundary layer. Boundary layers are found to be of two main types: laminar or turbulent. A third type can be considered to be transitional. The flow in a laminar boundary layer (LBL) is smooth and free of any mixing of fluid between successive layers, whereas the flow in a turbulent boundary layer (TBL) is characterised by significant mixing between layers of the fluid. This produces a momentum transfer through the boundary layer, thus the distribution of velocity in a TBL is characterised by larger velocities closer to the airfoil surface with greater thickness compared to LBL under the same pressure gradient [1,2]. Due the adverse pressure gradient ( p / x >0), the pressure force is in the direction that tries to decelerate the flow. The resulting force on the fluid is particularly strong near the surface of the airfoil where the velocity is low; therefore u / y near y=0 becomes smaller the longer the adverse pressure gradient persists. At some point downstream where u / y 0 at y=0, and direction of the flow reverses near the surface, the flow breaks away and leaves the surface and gets separated. Under these conditions, the concept of boundary layer breaks down and a recirculating flow (wake) is left downstream of the separation point. Flow separation is one of the least understood phenomena in fluid mechanics, even under steady 2-D conditions. In unsteady flows, the onset of separation is more complicated and there can be significant regions of flow reversals with the boundary layer even in the absence of separation [3]. TBLs are much less susceptible to separation than LBL because of the higher mixing and interlayer momentum transfer of the fluid. At higher Re, the pressure rise required to separate TBL is more than that required to separate a LBL. For flow past airfoils, a steep adverse pressure gradient is found over most of the chord, and a LBL can only exist for a very short distance from the stagnation point (typically, 2-15% chord). After laminar separation occurs, the flow will temporarily leave the airfoil surface but undergo a transition process and immediately reattach again as a TBL. As shown in figure 1, this can leave a small region of recirculating separated flow that is known as laminar separation bubble
90
(LSB). The presence of LSBs can be observed by a small constant pressure region in the measurement at the chordwise pressure distribution near the leading edge (LE) of the airfoil. Further details of this phenomenon are given in [4,5,6,7,8].
Figure 1. Typical flow features for a flow past an airfoil The objective of the current work is to experimentally investigate and quantify the presence of LSB by measuring the surface pressure distribution along the mid-span for a given NACA 0015 airfoil. Effect of varying angle of attack at given Re and the effect of varying Re on the aerodynamic characteristics are critically assessed. 2. Experimental Methodology
s/c NACA0015
LE
TE
NACA0015 airfoil model
Flow
(a)
Labview
based application software
Oscillating gear
Airfoil model Scanner 1
Line Interface System
PXI unit
CPU
Scanner 2
Power Supply. 5V DC, 12V
Power Supply. 230V AC
(b)
(c)
Figure 2. (a) Pressure port locations, (b) Instrumentation & Measurement chain and (c) Experimental Setup for static pressure measurements of NACA0015 airfoil model Figure 2(c) shows the designed experimental set-up. The airfoil model shaft passing through quarter-chord is mounted on an oscillating gear performing sinusoidal motion. Limiting to the cross sectional size for one of the existing wind tunnel test section (1.22 m x 0.305 m), available at low speed aerodynamics lab of Aerospace engineering department at IIT-Kanpur, the chord length of the selected wooden NACA0015 airfoil model is kept 0.31m spanning the tunnel width, keeping the geometric blockage upto 10% at maximum angle of attack of 25. Free stream velocity (U) ranges from 10 to 30 m/s. Accordingly, Re ranges from 0.2E06 to 0.6E06. The free-stream turbulence level in the test section is within 0.2%. 2 ESP Scanners (each having 32 ports) are used to measure the surface pressure all along the 60 ports opted on the mid-span of the airfoil model along the chord as shown in figure 1(a). The multiplexing frequency of each scanner is 20,000Hz and the accuracy is of 0.05% for the full range of 5000 Pa. Figure 1(b) indicates the detailed measurement and instrumentation chain used for the surface pressure measurements. For static analysis, the time series pressure data were acquired for 5 sec at varying angle of attack with a sampling
91
rate of 500 samples/sec/per port and then averaged for obtaining aerodynamic characteristics. Uncertainty in the calculation of surface pressure coefficients (Cp) is about 0.2 %. 3. Results and Discussions o o Initially for each constant Re, angle of attack is varied from -5 to 25 . Aerodynamic sectional characteristics at the mid-span are traced out from the acquired Cp distribution. Here CM is calculated about the quarter chord line of the airfoil model. Sectional aerodynamic characteristics such as coefficients of lift (Cl) and pressure drag (Cdp) are obtained as under. C l CN cos C A sin and Cdp CN cos C A sin (1)
1
y c
Where, (2)
1
CN (C pl C pu )d ( x / c )
0
and
CA
(C
0
pl
C pu )d ( y / c )
y c
Also, CMN CN ( x / c )d ( x / c ) and CMA

0
(C (y / c )d (y / c )
A 0
(3) CM CMN CMA 3.1 (Moment about LE) (4)
Tracing out Separation bubble
Figure 3. Time series Cp signal with Static Cp distribution and Standard Deviation in Cp at o =9 , Re=0.2E06 and U = 10 m/sec. Figure 3 depicts the analysis layout for identifying and quantifying the existence of LSB in the flow phenomena at a given angle of attack and Re. The time series Cp signals of 1 sec data (500 samples/port) is plotted for the upper surface pressure ports. The LBL and TBL band are clearly distinguished with the presence of inbetween transition band as highlighted. This defines the zone and size of the laminar separation bubble which could be further depicted from Averaged static Cp distribution and Standard deviation of Cp signals of
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each upper port. The laminar separation starts at s/c = 0.1188 and flow reattaches at s/c = 0.2489. Thus the size of LSB comes out to be 13.01% of the chord.
Figure 4. Static upper surface Cp distribution and Standard Deviation in Cp at varied angle of attack for Re=0.2E06 and U = 10 m/sec. As shown in figure 4, for a given Re = 0.2E06 and varying angle of attack, the airfoil o stalls at 14 , the separation bubble which develops suction pause or break moves with increasing intensity towards LE with the increase in angle of attack. The bubble gets stucked th to the port 6 (s/c 0.0855) and further gets bursted prior to stalling, thus locates the bubble bursting point. 3.2 Effect of Re with varying angle of attack on aerodynamic charateristics
Figure 6. Static Cl,Cdp,Cm& Xcp plots at varied angle of attack and Re
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The size and intensity of LSB decreases linearly with the increase in Re and further gets eliminated with the rise in Re. The effect of the presence of this suction break is also clearly visible in the aerodynamics properties plotted in figure 5. Upto 7o angle of attack there no effect of Re and plot of Cl is almost linear. Further rise in angle of attack in pre-stall region does indicates the effect of Re. The plots differ with the rise in Re due to the presence of the weaker LSBs, the plot tends to be more linearized. Thus once the bubble is eliminated the effect of Re becomes insignificant. Also the stall angle and Clmax increases incrementally with o rise in Re. Further in post stall region the Re effect prevails upto 21 which shows significant o drop in Cl , CM and rise in Cdp with increase in angle of attack. Beyond 21 , the effect of Re in again negligible and aerodynamic characteristics are linear. Figure 5, also shows the effect of Re on Centre of Pressure (Xcp) with varying angle of attack. Although Re effect on Xcp is insignificant, but the effect varying angle of attack on Xcp is considerable. The Xcp variation in no-stall & pre-stall region in centred around quarterchord point, thus this point can be defined as aerodynamic centre of the airfoil. At stalling point theres sudden drop in CM and Xcp moves towards aft side of quarter chord point. In post o stall region upto 21 , the rise in Xcp continues upto x/c 0.36. Further increase in angle of o o attack in deep stall region (from 21 to 25 ) sustains constant Xcp. Thus, constant value of Xcp is the cause for the linearized nature of the Cl-plot. 4. Conclusions
Increase in Re causes Incremental rise in stall angle and Clmax, decrease in the size and strength of LSB and bubble bursting point moves towards the LE. Beyond Re=0.6E06 the bubble size diminishes and disappears. Thus, initiates the linearization of the pre-stall Cl characteristics upto which Xcp is centred on quarter-chord point, with negligible variation in CM, hence Xcp can be treated as aerodynamic centre. Effect of Re is insignificant for Cdp, CM, Xcp and No-separation bubble conditions. Angle of attack as significant effect on Xcp in vicinity of stall region as it moves towards the aft side of quarter chord point (upto x/c 0.36). Beyond that (deep stall) the Xcp is constant but cannot be considered as aerodynamic centre due to significant change in CM. Xcp constant does linearizes the Cl-plot. Acknowledgement The present work is financially supported by Aeronautics and Research Development Board (ARDB) of India. Technical support and assistance provided by the staff of Low speed aerodynamics lab and National Wind Tunnel Facility (NWTF) at IIT-Kanpur is gratefully acknowledged. References [1] Schlichting, H. Boundary Layer Theory. 7th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979. [2] Young, A.D. Boundary Layers. AIAA Education Series, Washington DC, 1989. [3] McCroskey, W.J. Some current research in unsteady fluid dynamics. Journal of Fluids Eng., 99 (1), 1977, 839. [4] Horton, H.P. A semi-empirical theory for the growth and bursting of laminar separation bubbles. Proceedings of ARC CP 1073, 1967. [5] Liebeck, R.H. Laminar Separation Bubbles and airfoil desing at low Reynolds number. AIAA paper 92-2735, 1992. [6] Biber, K., and Zumwalt G. W. Hysteresis effects on wind tunnel measurements of a twoelement airfoil. AIAA Journal, 31 (2), 1993, 326-330. [7] Carr, L. W. Progress in Analysis and Prediction of Dynamic Stall. Journal of Aircraft, 25 (1), 1988, 6-17. [8] Marxen, O., Lang, M., Rist, U. and Wagner, S. A Combined Experimental/Numerical Study of Unsteady Phenomena in a Laminar Seperation Bubble. Technical Notes, Institute of Aerodynamic and Gasdynamic (IAG), University of Stuttgart, Germany.
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A Heat Transfer enhancement using NanoFluid: A Review

D. S. Chavan , Dr. A. T. Pise.
1 1* 2
Rajarambapu Institute of Technology, Sakharale. Sangli 415 414.Maharashtra India. 2 Government College of Engineering, Karad, 415 110. Maharashtra India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: dkumar.c@rediffmail.com) In the past decade, nanofluid becomes an area of interest because of their superior thermal performance and many potential applications. A nanofluid is a suspension of ultra fine particles in a conversional base fluid which enhances the heat transfer characteristics of original fluid. Also nanofluids are expected to be ideally suited in practical applications as their use incurs little or no penalty in pressure drop (as nanofluid particles are ultra fine). They appear to behave more like a single phase fluid than solid liquid mixture. About a decade ago, several published articles focused on measuring and determining effective thermal conductivity of nanofluid. Some also evaluated the effective viscosity. There are only few published articles on deriving convective heat transfer of nanofluid. Purpose of this paper is to summarize the published subject respect to convective heat transfer of nanofluid, its benefits and potential applications.
1.
Introduction
With ever increasing thermal loads due to high power output and smaller features of microelectronics devices, improvement to make heat transfer equipment more energy efficient become most important technical issue. The thermal management of many applications like transportation, manufacturing and micro-electronics is very important, to maintain their desired performance and durability. The improvement to make heat transfer equipment more energy efficient can be made by focus on reduces the size on one hand and huge increase in heat flux on the other. Heat transfer fluids such as water, mineral oil and ethylene glycol are used in many industrial processes. The poor heat transfer properties of these common fluids compared to most solids is a primary obstacle to the high compactness and effectiveness of heat exchangers. As the thermal conductivity of a fluid plays a vital role in the development of energy efficient heat transfer equipment, there is need to find new heat transfer fluid with has higher thermal properties and an advanced cooling techniques. It can be obtained by suspending small particles of solid whose thermal conductivity is high as compared with conventional fluids. It is well known that at room temperature, metallic solids posses an order of magnitude higher thermal conductivity than fluid. For example, the thermal conductivity of copper at room temperature is about 700 times greater than that of water and about 3000 times greater than that of engine oil. Therefore, the thermal conductivities of fluids containing solid metallic or nonmetallic (metallic oxide) particles would be expected to be significantly higher than those of conventional heat transfer fluids. If these particles are of millimeter or micrometer size, problems such as rapid settling of particles, clogging of flow channels and increased pressure drop may arises. If the fluid is kept circulating rapidly enough to prevent much settling, the micro particles would damage the walls of heat transfer equipments and wear out them. To overcome above problems, new class of heat transfer fluid called nanofluid can be used. Nanofluid is heat transfer fluid in which nanometer sized solid particles are dispersed in traditional heat transfer fluid. These fluids exhibit significantly higher thermal properties, in particular, thermal conductivity, than those base fluids. Nanoparticles, due to their high surface to volume ratio can remain in suspension and thereby reduce erosion and clogging. The nanofluid attracted great interest from the research community due to their potential benefits and applications in numerous important fields such as transportation, microelectronics, manufacturing, medical and HVAC.
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2.
Potential Benefits of nanofluid
Considering heat transfer performance of nanofluids, the impact of nanofluid technology is expected to be great on the heat exchangers or cooling devices in numerous industries. When the nanoparticles are properly dispersed, nanofluids can offer numerous benefits besides the anomalously high effective thermal conductivity. These benefits include: Better heat transfer and stability: Usually heat transfer takes place at the surface of the particle. Nanoparticles usually have larger surface areas as to micro particles provide significantly improved heat transfer capabilities. In addition, particles finer than 20 nm, carry 20% of their atoms on their surface, making them instantaneously available for thermal interaction. Also ultra-fine nanoparticles of nanofluid can flow smoothly in the tiniest of channels. The gravity of nanoparticles is negligible which reduce chances of sedimentation, making nanofluids more stable. Microchannel cooling without clogging: Nanofluids will be ideal for microchannel applications where high heat loads are encountered. Highly conducting fluids and a large heat transfer area will be provided by the combination of microchannels and nanofluids. This cannot be achieved by macro- or micro-particles because they clog microchannels. Optimized systems: Nanofluid technology will support the current industrial trend toward optimum design of components and systems with smaller and lighter heat exchangers. Smaller and lighter systems will results in reduction in the inventory of heat transfer fluid which will result in cost savings. Reduction in pumping power: As large thermal conductivity of nanofluid increases with a small increase in viscosity, large saving in pumping power can be achieved. Use of nanofluid results in smaller inventories of fluids. Thermal systems can be smaller and lighter. In vehicles, smaller components result in better gasoline mileage, fuel savings, lower emissions, and a cleaner environment. 3. Potential applications of nanofluids
With the aforementioned highly desired thermal properties and potential benefits, nanofluids can be seen to have a wide range of industrial and medical applications. These are elaborated here. Nanofluids in transportation: As thermal conductivity offered by nanofluids, the transportation industry can improve performance of vehicle heat transfer and enhance the cooling technologies. Nanofluids would allow for smaller, lighter engines, pumps, radiators, and other components. Lighter vehicles will have advantages like more mileage/liter, low emission and reduce environmental pollution. In micromechanics and instrumentation: Low cooling capacity conventional coolants does not work well with high power MEMS as MEMS generate a lot of heat during operation. If micro sized nanoparticles in the coolants may create clogging. Since nanofluids can flow in microchannels without clogging, they would be suitable coolants. They could enhance cooling of MEMS under extreme heat flux conditions. In heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems: Nanofluids could improve heat transfer capabilities of current industrial HVAC and refrigeration systems. One innovative concept using nanofluid involves pumping of coolant from one location where the refrigeration unit is housed in another location. Nanofluid technology could make the process more energy efficient and cost effective. Medical applications: Magnetic nanoparticles in body fluids (biofluids) can be used as delivery vehicles for drugs or radiation, providing new cancer treatment techniques. In future nanofluids can be used as advanced drug delivery fluid. 4. Literature Review
Anoop et al. [1] carried experimental investigation on the convective heat transfer characteristics in the developing region of tube flow with constant heat flux using alumina water nanofluid. The average particle sizes were 45 nm and 150 nm. The particle concentrations used in the experiments were of 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 4 wt% and 6 wt%. They evaluate the effect of particle size on convective heat transfer in laminar developing region.
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Their results show that, trend of enhancement of heat transfer coefficient is similar to larger particle size, but magnitude of enhancement was greater with smaller particles. Also with increase in concentration of nanoparticles, heat transfer coefficient gets increased. With 6 Vol % alumina nanofluid, heat transfer coefficient can be improve 27% higher than water. Kang et al. [2] worked on nanofluid with silver particles in heat pipe. The nanofluid used was an aqueous solution of 10 and 35 nm diameter nanoparticles. Their results showed that the thermal performance enhancement of heat pipe as thermal resistance of heat pipe reduced. This give an indication nanofluid potential as substitute for conventional fluid in grooved and sintered heat pipes and also for devices with high energy density. They also found a nonlinear relationship of particle size and concentration with thermal performance. Golubovic et al. [3] worked on impact of different nanoparticle characteristics like particle concentration, size and type on critical heat flux. They prepared fluids by suspending and nanoparticles having sizes between 1 and 100 nm in regular fluids. They found that the particle concentration increased results with increasing the peak heat flux up to a certain limit. The pool boiling critical heat flux increased up to 50% using Al2O3 nanofluid and up to 33% using BiO2 nanofluid. Also they found that particle size has negligible influence on the heat flux. Naphon et al. [4] studied the enhancement of heat pipe efficiency with refrigerant nanoparticle mixtures. They evaluate the effects of the charge amount of working fluid, heat pipe tilt angle on the efficiency of heat pipe. At the optimum condition for the pure refrigerant, the heat pipe with 0.1% nanoparticle concentration gave efficiency 1.4 times higher than that with pure refrigerant. Jung et al. [5] studied convective heat transfer coefficient and friction factor of nanofluids in rectangular microchannels. They investigated the effect of the volume fraction of the nanoparticle to the convective heat transfer and fluid flow in microchannels. They used Al2O3 with diameter of 170 nm nanofluids for the experiment with various particle volume fractions. The convective heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid in laminar flow regime found to be increased up to 32% compared to the distilled water at a volume fraction of 1.8 volume percent without major friction loss. The Nusselt number measured increases with increasing the Reynolds number in laminar flow regime. Rea et al. [6] investigated laminar convective heat transfer and viscous pressure loss for aluminawater and zirconiawater nanofluids in a flow loop with a vertical heated tube. Their results show that the heat transfer coefficients in the entrance and in fully developed region are increased by 17% and 27% respectively, for aluminawater nanofluid at 6 vol % compared to pure water. Comparatively a zirconiawater nanofluid heat transfer coefficient increase is less which is 2% and 3% in the entrance and in fully developed region. The pressure loss for the nanofluids is in general much higher than for pure water which scales linearly with the fluid viscosity, as expected from the traditional pressure loss theory for laminar flow. Nayak et al. [7] demonstrated a natural circulation system operated on the basis of natural laws like gravity and buoyancy with nanofluid. Their experimental data shows that with nanofluid flow stabilities are suppressed and natural circulation flow rate enhances. The increase in steady natural circulation flow rate due to addition of nanoparticle is found to be a function of its concentration in water and the flow instabilities occurred with water alone suppressed significantly by small addition of nanoparticle. Lee and Mudawar [8] analysed experimentally micro-channel cooling benefits of water-based nanofluids. They found that nanoparticles enhance single-phase heat transfer coefficient in laminar as compared to turbulent flow. The heat transfer coefficients occurred higher in the entrance region of micro-channels compared with fully developed region. They advised not to use nanoparticles in two-phase micro-channel heat sinks. This is because as boiling commences, particles begin to deposit into relatively large clusters near the channel exit due to localized evaporation which quickly propagates upstream to fill the entire channel, preventing coolant from entering the heat sink and causing catastrophic failure of the cooling system. Duangthongsuk and Wongwises [9] studied experimentally forced convective heat transfer and flow characteristics of a nanofluid under turbulent flow condition. They use water as base fluid with 0.2 vol.% TiO2 nanoparticles of 21 nm diameter. They found convective
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heat transfer coefficient is slightly higher than that of base fluid by about 611%.which increased with an increasing Reynolds number and with a decreasing nanofluid temperature. No change in pressure drop and friction factor occurred. Wen and Ding [10] analysed experimentally convective heat transfer of nanofluids in the laminar flow regime. They concluded that use of nanoparticles can significantly enhance the convective heat transfer in the laminar flow regime and decreases with axial distance. The enhancement increased with Reynolds number and particle concentration. Effect on thermal developing length of nanofluids is found greater. It increased with an increase in particle concentration. Palm et al. [11] numerically investigated heat transfer enhancement capabilities of coolants with suspended metallic nanoparticle inside typical radial flow cooling systems. Results clearly indicate that considerable heat transfer benefits are possible with the use of these fluid/solid particle mixtures. e.g. Water + 4% Al2O3 nanofluid increase 25% average wall heat transfer coefficient compared to water alone. They developed the model using temperature-dependent nanofluid properties which found to give even better heat transfer enhancement predictions as well as lower wall shear stresses than when considering constant properties throughout the domain. Izadi et al. [12] numerically studied laminar forced convection of a nanofluid of Al2O3 and water. They showed that for a given Reynolds number, despite of changing the mean inlet velocity, the dimensionless velocity profile does not vary with nanoparticle volume fraction. While the effect of nanoparticle concentration on the nanofluid bulk temperature was found significant. In general using nanofluid with higher nanoparticle volume fraction increased the convective heat transfer coefficient. Wenhua et al. [13] performed heat transfer experiments with a water-based nanofluid containing 170-nm silicon carbide particles at a 3.7% volume concentration in turbulent flow. They found that heat transfer coefficient increased by 5060% at the same Reynolds number. Also the pumping power penalty of the SiC/water nanofluid was shown to be less than that of an Al 2O3/water nanofluid for the same particle concentration. Santra et al. [14] studied the effect of copperwater nanofluid with solid volume fraction () of copper particles in water varied from 0.05% to 5% as a cooling medium to simulate the behaviour of heat transfer due to laminar natural convection in a differentially heated square cavity. The solid volume fraction () of copper particles in water varied from 0.05% to 5%. They solved the problem numerically with finite volume approach using SIMPLER algorithm. They analysed that the heat transfer decreased with increased in solid volume fraction () for a particular Rayleigh number (Ra), while it increased with Ra for a particular . Sidi et al. [15] investigated laminar forced convection flow of nanofluids for two particular geometrical configurations, namely a uniformly heated tube and a system of parallel, coaxial and heated disks. They concluded that nanofluids produced considerable augmentation of the heat transfer coefficient and wall shear stress increases with increase with particle concentration. They provide relations computing the Nusselt number for the nanofluids considered in terms of the Reynolds and the Prandtl numbers. 5. Concluding Remark
A novel approach to engineering fluids with better heat transfer properties is based on rapidly emerging field of nanotechnology. Use of nanofluid can significantly increases heat transfer capabilities of cooling systems also increases with increasing volumetric loading of nanoparticles. Review of experimental studies on heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids clearly shows a lack of consistency in the reported results. The properties reported by different authors are inconsistent and insufficient. Hence proper findings of thermo physical properties of nanofluid are required to measure in order to vary the different parameters like size, shape and percentage of nanoparticles for different temperatures. Also efforts needed more systematic experimental findings of nanofluids as working fluids in the heat transfer equipments on commercial scale. Experimental work should be done to develop the charts /correlations of thermo physical properties of nanofluids with varying parameters, and to investigate suitability of
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these fluids in heat transfer equipments on commercial scale. Also investigation should includes developing experimental correlations for heat transfer and pressure drop in terms of nondimensional numbers. References [1] K. B. Anoop, T. Sundararajan, S. K. Das; Effect of particle size on the convective heat transfer in nanofluid in the developing region, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 2189 2195. S.W. Kang, W. C. Wei, S.H. Tsai, C. C. Huang., Experimental investigation of nanofluids on sintered heat pipe thermal performance., Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 973 979. M. N. Golubovic, H. D. M. Hettiarachchi, W. M. Worek, W. J. Minkowycz., Nanofluids and critical heat flux, experimental and analytical study., Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 1281 1288. P. Naphon, D. Thongkum, P. Assadamongkol., Heat pipe efficiency enhancement with refrigerant - nanoparticles mixtures., Energy conversion and management 50 (2009) 772 776. J. Y. Jung, H. S. Oh, H. Y. Kwak; Forced convective heat transfer of nanofluids in microchannels. , International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 466 472. U. Rea, T. Mckrell, L. W. Hu, J. Buongiorno.; Laminar convective heat transfer and viscous pressure loss of alumina water and zirconia water nanofluids.; International journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 2042 2048. A. K. Nayak, M. R. Gartia, P. K. Vijayan.; Thermal hydraulic characteristics of a single phase natural circulation loop with water and Al2O3 nanofluids.; Nuclear Engineering and Design 239 (2009) 526 540. J. Lee, I. Mudawar.; Assessment of the effectiveness nanofluids for single-phase and double-phase heat transfer in microchannels.; International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 50(2007) 452 463. W. Duangthongsuk, S. Wongwises.; Heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop characteristics of TiO2 water nanofluid in a double tube counter flow heat exchanger.; International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 2059 2067. D. Wen, Y. Ding.; Experimental investigation into convective heat transfer of nanofluids at the entrance region under laminar flow conditions. ; International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 47 (2004) 5181 5188. S. J. Palm, G. Roy, C. T. Nguyen.; Heat transfer enhancement with the use of nanofluid in radial flow cooling considering temperature-dependent properties. Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 2209 - 2218. M. Izadi , A. Behzadmehr , D. Jalali-Vahida.; Numerical study of developing laminar forced convection of a nanofluid in an annulus., International Journal of Thermal Sciences xxx (2009) 111. W. Yu, D. M. France, D. S. Smith, D. Singh, E. V. Timofeeva, J. L. Routbort.; Heat transfer to a silicon carbide/water nanofluid., International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 36063612. A. Santra, S. Sen, N. Chakraborty.; Study of heat transfer augmentation in a differentially heated square cavity using copperwater nanofluid., International Journal of Thermal Sciences 47 (2008) 11131122. S. E. B. Maga, S. J. Palm, C. T. Nguyen, G. Roy, N. Galanis.; Heat transfer enhancement by using nanofluids in forced convection flows., International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 26 (2005) 530546.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5] [6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11] [12] [13] [14] [15]
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Experimental analysis of a domestic refrigerator model working with LPG

Dipak J. Parmar1*, Bhargav M. Chavada2
2
Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India G.H.Patel College of Engineering & Technology, V. V. Nagar, Gujarat, India *dipakjparmar@gmail.com (M) 9898329289
This work investigates the result of an experimental study carried out to determine the performance of a domestic refrigerator when a propane/butane mixture is used as a possible replacement to the traditional refrigerant CFC 12. The used propane/butane mixture is liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) which is locally available and comprises 24.4% propane, 56.4% butane and 17.2% isobutene which varies from company to company. The LPG is cheap and possesses an environment friendly nature with no ozone depletion potential (ODP). It is used in cooking purposes. The refrigerator used in the present study is of medium size with a gross capacity of 125 liters and is designed to work on LPG. The performance parameters investigated are the refrigeration effect in certain time. The refrigerator worked efficiently when LPG was used as refrigerant instead of CFC 12. The evaporator temperature reached -3C with an ambient temperature of 8C. The results of the present work indicate the successful use of this propane/butane mixture as an alternative refrigerant to CFC 12 in domestic refrigerators. This LPG refrigerator model gives the refrigeration effect at the cost of nothing, means it produces the refrigeration effect without using electricity at all. This LPG refrigerator model helps the word in energy saving. 1. Introduction
Considering law of energy conservation, maximum utilization of the fossil fuel and saving energy this experiment has done using the LPG as a refrigerant in the domestic refrigerator. Instead of using closed cycle as it is used in normal practice (VCR), the open cycle has been used. Before burning the LPG in the burner, LPG is passing through the Refrigerator and produces the refrigeration effect without utilizing the electrical energy. Domestic refrigerators are working with R12. Unfortunately, R12 is considered as a harmful fluid to the environment. As a result, considerable efforts have been done to identify R12 replacements among chlorine- free pure refrigerants, mixture of environmentally friendly refrigerants, natural refrigerants and hydrocarbon refrigerants for energy saving and environmental protection. Several researchers have examined R134a, propane (R290), isobutane (R600a), cyclopropane (RC270) and dimethyl ether (DME) as working fluids to replace R12 in domestic refrigerators. Propane/butane mixture is liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) which is locally available and comprises 24.4% propane, 56.4% butane and 17.2% isobutene can also be serve the purpose of replacement of R12. The LPG is cheap and possesses an environment friendly nature with no ozone depletion potential (ODP). It is used in cooking purposes. So Before burning the LPG in the burner, LPG is passing through the Refrigerator and produces the refrigeration effect without utilizing the electrical energy. Instead of using closed cycle as it is used in normal practice (VCR), the open cycle has been used. 2. Refrigerant requirements
Acceptable performance and life for refrigerants in domestic and light commercial use requires they be non- corrosive, chemically stable, boil below ambient temperature and have a critical temperature above ambient. Table 2 shows naturally occurring hydrocarbons and mixtures which satisfy these criteria. They are called LPG refrigerants here.
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Table 1: Environmental impact of refrigerants (100 year basis)
Refrigerant
Class Atmospheric lifetime (Years) Ozone depletion potential Global warming potential
R12
CFC 130 1.0 7300
R22
HCFC 15 0.07 1500
R314a
HFC 16 0 1200
R600a
LPG 1 0 8
RC270
HC 1 0 8
Table 2: LPG refrigerants used for domestic and light commercial applications.
Code R290
Chemical Name Propane
Triple ( 0C) -189

-145 -138
Boil ( 0C) -42.08

-11.76 -0.54 Values vary
Critical ( 0C) 96.70

134.70 152.01
R600a Isobutane R600 Normal butane Commercial Propane Commercial Butane Mixture of the above
Table 3: Comparison of refrigerant properties and parameters affecting the measured energy consumption of domestic refrigerators for an idealized reversed Rankine cycle operating 0 0 between -15 C and 30 C saturation temperatures.
3.
Set up of experiment and procedure
Figure 1 shows the four components of the vapor compression cycle schematically, and figure 2 shows the set up for the experiment. As in vapor compression cycle, compressor is used to compress the refrigerant and this compressor work consumes the electricity, while using the set up shown in the figure 2, the LPG is already compressed gas with pressure 60 psi. The compressed gas is at environment temperature so no need of condenser. For expansion the throttling valve has been used and the pressure after the expansion of LPG was 2 psi. This expanded gas pass through the evaporator of the domestic refrigerator model and give the refrigeration effect. The outcome of the evaporator goes to burner.
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Figure 1. Schematic of vapor compression refrigeration cycle
Figure 2. Experimental set up of LPG refrigerator
4.
Refrigerator Model dimensions and Experimental results
Size of Refrigerator 723.9 457.2 381 mm3 =126 Lt. The experimental data as in Table 4 shows that the ambient temperature of 0 0 refrigerator has gone to 16 C from 36 C within 36 minutes when the model refrigerator is 0 under no load condition. The measured temperature of evaporator was -3 C. The result in Figure 4 shows the temperature variation in the winter season versus time. The evaporator temperature has decreased from 24 0C to -8 0C within 14 minutes. Table 4: Data collected on 25th April 2007, when environmental temperature was 360C
Temperature
Temperature (C) 36.00 33.10 31.19 30.26 28.94 25.20 21.38 18.55 16.96 16.45 6.73 16.70 16.39
Time (Hour: minute) 12:25 PM 12:28 PM 12:31 PM 12:34 PM 12:37 PM 12:40 PM 12:43 PM 12:46 PM 12:49 PM 12:52 PM 12:55 PM 12:58 PM 1:01 PM
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 12:21 PM 36 33.1 31.19 30.26 28.94 25.2 21.38 18.55 16.9616.4516.7316.7 16.39
Temperature
12:28 PM
12:36 PM
12:43 PM Time Temperature
12:50 PM
12:57 PM
1:04 PM
Figure 3. Temp. V/s Time 102
Temperature(C) v/s Time(Minutes) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 0 -10 Temperature v/s Time 2 4 6 8 10 12 7.93 3.78 0 12 14 -8 24.48 21.37 18.31
Figure 4. Data collected on 18 January 2008 5. 6. 7. Advantages No need of electricity The unit is effectively silent in operation Freezes working fluid is LPG which is very very Ozone friendly This freeze can be installed in any well ventilated room, domestic kitchen, flat, caravan, tent, emergency shelter, site hutin fact almost everywhere as it will work without an electricity supply Clean and environment friendly No compressor and condenser require Running cost is zero Disadvantages LPG is explosive in nature Do not maintain constant pressure in LPG cylinder Conclusions
th
In LPG refrigeration, we can get temperature around 15 to 18 C in a system which is around 20 to 25 C less than the surrounding temperature in a summer. To achieve such a low temperature the system takes around half an hour which is very fast response compared to Vapor Absorption System. The system is cheaper in initial as well as running cost. It does not require an external energy sources to run the system and no moving part in the system so maintenance is also very low. This system is most suitable for hotels, industries, refineries, chemical industries where consumption of LPG is very high and continues. References [1] I.L. Maclaine-cross, E. Leonardi, Performance and safety of LPG refrigerants, in: Proceeding of the Fuel for Change Conference of Australian Liquefied Petroleum Gas Association Ltd., Australia, 1995, pp. 149168. [2] I. Kustrin, A. Poredos, Use of dimethyl ether in domestic refrigerator, in: Proceedings of IIF-IIR Conference, Oslo, Norway, 1998, pp. 618 625.
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[3] S.A. Agarwal, M. Ramaswamy, A. Kant, Evaluation of hydrocarbon refrigerants in single evaporator domestic refrigerator freezer, in: Proceedings of International CFC and Halon Alternative, Washington, USA, 1995, pp. 248257. [4] R.N. Richardson, J.S. Butterworth, The performance of propane/isobutane mixtures in a vapor compression refrigeration system, Int. J. Refrig. 18 (1995) 5866. [5] Z. Liu, I.H. Haider, R. Radermacher, Simulation and test results of hydrocarbon mixtures in a modified Lorenz Metzener cycle, ASHRAE Trans. 101 (1995) 13181328. [6] D. Jung, C. Kim, K. Song, B. Park, Testing of propane/isobutene mixture in domestic refrigerators, Int. J. Refrig. 23 (2000) 517527. [7] M.A. Alsaad, M.A. Hammad, The application of propane/butane mixture for domestic refrigerators, Appl. Therm. Eng. 18 (1998) 911918. [8] M.A. Hammad, M.A. Alsaad, The use of hydrocarbon mixtures as refrigerants in domestic refrigerators, Appl. Therm. Eng. 19 (1999) 11811189. [9] B.A. Akash, S.A. Said, Assessment of LPG as a possible alternative to R12 in domestic refrigerators, Energy Convers. Manage. 44 (2003) 381388. [10] J.L. Driessen, R.H. Pereira, C. Melo, R.T.S. Ferreira, Sizing capillary tubes for household refrigeration systems, International Appliance Manufacturing, Ashokan International Ltd., UK, 1998, pp. 5559.
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Design of Plate Fin Type Counter Flow Heat Exchanger for Joule Thomson Cryocooler
K.T.Dodiya , Prof. M.I.Vyas
* 1* 2
L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad Corresponding author (E-mail: ktdodiya@gmail.com)
From the literature study of different cryocooler, it is understood that the heat exchangers are crucial component of cooler in order to achieve low temperature from helium. In general we can say it is heart of the cryocooler. Process of heat transfer is done at cryogenic temperature. We have split complete design of cryocooler from room temperature (300K) to temperature nearly equal to the boiling temperature of helium (4 to 8 K) in two parts. One is pre-cooling cycle and second is cryogenic cycle. In pre-cooling cycle we used nitrogen gas as refrigerant which cool the hydrogen gas up to 200 to 205 K below the maximum inversion temperature (205 K) of it and than this cooled hydrogen gas is send to joule Thomson valve where its temperature drops up to 80 to 95 K. Now use this hydrogen gas is allowed to pass another heat exchanger at temperature nearly equals to the temperature of 80 K in order to cool the helium gas up to or below the maximum inversion temperature of helium (45 K) then after helium gas pass through the Joule Thomson valve where the temperature of helium drops below 7 K or becomes liquid. The design of heat exchanger is done by considering single phase flow (gaseous flow) in both the heat exchangers. 1. Introduction
The work describes the research performed in designing of heat exchanger for joule Thomson cryocooler to achieve lowest possible temperature by using Linde-Hampson cooling cycle. Cryocooler are based on a whole range of different cooling principles. Work described in here is based on a Linde-Hampson cycle incorporating Joule-Thomson (JT) expansion.
Figure 1.0 T-S diagram of Linde-Hampson cooling cycle, Source: [1] [2] In a Linde-Hampson cycle, gas flows continuously through a tubing system. The gas is pressurized isothermally using a compressor (process 1-2), After compression the gas flows from the compressor through a counter flow heat exchanger (CFHX) exchanging heat with the gas owing in the opposite direction inside the low-pressure line (process 2-3), When the gas has reached the restriction, the gas undergoes isenthalpic expansion to the lowpressure side, cools and usually partially changes its phase to a liquid (process 3-4), By absorbing heat from its surroundings the liquid evaporates (process 4-5) and the vapor flows back through the CFHX absorbing heat from the warm high-pressure side (process 5-1), In
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open-cycle systems, the low-pressure gas leaving the CFHX is vented to air, whereas in a closed-cycle system the fluid is re-compressed as is depicted in figure
[2] Above figure shows the schematic of the Joule-Thompson (JT) refrigeration the working fluid is compressed and then passes through an after cooler where its temperature is reduced to near room temperature, state (3). The working fluid passes through a recuperative heat exchanger where it is pre-cooled to cryogenic temperatures. The high pressure, cold refrigerant, state (4) is expanded through a valve to state (5). The isenthalpic expansion causes a temperature drop and the low pressure fluid can accept some refrigeration load before it re-enters the recuperator at state (6). In order to achieve low temperature we have to your cryogenic fluid like helium having boiling temperature of 4.21 K at 101.3 kPa. 2. Design concepts for plate fin counter flow heat exchanger
To achieve the low temperature around about 4.5 to 7 K, we require helium as working medium but the problem here, in case of helium is the effect of inversion temperature. Helium and hydrogen have negative inversion temperature; Negative inversion means its maximum inversion temperature is below the room temperature so if we pass it through the j-t valve (say throttling process) the temperature of helium and hydrogen will increase where as, for other fluid there temperature drops after throttling at room temperature.
Figure: 1.2 Inversion curve isenthalpic expansion of real gas [1] Table 1. Boiling temperature and maximum inversion temperature of different gases. [1]
Fluid Nitrogen Hydrogen Helium-4
Boiling temperature at 1 bar[K] 77.20 20.23 4.21
Maximum Inversion temperature (K) 621 205 45
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So for that, first we have to cool the helium below the maximum inversion temperature of it, which is 45 K. to achieve such a low temperature we have to use hydrogen having boiling temp. 20K. so for that purpose we need to design one heat exchanger. but the use of hydrogen also create the same problem as arise in case of helium because the maximum inversion temperature of hydrogen is also below room temperature (220K) so that we have to cool the hydrogen up to or below 220K in order to get cooling after expansion. So here we need another heat exchanger and here we use nitrogen (boiling temperature - 77 K) to cool the hydrogen below 220K. Therefore, we need to design two aluminum brazed counter flow heat exchanger one for first stage, nitrogen (cold fluid) hydrogen (hot fluid) and other for second stage, hydrogen (cold fluid) helium (hot fluid) The figure below shows conceptual design of joule Thomson cryocooler, the book Kays and London (1984, 186-279) present extensive experimental data on the heat transfer correlations for plate fin geometries, along with data on the friction factor correlations for the corresponding surfaces. We choose the counter flow type plate fin heat exchanger because for optimum pressure drop this heat exchanger performs with very high efficiency and can be manufacture by aluminum with corrugating and eventually perforating or serration the fins. In order to design the heat exchanger we use the design of heat exchanger from Kays and London, in book the design data is based on plate fin heat exchanger for the cryogenic fluid like nitrogen and helium. But in my case we have to design to heat exchanger to get low temperature as shown in the figure below the first heat exchanger cools the hydrogen up to the maximum inversion temperature of it (below 205 K) then it allow to pass through joule Thomson valve to get about or nearly equal to 20 K. Now, this hydrogen fluid use to cool the incoming helium up to the maximum inversion temperature of it (45 K) and then after this helium is passed through j-t valve to get the low temperature of about the boiling point of helium(4.21 K ) to 7 K.
Figure 1.3 Conceptual design of joule Thomson cryocooler 3. Design of plate fin type counter flow heat exchanger
Plate fin heat exchanger have certain advantages for cryogenic service, including the fact that the plate fin exchangers are compact, with approximately ten times the surface area
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per unit volume as that for conventional shell and tube heat exchangers. Configurations for the plate fin heat exchangers include counter flow. [5] The plat fin heat exchangers commonly used for gas to gas heat exchanger, and the pressure drop for each stream is an important design factor. The overall pressure drop through the plate fin heat exchangers is given by, [5]
p N VH G2 2 gc 1
(1)
The term NVH is called number of velocity heads and represents the sum of the four pressure drop contributions listed above: fL 1 N VH K 1 K 2 1 2 1 1 De m 2 2 (2) The density 1 is at the inlet, 2 is at the outlet and m is the mean density. The terms K1 and K2 are the inlet and outlet minor loss coefficients. These quantities are presented as bellow in terms of the contraction coefficient Kc and the expansion coefficient Ke, and the ratio of free flow area on one side to the frontal area of the heat exchanger = Aff /Afr 2 K1 = Kc + (1 - ) (3) 2 K2 = Ke + (1 - ) (4) Kays and London (1984, 186-279) present extensive experimental data on the heat transfer correlations for plate fin geometries, along with data on the friction factor correlations for the corresponding surfaces. If the heat transfer rate and the pressure drop are prescribed for a heat exchanger, the design involves iteration to meet these two conditions simultaneously. The iteration may be less strenuous by using an expression that involves terms that are more easily estimated at the beginning of the design process. The core frictional pressure drop is a significant fraction of the total pressure drop: fL G 2 p cf De 2gcm (5) The equivalent diameter of the plate fin heat exchangers is defined by
4A De
f f
Ao / L (6) The area Ao is the total heat transfer surface area for one side of the heat exchanger. Making the substitution for the equivalent diameter form equation 5.6 into equation 5.5 the following expression for the mass flow rate per unit free flow area is obtained.
G
2
8g
cf
A f f Ao
/ f
2/3
(7)
A
The Colburn J factor for heat transfer is defined by

jH h c Pr 2 / 3 h Pr c c p ( m / A ff ) c
m A ff
ff
(8)
o
Equation (8) may be used to eliminate the free flow area in equation (7) as follows:
G ( 8 j H / f ) g c m p cf 0 ( U ( U o A o / C ) Pr 2 / 3 /
0
hc )
1 / 2
(9) (10)
0 = 1- (Af / Ao)(1- f
4. Design inputs
Inlet temperature (K) Outlet temperature (K) Gas mass flow rate (kg/s) Inlet pressure(kPa) Allowable pressure drop
FOR FIRST STAGE Hot stream Hot stream Th1 = 300 Tc1 = 80 Th2 = 200 Tc2 = 150 mh = 0.2 mc = 1.2 ph1 = 101.3 pc1 = 140 ph = pc = 6.8 k pa
FOR SECOND STAGE Hot stream Hot stream Th1 = 300 Tc1 = 21 Th2 = 40 Tc2 = 150 mh = 0.4 mc = 1.2 ph1 = 150 pc1 = 200 ph = pc = 6.8 k pa
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5. Results (A)TEST TABLE FOR FIRST STAGE

Nitrogen Temperature (K) Inlet Tc1: 80 Tc1: 81 Tc1: 80 Tc1: 81 Outlet Tc2 :150 Tc2 :150 Tc2 :140 Tc2 :140 Pressure Drop of Cold Stream Delta Pc (kPa) 0.00788 0.25080 0.01128 0.25540 Pressure Drop of hot Stream Delta Ph (kPa) 2.3926 2.5157 4.0381 2.5803
(B)TEST TABLE FOR SECOND STAGE

Hydrogen Temperature (K) Inlet Tc1: 20 Tc1: 21 Tc1: 20 Tc1: 21 Outlet Tc2 :150 Tc2 :150 Tc2 :145 Tc2 :145 Pressure Drop of Cold Stream Delta Pc (kPa) 0.0720 0.0944 0.0706 0.0694 Pressure Drop of hot Stream Delta Ph (kPa) 0.1044 0.1937 0.1083 0.1808
6.
Conclusions
The sizing of plate fin heat exchangers require the specification of the surface type on each of the streams that will take part in the heat transfer process. A reasonable design objective is to achieve the smallest exchanger volume within the constraints of block dimensions. This can be achieved by ensuring that the allowable stream pressure drop is fully utilized and that the heat transfer surface selected is highly thermally efficient and that will produce high heat transfer coefficients at low Reynolds numbers and low temperature can be achievable. Final optimized value of core frictional pressure drop Pc = 0.255 kPa and Ph= 2.58 kPa for first stage and Pc =0.069 kPa and Ph =0.18 kPa for second stage,both are less than the allowable pressure drop (6.8kPa)., so design meets thermal as well as hydraulic requirements. References [1] Barron, Randall F., Cryogenic Systems, Oxford University Press, USA, 2 edition (1985) [2] Hasseler, L.E. 1981 Performance calculation methods for multi stream plate fin heat exchanger, International Centre for Heat and Mass Transfer, Seminar on Advancement in Heat Exchanger. [3] Sussman W. and Mansour A, 1979 Passage Arrangement in Plate Fin Heat Exchangers, Proc. 15th Int. confer. Of Refrigeration. Venice vol. 1 pp 421 ff. [4] Kays, W.M. and A.L. London, 1904. Compact Heat Exchangers. 2nd Edn., Mc Graw Hill Book Company, New York. [5] Junqi Dong et al., Heat transfer and pressure drop correlations for the multi-louvered fin compact heat exchangers, Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 15061515 [6] Cory B Hughes, Experimental Measurement of Heat Transfer Coefficients for Mixed Gas Working Fluids in Joule-Thompson Systems, A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of masters of Science (mechanical engineering) university of Wisconsin Madison, 2004. [7] Franklin K. Miller, The Development of a Proof of Principle Superfluid Joule- Thomson Refrigerator for Cooling below 1 Kelvin, Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the massachusetts institute of technology, West Virginia University, February 2005.
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Proc. of the International conference on the advances in Mechanical Engineering, August3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395 007, Gujarat, India
Performance Analysis of A Multi Cylinder Diesel Engine Using Jatropha Biodiesel-Diesel Blends
Duraid F. Maki*, M. A. Ekbote and P. Prabhakaran Faculty of Technology & Engineering, M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India. *Corresponding author (e-mail: duraid_m@yahoo.com) Over the past few years, there has been a considerable effort to find, investigate, and enhance several types of alternative fuels to replace conventional fuels wholly or partially, especially the diesel. This is due to high rate of pollutants emission from many of the conventional fuel sources and energy crises arising out of the fast depletion of primary sources of energy. In this paper, performance analysis of multi cylinder, 4 stroke, direct injection combustion chamber, 37 hp power and diesel engine type is conducted using biodiesel-diesel blends. The 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% jatropha biodiesel-diesel blends by volume are prepared and tested as fuel for diesel engine. The variation of brake power, thermal efficiency, specific fuel consumption, volumetric efficiency and exhaust gas temperature are investigated. 1. Introduction
The diesel engines dominate the field of commercial transportation and agricultural machinery due to its ease of operation and higher fuel efficiency. The consumption of diesel oil is several times higher than that of petrol. Due to the shortage of petroleum products and its increasing cost, efforts are on to develop alternative fuels especially, to the diesel oil for wholly or partial replacement. It has been found that the vegetable oils are promising fuels because their properties are similar to that of diesel and are produced easily and renewably from the crops. Vegetable oils have comparable energy density, cetane number, heat of vaporization and stoichiometric airfuel ratio with that of the diesel fuel. None other than Rudolph Diesel, the father of diesel engine, demonstrated the first use of vegetable oil in compression ignition engine. He used peanut oil as fuel for his experimental engine[1]. Generally, the viscosity of vegetable oils is several times higher than the viscosity of diesel. Viscosity of liquid fuels affects the flow properties of the fuel, such as spray atomization, consequent vaporization, and airfuel mixing in the combustion chamber. Systematic efforts were under taken by many researchers to solve this problem. They found blending, emulsification, thermal cracking and transesterification are the commonly adoptable methods to use the vegetable oil as fuel in diesel engines. In past few years, biodiesel have received significant attention both as a possible renewable alternative fuel and as an additive to the existing petroleum-based fuels. Biodiesel is biodegradable, clean-burning, non-toxic, renewable, high-quality, free of sulfur, no aromatic and economic diesel fuel. Biodiesel made primarily from: edible vegetable oil, non edible vegetable oil and waste vegetable oil and/or fats which can be used without any alterations in engine design[2,3]. Numerous vegetable oil esters have been tried as alternative to diesel fuel. A lot of researchers have reported that with the use of vegetable oil ester as a fuel in diesel engines, a diminution in harmful exhaust emissions as well as equivalent engine performance with diesel fuel were achieved [410]. Several studies have found that biodiesel seems to emit far less of the most regulated pollutants than standard diesel fuel[11]. The comparison of biodiesel production costs showed that, the use of non edible vegetable oils and waste oils to produce biodiesel is more economical. The demand on the edible vegetable oil made it a costly source to produce biodiesel. In this paper, methyl ester of jatropha oil from the raw vegetable oil are prepared. A multi cylinder, direct injection diesel engine are fuelled by biodiesel- diesel blends and tested. The volumetric efficiency, fuel consumption, brake power, thermal efficiency and exhaust gas temperature are investigated.
110
2.
Transesterification Of Jatropha Oil And Jatropha Biodiesel Properties
The transesterification process of jatropha oil is done at Anand Agriculture University Laboratories (AAUL), Anand-India for research purposes. Fuel properties are determined at the laboratories of Electrical Research and Development Association (ERDA), Vadodara India for Jatropha biodiesel samples. In this paper, the legend BX represents a blend including X% jatropha biodiesel, i.e. B10 indicates a blend including 5% biodiesel and 95% diesel while the legend B50 represents 50% jatropha biodiesel and 50% diesel and so on. Properties of jatropha biodiesel and conventional diesel are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Properties of jatropha biodiesel in comparison with conventional diesel. Property Specific gravity Gross calorific value (MJ/kg) 2 o Viscosity (mm /sec) @ 40 C o Flash point ( C) Diesel Index o Cloud point ( C) o Pour point ( C) Neutralization value mg KOH/ g of oil N/A (not available) 3. Jatropha biodiesel 0.873 38 3 170 N/A 3 0 0.17 Conventional diesel [12] 0.8162 45.71 2.94 53 45 7 -8 0.22
Experimental Set-Up The experimental set up used for the present work consists of a four cylinder four stroke water cooled direct injection vertical diesel engine developing a rated power of 37 hp at 4000 rpm. Eddy current dynamometer with variable loading arrangement is directly coupled to the engine and both are mounted on a test bed with suitable connections for lubricating and cooling systems. The specification of the engine used for the study is given in Table 2. Figure 1 illustrates the schematic of the set up. Table 2. Engine specification. Make and model Stride Engine 1.5 E2 DSL General details Four cylinder, four stroke, compression ignition, vertical, water cooled, direct injection Bore 73 mm Stroke 88.9 mm 3 Clearance volume 16.913 cm Compression ratio 23:1 Max. power 37hp @ 4000 rpm Max. torque 83.4 Nm @2250 rpm 3 Capacity 1489 cm Lubricating oil SAE 30/SAE 40
Figure 1. Schematic of the set-up. 111
Engine torque and load are given via eddy current dynamometer. Digital contact tachometer is used to measure engine speed. Fuel tank is connected to load cell to weight fuel. The fuel consumption rate is estimated by noting the fuel consumption mass for a specified duration of time. Vane probe anemometer is used to measure the intake air velocity and then the air mass is calculated. Pt100-RTD thermometer is used to measure the exhaust gas temperature. The measuring instruments are connected to computer based data acquisition system. All the instruments are calibrated against traceable standards. Traditional thermodynamic equations are used to calculate brake power, thermal efficiency and volumetric efficiency [13]. An uncertainty analysis is carried out based on the methods suggested by Moffat [14]. As fixed errors are repeatable, they can be easily accounted for getting the true value of the measurement. However, random errors must be estimated analytically [15]. Table 3 gives the uncertainties of some of the measured and estimated parameters used in the present study. Table 3. Uncertainties of some measured and estimated parameters. No. 1 2 3 4 5 4. Parameters Engine speed Engine torque Exhaust temperature Mass flow rate of air Mass Flow Rate of Diesel Uncertainty 0.1 % 0.3 % 0.63 % 1% 0.33 %
Experimental Procedure
The following step by step procedure is followed during the experimental study: 1. Start and run the diesel engine for about 15 minutes to warm the engine and attain steady state condition before the data is acquired. 2. Set the fuel supply system in only diesel mode and record the data of fuel consumption rate, air flow rate, engine speed rate and exhaust gas temperature under no-load condition and 1500 rpm. 3. Fix engine speed rate at 1500 rpm for all tests. 4. Repeat the observations under different load conditions at the dynamometer with loadings at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of full load. 5. Prepare 10%, 20%, 30% 40% and 50% of jatropha biodiesel-diesel blends by volume at separate vessels. 6. Add the 10% blend in the fuel tank and run the engine under duel fuel mode to attain steady state condition. 7. Record the data of fuel consumption rate, air flow rate, engine speed, and exhaust gas temperature under no-load condition. 8. Repeat the observations under different load conditions at the dynamometer with loadings at 25%, 50%, 75% and !00% of full load. 9. Repeat the experiment for 20%, 30% 40% and 50% as different biodiesel-diesel blends. 10. Use the neat diesel fuel to remove all the biodiesel-diesel blends and bring the engine to no load condition before switching off the engine. Each test is repeated three times to make sure the data acquired are reliable and then found the average of observations is taken. 5. Results and Discussion
From initial experimental study, it is found that the time duration of experiment, atmospheric conditions and diesel type have sensible effects on the experiments observations. A high consideration to that parameters is concerned during the tests procedures to avoid observations variance. Figure 2. shows the effect of fuel blends on the volumetric efficiency at varied loads. It is observed that there is no significant change in volumetric efficiency with the variation in blending ratio and engine load. It is seen that the 112
maximum volumetric efficiency of full load is 91.25% for B50 while the minimum of 80.5% is observed under no load condition with diesel fuel.
100
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Figure 2. Effect of blending rate on the volumetric efficiency under different loads.
Figure 3. Effect of blending rate on the fuel consumption rate under different loads.
Figure 3. gives the variation of fuel consumption rate with engine load for various blends. It is seen that as the load is increased, the fuel consumption rate increase as expected. There is a systematic increase in consumption rate for a given constant speed for blends B10 to B50, the least being observed with B10. The reason for this trend may be attributed to the lower caloric value of biodiesel as compared to that of diesel. At full load, the consumptions of fuel for B50, B40, B30, B20 and B10 are 17% , 14.6% ,10.9% , 3.35% and 1.7% respectively as compared with the fuel consumption of diesel. The results show the trend of the increase of fuel consumption with the increase percentage of biodiesel in the blends. The effect of fuel blends on brake power at varied loads is presented in Figure 4. It can be observed that as the load increases, brake power increases to the maximum at 100% load for all fuel samples.
12000 Base fuel case B10 B20 B30 B40 B50
40 Graph 1 Base fuel case B10 B20 B30 B40 B50
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Figure 4. Effect of blending rate on the brake power under different loads.
Figure 5. Effect of blending rate on the thermal efficiency varied loads.
Figure 5. shows the relation between thermal efficiency and engine load for different fuel blends. It is observed that as the load increases, the thermal efficiency increases up to 100%. The lower thermal efficiency for diesel, B10, B20,B30 and B50 may be due to increase of fuel consumption and lower of High Heating value of blends. Further it is noticed that the thermal efficiency of B40 higher than thermal efficiency of diesel by 3.4%. Figure 6. gives the variation in the difference of exhaust gas temperature and at atmospheric temperature with load for different blends. It is seen that the difference in temperature increases with load. The duration of the experimentation under one data reduction is fixed at 20 minutes and comparison of the increase in exhaust gas temperature is carried out accordingly. Higher level of biodiesel blend is found to increase the exhaust gas temperature. The reason for this trend may be due to the higher percentage oxygen content of jatropha biodiesel. At full load, 113
the exhaust temperature is increased by 35.9% as compared to that of the diesel exhaust temperature where the maximum temperature is 254 oC.
280
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T x a s - T tm (o ) ehut a . C
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Figure 6. Effect of blending rate on the exhaust temperature under different loads. 6. Conclusions
Based on the experimental study on the performance of a multi cylinder diesel engine with various jatropha biodiesel blends. The following concluding remarks may be noted: 1- For all the fuel samples tested, fuel consumption rate, brake power, thermal efficiency and exhaust temperature reach maximum values at 100% load as expected. 2- The duel fuel combination of B40 can be recommended as the good blend for using in diesel engine without making any engine modifications. 3- The high rate of fuel consumption at various blends, increase the fuel consumption cost. 4- The increment in exhaust gas temperature indicates the increment in NOx rates in exhaust gas. References [1] Ramadhas, A.S. Muraleedharan, C. and Jayaraj, S. Performance and emission evaluation of a diesel engine fueled with methyl esters of rubber seed oil. Renewable Energy, 30, 2005, 17891800. [2] Maki, Duraid F. Maki, Nahla F. and Shahad, Haroun A.K. Production and testing of biodiesel from waste cooking oil. Proceeding of International Conference Combustion, Incineration/Pyrolysis and Emission Control (i-CIPEC 2008), 16-19 December 2008, Chiang Mai, Thailand. [3] Stalin, N. and Prabhu, H.J. Performance test of IC engine using karanja biodiesel blending with diesel. APRN journal of engineering and applied sciences, 2, 2007, 32-34. [4] Graboski, M.S. and McCormick, R.L. Combustion of fat and vegetable oil derived fuels in diesel engines. Prog. Energy Combustion Sci., 24, 1998,125164. [5] Kalligeros, S. Zannikos, F. Stournas, S. Lois, E. Anastopoulos, G. Teas, C. et al An investigation of using biodiesel/marine diesel blends on the performance of a stationary diesel engine. Biomass Bioenergy, 24, 2003, 141149. [6] Pramanik, K. Properties and use of Jatropha curcas oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition engine. Renew Energy, 28, 2003, 239248. [7] Huzayyin, AS. Bawady, AH. Rady, MA. Dawood, A. Experimental evaluation of diesel engine performance and emission using blends of jojoba oil and diesel fuel. Energy Conv. Manage, 45, 2004, 20932112. [8] Ramadhas, A.S. Muraleedharan, C. Jayaraj, S. Performance and emission evaluation of a diesel engine fueled with methyl esters of rubber seed oil. Renew Energy, 30, 2005, 17891800. [9] Almeida, S.CA Belchior, CR. Nascimento, MVG. Vieira, LSR. Fleury, G. Performance of a diesel generator fuelled with palm oil. Fuel, 81, 2002, 20972102. 114
[10] Yucesu, HS. Altn, R. C- etinkaya, S. Experimental investigation of vegetable oil usage as alternative fuel in diesel engines. Turk J Eng Environ Sci, 25, 2001, 3949. [11] Gumus, M. Evaluation of hazelnut kernel oil of Turkish origin as alternative fuel in diesel engines. Renewable Energy, 33, 2008, 24482457. [12] Studies on compatible fuel properties of soybean ethyl esters and its blends with diesel for fuel use in compression ignition engines. http://www.sustech.edu/staff_publications/file.pdf. [13] Heywood, J.B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. McGraw Hill, London, 1988. [14] Moffat, R. J. Using uncertainty analysis in the planning of an experiment. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 107, 1985, 173178. [15] Saravanan, N., Nagarajan, G. An experimental investigation of hydrogen-enriched air induction in a diesel engine system. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 33, 2008, 1769-1775.
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Design of System for Recovery of Refrigeration Effect During LNG Regasification Process
Gaurang P. Patel , and Prof. Mrs. Bharti V. Dave L.D. College of Engg., Ahmedabad *Corresponding author Gaurang Patel (email: gppatel14@gmail.com) Due to steady growth of energy demand, Natural gas becomeimportant fuel as domestic, automobile and industrial fuel. In India ports are developed for LNG import. The regassification of LNG is carried out in vaporizer prior to supply to domestic users, which uses hot-water or other heat source to gasify the LNG. The large amount of refrigeration available at temperature as low as 111 K, which is lost in heating media in Vaporizer. As per Green Building Concenpt and Sustainable growth, energy loss in any form should be minimum and waste energy should be recovered. Hence the refrigeration effect loss should be recovered. The large amount of refrigeration effect lost in LNG vaporizer can be used to liquefy the refrigerant such as NH3, R-134a etc by exchanging heat between LNG, refrigerant vapour in a heat exchanger. This liquid refrigerant now will be used for Air-Conditioning of building or Cold Storage. 1. Introduction:
*
To sustain the growth of its economy, Natural gas is one of the solutions for India. Domestic production of Natural gas is not sufficient hence it is being imported form the primary sources for natural gas , such as Middle East, Nigeria, Algeria, Russia, Indonesia , and South America. Which are thousands of miles away from the key end user market of Asia. Now as liquefying natural gas reduces its specific volume by a ratio of 600:1 which makes handling and storage economical. The LNG is liquefied and transported to user country by ship, where LNG unloaded to storage tank. LNG is converted into gaseous form before transporting to end-user. LNG is converted into gaseous form in vaporizer. Vaporizer is a heat exchanger in which LNG vaporizes by exchanging heat with hot media like seawater, hot water, air etc and this process is known as Regassification process. All heating media gets cooled by exchanging heat of vaporization of LNG. This cooling effect is getting waste, as the cooling effect in above media are not used anywhere else. Also disposal of cold water or emmision generated will disturb the ecosystem. Instead, if the system can be designed, in which the large cooling effect wasted in LNG regassification can be recovered and used for running cold storages on port or central air conditioning plant, which justify the money spent for LNG generation and also a step towards Green building and sustainable growth [1]. 2. Regassification Process
There are several types of Regasifiers (Vaporizers) used in conventional regassification process. Vaporizers transfer heat between Cold LNG and Hot media. Hot media can be Seawater (available in plenty amount at import port), Hot water (generated by burning a fossil fuel) or Air (in rare case). 2.1 Types of Vaporizers Following are the some of the important Vaporizer being used currently. i. Open Rack Vaporizer (ORV) ii. Submerged combustion vaporizer (SCV) iii. Shell & Tube type vaporizer (STV) iv. Combined heat and power unit with submerged combustion vaporizer (CHPSCV) v. Ambient air-heated vaporizer 116
Here the ORV uses sea water as heating media, it require 100 to 200 million gallons of water per day and leaves the sea water 5 to 12oC lower than the intake water temperature. The SCV uses Hot water, which is generated by burning the fossil fuel. STV uses either sea water or hot water as heating media. CHP-SCV is using the cold water as condenser in heat power cycle and replaces the cooling tower with better efficiency. Ambient air- heated vaporizer uses air as heating media, here LNG is heated by Glycol and Cold Glycol is heated with help of ambient air by circulating it in network of pipe. It require huge amount of space for pipe network. Figure 1 shows the schematic for above mentioned Vaporizers.
(I)
(II)
(III) (IV) Figure 1: Type of Vaporizer (I) ORV (II) SCV (III) CHP-SCV (IV) Ambient air heater 2.2 Effect of Vaporizers on Ecosystem
ORV and SCV are the most widely used vaporizers in the world. The effects of these vaporizers on Ecosystem are as follows. ORV takes million gallons of water per day and leaves the same 5 to 12 C lower than the intake, due to which billions of fish and crustacean eggs, larvae, and other zooplankton will be destroyed each year through impingement of entrainment. Also erection of piping for such flow rate (app. 2 m diameter) will seriously affect the surrounding ecosystem. Also seawater taken to ORV is chlorinated or sodium hypochlorite is injected to protect the surface against Bio-fouling and marine growth, this chlorinated or sodium hypochlorite water seriously damage the marine ecosystem. SCV uses fossil fuel to generation of hot water, Combustion of fuel generates CO2, NOx & CO, which Contributes to Global Warming [2-4]. 3. Amount of Refrigeration effect being waste during regassification
o
Let us take an example of Petronet LNG Terminal at Dahej, where 5.0 MMTPA LNG regassification capacity plant is in working condition [5]. Now LNG is available at 110 K 117
temperature and its latent heat at 1 bar pressure is 505 kJ/kg. Hence for 5.0 MMTPA capacity, refrigeration effect (Q) lost is = (150 kg/sec X 505 kJ/kg)/3.54 = 21398 Tons of Refrigeration. 4. Recovery System
The suggested recovery system is Cascade in nature. Here Propane is selected as intermediate fluid because it has low Triple point temperature (85K) and high Critical temperature (370K). LNG from storage vessel pumped through Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger I, where it exchanges heat with Propane. Propane flow through tubes and LNG is filled in shell. After Heat Exchanger-1 LNG will be in gaseous form, which will be supplied to end users. While Propane cools to low temperature approximately 200 K. The low temperature Propane is pumped through Heat Exchanger 2, Where Propane condenses the Refrigerant (Such as NH3, R-134a, etc.) and sub cooled to 273 K. Here Refrigerant flow through tube and Propane is filled in shell. After Heat exchanger 2, hot Propane (gas or two phase mixture) flow back to Heat Exchanger 1. While Refrigerant flows to evaporator after expansion through Expansion Valve. In evaporator it absorbs heat from air. The air gets cooled and the refrigerant gets evaporated. The super heated refrigerant vapour is compressed to higher pressure. At high pressure Refrigerant vapour condenses and sub cools to 273 K in Heat Exchanger 2. To regasify the total capacity of LNG we require bigger size of recovery system. Hence here we have designed a system for recovery of part refrigeration effect and remaining LNG will be regasify in convectional vaporizer. Figure 2 shows the schematic of Recovery system.
Figure 2 : Schematic of Refrigeration Recovery system 5. Design of Recovery system for 1000 TR Refrigeration effect.
Let a 1000 TR cold storage is to be run by recovery system. Ammonia (NH3) is used as refrigerant to maintain evaporation temperature 0oC. Considering evaporation and condensation process in Heat exchanger-1 and Heat exchanger-2, o Mass flow rate of NH3 ( mN ) = 2.8 kg/sec,
o Mass flow rate of Propane ( mP )=8.4 kg/sec
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o Mass flow rate of LNG ( mP )=9.1 kg/sec
5.1
Design of Heat exchanger
In Heat exchanger-I LNG gets evaporated at 115 K and Propane is first desuperheated from 280 K to 230 K, and then Propane condenses at 230 K. For, simplification in design, we just consider boiling of LNG and condensation of Propane and neglect desuperheating and sub cooling of propane which will be taken care by additional size of Heat Exchanger. Considering vertical Shell-n-Tube heat-exchanger where Propane condenses inside the tube and LNG Boils in shell. Heat transfer co-efficient of LNG is obtained by considering pool film boiling. Convective effect of Heat transfer coefficient for such cases is found by Bromleys equation. 1 4 hb D (1) N 0.62(Ra Ja ) u b G K g G L G D 3 PrG Where, Reyleighs number Rab (2) ( G )2 C (T TSAT ) Jakob number JaG G W (3) (hfg )e Radition effect of heat transfer coefficient can be found by
2 hR e Tw3 1 Tsat Tw 1 Tsat Tw
(4)
Hence the net heat transfer coefficient can be given by
ho hb 0.75hR
(5)
Heat transfer co-efficient for Propane is find out by considering Film condensation inside the tube. Nusselt has given the correlation for the condensation heat transfer coefficient for condensation over a vertical surface.
Nu hc L k L 0.9428(Raco JaL )1 4
(6)
g L L G L3 PrL
Where, Rayleigh number for Condensation Raco Jakob number

JaL CL TSAT TW
(7)
(8)
fg e
With help of above calculation we can find out the overall heat transfer co-efficienct. Following will be the result after applying NTU approach for Heat-exchanger-1. 1. 2. 3. Boiling heat transfer co-efficient: ho 102.91 / m 2 K W Condensation heat transfer co-efficient: hc 1486.35W / m 2 K Overall heat transfer co-efficient: Uo 91.35W / m 2 K Effective ness of heat-exchanger 0.75 No of Transfer Units (NTU) = 1.3863 2 Total heat transfer area A=284.1m No of pipes = 1000 (single pass) Pipe size = 25 mm Nominal size (Schedule 40) Length of each pipe = 2.75 m Shell diameter =2.25 m 119
4.
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
11. Shell length = 3.5 m In similar manner design of heat-exchanger-2 can be given where heat transfer coefficient of Propane can be found by considering pool film boiling process and heat transfer co-efficient of Ammonia can be found by considering film condensation process [5-8]. 5.2 Design of Transfer line of LNG and Propane:
Transfer line is required to transfer LNG from storage tank to Heat exchanger-1. Considering 50 mm PUF insulated transfer line to avoid condensation out side the transfer line and following the standard design procedure following result achieved. 1. Material: SS-304 2. Insulation material (PUF): 0.02163 W/mK 3. Pipe size: 150 mm nominal (schedule 5) 4. Jacket size: 300 mm nominal (schedule 5) 5. Total weight of pipe: 600 N 6. Stress generated: 50MPA (Allowable stress of SS 304 =94.8 7. No inner line support would be required. In the similar manner transfer line for propane can be designed [9]. 5.3 Design of other accessories for system
The system contains accessories like Pump for LNG and Propane, Compressor for Ammonia, Variety of valves and controls. Pump and compressor should be selected considering required flow rate and pressure, which is the sum of total pressure drop across the heat exchangers and transfer line and pressure to be maintained in the line or pressure ratio. Valves are selected as per the standard practice [9]. 6. Acknowledgement This work was carried out under the guidance of Prof. B.V.Dave, Department of Mechanical Engg. at L.D. College of Engg., Gujarat University, Ahmedabad References [1] ASHRAE-1990 Refrigeration Hand Book Using the Cold LNG, pp 38.9, 1990. [2] Sharma, S.C. and Francis Cazalet. First LNG in India : Dahej a successful challenge and a new era for Indian gas market [3] Yang, C.C. and Zupeng Hung. Lower Emission LNG Vaporization. LNG Journal, NovemberDecember, 2004, 24-26, [4] Eisentrout, B, Wintercorn S and Weber B. Study focuses on Six LNG regasification systems, July-August, 2006. LNG Journal, 21-22. [5] Barron, R.F. Cryoginic Heat Transfer, Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, 1999. [6] Desai, P.S. Refrigeration and Airconditioning, Khanna Publishers, 2004. [7] Yadav, R. Heat and Mass transfer, Central Publishing House, 2000. [8] National institute of Standards and Technology, www.webbook.nist.gov.in, Properties for Propane [9] Barron, R.F. Cryogenic Systems, second edition, Oxford University press,1985.
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Coast Down Time Analysis Used as a Condition Monitoring Parameter to Experimentally Assess the Effect of Misalignment for Forward Curved Centrifugal Blower
G.R. Rameshkumar , B.V.A Rao , K. P. Ramachandran
1,3 2 1* 2 3
Caledonian College of Engineering, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman Vellore Institute of Technology University, Vellore 632014, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: grrameshkumar@yahoo.com)
Shaft misalignment in rotating machinery is one of the major concerns. When the power supply to any rotating system is cut-off, the system begins to lose the momentum gained during sustained operation and finally comes to rest. The exact time period between the power cutoff time and the time at which the rotor stops is called Coast Down Time. In this paper an experimental study was conducted to investigate the effect of angular misalignment in forward curved centrifugal blower test rig. Tests were conducted for various level of angular misalignment at different shaft cutoff speeds. The results show that the coast down time decreases with increase in misalignment. At higher speed and at higher level of misalignment, the impact on percentage reduction in CDT is very high (23%) and there is a specific correlation established between the percentage reduction, cutoff speeds and the level of introduced misalignment. The vibration signatures acquired at different cutoff speeds and the various level of angular misalignment. The 2X and 3X vibration amplitude components increase as the misalignment and shaft rotational speed increases, thereby establishing the fact that the CDT analysis can be used as one of the diagnostic condition monitoring parameter for rotating machinery. 1. Introduction
Increased machine availability, reduction in unscheduled down time and minimum maintenance cost can be achieved by adapting condition monitoring. Shaft misalignment is one of the major concerns in rotating machinery. Misaligned shaft causes premature wear or even catastrophic failure of components in the machinery. Shaft misalignment occurs when the centerlines of rotation of two are more machinery shafts are not in line with each other. Two types of misalignments: parallel misalignment occurs when the shaft centerlines of the two machines are parallel, but offset to each other and angular misalignment occurs when the shaft centerlines are not parallel, but inclined to each other [1]. It is practically very difficult to achieve perfect alignment of the driving and driven shafts. Vibration signatures are widely used as a useful tool for studying progressing machine malfunctions, and also form the baseline signature for further comparative monitoring to detect mechanical faults [2]. When the power supply to any rotating system is cut-off, the system begins to lose the momentum gained during sustained operation and finally comes to rest. The behaviour of the system during this period is known as the coast down phenomenon (CDP). The exact time period between the power cutoff time and the time at which the rotor stops is called Coast Down Time [3]. The CDP is inherent of a system and the CDT depends on inertia forces of the system components, tribological behaviour and environmental effects such as fluid drag. Ramachandran et al. [4] conducted experiments to approach the misalignment using vibration, orbit and CDT phenomenon and they found that improper alignment leads to extensive vibration and noise and the increase in misalignment reduces the CDT. Santhanakrishnan et aI. [5] used CDP to investigate experimentally the influence of misalignment on CDT in the case of flexible rotors in hydrodynamic journal bearings and found that the deceleration speed versus CDT resembles the Stribeck friction curve [6]. In particular, the literature on the CDT analysis for considering the effect of misalignment in rotating machinery is hardly found and is to be given due consideration. CDT analysis is a
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powerful parameter for studying the significant machine health particularly when the rotor systems are supported with bearings. It can be used as a consistent guide to assess the condition of the system. However, it has not received much attention by researchers. CDT, together with the vibration analysis, could be used as a powerful diagnostic tool for condition monitoring. All the above referred investigators conducted extensive experimental investigation on De Laval (Jeffcott) rotor system supported between two bearings. However, an industrial environment to assess the CDT as a condition monitoring parameter is not found. Centrifugal Blowers are one of the examples of rotating machineries, and are widely used for industrial applications due to their compactness and performance. In this paper an attempt is made to investigate the use of CDT analysis as one of the condition monitoring parameter on a forward curved centrifugal blower to assess the effect of misalignment and for understanding the mechanical behaviour of system. Further, CDT analysis is compared with vibration signature analysis for identifying the level of misalignment. 2. Experimental Test Rig and Procedure
The Figure 1 shows the photographic view of centrifugal blower experimental test rig setup which is used for this investigation. A forward curved (FC) centrifugal blower is mounted on shaft diameter of 20 mm at the centre position between two anti friction bearing. The shaft is simply supported between two Z type SKF antifriction ball bearings. An electromagnetic coupling is used to connect blower shaft to a variable speed DC motor shaft. Motor side shaft is supported by one each Z type and P Block self aligning bearing. Two inductive proximity sensors are used to measure the speeds of blower and motor. The visual basic based application software developed along with instrumentation is used to control the operation of experimental test rig and to record motor, blower speeds and coast down time with an accuracy of 0.06 seconds (60 milliseconds). LabVIEW7 application software developed for FFT analyzer is used to acquire vibration signals data via 4 channel sensor input module Data Acquisition Device. Three piezoelectric accelerometers (Model 600A12, 18 kHz) were used to acquire vibrations signals in vertical, horizontal and axial directions. Angular misalignment between blower shaft and motor shaft was introduced by adjusting gap between the steel plate and main support frame by adjusting the screws in one direction and inserting shims between the gap, and the corresponding inclined misaligned angle was calculated. Blower Coupling Motor Bearing Housings
Shaft Steel Frame
Steel Plate Figure 1. Centrifugal Blower Experimental Test Rig The main objective of this study is to emphasize the use of CDT analysis to detect and analyze the effect of misalignment on centrifugal blower rotating machinery. The baseline coast down time for each test run and vibration signatures spectrum along vertical, horizontal and axial directions at blower end shaft bearing housing under normal operating conditions are recorded during the test run. The experimental tests at different cutoff blower speeds i.e., 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm respectively have been carried out to record coast down 0 0 0 time. Three level of angular misalignment 0.03 (AMS1), 0.05 (AMS2), and 0.08 (AMS3),
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respectively have been introduced between blower and motor shafts at blower shaft end for each test to study the misalignment effect. Vibration data was acquired at both blower and motor end shaft bearing support housings in vertical, horizontal and axial directions. The sampling frequency used for data acquisition was 16 kHz. 3. Results and Discussions
The profile of the CDT curves, the speed in rpm versus CDT in milliseconds for 0 0 0 aligned condition and intentionally introduced 0.03 , 0.05 and 0.08 of angular misalignment between the blower shaft and motor shaft for cutoff speeds of 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 rpm respectively are shown in Figures 2. The typical CDT curve is characterized by three zones, at the beginning of the coast down a small convex shape, at the middle of the coast down as concave and at the end of the coast down a small convex shape. The shape of the CDT profile curve is resembles the Stribeck frictional curve and follows the pattern characterized by the Raimondi-Boyd curve. Since the blower shaft is completely free from driving shaft during coast down period, as predicted, blower shaft takes longer time to dissipate the acquired energy during sustainable operation at higher running speeds, consequently higher CDT obtained. It is observed that higher energy dissipation takes place during middle of the coast down. It was found that as misalignment increases, the CDT decreases, which is due to the increased power loss and increased torque in the bearings.
1000 Aligned 900 800 AMS1 AMS2 AMS3 1500 Aligned AMS1 AMS2 AMS3
Blower Speed RPM
Blower Speed RPM
700 600 500 400 300 200 100
1000
500
a
0 0 2000 Aligned 1800 1600 AMS1 AMS2 AMS3 2000 500 1000 1500 2500 0 0
b
500 1000 1500 2000
CDT milliseconds
CDT milliseconds
Aligned AMS1 AMS2 AMS3
Blower Speed RPM
1200 1000 800 600 400 200
Blower Speed RPM
1400
1500
1000
500
c
0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 0
d
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
CDT milliseconds
CDT milliseconds
Figure 2. CDT profile curves for a) 1000 RPM b) 1500 RPM c) 2000 RPM d) 2500 RPM The percentage reduction in CDT was calculated for all obtained CDT values for various levels of misalignments with the corresponding blower rotational speeds. It is noticed that the percentage reduction in CDT increases as angular misalignment increases. At higher
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levels of misalignment with higher speed, the percentage reduction is high, and from this it is found that there is a specific correlation between the reduction percentage in CDT and the level of angular misalignment. It is also noted that the CDT and corresponding reduction percentage in CDT has an effect on cutoff speed and found to be changing in relation with the cutoff speed.
3 Aligned 2
2X
0 0 3 AMS1 2 2X 1
Acceleration m/sec 2
50
100
150
200
250
300
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3X
0 3
50
100
150
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250 AMS2
300
2X 3X
1X
0 3
50 2X
100
150
200
250 AMS3
300
3X
1X
50
100
150 Frequency Hz
200
250
300
Figure 3. Vibration spectrums for aligned and different level of angular misalignment The vibration spectrums of frequency domain for the blower shaft running speed of 2500 rpm (41.667 Hz) for various levels of angular misalignment are presented in Figure 3 for discussion. The top figure shows the zoomed spectrum for aligned condition, the figures followed below show the frequency spectrums in the order of introduced angular misalignment. Small amount of residual imbalance and misalignment are noticed in the aligned condition, the amplitude level at 1X is 0.2122, at 2X is 0.3315 and at 3X is 0.1855 2 m/sec are well within the acceptable tolerance limits. The 2X (83.33 Hz) and 3X (125Hz) running speed vibration amplitude components increases as angular misalignment increases and it is observed that the 2X component is the predominant frequency in the spectrum in all the cases. This clearly indicates the presence of misalignment and the amplitude increases as the level of angular misalignment increases and also vibration amplitude is a function of operating running speed. Increase in 1X amplitude level is also observed, which is because of centrifugal force effect due to residual unbalance. Also, due to misalignment, more strain
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is induced on the coupling, which causes increased values of vibration amplitude at 2X and 3X shaft running speed. For increased misalignment, vibration at multiple harmonics are evidence due to mechanical behavior of the system, and also due to the strain induced in the shaft and because of interaction between the impeller blades and the air drag force. 4. Conclusions
In the present experimental investigation the effect of angular misalignment was studied for different levels of angular misalignment introduced. The baseline CDTs were recorded for different running speeds under normal operating conditions, and are then used as reference for analysis. The CDT decreases as angular misalignment increases, the percentage reductions in CDT, which increases with increase in misalignment and rotational speeds. There is a specific correlation between the reduction percentage in CDT and the level of angular misalignment with rotational speed. This experimental investigation technique provides a simple method of evaluating the effect of angular misalignment on forward curved centrifugal blower using coast down time analysis and shown great potential to use this technique to predict malfunction. The 2X and 3X vibration amplitude components are gradually increases with increase in angular misalignment and shaft rotational speed. During the course of time, by frequent monitoring of the rotating system and recording the CDT values for selected operating speeds and the corresponding percent reductions in CDT is done. If any variations in the baseline CDT and the obtained CDT values and the corresponding increase in CDT reduction percentage, one can detect, predict and assess the severity of malfunction (misalignment). The traditional vibration analysis is performed along with CDT analysis to identify the particular mechanical malfunction, find the root cause and further corrective action can be initiated to avoid serious damage and machinery failure. Hence, CDT analysis can be used as an effective diagnostic parameter for machine health monitoring. Acknowledgement The author thankfully acknowledges the generous and continuous support of the Management, Principal and Dean of the college for this research work. References [1] John, P. Shaft Alignment Handbook. CRS Press, Taylor & Francis, New York, 2007. [2] Ramachandran, K.P. Vibration signature analysis for machine health monitoring and fault diagnosis. Caledonian Journal of Engineering, 2004, 26-39. [3] Daugherty, T.L. and Craig, R.J. Coast down Time as a Mechanical Condition Indicator for Vertical Axis Motors with Grease-Lubricated Ball Bearings. American Society of Lubrication Engineers Transactions, 1977, 349-357. [4] Ramachandran, K.P. Mahadevappa, M. Ravishankar, M.K. and Ramakrishna, A. An approach to machine misalignment studies using vibration, orbit and coast down phenomena. Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Roorkee, 1997, Roorke. [5] Santhanakrishnan, G. Prabhu, B.S. and Rao, B.V.A. An experimental investigation of tribological effects on coast down phenomenon in horizontal machinery. Journal of wear, 1983, 25-31. [6] Joseph S Shighley. And Charies R Mischke. Hand book of Machine design. McGraw Hill, 1976.
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Design, Instrumentation and Automation of Pelton Turbine Model (5 kw)

G. G. Waghmare K. K. Wagh Institute of Engg Education and Research, Nasik, Maharashtra, India e-mail: waghmaregaju@yahoo.com This paper presents design of different components such as runner and nozzle of the turbine as well as to automate load variations and adjustment of the spear needle to satisfy the variable demand. Electronic circuits such as Pump motor circuit, Flow adjustment Motor circuit, Flow, Speed and Pressure measurement circuits and Load manager circuit are designed to control the speed of the turbine and measure digitally the important parameters through different sensors. Tested the various parameters such as load on the turbine, speed of the turbine with varying load and adjusted the spear needle to satisfy the variable demand by activating D.C. motor in desired direction using H-bridge ckt. The load on the turbine is applied by the way of switching ON/OFF the eight bulbs. Depending on the rating of speed, control the spear rod movement driven by geared D.C. motor. This control being the most vital in the paper as the turbine speed depends on the amount of water impinging on the buckets. Speed pelt is a software, which has been developed in order to support the basic functioning of the paper 1. Introduction
Previously Real Time Technology Pvt Ltd Thane, which is associated with design and fabrication of bench model of Pelton Turbine for 1 KW, as a students demonstration unit. The speed control of their turbine is done manually by spear needle movement. This paper presents complete automation of Pelton Turbine model for 5 KW. It includes design of different components such as runner and nozzle of the turbine as well as automated load variations and adjustment of the spear needle to satisfy the variable demand. Several electronic circuits are designed to control the speed of the turbine and measure digitally the important parameters through different sensors. Speed-Pelt is software, which has been developed in order to support the basic functioning of the paper. 2. Design OF Components of Pelton Turbine [1]
2.1 Turbine Power - Pa
. Q . H 75
For 5 KW = 6.7 HP & Q = 0.01256 m3/s H = 40 m
2.2 Nozzle and Jet Diameters Q = /4 . d1 .v1 v 1= Kv1 2gH

2
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Value of Kv1 varies from 0.98 to 0.99. v1 = 27.45 m/s. d1 = 0.0241 m. Q = a0 .v0 Where v0 = Kv0 . 2gH The experimental value of Kv0 is 0.81 to 0.83 v0 = 22.97 m/s a0 = 0.000546 m2 d0 = 0.0263 m. Ns = N. Pt / H5/4 Considering N=700 rpm; Ns = 18 2.3 Mean Diameter of the Pelton Runner u1 = Kv1. 2gH Ku1. 2gH = ( .D1. N)/60 Taking an average value for Ku1 =0.45 D1= 0.348 m 2.4 Jet Ratio of a Pelton Turbine Jet Ratio = Mean Diameter of runner /Least diameter of jet m =14.47 2.5 Bucket Dimensions Length L = 2.3 to 2.8 times d1 L = 0.0602 m Width B = 2.8 to 3.2 times d1 B = 0.0723 m Depth T = 0.6 to 0.9 times d1 T = 0.0192 m 2.6 Minimum Number of Buckets (z) = 2 /z radians. According to Dr. Taygun, z=0.5 m + 15; z 23; 3. Electronic circuits: an Insight
3.1 Pump Motor Circuit
Figure 3.1.1 Pump ON/OFF ckt
Figure 3.1.2 Bistable Multivibrator ckt
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The test rig is completely automated; even the pump on-off operation is carried through a computer. This circuit works in two modes ON mode and OFF mode. During the ON mode a momentary high pulse is given to the bistable multivibrator circuit, which brings the pump to ON condition. When the same momentary high pulse is given to bistable multivibrator circuit the pump is turned off [5]. 3.2 DC Motor Reversing Circuit Relays control forward, stop and reverse action, and the motor cannot be switched from forward to reverse unless the stop switch is pressed first[4].
Figure 3.2.1: DC Motor reversing circuit. 3.3 Flow Adjustment Motor Circuit Adjustment of flow of water impinging on the bucket is done by two valves viz. main valve and spear rod nozzle arrangement, driven by geared D.C. motor. Four pulses are used to govern the activation of motors in the desired direction. These pulses are received by the transistors, through four digital output channels on the A/D card. These transistors are required for activating the relay.
DISPLAY LPM
Figure 3.3.1 H-Bridge Ckt 3.4
Figure3.4.1 Flow Measurement Ckt
Flow Measurement Circuit Inside the housing is an infra-red light emitting diode. The LED is directed at the receiver, which has a built-in voltage regulator, photo diode, amplifier, Schmitt trigger and output stage. The flow measurement circuit is controlled by IC 7217. 3.5 Speed and Pressure Measurement Circuit The pressure measurement is done by the pressure sensor SPX100, which has four strain gauges connected in a Wheatstone network. The output voltage is proportional to the pressure to be read..
Pressure Read-out
Figure 3.5.1 Speed and Pressure Measurement ckt
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3.6
Load Manager Circuit The load Manager Circuit controls the loading onto the turbine by the way of switching on/off eight bulbs. The load manager circuit operates using five digital pulses received from the digital output channel on the A/D card. Demultiplexer which decodes the coded input received from the A/D card and accesses to the address given to its location. The IC 4515 contains eight OR gates. Each of the bulbs is operated by relays RLY1-RLY8 driven by transistors T1-T8.
Figure 3.6.1 Load Manager Ckt 4. Speed-Pelt - Software for Turbine Operation
The software has been written in C++ under DOS mode, but it have most of the liberties of a Windows based application. Test Window Eight bulbs representing those on the Printed Circuit Board. Flow tank cum 3D bar graph showing the current flow meter. Power meter showing the present output power Pressure Dial showing the pressure reading at the nozzle inlet.
Figurre 4.1: Test Window 5. Testing of Circuits
Tested the parameters such as load on the Turbine, speed of turbine with varying load and adjusted the spear needle to satisfy the variable demands by activating the DC motor in desired direction. The load on the turbine is applied by the way of switching ON/OFF the eight bulbs. Each of the bulbs is operated by relays RLY1-RLY8 driven by the transistors. When feed input as a load1 in software then 5 bit pulses will send through the interfacing card to activate relay1 and hence bulb1
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Figure 5 will glow. Similarly after feeding input as load2 bulb2 will glow along with bulb1 and so on. At the same time we will be testing the speed of the pelton turbine with the help of speed sensor and it will be displayed on the monitor. Depending upon the rating of the speed we control the sphere rod movement driven by geared DC motor operated by +/-15 volt DC supply. Four pulses are used to govern the activation of motor in the desired direction. These pulses are received by the four transistors through four digital output channels on the A/D card, which are placed in H-bridge DC motor reversing circuit[4, 6]. 6. Conclusions
For automation of a pelton turbine model, several electronic circuits are designed, developed and assembled. These circuits are very helpful to automate the load variations and adjustment of the spear needle to satisfy the variable demand. The Speed-Pelt software used in order to support the basic functioning of the paper. Successfully tested the assembling of the basic electronic circuits to completely automate the control of speed of the pelton turbine model by controlling the spear needle of the Pelton Turbine as per variable load demand. References [1] Dr. Jagdish Lal, Hydraulic Machines Including Fluidics- Metropolitan Book Co. Private Ltd. New Delhi-02. [2] K.R.Arora, Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machine- Std Publishers Distributors, Delhi-06, pp-1069 to 1086. [3] S. K. Agrawal, Fluid Mechanics and Machinery- Tata McGraw Hill Publisher, pp-450 to 463. [4] C.S. Rangan, G.R. Sarma and V.S.V.Mani, Instrumentation Devices and System-second edition Tata McGraw Hill publishing company Ltd., New Delhi, pp 913-1089, and 1521-1541. [5] A.K. Sawhney, A course in electrical and electronics measurement and instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai and sons publishing, Delhi, Jalandhar, pp 351-381, 445-479. [6] S Salivahannan, N Suresh Kumar, A Vallavaraj, Electronic Devices and Circuit, Tata McGraw Hill, pp- 443- 466. [7] Robertson, J.A. and Crowe, Pelton-Turbine experiment, C.T., 1993, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th edition.
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Performance Prediction of EGR Distribution System for C. I. Engine using Computational Fluid Dynamics
Ganesh P. Bhoj *, B. S. Gawali , M. V. Kulkarni
1 2 1 1 2
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli 416415, Maharashtra, India Mahindra Engineering Services Ltd Pune 411057, Maharashtra, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: bhojganesh@gmail.com)
Diesel engines are coming up as a key source of transportation globally in heavy duty and light duty segment. Increase in diesel engine utilization leads to increase in emissions of Nitrogen Oxides (Nox). In order to control the same, stringent emission norms has been adopted for diesel engines worldwide. The technique used to control NOx emission is Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR). EGR works on the principle of controlled mixture dilution which leads to lesser combustion temperature which ultimately results in reduction of NOx. Computational Fluid dynamics (CFD) has proven its utility as analysis tool. To reduce testing iteration time and cost, lot of R&D work is rely on CFD. The present paper examines the analysis of two different systems viz. conventional and linked single EGR system. The flow field model representing intake manifold with EGR passage is modeled by GAMBIT 2.3.16 and analyzed using CFD software FLUENT 6.3.26 at steady state. The geometrical parameters like EGR position, linked hole angle and throttle valve position are analyzed for 15 and 30 percent EGR rate. Results obtained from parametric study suggest that linked single EGR system generally yield improved mixing conditions over the conventional case and hence provides better temperature and EGR distribution. 1. Introduction
Diesel engines work on lean mix hence contains excess air to a low proportion of diesel fuel. This results in high temperatures in the combustion chamber that predominates formation of NOx [1]. By mixing some of the exhaust gases into the fresh air that the air intake circuit supplies to the engine, EGR reduces NOx formation because EGR slows down the combustion of the mixture and absorbs some of the heat. Moreover, it reduces the concentration of oxygen in the mixture and these two actions converge to reduce the formation of NOx. Ideally, EGR should be evenly distributed across all engine cylinders to minimize NOx emissions. Poor cylinder to cylinder distribution of EGR can lead to serious performance and emission problems. Uniform cylinder to cylinder distribution of EGR provides uniform combustion performance and lower NOx emissions [2]. Experimental approach is very costly and time consuming hence Computational Fluid Dynamics approach is the best alternative for analyzing the flow within the intake manifold, prediction of EGR distribution among cylinder runners, and to suggest the best geometrical configuration that gives uniform EGR distribution among cylinder runners in multicylinder engines. In the present study, the performance of two different EGR systems, viz. conventional and linked single EGR system are investigated numerically for the geometrical and flow field parameters depicted in Table 1. 2. Process methodology
The flow field model representing intake manifold with EGR passage is shown in Figure 1. The model indicates inlet of fresh air, inlet of EGR gases and outlet of mixture to four cylinder runners. The steps involved in the analysis are preparing the 3-D model, dividing the model into small elements called meshing, application of physical boundary conditions, selecting the proper solver and analyzing the results.
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Table 1. Analysis plan for geometrical and flow field parameters Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. System analyzed EGR Feeding/Lead hole angle Central Feed Top Feed Bottom Feed Central Feed Top Feed Bottom Feed 30-30-180 60-60-180 90-90-180 30-30-180 60-60-180 90-90-180 EGR Rate Throttle Position 0 Degree
15 and 30%
Conventional EGR System
15 and 30%
35 Degree
15 and 30%
0 Degree
Linked Single EGR System
15 and 30%
35 Degree
Figure 1. Flow field model 3. Simulated system
The analysis is based on the feeding of EGR gases into the inlet manifold to predict the EGR distribution in intake manifold runners. Two geometrical arrangements are analyzed viz. conventional EGR system and Linked Single EGR system. Each system is analyzed for EGR feeding or lead hole angle, EGR rate and throttle position as depicted in Table 1. In the conventional EGR system EGR gases are fed into the intake manifold directly from side as shown in Figure 2(a). In the linked single EGR system EGR gases are fed through three linked holes that envelops the intake pipe as shown in Figure 2(b) which improves the mixing between air and EGR gases. The position of third hole is kept exactly opposite to or 180 degree apart from the EGR inlet as shown in Figure 2(b). These systems are analyzed using the proper methodology as discussed in section 2.
Figure 2(a)
Figure 2(b)
Figure 2. Schematic of conventional and linked single EGR systems
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3.1
Modeling and meshing
As an initial step for the numerical analysis, a 3-D geometrical model is created. The conventional and linked single EGR system are modeled and meshed by using GAMBIT. For both the cases tetrahedral type of elements are used with TGrid scheme as shown in Figure 3. The engine specifications used are bore 94 mm, stroke 94 mm, engine displacement 2609 cc, and layout is four cylinder inline [5].
Figure 3. Meshing linked single (30-30 Lead hole angle) EGR system 3.2 Application of boundary conditions and solver
Specifying the boundary and initial conditions is an important step in CFD. The boundary conditions are assigned at inlet of intake manifold and inlet of EGR gas introduction port as mass flow inlet, at four outlets of the intake manifold runners as pressure 0 0 outlet. Intake air velocity 35 m/s, intake air and EGR temperatures are 27 C and 127 C respectively. Simulation is done with steady state. The pressure based solver is used for the analysis of the EGR distribution prediction. The standard k- model is used to model the turbulence. EGR rate of 15 and 30% are used for all parametric studies. 3.3 Results and discussion
Figure 4 shows the contours EGR mass fraction distribution for central feed conventional EGR system at 15 and 30 % EGR rate for 0 degree throttle angle in Figure 4 (a) & (b) respectively. It is seen from Figure 4 (a) that, cylinder runner 1 is getting lower EGR mass fraction than rest of cylinder runners with variance 3%, also in Figure 4 (b), cylinder runner 2 is getting lower EGR mass fraction than rest of the cylinder runners with variance 6%. It is seen that there is larger variance at 30% than 15% EGR rate applied. Similar analysis is performed for all the configurations (throttle angle, EGR position) analyzed under conventional EGR system depicted in analysis plan in Table 1 and the results are plotted in Figure 5. It reveals that not a single configuration shows smallest temperature and EGR variance for 15 and 30% EGR rates. So improved type of EGR entry is required for better air-EGR mixing.
Figure 4. (a) Analysis at 15% EGR rate applied (b) Analysis at 30% EGR rate applied EGR distribution for central feed, 0 degree throttle angle
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Figure 5. Temperature and EGR Variance for 0 and 35 throttle angle at 15 and 30% EGR Rate Figure 6 shows the contours of EGR mass fraction at cross section of EGR inlet EGR mass fraction contour plot for the best combination obtained which is for 90-90-180 configuration. In the linked single EGR system, the three holes provide homogeneous mixing between the EGR gases and air as shown in Figure 6 (a), which in turn provides uniform distribution into the four cylinder runners as shown in Figure 6 (b) with EGR variance of only 1% among cylinder runners. Similar analysis is performed for all the configurations (Lead hole angle, throttle angle) under linked single EGR system as depicted in table 1 and the results are plotted in Figure 7.
(a) (b) Figure 6. Contours of EGR for 90 degree lead angle, 0 degree throttle position at 15% EGR rate
Figure 7. Temperature and EGR variance for linked single EGR system From Figure 7, it is clear that the case with 90 degree lead hole angle shows minimum EGR and Temperature variance for 15 and 30% EGR rates. Hence the case with 90-90 lead
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hole angle dictates better distribution with temperature and EGR variance among cylinder runners are within 2%. 4. Validation
The validation is done against the test data from the paper presented by J. N. Kim et al [1]. The specifications and boundary conditions reported in the research paper are, bore 75.5 mm, stroke 83.5 mm, throttle angle 75 degrees, diameter of intake pipe 48 mm, EGR rate applied 12%. The methodology discussed in section 3 is applied for validation of CFD results obtained with FLUENT with results reported in the paper. The results reported in the paper are basically numerical results obtained from commercial code STAR-CD. The CFD and test results from paper are compared in Table 2. Table 2. Comparison of Results CASE 30-30 Lead Angle CFD Test 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.133 0.013 9% 40-40 Lead Angle CFD Test 0.108 0.11 0.112 0.12 0.126 0.11 0.131 0.133 -0.016 -12% 50-50 Lead Angle CFD Test 0.109 0.11 0.1056 0.12 0.1281 0.11 0.13771 0.1331 -0.0181 -12% 60-60 Lead Angle CFD Test 0.1120 0.11 0.1144 0.12 0.1258 0.11 0.12843 0.1318 -0.0158 -14% 90-90 Lead Angle CFD Test 0.116 0.10 0.119 0.12 0.117 0.12 0.1179 0.1319 -0.016 -12%
Cyl 1 Cyl 2 Cyl 3 Cyl 4 Max. Variation % Variation 5.
Conclusions
1. Analysis methodology for EGR distribution system is developed. 2. The proposed methodology is validated with numerical data reported by J. N. Kim et al. 3. Linked Single EGR system results in better EGR and temperature distribution among the cylinder runners by analyzing linked hole locations or angles. The linked single EGR system generally yield improved mixing conditions over the conventional case. 4. Analysis for proposed system is performed for predicting the temperature and EGR distribution among the cylinder runners and observed the variance within 2%. References [1] Heywood, John B., Internal Combustion engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989. [2] Agrawal, A.K., Singh, S.K. Effect of EGR on the exhaust gas temperature and exhaust opacity in compression ignition engines. Sadhana 29(3), 2004, 275-284. [3] Kim, J. N and Kim, H. Y. Numerical Studies on the Mixing Characteristics of Exhaust Gas Recirculation Gases with Air, and their Dependence on System geometries in Four Cylinder Engine Applications. 223, JAUTO1040, IMechE 2009. [4] Ganesan, V. Internal Combustion Engines, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2003. [5] Mahindra and Mahindra Service Manual, version 2.1, 2005.
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Influence Of Nozzle Number On The Performance Of Vortex Tube

Jaykumar D.Golhar1*, A.N.Pawar2, R.B.Tirpude3
2
Government Polytechnic Sakoli - 441802 , Maharashtra , India. Government Polytechnic Yavatmal 445001 , Maharashtra, India 3 Government Polytechnic Ahmadnagar , Maharashtra, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: jaykumar_golhar@rediffmail.com)
The phenomenon of temperature distribution in a confined steady rotating gas flows is called Ranque-Hilsch effect. The vortex tube is a simple mechanical device without moving parts operating as a refrigerating machine. The simple counter-flow vortex tube consists of a long hollow cylinder with tangential nozzle at one end for injecting compressed air. Compressed air supplied to the vortex tube is separated into low pressure hot and cold air from its two ends. The exact mechanism of this temperature separation is not known today. Most of the investigators have studied the various operating characteristics of vortex tube based on the cold air fraction. Vortex tubes of different geometrical configurations give optimum performance at different cold fractions. The performances of energy separation have been experimentally studied in vortex tubes with compressed air as working medium. This paper presents experimental results of the energy separation in vortex tubes for different nozzle numbers keeping all other geometrical parameters constant. It is experimentally evidenced that the nozzle numbers greatly influence the separation performance and cooling efficiency. The most important point revealed in this paper is that there is an optimum nozzle number that gives the best performance of vortex tube. 1. Introduction
A vortex refrigerator is a device with no moving parts (specifically, a tube or pipe) that will convert an incoming compressed fluid stream (such as air) of homogeneous temperature into two streams of different temperature, one warmer than the inlet and one cooler. By injecting compressed air at room temperature circumferentially into a tube at high velocity, a vortex tube can produce cold air and hot air streams. Temperature and airflow rates are controllable by adjusting valve on hot end of the tube. The inlet air is injected circumferentially at one end of the tube and part of the air is removed at the opposite end. As the flow moves toward the warm end, some of the air expands to the central core and exits at the cold end. Ranque, a metallurgist, first discovered this phenomenon of energy separation in 1931, when he was studying process in a dust separation cyclone. Later, Hilsch a German physicist performed the detailed examination of the vortex effect and improved the design of vortex tube. Intensive experimental and analytical studies of vortex tube began since then and continue even today. Gulyave A.I. [1], Borisenko et al [2], Raiski et al [3], Takahama et al [4], Parulekar B.B. [5}, Lay J.E. [6], Webster D.S.[7], Y.Soni & W.J. Thomson [8] have done experimental studies on the vortex tube. Alhborn et al [9] has postulated a theory of temperature separation based on heat pump mechanism enabled by secondary circulation flow in vortex tube. M.H. Saidi and M.S.Valipour [10] performed experimental modelling of the vortex tube considering geometrical and thermo-physical parameters. They studied the effects of the diameter of the cold flow line, the humidity of the air at the entrance of the vortex tube and
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the length of the vortex tube on the performance of the RHVTs, by using a vortex tube with D = 18mm and L = 55.5 x D =1000 mm. They noted that L/D should be between 20 < L/D < 55.5 in RHVTs. Gulyaev [1] recommends a minimum length of 13 times more than that of the diameter. Soni and Thompson [11] deduced an L/D greater than 45 for efficient working. Singh P.K and et al [11] states that the effect of nozzle design is more important than the cold orifice design in getting higher temperature drops. Balmer [12] has demonstrated that the heat separation, which occurs inside the RanqueHilsch a vortex tube is not limited to compressible gases and can be applied for noncompressible fluids as well. Dincer et al. [13] investigated the effect of control valve tip angle on performance of RanqueHilsch vortex tube using different inlet pressures. Behera et al. [14] showed from solutions obtained using computational fluid dynamics that this secondary flow could be related to the cold end cross-sectional area. It was concluded that a secondary flow would occur when the cold end cross-sectional area was small. However till today no exact theory has come up to explain the phenomenon satisfactorily. Thus much of the design and the development of vortex tube have been based on the empirical correlations leaving much scope for optimisation of critical parameters. This paper presents experimental results of the temperature separation in vortex tubes of different nozzle numbers keeping all other geometrical parameters constant. It also explains the effect of cold fraction on heat flux, temperature drop and energy separation efficiency for vortex tubes of different nozzle numbers. It is experimentally evidenced that the nozzle numbers greatly influence the separation performance and cooling efficiency. The most important point revealed in this paper is that there is an optimum nozzle number that gives the best performance of vortex tube. 2. Experimental Set-up
The schematic of the experimental apparatus and measuring devices which is used for the determination of the energy separation in a vortex tube is shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus and measuring devices Compressed air is passing through the heat exchanger (2) and drier (3). Pressure regulator (4) is used for controlling the pressure of inlet air. Since then it is conducted tangentially into the vortex tube (7). The compressed air expands in the vortex tube and meanwhile it is divided into cold and hot streams. The cold air leaves the central orifice near the entrance nozzle, while the hot air discharges the periphery at the far end of the tube. The control valve (8) controls the flow rate of the hot air. The mass flow rates at the hot outlets of the counter flow RanqueHilsch vortex tubes can be calculated by standard calibrated orifice meter (8) and manometer (10) fitted to hot exhausts. The inlet temperature, and the hot and cold outlet temperatures of the counter flow RanqueHilsch vortex tube have been measured o by use of a digital thermometers (6) with 0.1 C precision tolerances as shown in Fig. 2. The pressure of inlet gas is measured by pressure gauge (5). To investigate the effect of geometrical parameters on the operational characteristics of vortex tube, vortex tubes with
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four generators of different number of nozzle intakes (N = 1, 2, 3 & 4) were constructed and examined. Each one of the generators has the same constant cross-section area. In this study, a counter flow type RanqueHilsch vortex tube with tube length L = 300 mm and tube diameter D = 10 mm (L/D ratio equal to 30) was used. The experimental tests of the vortex tube were performed with the variation of the pressure of the inlet air, Pi from 1.0 bar to 2.5 bar with the increment of 0.5 bar. Before starting the experimental studies, the control valve on the hot outlet was kept in fully closed position. Then the compressed air was supplied to the vortex chamber and control valve was gradually opened up to full open position. Thus the experimental tests of the vortex tube were performed with the variation of the cold fraction of air from 0 to 1. 3. Results and discussion Figure 2 shows the effect of nozzle numbers on various parameters of vortex Tube.
Figure 2. Effect of Nozzle Numbers on Various parameters of Vortex Tube Fig. 2(a) shows the variation of cold air temperature drop with cold air fraction. First temperature drop increases and then decreases with increase of cold fraction for all nozzle numbers. For single nozzle maximum temperature drop occurs at higher cold fraction, but for
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larger nozzle numbers maximum temperature drop occurs at lower cold fraction slightly greater than 0.4. Fig. 2(b) shows the variation of temperature separation with cold air fraction. First temperature drop increases and then decreases with increase of cold fraction for all nozzle numbers. For single nozzle maximum temperature drop occurs at higher cold fraction, but for larger nozzle numbers maximum temperature drop occurs at lower cold fraction slightly less than 0.4. Fig.2(c) shows the variation of heat flux with cold air fraction. Peak value of heat flux occurs at higher cold fraction around 0.7 for all nozzle numbers. Cold fraction for maximum heat flux increases slightly with the nozzle numbers. Fig. 2(d) shows the variation of energy separation efficiency with cold air fraction. This effect is very much similar to that of cold air temperature drop. Fig. 2(e) & (f) shows that though there is variation in the performance of vortex tubes of different nozzle numbers, the maximum cold air temperature drop and maximum heat flux for vortex tube all nozzle numbers are obtained at approximately same cold fraction.
Figure 3. Effect of inlet air pressure for various Nozzle Numbers Fig. 3 shows the variation of maximum temperature drop and maximum heat flux with nozzle numbers for different inlet air pressures. For all nozzle numbers maximum temperature drop and maximum heat flux increase with increase of inlet air pressure. For all pressures maximum temperature drop and maximum heat flux increase up to nozzle number 3 and the drop. From this figure all optimum values are obtained for vortex tube with three nozzle numbers. 4. Conclusions
After the experimentation on the vortex tube with different nozzle numbers, it can be concluded that, nozzle numbers have great influence on the performance of vortex tubes. Various parameters like cold temperature drop, temperature separation, heat flux etc varies with the variation of nozzle number. But there is a unique nozzle number that gives the optimum performance. The optimum value of nozzle number is N=3. References [1] [2] Gulyaev A.I. Investigation of Conical vortex tubes. Journal of Engineering physics, 10(3), 1966, 326-336 Borisenko A.I., Safonov V.A., and Yakovlev A.I. The Effect of Geometrical Parameters on the Characteristic of a conical vortex cooling unit. Journal of Engineering physics, 15( 6), December 1968, 988-993.
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[3]
Raiskii Y.D and Tunkel L.E. Influence Of Vortex Tube Configuration And Length On The Process Of Energetic Air Separation. Journal of Engineering physics,27(6), December 1974, 1578-1581. [4] Taakahama H. and Yokosawa H. Energy separation in vortex with a divergent chamber. Transactions of ASME: Journal of Heat Transfer, 103, May 1981, 196-203 [5] Parulekar B.B. The short vortex tube. Journal of refrigeration, 4,July-August 1961, 7480 [6] Lay J.E. An experimental and analytical study of vortex flow temperature separation by superposition of spiral and axial flows part 1 & part 2. Transactions of ASME:Journal Of Heat Transfer, 81(3), August 1959, 202-222 [7] Webster D.S. An Analysis of the Hilsch Vortex Tube. Journal Of ASRE, Refrigeration Engineering, 58, February 1950, 163-171. [8] Soni Y. & Thomson W.J. Optimal design of Ranque-Hilsch tube, Transactions of ASME: Journal Of Heat Transfer, 94(2), May 1975, 316-317 [9] Ahlborn B.K.& Gordon J.M. The Vortex Tube As a Classic Thermodynamic Refrigeration Cycle, Journal of Applied Physics,l 88(6), Sept. 2000, 3645-3653 [10] Saidi M.H. and Valipour M.S. Experimental Modelling of the Vortex Tube Refrigerator. Applied Thermal Engineering 23,2003,1971-1980. [11] Singh P.K, Tathgir R.G., Gangacharyulu D., Grewal G.S., Jan 2004, An Experimental Performance Evaluation of Vortex Tube IE (I) Journal 84,Jan 2004, 149-153 [12] Balmer, R.T. Pressure-driven RanqueHilsch temperature separation in liquids. Journal of Fluids Engineering 110,1988, 161164. [13] Dincer K., Baskaya S., Uysal B.Z., Ucgul I. Experimental investigation of the performance of a RanqueHilsch vortex tube with regard to a plug located at the hot outlet. International journal of refrigeration 32,2009, 87-94 [14] Behera U., Paul P.J., Kasthurirengan S., Karunanithi R., Ram, S. N., Dinesh K., Jacob S. CFD analysis and experimental investigations towards optimizing the parameters of RanqueHilsch vortex tube. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 48,2005, 19611973.
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Experimental Investigations of Oscillating Combustion Technology and Optimization of Thermal Energy of A Diesel Fired Furnace
J.Govardhan , G.V.S.Rao
1 2 1* 2
PRRM Engineering College, Shabad-509 217, JNTUH, Hyderabad, A.P, India. PIRM Engineering College, Chevella, JNTUH, Hyderabad, A.P. 509 217, India, *E-mail:govardhan58@yahoo.co.in
A Furnace operating below optimum efficiency conditions can be improved by retrofitting in a new system. As regard to energy conservation opportunities, the furnace efficiency can be improved by reducing the heat losses. Conventional air-fuel combustion systems are modified by Oscillating Combustion Technology by introducing oscillations in the flow of fuel and many benefits have been demonstrated. A system studied and experimented for improved operation of a combustion process utilizing Oscillating Combustion Technology by installing the new fuel flow control valve Oscillating Valve on the fuel line ahead of the burner and the supply of fuel is adjusted appropriately. The oscillating valve operated by a 9 volt d.c. motor was used to oscillate the air-fuel ratio above and below the stoichiometric ratio, thereby producing alternating fuel-rich and fuel-lean zones in the flame. Oscillating combustion is a retrofit technology that involves forced oscillation of the fuel flow rate to a furnace. The load heats up faster since the heat transfer from the flame to load increases due to more luminous fuel rich zones, the increased turbulence created by the flow oscillations and break up of thermal boundary layer. Energy efficiency improvements were found in terms of increased heat transfer enhancing the furnace efficiency and its production capacity with low fuel consumption.
1.
Introduction
In the present scenario researchers focus is on energy conservation opportunities in gas, liquid-fuel-fired combustion systems, which can be designed to achieve clean and efficient combustion with enhanced performance and productivity rate by reducing the heat losses. Industrial manufacturers are to implement new technologies to increase the thermal efficiency and stringent pollution norms require development of new combustion concepts [1]. A system utilizing oscillating combustion technology by introducing an oscillating valve in the flow of fuel to the burner to achieve improved operational performance of combustion process [2]. Researchers emphasize on innovation of newer and alternate energy resources which are powerful, clean from emissions, abundant in nature and obtaining the maximum possible energy from the available energy which deals with optimization of the system or improvement of efficiency by implementation of newer technology. Oscillating combustion is a retrofit technology that involves forced oscillation of the fuel flow rate to a furnace. These oscillations create successive fuel-rich and fuel-lean zones within the furnace. The load heats up faster since the heat transfer from the flame to load increases due to more luminous fuel rich zones, the increased turbulence created by the flow oscillations and break up of thermal boundary layer [3]. Oscillating flames have a lower peak temperature and longer length than non-oscillating flames [4]. Fuel-rich zones are more luminous and longer in length with increased turbulence due to the oscillations, produce substantially low NOx emissions than firing at a constant excess air level [5].
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2.
Experimental set up
The test equipment has a small furnace with different crucibles, a blower with motor and an air- box as shown as Fig.1. Air box is connected to U tube manometer to calculate the amount of air flow in to the furnace. A gun type burner was used has an adjustment to vary the amount of fuel and air passing through the nozzle. Digital temperature indicator with thermocouples placed at different positions in the furnace used to record the temperatures at different position in the furnace. An oil drum located at approximately 2.5 m above the level of burner was equipped with a 3-way cock and a piezometric tube to measure the fuel consumption from time to time during the operation for consistent values of fuel consumption.
Figure 1 Experimental set up 2.1 Implementation of hardware
The present paper describes the implementation of hardware (Developed by the author) in the fuel flow to introduce oscillations in the fuel reaching the burner of the furnace test rig. The characteristics of combustion with and without the oscillating combustion valve at different air-fuel ratios, different loads, different amplitudes and different frequencies of oscillating valve, visual observations of various flames and emissions were observed. One of the major benefits of oscillating combustion technology is that it can be installed as a simple retrofit, requiring no burner or furnace modifications. 2.2 Material used for experimental investigations
Aluminum was used for the experimental investigations. Different loads of aluminum ( 10 kg, 15kg, 20kg ) were placed in the furnace and subjected to different air-fuel ratios ( 13:1, 14:1, 15:1, 16:1, 17:1), different amplitudes ( 100, 200 ), different frequencies ( 5Hz, 10Hz) of operation of oscillating valve. Typical improvements realized were include thermal efficiency, increased process rates and furnace productivity, visibly apparent reduced flue gas volumes and reduced pollution emissions. Several test evaluations of oscillating combustion have been completed on the crucible furnace where stocks of aluminum were experimented. 3. Performance evaluation of oscillating combustion
0
The performance characteristics of mass of the stock at 10and 20 amplitude, 5 and 10 Hz frequency of the oscillating valve for melting time, efficiency at different air fuel ratios have been evaluated.
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3.1
Relation between mass of the stock and efficiency at 10and 200amplitude
The relation between mass and efficiency has been presented in Fig. 2 & 3 for the oscillating valve with and without operation. It can be observed from Fig. 2 that the efficiency of the furnace for different masses was found to be increasing for air-fuel ratio 13:1 for all stocks of the masses at lower frequency of operation and also it was found to be greater for 20kg of mass with 13:1 air-fuel ratio at 100amplitude. This is due to the oscillations created during the operation by the oscillating valve oscillated the air-fuel ratio of 13:1 into above and below the stoichiometric ratio, producing alternatively fuel-rich and fuel-lean zones in the flame resulting in improved efficiency. It can be observed from Fig. 3 that the efficiency was clearly high for the stock of 20kg at air-fuel ratio 13:1 and 16:1 when operated at higher amplitude and lower frequency. Though it is high for 10kg and 15kg of mass but in comparison it is very high for 20kg of mass operation. The higher efficiency is due to the operation of valve at greater amplitude and lower frequency where the oscillations were found to be more fluctuating resulting in more luminous flame of fuel-rich zone and high heat transfer rate.
Figure 2. Relation between mass of the stock and efficiency at 100amplitude 3.2
Figure 3. Relation between mass the stock efficiency of at 200amplitude
Relation between mass and melting time at 10 and 20 amplitude
The relation between mass of the stock and melting time is shown in Fig. 4 and 5 for 10 and 20amplitude at different air-fuel ratios and frequencies with and without oscillations. It can be seen from Fig. 4 that melting time for all the masses was found to be less at lower frequencies. It took less time for 10kg at 13:1 air-fuel ratio but marginally more time for 15kg and 20kg for the same 13:1 air fuel ratio. It indicates that the maximum use of heat release of oscillating combustion could not be used for 10 kg mass of stock resulting in loss of energy but time taken was less. In comparison the time taken for 15kg and 20kg was slightly more but the process of melting for larger amounts of masses could be obtained. It is seen from Fig. 5 that the melting time of different masses is further reduced due to oscillations at lower frequency at 20amplitude. This is again due to the radiant heat which was existing already and the optimum use of available heat energy in the furnace. In oscillating modes of operation the oscillating valve is able to open and close steadily at higher amplitude and lower frequency facilitating break up of thermal boundary layer which shortens heat up time.
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Figure 4. Relation between mass and melting time at 100 amplitude 3.3
Figure 5. Relation between mass and melting time at 200 amplitude
Relation between air-fuel ratio and efficiency
The relation between air-fuel ratio and efficiency for different mass of stocks at different amplitudes and frequencies with and without oscillations has been shown in Figure 6 & 7. For without oscillation modes the efficiency was found to be increasing from 13:1 to 15:1 and there is marginally decreasing for increasing air-fuel ratios. This is due to the release of optimum energy at nearly stoichiometric ratio and further the mixture is lean which tend to decrease the efficiency at 16:1 and 17:1 air-fuel ratios. But the efficiency was on the increasing trend for the increasing loads due to the maximum utility of the furnace capacity and absorption of heat energy at higher mass of stocks.
Figure 6. Relation between air-fuel ratio 0 and efficiency at 10 amplitude 4. Results and discussion
Figure 7. Relation between air-fuel ratio 0 and efficiency at 20 amplitude
Fig. 2. shows that for without oscillations the efficiency was found to be high at 13:1 airfuel ratio for 20kg of stock but it was way behind in comparison for the same stock with oscillations at lower frequency and from Fig. 3 the efficiency observed was more for all air fuelratios for 20 amplitude at the frequency of 5Hz. There is gradual increment in the efficiency for 20amplitude at 5Hz and 10Hz frequencies, but it is enormous in contrast with no oscillations at 10 amplitude with 10Hz frequency. From the Fig. 4 it is understood that the time taken for melting the mass was increasing as the mixture turns leaner for with and without oscillations. It is observed that the time taken for a given air-fuel ratio at 10 amplitude with 5Hz frequency was less for all masses. Fig. 5 shows that the highest time taken for 20kg mass of stock at 17:1 was found to be 87 minutes without oscillations but the same with oscillations was found to be 81 minutes at 10 amplitude and 10Hz frequency but down to a time of 68 minutes at 20amplitude with 5Hz
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frequency. It is seen from the Figures 6 & 7 that the efficiency was high at higher loads for the same air-fuel ratio. However high efficiency was found at 13:1 air-fuel ratio for 20kg at 20 amplitude with 5Hz frequency. There is a change of 6.54% of efficiency from without to with oscillations and around 1.5 to 5.27% within the operations of oscillations. 5. Conclusions
The experimental results obtained using the test stand of oscillating valve in the furnace are very promising that were drawn based on the data are: : There is an increase in furnace efficiency from 2% to 6%. Fuel savings vary 7% to 38% depending upon the combustion mode. There is a huge increase in efficiencies in all operations of air-fuel ratios for all loads during the oscillating combustion modes. The maximum efficiency was observed at 20 amplitude with 5Hz frequency for all kinds of operations. The melting time observed with oscillating combustion operation is lower than the non oscillating combustion mode. However there is a change in melting time within the oscillating combustion mode operation. A huge difference of about a decrease in 19 minutes of melting time was observed between without and with oscillations. With all the above characteristics, the concept of Oscillating Combustion Technology is superior to the standard study state combustion technology currently being used in the heat transfer industries in terms of both energy efficient and consequential fuel cost savings as well as significantly helps reduce pollutant emissions. Acknowledgement The author is grateful to the management of P.R.R.M. Engineering College, Shabad, R.R.Dist., Andhra Pradesh, India. for providing the facilities for the execution of this experimental analysis in the Production Technology Laboratory and Thermal Engineering Laboratory of the Department of Mechanical Engineering. References [1] Gupta, A.K. Gas turbine Combustion Prospects and Challenges, Energy Converts, Mgmt, Vol.38. No.10-13, pp 1311-1318,1997 [2] Rajani,K and Varagami et al. Advanced Control System for Enhanced Operation of Oscillating Combustion in Combustors. Air Liquide, Houston, TX, U S, 2004 [3] John,C and Wagner. Demonstration of Oscillating Combustion on a High Temperature Forged Furnace. Final Report for Project, Institute of Gas Technology, GTI Project No. 40444, 2001 [4] John,C and Wagner. Demonstration of Oscillating Combustion on a Reheat Furnace. Final Report, Reports, Publications and Software, 2002 [5] Energy Matters. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE/GO-102002-1573, 2002. [6] M, Zheng and Usman Asad et al.Energy Efficiency Improvement Strategies for a Diesel Engine in Low Temperature Combustion. International Journal of Energy Research, 200933, 8-28. [7] Ruiz and Roberto et al. Oscillating Combustion: An Innovative NOx Emission Control Approach. Proceedings of International Gas Research Conference, Des Plaines, IL, 1995
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Effect of Heat Transfer on the Performance of an Air Standard Diesel Cycle

Hemant B. Mehta , Omprakash S Bharti Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India 1 Corresponding author (e-mail: hbm@med.svnit.ac.in) The effect of the cylinder wall heat transfer, intake air temperature, cutoff ratio and heat transfer due to the combustion are studied and their effect on the work output, maximum work and thermal efficiency are discussed in this paper. The analysis of the diesel cycle is carried out thermodynamically process. The heat losses through cylinder walls are considered to be proportional to the average temperature during heat addition process. The results obtained in this paper work can be useful for design of the Diesel engines. 1. Introduction
*
In 1892 Rudolf Diesel proposed an engine that allows air alone to enter into the combustion chamber, instead of a combustible mixture, during the intake stroke. It is then compressed to a high pressure. Ultimately, raising its temperature to such a point that if a fuel is injected into the engine; it would self-ignite without a spark to initiate combustion. This type of engine is known as Diesel or Compression ignition engine [5-9]. Diesel engines sometimes are more attractive in internal combustion engine application over Otto engines, due the higher thermal efficiency. The higher thermal efficiency is a result of higher compression ratios that most Diesel engines operate with. Applications of Finite Time Thermodynamics (FTT) method have been applied to various industrial fields like refrigerators, heat pumps, engines with heat regeneration, several coupled engines, solar engines, photovoltaic cells so on and forth. Finite Time Thermodynamics is the non equilibrium Theory. Its aim is to provide performance bounds and extremes for irreversible thermodynamic processes. Finite Time Thermodynamics is developed from a macroscopic point of view with heat conductance, friction coefficients, overall reaction rates, etc. rather than based on a microscopic knowledge of the processes involved. The methods of Finite Time Thermodynamics are used to find the optimal time path of any cyclic processes with friction and heat leakage. Optimality is defined by maximization of the work per cycle; the system is constrained to operate at a fixed frequency, so the maximum power is obtained. Finite time processes, besides their practical importance as more realistic models in case of irreversible processes than those provided by reversible thermodynamics, create a deeper understanding of how irreversibility affects the performance of thermodynamically processes. [1-4]. Recently, the analysis and optimization of the thermodynamic cycles for different optimization objectives have made tremendous progress by using finite time thermodynamics. The generalization of the cycle model is one of the important tasks of the finite time thermodynamics. It includes two aspects. One is the generalization of the cycle process, i.e., model can involve various thermodynamic cycles. Another is the generalization of cycle processs loss, i.e., this model involves various losses such as internal irreversibilities, heat leaks and frictional losses. In general, real air-standard cycles are far from ideal cycles. Therefore, optimization and performance analysis can be applied using finite time thermodynamics technique [10-12]. A major assumption in ideal air-standard cycles is that all processes are reversible. However, during heat addition this assumption may not be valid for real cycles. The net work output and efficiency are affected considerably by irreversibility during combustion and the constantpressure heat addition. In this paper different parameters affecting indicated thermal efficiency and net work output in relation with heat transfer consideration in a Diesel cycle will be considered. The obtained results will be plotted as performance characteristic curves for the Diesel cycle using numerical examples.
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2.
Irreversible diesel cycle model
Figure 1 presents a pressure-volume (P-v) diagram for the thermodynamic processes performed by an ideal air-standard Diesel cycle [6, 7]. All four processes are reversible. Process 1-2 is adiabatic (isentropic) compression; process 2-3 is heat addition at a constant pressure; process 3-4 adiabatic (isentropic) expansion; finally, process 4-l is heat rejection at a constant volume.
Figure 1. Pressure-Volume and Temperature-Entropy diagram for the Irreversible Diesel Cycle. Assuming constant specific heats, the net work output per unit mass of the working fluid is given by the following equation, (1) W CP T 3 T 2 CV(T 4 T1) Where CP and CV are the constant-pressure and constant-volume specific heats, respectively; and T1, T2,, T3 and T4 are the absolute temperatures at states 1 ,2,3, and 4 respectively. For the isentropic processes l-2 and 3-4 relationships can be obtained for T2 and T4 in terms of Tl and T3 , respectively, by the following equations, (2) T 2 T1 rc k 1
r T4 T3 rc
k 1
(3)
where k is the specific heat ratio (CP /CV ), while rc and r are the compression and cutoff ratios, respectively. The heat added per unit mass of the working fluid during the constant-pressure process 2-3 (2Q3) is written as: (4) 2 Q 3 CP T 3 T 2 For an ideal Diesel cycle, no irreversible losses take place and the process is totally reversible. However, in a real Diesel cycle the process is more likely to be irreversible. In other words some heat will be transferred or lost through cylinder walls during combustion. The heat losses are proportional to the temperatures T3 and T2, since the process is taking place between states 2-3. Therefore, the heat added to the working fluid during combustion process can be given in the following linear expression [6-8]. (5) 2 Q3 A BT 3 T 2 where A and B are constants related combustion and heat transfer. Therefore, by equating equations (4) and (5) an expression can be found for T3 in terms of T2
A CP B T 2 T3 CP B
(6)
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Eliminating T2 by substituting the result obtained from equation (2) for T2 in the previous expression we obtain the following expression for T3 ,
A CP B T1rc k 1 T3 CP B
(7)
Similarly, substituting the result obtained from equation (7) into equation (3). T4 is written as a function of T1,
A CP B T1rc k 1 r k 1 T4 CP B rc
(8)
Combining the results obtained from equations (2), (7), and (8) into equation (l), and in terms of temperature T, the following expression for the net work output W, can be introduced, CP A CP B T1rc k 1 CP B T1rc k 1 W CP B (9) k 1 k 1 r CV A CP B T1rc CP B T1 rc CP B
and also the indicated thermal efficiency is given as,
A CP B T1r k 1 CP B T1 1 k 1 k A 2BT1rc
(10)
Combining equations (9) and (l0), the following expression yields,
CP A 2BT1rck 1 W CP B
(11)
The above equation shows that a maximum work output can be found with respect to efficiency. In other words, the net work output W is differentiated with respect to efficiency , and its derivative is set to zero. An optimum or maximum value for Wmax is thus obtained, i.e.,
W 0
Thus, 3.
(12)
W max
ACP CVT1 r k 1 1 B
(13)
Numerical example
The above equations are solved by using the following constants and range of parameters CP = 1.003 kJ/kg-K CV = 0.716kJ/kg-K, k = 1.400, T1 = 300 - 400K A = 2500 4000 Kj/kg, B = 0.6 - 2.0 kJ/kg-K, r = 1.5 10 and rc = 1 250. The Results are obtained and plotted on the basis of the example for the irreversible diesel cycle. 4. Result and discussion
Fig. 2 shows the effect of parameter B on work output and thermal efficiency performance. According to equation (5) increasing the value of B decreases the amount of heat added to the engine. Therefore, the maximum work and efficiency will have lower values
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by increasing B, accordingly. The effect of parameter A is shown in Fig. 3. Evidently, it has the opposite effect than B. Maximum work and efficiency increase with increasing A.
Figure 2. Effect of B on net work output and thermal efficiency performance.
Figure 3. Effect of A on net work output and thermal efficiency performance.
Figure 4. Effect of intake temperature on net work output and thermal efficiency performance.
Figure 5. Effect of cut-off ratio r on net work output and thermal efficiency performance
Figure 6. Effect of A and B on maximum work output performance.
Figure 7. Effect of B and cut-off ratio r on maximum work output performance.
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The effect of inlet intake temperature, T1 is shown in Fig. 4. Increasing T1 reduces maximum work and efficiency. Also, the cutoff ratio (r) effects the engine performance. The maximum work and eiency decrease by the increasing of cutoff ratio as shown in Fig. 5. Figures 6 and 7 shows the effect of varying B at different values of A and cut-off ratio r, respectively. Maximum work output decreases by increasing B. 5. Conclusions
An expression for the net work output and the indicated thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle is derived, which is effected by cylinder wall heat transfer combustion heat transfer. The effects of different parameters, such as cutoff ratio, intake air temperature, and heat transfer and combustion constants are investigated in this paper. The results of this paper are intended to provide some guidance for design improvement and effect of heat transfer on the performance of Diesel engines. References [1] Bejan A., Entropy-generation minimization: the new thermodynamics of finite-size device and finite-time processes, J. Appl. Phys, 1996; 79(3):1191218. [2] Chen L, Wu C, Sun F., Finite-time thermodynamic optimization or entropy-generation minimization of energy systems, J Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamic, 1999; 24(4):32759. [3] Chen L, Sun F., Advances in finite-time thermodynamics: analysis and optimization, New York: Nova Science Publishers; 2004. [4] Mozurkewich M, Berry R.S., Optimal paths for thermodynamic systems: the ideal Ottocycle, J Appl. Phys, 1982; 53(1):3442.. [5] New York, NY. (1986), pp. 71-101. C.R. Ferguson, Internal Combustion Engines: Applied Thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons. [6] Jersey, (1996), pp.777-782. J.B.Jones, R.E.Dugan, Engineering Thermodynamics. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New. [7] Publishers. New York, NY, (1973), pp.166-190. E.F. Obert, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution. Third Edition, Harper and Row.. [8] R. Sonntag, C. Borgnakke, G. Van Wylen, Fundamentals of Thermodynamics. Fifth Edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY, (1998), pp. 393-396. [9] D.A. Blank, C. Wu, Energy Conversion and Management 34,643-648 (1993). [10] L. Chen, C. Wu, F. Sun, S. Cao, Energy Conversion and Management 39,643-648 (1998). [11] S.A. Klein, Trans. ASMEJ Engineering Gas Turbine Power 113,511-513 (1991).
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Testing and Performance of Petrol Start Diesel Run Engine as per IS:7347: by making modifications in Petrol Start Kerosene Run Engine
Hemang J. Parekh , B.Chirag J. Parekh , C. Jay M. Pujara , D. Prof. K.P.Trivedi
1,2,3 1* 2 3 4
R.K.College of Engineering and Technology, Rajkot 360 020, Gujarat, India 4 L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad-380 015. Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: hemang2411@rediffmail.com)
Rajkot is very famous place for manufacturing and assembly of diesel engine. P.M. Diesel Pvt. Ltd. Is one of the leading manufacturer and assembler of diesel engine. They are also assembling small multi fuel engine which run on more than one fuel and follow the standard IS 7347. One of their most popular product is Petrol Start Kerosene Run engine (1.1 kW) to be tested as per IS 7347. The main application of this product is in small Generator set. The engine starts on petrol and after 10 seconds with the help of knob the engine can run on kerosene. The major problem of this product is the availability of kerosene for commercial purpose so it is requirement of the industries to find an alternative of the kerosene without raising the fuel cost. So the main objective of this paper is to modify the petrol start kerosene run engine such that the same engine can run on diesel. 3 major modifications are made in the engine and then performance of both the engines is compared. 1) The design of the spark plug is changed from M-14 to M-18 to control the Carbon deposition during the use of the diesel as a fuel. Because if same spark plug is used than there will be a lot of carbon deposition and high maintenance will be required. So the spark plug is changed from M-14 to M-18. 2) The design of the carburettor for Petrol start Diesel run engine is down drop. So the air enter in the cylinder from the down side but for the combustion of diesel in the cylinder the design of the carburettor is to be changed from down drop to side drop. 3 )As the specific gravity of kerosene is less (0.80 as compare to diesel (0.83) the diameter of fuel jet is to be increased slightly so that the same amount of fuel can enter in the cylinder. After doing the above modifications the performance and testing of the engine is carried out and its brake thermal efficiency at different load conditions are measured and the same is compared with the Petrol Kerosene engine. And finally we can conclude after comparing both the results that the Petrol diesel engine can easily replace the Petrol Kerosene engine as the performance of both the engines from efficiency point of view is almost similar . 1. Introduction
Rajkot is very famous for the diesel engine and P.M Diesel Pvt. Ltd. Is one of the leading assembler of the diesel engine. They are also assembling Small Spark Ignition Engine.(up to 3 hp) These engines are multi fuel engine they generally start on Petrol and can run after very short time in Kerosene. These engines are to be tested as per IS 7347. These small multi fuel engines were first developed by In Field India Ltd. In 1965. In India these engines were manufactured by Isher India Limited finally from Isher India Ltd was purchased by Greeves Ltd.. P.M Diesel Limited was manufacturing Small size Spark Ignition Engine which were Petrol Start Kerosene Run engine. These engines were starting on Petrol and after 10 seconds we are able to run the same engines on Kerosene so that the fuel cost can be reduced. However the main problem faced by the company is the availability of Kerosene for commercial use. So the Company was facing the problem due to non availability of fuel. In this paper my Objective is to modify the Petrol Start Kerosene engine of 1.5 hp such that the
151
same engine can be converted in Petrol Start Diesel run engine and then compare the different results obtained from the performance testing of both the engine as per IS 7347. And finally compare the advantages and disadvantages of engine and given the conclusion. 2. Modifications done in engine
For converting the engine from Petrol-Kerosene engine to Petrol-Diesel Engine we have taken the 1.5 hp (1.1kW) engine as an model on which the experiments are to be made. After going through the brief study of the engine we found that the following modifications are required in the engine so that the engine can run on spark plug in spite of being a diesel engine. 1. The Spark Plug of Mieco -M-14- has to be replaced by Mieco -M-18- so that the spark produced will be more. Further the carbon deposition can be reduced so that the periodic maintenance of the spark plug can be reduced. 2. The compression ratio of petrol Kerosene and petrol-Diesel engine are almost same. 3. The strength of cylinder head is also increased as the size of the spark plug has been increased. 4. The diameter of carburettor jet is decreased to change the air fuel ratio as diesel is a fuel which mixes less with the air so if same air fuel ratio is used than some unburn & unmix diesel remain in the carburettor so the air fuel ratio has to be reduced and for doing this the jet diameter has reduced. Further the firm is using the down drop Carburettor for traditional Petrol Kerosene Engine. But for the combustion of the diesel more air is needed so the design of the carburettor is to be changed from side drop to down drop. The drawing of the down drop carburettor is enclosed for the reference.
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3. Testing of Engine Table 1. Performance test of Petrol Start Diesel Run Engine Type Rated Speed Bore Compression Ratio Specific Gravity A 8:30 9:30 10:30 11:30 12:30 13:30 14:30 15:30 16:00 16:10 16:20 16:30 16:40 B 99.80 99.80 99.70 99.70 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 C 300 300 300 302 302 302 303 303 303 303 303 303 303 Petrol Start Diesel Run Engine 3000 RPM 55.0 mm 4.5:1 0.83 D 308 308 308 308 309 309 309 310 310 310 310 310 310 E
310 310 310 310 311 311 311 312 312 312 312 312 312
BHP/KW Stroke C.C. No. of Cylinder Dynamometer Type
1.5/1.1 50.0 0.1187 1 Alternator (Brushless) O

627.40 627.78 628.04 628.04 624.89 625.29 625.45 625.204 647.04 527.30 440.99 400.46 345.39
F
70 65 60 60 58 53 51 48 48 48 48 48 48
G
3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 2979 3065 3092 3115 3133
H
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 110.00 75.00 50.00 25.00 0.00
I
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.21 0.825 0.550 0.275 0.00
J
0.943 0.947 0.949 0.949 0.944 0.948 0.950 0.947 0.947 0.947 0.947 0.947 0.947
K
1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.15 0.78 0.52 0.26 0.0
L
236 236 236 236 237 237 237 237 229 281 336 370 429
M
633.05 633.05 633.05 633.05 630.38 630.38 630.38 630.38 652.40 531.67 444.64 403.78 348.25
N
1.0090 1.0084 1.0080 1.0080 1.0088 1.0081 1.0079 1.0083 1.0083 1.0083 1.0083 1.0083 1.0083
P
604.85 602.86 601.52 601.52 601.58 599.51 598.68 599.99 564.50 674.72 846.42 1537.28 --N.A.
Table 2. Performance test of Petrol Start Kerosene Run Engine
Type Rated Speed Bore Compression Ratio Specific Gravity
Petrol Start Kerosene Run 3000 RPM 55.0 mm 4.5:1 0.80
BHP/KW Stroke C.C. No. of Cylinder Dynamometer Type
1.5/1.1 50.0 0.1187 1 Alternator (Brushless)
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A 8:30 9:30 10:30 11:30 12:30 13:30 14:30 15:30 16:00 16:10 16:20 16:30 16:40
B 98.90 98.90 98.90 98.90 99.00 99.00 99.00 99.10 99.10 99.10 99.10 99.10 99.20
C 298 298 298 298 299 299 299 299 301 301 301 302 302
D 307 307 307 308 308 308 309 310 310 310 311 311 311
E 309 309 309 310 310 310 311 312 312 312 313 313 313
F 75 72 72 70 70 70 68 64 64 60 60 60 58
G 3000 3000 3002 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 2970 3055 3080 3110 3119
H 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 110.00 75.00 50.00 25.00 0.00
I 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.210 0.825 0.550 0.275 0.00
J 0.934 0.937 0.937 0.932 0.934 0.934 0.930 0.928 0.928 0.932 0.926 0.926 0.929
K 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.12 0.77 0.51 0.25 0.0
L 233 233 233 234 234 234 235 235 222 251 272 300 340
M 618.03 618.03 618.03 615.38 615.38 615.38 612.77 612.77 648.65 573.71 529.41 480.00 423.53
N 1.0104 1.0101 1.0101 1.0108 1.0106 1.0106 1.0113 1.0115 1.0115 1.0109 1.0118 1.0118 1.0113
O 611.64 611.85 611.85 608.82 608.94 608.94 605.93 605.81 641.28 567.50 523.22 474.39 418.78
P 595.04 593.92 593.92 593.57 592.94 592.94 592.59 593.21 570.86 738.35 1026.87 1862.06 --N.A.
Table 3. Specifications of Table-1 & Table-2 Designation A B C D E F Specification Time Hr: min Barometer Reading in Kpa Wet bulb Temperature in K Dry bulb Temperature in K Air Engine Intake Temperature in K Relative Humidity in % Designation G H I J K L Specification Observed Speed in RPM Brake Load in % Load Observed in kW Correction Factor for Power Corrected Power in kW Time for 50 C.C. fuel in sec Designation M N O P Specification Fuel Consumption in gm/hr Correction factor for fuel Corrected Fuel Consumption rate in gm/hr Corrected SFC rate in gm/Kw hr
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4.
Assumptions & Calculation of Thermal Efficiency Assuming m = 0.80, Specific Gravity of Diesel = 0.83, , Specific Gravity of Kerosene= 0.80, Calorific Value of Diesel Cv = 40000 KJ/Kg , Calorific Value of Kerosene Cv = 38900 KJ/Kg Calculations are performed by using following formulas : 1) Corrected Power = Measured Brake Power X Correction Factor 2) F.C. in Gm/hr = 3) Corrected F.C. = 4) BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (BSFC) = 5) Brake Thermal Efficiency in bth =
5. LOAD in %
Result Table and Conclusions PETROL START PETROL RUN ENGINE SFC in BSFC in Brake gm/hr gm/kw hr Thermal Efficiency in % 405.09 459.92 506.75 548.65 598.03 616.62 Conclusions ---1768.92 974.52 694.49 569.55 536.19 ---4.52 8.20 11.51 14.04 14.91 PETROL START DIESEL RUN ENGINE SFC in BSFC in Brake gm/hr gm/kw hr Thermal Efficiency in % 345.39 400.46 440.98 527.3 625.19 647.03 ---1540.23 848.04 676.02 601.14 562.64 ---5.83 10.64 13.32 14.98 15.99
N.L. 25 50 75 100 110 6.
After going through the results and observations we can say that although the petrol Diesel engine has the fuel cost slightly higher as compare to Petrol Kerosene engine but due to the availability of the kerosene is a very big problem so we can use the Petrol Diesel Engine as a very good alternative of petrol Kerosene Engine References [1] IS:7347:1974 Performance of small size spark ignition engine for agricultural sprayer and similar application. [2] IS: 11170:1985 Performance requirements of Constant speed C.I.(Diesel) engine for agricultural purposes(upto 20 kW) [3] IS: 10001:1981Performance requirements of Constant speed C.I.(Diesel) engine for general purposes(upto 20 kW) [4] IS: 10001(Pt-1 to 13): All are related to clarifications made clause vise of IS 10001 and IS 11170
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Hybrid Optimization of the Power Output of a PEM Fuel Cell Base on Generalized Steady-State Electrochemical Model
156
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7) 157
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
158
159
References [1] R. F. Mann; J. C. Amphlett; M. A. I. Hooper; H.M. Jensen; B. A. Peppley and P. R. Roberge; Development and application of a generalised steady-state electrochemical model for a PEM fuel cell; Journal of Power Sources 86; 2000; pp. 173-180. [2] J. M. Corra, F. A. Farret, L. N. Canha, and Marcelo G. Simes, An ElectrochemicalBased Fuel-Cell Model Suitable, for Electrical Engineering Automation Approach, IEEE Trans. Ind., Electr., VOL. 51, NO. 5, October 2004. [3] Christos A. Frangopoulos, Lambros G. Nakos, Development of a model for thermoeconomic design and operation optimization of a PEM fuel cell system, Energy 31 (2006) 15011519 [4] M. Cirrincione, M. Pucci, G. Cirrincione, M. G. Simes, A Neural Non-linear Predictive Control for PEM-FC, Journal of electrical system 1-2 (2005): 1-18 [5] EG&G Technical Services, Inc., Fuel Cell Handbook (Seventh Edition), U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, Morgantown, West Virginia, 2004 [6] J. Larminie, A. Dicks, Fuel Cell Systems Explained (Second Edition), John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, 2003. 160
Thermal Analysis of Scheffler Solar Receiver used for Steam Generation using CFD
I.I.Sayyad1*, B.S.Gawali1, G.S.Deshpande2
1
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli 416415, Maharashtra, India 2 Thermax Ltd, Pune 411003, Maharashtra, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: siftekhar01@gmail.com)
Scheffler dish is the recent development in solar collectors, capable of attaining high 0 0 temperatures of the order of 250 C to 1000 C. The specific feature of this reflector is that concentration point of sunshine is at the same place on the receiver throughout the day and year, even though the reflector dish is rotating to face the sun. Because of this unique feature, it is being extensively used for low pressure steam generation applications. Research is going on to improve its efficiency by reducing the losses incurred in capturing and utilizing the solar input as well as for using the dishes for steam generation at high pressure for power generation. The scheffler receivers are used in combination with solar collectors to trap the focused sunlight. The scheffler receiver fall in the category of sensible heat storage devices. The heat loss from a solar receiver plays an important role in its performance. The quality of steam being produced is dependent on the optimized heat flux and indirectly the maximum temperature of receiver. It is hence necessary to minimize loss and also to study the temperature verses time profile for the receiver. A detailed two-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) steady state analysis of heat losses from scheffler solar receiver during dry conditions is presented in this paper. K- model has been used to model turbulent wind flow over the receiver surface and surface to surface (S2S) model has been used to investigate the radiative heat losses. The CFD results have been compared with the experimental results. The radiative and the convective heat losses are found to be in good agreement with the experimental results. 1. Introduction
The scheffler receiver is a device which works in coordination with scheffler reflector and is capable of storing the heat. The scheffler receiver is positioned relative to the reflector so that the concentrated heat is collected directly in the receiver cavity. The details of the scheffler receiver considered for analysis of heat losses in this paper are discussed below. As shown in Figure 1 the reciever mainly consists of octagonal steel plates (B) welded to form hollow octagonal steel structure and back plate(C) welded to one of its end forming hollow cavity for trapping reflected radiation. It is sealed at other end by means of a circular anti reflecting glass plate (A). The steel structure act as sensible heat storage medium. The structure is concentrically placed inside a hollow steel shell (E), forming a radial cavity of approximately 50 mm available for steam generation .The steel shell is packed with glass wool insulation (F) of 300 mm thickness to avoid the heat losses from steel block. Two nozzles of diameter half inch and 400 mm (not shown) length are attached to the two extreme ends of the shell one for water inlet and
161
the other for steam outlet. Aluminum cladding (G) of 1 mm thickness has been provided on the insulation to minimize the losses.
Figure 1.Geometrical details of scheffler receiver
Figure 2.Receiver in working position
The Figure 2 shows the scheffler receiver in the actual working position. The receiver is kept inclined at an angle of 43.5o with the horizontal so as to capture the maximum solar insolation incident in the day period. The angle of inclination is calculated based on the geographical location of the receiver. The heat loss analysis for cooling is supported by some theories of heat loss analysis for cavities. Prakash, Kedare and Nayak [1] performed 2D analysis of heat loss for parabolic dishcavity receiver using Fluent. The analysis was focused on identifying the stagnation and the convective zones within the receiver and their effects on the convective losses. It was concluded that the thermal losses occurring within the receiver affect the performance of the system. Sendhil Kumar and Reddy[2] did simulation of combined natural convection and surface radiation. The heat losses were evaluated for various operating temperatures of the receiver varying from 300C to 700C. The effect of orientation of the modified cavity receiver (0-90) and emissivity of surface on heat loss characteristics was investigated. The dimensionless numbers like Re, Pr directly affect development of boundary layer and its characteristics and thereby greatly influence the magnitude of convective heat loss [3]. The experimentation to determine the heat losses under dry conditions is carried out for successive two days. The experimentation involves alternate heating and cooling of scheffler receiver under dry conditions. Air at constant velocity of 20km/h i.e. 5.6m/s is assumed to flow over the surface of the reciecer. The insulation surface was observed to be at constant temperature of 302.8K during the experiment. 2. CFD analysis of Scheffler Receiver
In this section CFD solution methodology for thermal analysis of scheffler receiver for stedy state heat losses is discussed in details. The heat loss analysis is essential because for all the solar applications it is desired to minimize the heat losses along with maximizing the capturing efficiency. The heat absorbed after capturing the incident solar insolation is to be utilized for power generation. Minimization of heat loss will increase the heat input available for power generation. The steam generation rate depends upon the time varying thermal potential of the receiver. Some assumptions are considered for this analysis viz. The materials are homogenous and isotropic. The thermophysical properties of the air are assumed to be varying with temperature. The geometry is assumed to be symmetric for temperature distribution. The Figure 3 shows the meshed geometry (computational domain) used for the analysis. The receiver is placed within the
162
air domain. Here quadrilateral element is used for meshing and is always preferable over triangular elements.
Figure 3. Computational domain for heat loss analysis

2.1 CFD Models used in the Analysis The CFD models that have been used in the analysis are described below. The features advantages and limitations of the models have been discussed with reference to the fluent user guide. 1. Turbulent Model (K- model) The Reynolds number calculated based on the length of the cylinder is calculated,it is decided that the flow is turbulent. For modeling turbulence over the surface of the receiver, RNG K- model has been chosen. 2. Radiation Model (S2S) - In this analysis since the receiver is completely enclosed in the surrounding air which is at lower temperature than the surface of the receiver. Hence the receiver will dissipate the radiant energy to the surrounding air. S2S model calculates view factors on its own. 2.2 Boundary conditions Specifying the boundary and initial conditions is an important step in CFD. The initial conditions are the reference initial values of the variables to start the computation. The Table1 gives the details of boundary conditions used for steady state analysis for heat losses under dry conditions. Dry conditions refer to those where there is no steam generation. Table 1. Boundary conditions for steady state cooling S.No. 1. 2 Face inlet outlet Type of BC Velocity inlet Pressure outlet BC specification Velocity 5.6 m/s, Turbulent intensity 2% Gauge pressure 0 pascals, Turbulent intensity 2% 3 Insulation surface 4 Air domain Source term Wall Temp(302.8K constant) , emissivity 0.1,Wall roughness 0 Constant temperature 301.6 K
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The turbulence is specified in terms of basic turbulence parameters like turbulent intensity and turbulent length scale. The above analysis falls under low turbulence category. Hence turbulence intensity of 2% is specified at inlet. The insulation surface at constant temperature of 302.8K has been considered. The insulation of the receiver is covered with the aluminum cladding with emissivity value of 0.1and negligible thickness. In CFD modeling the outer surface of insulation is specified as the aluminum cladding. Hence the emissivity of 0.1 is specified for the insulation walls. 2.3 Results and Discussion
Figure 4. Velocity vector plot
Figure 5. Pressure contour plot
Analysis of the velocity distribution around the receiver enables the flow reversal and vortex formation to be investigated as shown in Figure 4. It is noted that the occurrence of flow reversal depends on parameters as Gr/Re2, Re and Pr. For a large value of Gr/Re2, the oscillation of the interface and the mixing of heated flow with cold recirculation flow become more intense. This flow reversal enhances the heat transfer. It is undesirable in this case since it will increase the heat losses. From the pressure contour plot shown in Figure 5 it is quite clear that at the rear portion of the receiver, the total pressure decreases, because of which negative pressure gradients are formed and flow separations takes place. Table 2. Convective and radiative heat losses S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 Parameters Convective heat transfer coeff (W/m K) Convective heat flux from insulation (W/m ) Convective heat loss from insulation (W) Radiative heat flux from insulation (W/m ) Total radiation loss from insulation (W)
2 2 2
CFD 26.75 32.70 389.13 0.7493 8.806
Experimental 31.29 37 444 0.78 9
The Table 2 gives the comparison of CFD and experimental heat losses. The CFD radiative heat losses are in good agreement with the experimental values. The convective CFD heat loss from insulation closely approaches the experimental values with a little variation. The comparison has been presented in the Figure 6.
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Figure 6.Comparision of heat losses 3. Conclusions From the observations of the tabular results and comparision, following Conclusions are drawn 1. Radiative heat losses calculated by cfd match very closely with the experimental results. 2. Convective heat losses calculated from cfd vary slightly from those of experimental values because of simplifications made in the experimental data like constant wind velocity, constant ambient temperature etc. 3. CFD analysis results are very close to the experimentally observed parameters and therefore it is concluded that CFD analysis gives fairly accurate results for all practical purposes confirming the validity of assumptions and therefore such analysis can be carried out for any other possible parameters like change in wind velocity, insulation thickness, cladding material of different emissivity, conductivity of insulation material etc. 4. Future Scope 1. The analysis can be carried out under unsteady state to determine the temperature variation with time within the receiver. 2. Since precise results are obtained for heat losses analysis, the analysis can performed for changes in parameters like material properties, changes in wind velocity etc. References [1] Prakash, M., Kedare, S.B. and Nayak, J.K. Numerical investigation on Convective Heat Losses from Solar Cavity Receivers. Advances in Energy Research (AER 2006). [2] Kumar, N.S. and Reddy, K.S. Study of convection and surface radiation in a modified cavity receiver for solar parabolic dish collector. Advances in Energy Research (AER 2006) [3] Holman, J.P. Heat Transfer, ninth edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2004. [4]. Anderson, J.D. Jr. Computational Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill.
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Estimation of Luminous Efficacy and Exterior Illuminance of Daylight to Design Solar Daylighting Systems
J. M. Patel , Dr. P. K. Shah
1 2 1* 2
L. D. College of Engineering Ahmedabad - 380 015, Gujarat, India L. J. Institute of Technology, Ahmedabad 380051, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: jmpatel2098@yahoo.co.in)
The availability of daylight for exterior illuminance is a field of study considerably different from the measurement and simulation of solar radiation. Solar radiation is the total incident energy visible and invisible from the sun. The daylight is the portion of this electromagnetic radiation as perceived by the eye. It depends on the different climatic conditions. The Indian climate is generally clear with overcast conditions prevailing through the months of June to September, which provides good potential to daylighting in buildings. Hence an analytical model which encompasses the weather conditions of Ahmedabad was selected from various available models. Hourly exterior horizontal and slope daylight availability has been estimated for Ahmedabad using daylighting modelling techniques based on solar radiation data. 1. Introduction Daylighting is clearly perceived to conserve energy and extensive studies have been taken in cool climate. Daylight is abundant in tropical sky where the sun stays overhead at noon and daytime is long throughout the year. Daylight is perceived to be applicable to various buildings where people work during daytime. The available daylight for the location will be helpful to design energy efficient buildings or to retrofit the buildings with suitable daylighting system, against the energy consumption reduction for illumination purposes. Before designing a solar daylighting system for the given building, it is necessary to estimate the availability of the daylight with respect to the climatic conditions. Researchers have investigated the relation between solar radiation and daylight. Using established models it is possible to estimate the monthly mean of daily and hourly exterior illuminance (diffuse, direct and global) on horizontal and for all the four walls (N-S-E-W) of any building in the region of Ahmedabad city. 2. Location and climatic conditions Ahmedabad is located in the western part of India near the Tropic of Cancer towards 0 0 south at latitude 23.04 N and a longitude of 72.38 E. The climate is composite having three distinct seasons of winter, summer and monsoon. The altitude of Ahmedabad is 55 meter above mean sea level. The large daily temperature variations are observed in both summer and winter. 3. Estimation of luminous efficacy and horizontal exterior illuminance Researchers have investigated the relation between solar radiation and daylight, and proposed various mathematical models [1, 3] relating the two. The model proposed by Perez and others [2] is usually considered to be most accurate and was selected to predict hourly luminous efficacy, horizontal and slope illuminance values for the twelve months of the tear. The model has been validated from different location with a very good agreement [4, 5]. According to this model the global ( K g ) and diffuse ( K d ) efficacies can be found by the following equations. [2] K g or K d ai biW ci Cos z di ln( ) (1)
166
Where, a i , bi , c i , and d i are given coefficients (for diffuse or global efficacies) Table 1, corresponding to the skys clearness ( ). W is the atmospheric precipitable water contents, ( ) is the sky brightness.
Table 1. Luminous efficacy coefficients of Perez et al. (1990)

Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Lower bound 1 1.065 1.230 1.500 1.950 2.800 4.500 6.200 Upper bound 1.065 1.230 1.500 1.950 2.800 4.500 6.200 ---
Global efficacy coefficients
Diffuse efficacy coefficients
ai
96.63 107.54 98.73 92.72 86.73 88.34 78.63 99.65
bi
-0.47 0.79 0.70 0.56 0.98 1.39 1.47 1.86
ci
11.50 1.79 4.40 8.36 7.10 6.06 4.93 -4.46
di
-9.16 -1.19 -6.95 -8.31 -10.94 -7.60 -11.37 -3.15
ai
97.24 107.22 104.97 102.39 100.71 106.42 141.88 152.23
bi
-0.46 1.15 2.96 5.59 5.94 3.83 1.90 0.35
ci
12.00 0.59 -5.53 -13.95 -22.75 -36.15 -53.24 -45.27
di
-8.91 -3.95 -8.77 -13.90 -23.74 -28.83 -14.03 -7.98
The sky clearness ( ) for irradiance is given by
[( I d I n ) / I d 1 .041 z3 ] /[1 1 . 041 z3 ]

Where, I d is the diffuse irradiance, I n ( I n solar zenith angle in radians. The zenith angle is calculated through
(2)
I b / cos z ) is the normal irradiance; z is the

(3)
cos z cos cos cos sin sin Where, is the latitude, is the solar declination and is the hour angle. The sky brightness ( ) is given by Id m / I E where m is the optical mass; I E is the extraterrestrial irradiance. m was obtained from Kastens [6] formula, which provides an accuracy of 99.6% for
zenith angles up to 890.
(4)
m [sin s 0.50572( s 6.07995) 1.6364 ]1 Where, s (90 z ) is the solar altitude angle. The atmospheric precipitable water content W (cm) is given by Wright et al. [13]: W exp(0.07Td 0.075)
Where, Td is the hourly surface dew-point temperature ( C). The horizontal extraterrestrial irradiance can be calculated by
0
(5)
(6)
I E 1367[1 0.033cos(360 / 365)n] sin s (7) The horizontal diffuse illuminance ( Ed ) and the horizontal global illuminance ( E g ) can
be estimated by the following:
Ed I d K d
Eg I g K g
(8) (9)
Thus, based on the Eqs. (1) (9), the luminous efficacy and horizontal diffuse and global illuminance is estimated for Ahmedabad city from the available irradiance data. 4. Estimation of slope exterior illuminance Direct illuminance on horizontal surface can be calculated from the difference between estimated values of global and diffuse illuminance on a horizontal surface. The hourly diffuse illuminance, Ei , d on an inclined surface with a slope is obtained in the simplified Perez model [2] from the following equation:
Ei , d Ed [0.5(1 F1 )(cos2 ) ( a0 / a1 ) F1 F2 sin 2 / 2]

where, a0 , a1 and
(10)
are given as
167
a0 =max(0, cos ), a1 = max(0.087, cos z ) and =900
(11)
is the incidence angle of the sun on the surface and z the zenith angle. can be calculated from the following relation: cos sin sin cos sin cos sin cos cos cos cos cos (12) cos sin sin cos cos cos sin sin sin where, is the surface azimuth angle. Ed is the horizontal diffuse illuminance and F1 and F2 are coefficients, which express
the degree of anisotropy of the circumsolar and the horizon regions respectively. These coefficients show a dependence on the following parameters that define the sky conditions: (a) The zenith angle, z (b) The clearness index
'
for illuminance is defined through: (13)
' [( E d E n ) / E d 1 . 041 z3 ] /[1 1 . 041 z3 ]

Where, En (= Eb / cos z ) is the direct normal illuminance. Where, Eb is the horizontal beam illuminance. (c) The skys brightness is defined by
'
' Ed m / E0 (14) Where, E0 =133.8 Klux is the mean extraterrestrial normal illuminance and m is the optical
air mass. The model considers a set of categories for
'
and for each of them F1 and F2 are given as (15) (16)
F1 F11 F12 F13 z

F2 F21 F22 F23 z
Table 2. Coefficients of Perez et al. (1990) slope illuminance model
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
'
'
The coefficients of Perez et al. slope illuminance model are shown in Table 2. Based on Eqs. (10)(16) hourly slope diffuse illuminance was estimated.
'
Lower bound 1 1.065 1.230 1.500 1.950 2.800 4.500 6.200 Upper bound 1.065 1.230 1.500 1.950 2.800 4.500 6.200 ---
Coefficients
F11
0.011 0.429 0.809 1.014 1.282 1.426 1.485 1.170
F12
0.570 0.363 -0.054 -0.252 -0.420 -0.653 -1.214 -0.300
F13
-0.081 -0.307 -0.442 -0.531 -0.689 -0.779 -0.784 -0.615
F21
-0.095 0.050 0.181 0.275 0.380 0.425 0.411 0.518
F22
0.158 0.008 -0.169 -0.350 -0.559 -0.785 -0.629 -1.892
F23
-0.018 -0.065 -0.092 -0.096 -0.114 -0.097 -0.082 -0.055
The approach to calculate the global illuminance on a sloping surface is to first estimate the irradiance on a sloping surface and then multiply it by the global luminous efficacy. The hourly global irradiance on an inclined surface I i with a slope can be obtained by the following expression.
I i I b Rb I d (1 cos ) / 2 g ( I b I d )(1 cos ) / 2

Where, Rb cos / cos z and
(17)
g is the reflectivity of the ground taken as 0.2.
The global illuminance on a tilted (inclined) surface Ei , g would now be
Ei, g I i K g
(18)
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5.
Results and discussion
Table 3 and Table 4 show the estimated monthly average of the hourly values of global and diffuse luminous efficacies on horizontal plane respectively. Global luminous efficacies in the month of April to July are found more than in other months for the same hours. This is due to higher solar altitude. The annual average efficacy under the sky conditions of the area will be useful for the architects and designers. By knowing the average radiation data the corresponding average illumination level can be determined using these luminous efficacies. The estimated yearly average global luminous efficacy is 99.0 lm/W and the yearly average diffuse luminous efficacy is 118.0-lm/W. Diffuse luminous efficacy is higher than the global efficacy in the sky type of the area indicating that diffuse component in daylighting design is more energy efficient. Similarly, monthly average hourly horizontal global illuminance and diffuse illuminance are shown in Figure 1 and 2 respectively. Figure 3 and 4 show the variation of monthly average global and diffuse illuminance for different orientation of planes. Table 3. Average global luminous efficacy, K g (lm/W)
Hour 6 Month January February March April May June July August September October November December 0 0 38 71 90 77 76 66 56 0 0 0 87 90 92 97 97 97 97 91 91 91 88 86 97 98 99 102 103 102 102 96 97 98 98 97 102 102 103 105 108 105 105 100 101 102 102 101 105 105 105 107 109 107 107 102 103 105 105 104 106 106 106 109 110 108 108 103 104 106 106 106 107 107 107 109 110 108 108 104 105 107 107 106 106 106 106 108 109 107 107 103 104 106 106 106 105 105 105 107 107 105 105 120 103 105 105 104 102 102 103 104 106 103 103 100 101 102 102 101 92 98 99 101 103 100 100 96 97 98 98 97 87 90 92 95 96 96 96 91 91 91 88 86 0 0 38 67 84 76 75 66 56 0 0 0 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6
Table 4. Average diffuse luminous efficacy, K d (lm/W)

Hour 6 Month January February March April May June July August September October November December 0 0 93 129 100 131 130 121 113 0 0 0 96 103 107 116 128 112 111 97 99 104 99 93 121 121 118 124 135 117 116 103 109 119 122 121 129 126 122 125 136 118 117 105 112 124 128 129 131 128 122 124 127 118 117 105 113 125 130 131 132 128 122 124 125 117 116 105 112 125 131 132 132 128 122 123 124 116 115 105 112 125 131 132 132 128 122 122 123 114 114 105 112 125 131 132 131 128 122 122 121 113 113 105 112 125 130 131 129 126 122 122 130 114 113 105 112 124 128 129 121 121 118 120 132 112 112 103 109 119 122 121 96 103 107 110 124 109 108 97 99 104 99 93 0 0 93 126 99 130 130 121 113 0 0 0 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6
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HORIZONTAL GLOBAL ILLUMINATION,LUX

120000 100000 80000
LUX
HORIZONTAL DIFFUSE ILLUMINATION, LUX

JAN FEB MAR APR JUN JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
LUX
60000 40000 20000 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 LOCAL APPARENT TIME, Hrs.
MAY
50000 45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 LOCAL APPARENT TIME, Hrs.
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Figure 1. Horizontal global illuminance, lux

MONTHLY AVERAGE GLOBAL ILLUMINANCE, LUX
70000 60000 50000
LUX
Figure 2. Horizontal diffuse illuminance, lux

MONTHLY AVERAGE DIFFUSE ILLUMINANCE, LUX
35000 30000
HORIZONAL
25000
LUX
HORIZONAL SOUTH EAST WEST NORTH
40000 30000 20000 10000 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
SOUTH EAST WEST NORTH
20000 15000 10000 5000 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 3. Monthly average Horizontal global illuminance, lux
Figure 4. Monthly average Horizontal diffuse illuminance, lux
Figure 3 shows the average yearly global illuminance for the North facing plane is about 15000 lux for the months of March to October. For the rest of the planes (S-E-W), it is about 25800 lux throughout the year. Similarly, the average yearly diffuse illuminance for North facing plane is 7500 lux and for rest of the planes it is 10375 lux. 6. Conclusions
The average luminous efficacy for sunlight is found more than the any artificial illuminating lamp source ranging from 20 to 80 lm/W. For the minimum daylighting factor of 5 %, the available daylight in the building will be 750 lux to 1290 lux for global illuminance and 375 lux to 520 lux. These values are within limits of CIE standards of 300 to 500 lux for commercial offices. More over due to higher efficacy of sun light as compared to artificial light sources the heat gain in the building also reduce. Hence, the energy consumption of the building will be reduced ultimately. References [1] Littlefair, P. J. The luminous efficacy of daylight: a review. Light Res. Technology, 17, 1985, 16282. [2] Perez, R., Ineichen, P., Seals, R., Modeling daylight availability and irradiance components from direct and global irradiance. Solar Energy, 44, 1990, 271289. [3] Ullah, M.B., International daylighting measurements programme-Singapore data II: luminous efficacy for the tropics. Light Res. Technology, 28, 1996, 7581. [4] Muneer, T., Angus, R.C., Daylight illuminance models for the United Kingdom. Light Res. Technology, 25, 1993, 11323. [5] Muneer, T., Evaluation of Luminous efficacy against Japanese data. Int. Journal of Ambient Energy, 17, 1996, 112116. [6] Kasten, F., Discussion on the relative air mass. Light Res.Technology, 25, 1993, 129-134. [7] Liu, B., Jordan, R.C., The interrelationship and characteristic distribution of direct, diffuse and total solar radiation, Solar Energy, 4, 1960,
170
Opportunity for Renewable Energy from Water Hyacinth; Concerning on Control and Utilization
Pravakar Mohanty, Jitendra Rathore, Jigisha Parikh* S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India. *Corresponding author (e-mail address: jk_parikh@yahoo.co.in) Water hyacinth (WH) is a noxious weed that has attracted worldwide attention due to its fast spread and congested growth, which lead to serious problems in navigation, irrigation, and power generation. This paper discusses different ways of utilization of water hyacinths, mainly in agricultural and alternative energy systems. In the rural areas, WH could be used in an integrated manner for decentralized wastewater treatment systems coupled to biogas and compost production from the resulting biomass. This would, in a longer perspective, improve the water quality in the recipient water by decreasing the input of nutrients and pollutants. There is a need to work out the techno-economic viability of such integrated model systems. 1. Introduction The WH (Eichhornia crassipes) is a free floating aquatic weed originated in the Amazon in South America, where it was kept under control by natural predators [1]. It is a tropical species belonging to the pickerelweed family. It can quickly grow to very high densities (over 60 kg m-2); thereby completely clogging water bodies, which in turn may have negative effects on the environment, human health and economic development [2]. WH grows over a wide variety of wetland types and prefers nutrient-enriched waters. However, it can tolerate considerable variation in nutrients, temperature and pH levels. The optimum pH for growth of WH is 68. It can grow in a wide range of temperature from 1 to 40C (optimum growth at 2527.5C) but it is thought to be cold-sensitive [2,3]. These unique properties open a new direction for its utilization as a phytoremediation agent as it has been observed that, certain rooted aquatic plants have bacteriocidal properties and the ability to breakdown chemical pollutants, while submerged aquatics are important as oxygenators. Effluent passes through various stages and the waste water (WW) is gradually stripped of nutrients and pollutants. Potential productivity of WH in nutrient enriched waste waters has lead to its selection for phytoremediation of various industrial effluents and the produced biomass as a feed stock for biogas production to achieve economic success in energy harvest [2-5].This paper presents a comprehensive review of the recent investigations on WH control and its utilization technologies in WW treatment and its commercial use in terms of biogas and compost. 2. The Water hyacinth 2.1. Growth and harvest The WH regenerate mostly from fragments of stems and the seeds can remain viable for more than six years. WH reproduces sexually by seeds and vegetatively by budding and stolen production. Daughter plants sprout from the stolons and doubling times have been studied of 6 18 days. Growth rates increase with increase in water nitrogen contents. Salinity is a major constraint on WH growth in coastal regions as salinity levels at 6.0 and 8.0% are optimal [5]. They usually sink and remain dormant until periods of stress (droughts) like 15-20 yrs. Upon reflooding, the seeds often germinate and renew the growth cycle [3, 7]. 2.2. Chemical analysis The chemical composition of the WH depends strongly on its environment. Several studies on chemical composition of the WH has been summarized in Table-I.
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Table-1: Chemical analysis of WH according to different sources

Parameter (% on DM basis) [1] [3] [6] [8] [9] Fresh Dry Matter (% on wb) Organic matter (VS) Crude protein Ether extract Nitrogen free extract Ash C/N ratio Neutral detergent fibre Acid detergent fibre Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin Phosphorus Carbon Nitrogen Magnesium Calcium Potassium 6.2 15 22 31 7 9.5 74.3 20 3.47 31.9 25.7 62.3 29.0 33.4 19.5 9.27 0.53 0.17 0.58 9.4 83.65 33.97 18 26.36 11.9 20.2 43.4 17.8 7.8 83.61 16.25 1.61 49.41 16.39 56.14 37.72 18.42 25.61 9.93 0.53 2.76 2.29 2.44 35.6 23.5 0.26 27.6 4.18 4.53 [3] Dried 52.07 25.1 0.32 18.54 0.74 2.27
3. Control To combat the problems caused by the WH, various efforts to control its spread have been taken up that include weed management methods such as physical removal, chemical methods (application of herbicides), release of biological control agents etc., which are shown in Table-II, along with its limitations. Study suggests to adopt integral biological and herbicidal controls; using herbicides to maintain WH infestations, which conserves biological control agent populations. Table-2: Methods for control of Water Hyacinth
Methods Physical Chemical Details Permanent drainage, Manual or mechanized removal. 2-4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D) + complexed copper 2, 4-D amine spray. Control by insects, allelopathic plants, algae and fungal pathogens Limitations Difficult and labor intensive, energy intensive, may involve health risk. Expensive, cannot control large infestations, long term adverse effects. Insufficient reduction and resurgence in growth, still under R&D stage. Ref: [3]
[11] [3,12]
Biological
4. Potential utilization of water hyacinth Several studies depicts that WH is a weed responsible for many of the problems as outlined above, however, there are other schools of thought that advocate useful applications for the plant. WH contains more than 95% water but due to its fibrous tissue and a high energy with protein content, it could be used in an integrated manner for decentralized WW treatment systems coupled to produce biogas and compost [6]. 4.1. Water hyacinth as phytoremediation agent The WH has an excellent ability to take up nutrients and other chemicals from its environment. It can tolerate considerable variation in nutrients, temperature and pH levels. WH is quite versatile plant as far as phytoremediation is concerned [3, 13]. Natural wetland systems colonized by WH could serve as nature's kidneys by decontaminating inorganic nutrients, toxic metals as well as persistent organic pollutants to preserve earth's precious water resources, as shown in Table-III.
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Table 3: Phytoremediation of industrial wastewater by Water hyacinth

WW source Textile mill effluent Results in % reduction or removal Conductivity (53.8), COD (97.4), TSS (62.4) in 34 days; NPK also reduced Comments WH showed better removal of pollutants from original waste as compared to settled waste Sodium acts as inhibitory Element. Microflora also contribute (9%) to degradation Biogas production enhanced in WH grown on effluents. TP removal after 9 weeks & 21 day HRT recommended. Ref. [13]
Pectin, carcass-treatment wastes and manure Simulated WW Pulp, paper mill effluent.
NH4N(11.118.08mg l-1 d-1) & PO4P(0.2 0.5mg l-1 d-1) at 100150mg l-1 d-1, NH4N loading rate Absorption & degradation (56%) of malathion. Significant removal of BOD and COD.
[3]
[9] [7]
Industrial effluent
100% TN.
[3, 8]
Nutrient removal from WW and surface runoff, using macrophyte-based systems has drawn a great interest [13, 14]. Besides domestic drainage with animal husbandry practices and more intensive row crop farming have expanded pollution problems in rural sector also. So the use of WH wetlands as biological filters for agricultural runoff or for polishing the treated dairy effluents [3] provides a promising strategy. In India also, WH-based WW treatment plants (pilot/full-scale) are performing well i.e. reduction in BOD, COD and TN, phosphorous reduction despite poor designing and vegetation management. Moreover, suitable combinations of WH with duckweed and / or blue-green algae produce superior nutrient removal than WH alone [15]. Table IV: Metal-rich waste water bio-sorption by dried/processed water hyacinth plant parts.
Max. bioaccumulation Capacity (mg kg-1 dry wt) of metals extracted Pb (47mg g-1), Cd (27), Cu (23), Zn (20). Hg - 28.4mg g-1at pH 5, Pb - 16.61mg g-1at pH 5, 64000 U6+g g-1. 93% of As(III) and 95% of As(V) Comments WH found to be better biosorbent at Acidic and basic treatments increased the metal uptake. Sorption dependent on contact time, pH, Hg (II) & carbon conc. Pb removal increased with increase in pH from 2 to 4. Sorption depends on pH, sorbent dose and U conc. At conc. in treated solution < 10g l-1, Ref: [3] [3] [4] [5]
4.2. Biogas production The mixture of water hyacinth and cow dung was found to produce more biogas per kilogram volatile solids added than maize and cotton stalks. Summary presented in Table-V shows that WH can compete well with any kind of animal manure as a substrate for biogas production. The gas produced during the process consists mainly of methane, CO2 and NH3, but small amounts of hydrogen sulphide may also occur. WH has a high content of hemicellulose and cellulose, but the existing hemicellulose has a rather strong association with the lignin in the plant, which makes it unavailable for the microorganisms. To optimize biogas production, the plants must undergo some kind of pre-treatment, where by using thermo chemical pre-treatment above problem can be solved, and results in increased gas production. Study found that the addition of metal ions: Fe3+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Co2+, & Cu2+, enhances gas rate with rich CH4 content [ 5]. Better yields of biogas are obtained using mixture of animal waste and WH and the sludge obtained from mixed feed with better nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content can be utilized as very good manure. However, use of the WH for digestion in a traditional digester presents some problems such as large digester size, lower biogas conversion efficiency (due to very high water content) and mandatory pre-treatment before digestion (to remove air entrapped in the tissue) have raised [3].
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Table-5: Biogas production using water hyacinth as main substrate.

Investigation (1) Lab-scale studies (2) Using Biphasic reactor (Rumen reactor + UASB). Pretreatment with fungi or chemicals, WH + night soil (1:3 and 3:1) Results (1) 60% methane, gas yield production (0.64 l g1of volatile matter per day) at optimum temperature - 35C, TSS - 7 to 9% (w/v), R.Time: 79 day, WHcattle dung ratio: 7:3 w/w. (2) Biogas yields (0.20 to 0.28 l g1) with 80% methane. Untreated WH : 0.10 l-1 g1 dm; Phanerochaete chrysosporium pretreatment: 0.24 l g1 dm; pyrogaliol red + P. chrysosporium: 0.31 l g1 dm. Enhanced biogas production which is rich in CH4. Ref: [3]
[5]
4.2.1 Sludge and compost Sludge from the anaerobic process is rich in nutrients and organic matter and provides a good way to recycle these nutrients. A wet biogas process has a dry matter content of 2 10%.Due to the anaerobic conditions, most of the N, in the sludge will be found in organic form, followed by ammonium (NH4+) (2050% or more) and a very small part as nitrate (NO3-). Anaerobic sludge is easily de-watered and there have been thoughts on marketing the dried sludge as a fertilizer [3, 6]. Much of the N, in anaerobic sludge is in ammonium (NH4 -) form and therefore is less likely to leach from the soil than nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-). An increase in agricultural productivity by 30% over farmyard manure is reported when using anaerobic sludge as a fertilizer [9]. Other possible treatment method for WH is aerobic decomposition, i.e., composting. Composting can be defined as the biological decomposition and stabilization of organic substrates, under conditions that allow development of thermophilic temperatures as a result of biologically produced heat. The final product should be stable, free of pathogens and plant seeds, and beneficial when applied to land [6]. Also, vermicasts produced during vermicasting are believed to contain enzymes and hormones that stimulate plant growth and discourage pathogens. With optimization of the earthworm species and worm density, pretreatment of the WH prior to composting as well as development of high-rate vermireactors, are reported as shown in Table-VI. Table-6: Vermicopmost production from water hyacinth Studies 1. Effect of high-rate and low-rate vermireactors 2. Comparison of epigeic species (Eudrilus eugeniae Kinberg, and Perionyx excavatus Perrier) and two anecic species (Lampito mauritii Kinberg and Drawida willsi Michaelson) 1. Vermicomposting of different forms of WH (fresh whole plants,chopped plants, dried plants, spent plant, precomposted plant) by E. eugeniae 2. Effect of worm density (50150 adults/l of digester volume) on vermicomposting of composted (20d) WH Result high-rate vermireactor produced 5.6 times greater vermicast/l digester volume/d than the low-rate reactors. Efficiency of vermiconversion of WH: Dung (6:1) mixtures followed the trend E. eugeniae>P. excavatus> L. mauritii>D. willsi. Precomposted forms most favored as feed and fresh whole form least favored; spent weed favored over the corresponding fresh forms. Vermicast yield increased from the 46.6% -1 -1 (50 worms l ) to 93.4% (150worms l ). Ref:
[9]
[3]
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5. Conclusions We have now a clearer picture of the environmental factors that affect the survival and growth of this WH plant. WH poses a big, and increasing, problem in many places; mechanical control alone might not be sufficient. If WH is introduced to the ponds for biological cleaning of the water, together with other adjustments, it might improve the degree of cleaning. Reduced nutrient input might in turn decrease the growth rate of the WH in the recipient water and thereby further improve the quality of the water and help to control the further spread of the hyacinths. To meet the ever-growing energy demand, biogas production could be one option but it requires investments and technological skills that would impose great problems in developing countries, where the WH is often found. Proper and large-scale utilization could serve as a positive approach to the control of WH. As far as the less advantaged rural areas (especially in developing countries) are concerned, the application of WH for decentralized WW treatment coupled with biogas, manure or animal feed production from the harvested biomass could offer a sustainable system. With technologies on various aspects, well researched individually, what is needed is a dedicated field scale testing of the region-specific integrations. Government interventions and people's participation could further break the barrier and provide the muchneeded social acceptance. However, the problem caused by WH to the communities far outweighs the benefits that might occur through utilization. Therefore, utilization and control strategies should go hand in hand and rather should try to complement each other. References [1] Bolenz, S. et al., Treatments of Water hyacinth tissues to obtain useful products. Biological Wastes, 33, 1990, 263-74. [2] Williams, A. E. et al., Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria: why did it vanish so quickly and will it return. Aquat Bot, 81, 2005, 300-14. [3] Malik, A. Review article: Environmental challenge vis a vis opportunity: The case of water hyacinth. Environment International, 33, 2007, 122-38. [4] Verma, V.K. et al. Biogas production from plant biomass used for phytoremediation of industrial wastes. Bioresource Technology, 98, 2007, 1664-69. [5] Al, Rmalli. S. W. et al. A biomaterial based approach for arsenic removal from water. Journal of Environ Monitoring, 7, 2005, 279-82. [6] Gunnarsson, C. C. and Petersen, C. M. Water hyacinth as a resource in agriculture and energy production: A literature review. Waste management, 27, 2007, 117-29. [7] Warrier, R. R. and Saroja, S. Impact of depolluted electroplating effluents on the growth and productivity of selected crops. Ecol Environ Conserv, 6, 2000, 251-53. [8] Poddar, K., et.al. Studies on water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) Chemical composition of the plant and water from different habitats. Indian Veterinary Journal, 68, 1991, 833-837. [9] Gajalakshmi, S. et al. Potential ot two epigeic and two anecic earthworm species in vermicomposting water hyacinth. Bioresour Technol, 76, 2001, 177-81. [10] Pulford, I. D. and Watson, C. Phytoremediation of heavy metal- contaminated land by trees a review. Environment International, 29, 2003, 529-40. [11] Thomas, T.H. and Eden, R. D. Water hyacinth - a major neglected resource. Mat Sci, Wind Energy, Biomass Technology, 3, 1990, 2092-96. [12] Shabana, Y. M. et al. Effect of designed mycoherbicide prepared from host specific candidate alternaria eichhorniae on some physiological and ultrastructural characters of waste water. Ann Agric Sci, 41, 1996, 421-43. [13] Trivedy, P. K. and Gudekar, V. R. Treatment of textile industry waste using water hyacinth. Water Sci Technology, 19, 1987, 103-07. [14] Lee, B. Insects for controlling water weeds. Rural Research, 105, 1979, 25-29. [15] Ram, S. and Moolani, M. K. Herbicidal weed control of water hyacinth under semi-arid conditions. Pestology, 24, 2000, 69-71.
175
Titanium Dioxide Solar Cell and Its Future Application

*
K.N.Wagh, R.S.Shelke
G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur Corresponding author (E-mail : kishor_25may@rediffmail.com)
Titanium dioxide solar cells are a promising alternative for the development of a new generation of photovoltaic devices. They are a successful combination of materials, consisting of a transparent electrode coated with a dye-sensitized mesoporous film of nano crystalline particles of TiO2, an electrolyte containing a suitable red ox-couple and a Platinum coated counter-electrode. At present this technology provides the only technically and economically credible alternative to the conventional and established solid state photovoltaic devices. There are good prospects to produce these cells at lower cost than conventional devices. The present work depicts the current state of the field, working principle, discuss new concepts of the dye-sensitized nano crystalline solar cell and analyze the perspectives for the future development of the technology. With attractive features, like low-cost potential, simple processing, and wide range of applicability these cells are one of step from the large-scale commercialization. This paper also describes main features of titanium dioxide solar cells and highlights recent breakthroughs in this promising thin-film photovoltaic (PV) technology and its future application. 1. Introduction
Photovoltaic devices are based on the concept of charge separation at an interface of two materials of different conduction mechanism. To date this field has been dominated by solid-state junction devices, usually made of silicon, and profiting from the experience and material availability resulting from the semiconductor industry. The dominance of the photovoltaic field by inorganic solid-state junction devices is now being challenged by the emergence of a third generation of cells, based on nanocrystalline material. There are good prospects to produce these cells at lower cost than conventional devices. At present dyesensitized photo systems provide the only technically and economically credible alternative to the conventional and established solid state photovoltaic devices. Optical absorption by an electro active dye and charge separation on the semiconductor take place on distinct sites within these photovoltaic cells, and in contrast to the solid state junction cell these are majority carrier devices. In consequence the oppositely charged mobile carriers are restricted to separate phases and conventional recombination losses are therefore significantly inhibited. In consequence device photo conversion efficiency is maintained to low light levels. Various configurations of the dye-sensitized concept are under investigation, including electrochemical and hetero junction variants. The solar cells based on these materials are called for example organic solar cells or molecular solar cells. In the process chemistry has emerged as a new key science alongside with physics in the development of new photovoltaic materials. The most well known and studied unconventional photovoltaic system is the dye sensitized solar cell developed by Professor Gratzel in 1991.At the moment this unique photo electrochemical solar cell based on a TiO2 nanoparticle photo electrode sensitized At the same time the research activity as well as the industrial interest around the technology is growing fast. Another group of new type of solar cells grabbing increasing industrial and research attention is the purely organic solar cells based on for example organic semi conducting polymers, macromolecules, dyes, pigments or liquid crystalline materials
176
2.
Working Principle of Titanium dioxide solar cell
The layer of titanium dioxide has a thickness of approx. 10 micrometer. The particles (each with a diameter of approx.20nm) are randomly stacked in a spongy three-dimensional network to which the organic dye molecules are chemically attached. This network becomes electrically conducting when it is illuminated. The layer of titanium dioxide is situated on top of glass substrate which has already been TCO coated as shown in fig1.
Figure 1. Working principle Titanium dioxide solar cell provides a technically and economically credible alternative concept to present photovoltaic devices. In contrast to the conventional systems where the semiconductor assume both the task of light absorption and charge carrier transport the two functions are separated here. Light is absorbed by a sensitizer, which is anchored to the surface of a wide band semiconductor. Charge separation takes place at the interface via photo-induced electron injection from the dye into the conduction band of the solid. Carriers are transported in the conduction band of the semiconductor to the charge collector. The use of sensitizers having a broad absorption band in conjunction with oxide films of nanocrstalline morphology permits to harvest a large fraction of sunlight. 3. Current development (Research and Manufacturability)
A pioneering building integration took place in Australia in 2003 as the research body CSIRO commissioned DSC BIPV system for the CSIRO Energy Centre in Newcastle. and Dye sol manufactured the solar wall panels to supply and install. The Australian company Dye sol has pioneered the commercialization of this technology after obtaining a license from the inventors and has developed the technology in practically every aspect (5). The company has recently introduced a flexible, foldable, lightweight and camouflaged solar panel for military applications which has been found to be superior to other PV technologies in maintaining voltage under a very wide range of light conditions even in the dappled light under trees. On one other hand, the roll-to-roll production developed by G24 innovation easily allows the transformation of a roll of metal foil into a 45 kg half mile of dye-sensitized thin film in less than tree hours (6).This material is rugged, flexible, and lightweight and generates electricity even indoors and in low light conditions. In place of liquid electrolyte, solid or quasi solid state hole conductors can be employed but the reduction in efficiency currently precludes practical application. The first and still the most efficient electrolytes were liquid, so cell and module designs that prevented electrolyte leakage had to be developed to prevent evaporation. Stability and lifetime of DSC modules have thus reached appreciable values, and rapid improvements are being made (7).Orion solar has developed inexpensive modules based on
177
15 cm X 15 cm dye cell, by using a low-cost method of depositing TiO2 in a sponge-like array on top of flexible plastic sheets (8). This is only one of the many companies that are waiting for best moment to start commercial activities to enter the market, as in the case of the Japanese Mitsubishi, Sony, Sharp and Aisin Seiki. 4. Evolution of PV market and DSC progressive importance
While wide band-gap semiconductors like TiO2 or ZnO are cheap and hot chemically stable, making them suitable for PV applications, their spectral sensitivity is limited to UV. For this reason a chromophoric compound, the sensitizer, is adsorbed onto the semiconductors surface expanding the absorption spectrum range, and thus increasing light harvesting efficiency.35 Sensitization was first tried at the end of the XIX century with the advent of color photography using silver halides. Only one century later did sensitization started to be used for photo electrochemical purposes. A US patent submitted in 1977 already included almost all major characteristics of todays technology and is entitled titanium dioxide solar cells. Although previous works regarding TiO2 sensitization by polypyridyl ruthenium complexes were published by Gratzel and co-workers in the 1980s, it was the 1991 article that originated the interest that still seems to be increasing every year (Fig.2). The work reported a breakthrough efficiency of around 7% motivated by the innovative use of a nanoscopic TiO2 particle layer and a careful choice of a ruthenium complex as the light absorber. Despite the current PV market status being dominated by Silicon, research reports forecast an impressive growth of new emerging solar cell technologies. Within decades Silicon will loose its unquestionable leadership (Fig. 3).The average annual growth rate for non cSi cells is estimated at 43% over the next 10 years, a tremendous rate of growth. It must be made clear that all these different technologies will coexist since they all have their pros and cons. A number of factors like location, power demand, climatic conditions, panel orientation etc. must be taken into account before an accurate choice can be made. In the same way that no particular renewable source will solve our energy problem, no particular PV cells are expected to stand alone in future.
Figure 2. Number of published documents (articles, conference papers and Reviews). 5. Applications
It is very satisfactory to note that the Titanium dioxide is now emerging from the research laboratory and that production and field evaluation can be evaluated. This technology is probably the most appropriate application for use in building integration and the wide range of available colours and transparency. Along with the wide range of operation temperatures and the relative insensitivity to the angle of incident light make these solar modules very attractive. All these factors allow for building integrated windows, walls and roofs of varying colour and transparency that will simultaneously generate electricity even in diffuse light or at relatively low light levels in addition to whatever other function they serve. Solar wall panels are constructed in a laminated design with the connected tiles sandwiched between two panes of
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glass fully encapsulated in the UV resistant transparent laminating polymer. Electrical interface can be typically via a short DC bus to a local area network for regulation and distribution or inversion to AC. The integrated modules design comprises two sheets of conducting glass with the electrode deposited on one sheet and the counter- electrode deposited on the second sheet.
Figure 3. Relative market share of cSi, thin film and new concepts over time Other application mainly developed by G24i, include efficient and lightweight solar power for extra talk time of mobile phones, solar stations consisting of and ecosystem of solar products to enable the use of mobile phones in areas not reached by the electric grid, and solar jackets with integrated battery supply for universal charging together with LED lights. 6. Roadmap
One of the major points of this technology is the technologys relative insensitivity to impurities. This along with the intrinsically low cost of the constituents allows for production costs much lower than those of conventional crystalline silicon. Advantages of the technology include its low cost the materials are inexpensive abundant and innocuous (Titania is widely used in toothpastes sunscreen and white paint) ease of production transparency and compared to Si-based cells. Technology boast easy bifacial configuration advantageous for diffuse light and colour which can be varied by selection of the dye including invisible PV cells based on near-IR sensitizers. Furthermore, contrary to Si-based modules, the performance of dye PV modules increases with temperature. Hence the global energy production of these modules is significantly higher than that of amorphous Si-based modules despite their lower 5% efficiency. This was demonstrated during the 2005 Expo in Japan by analysis of the setup of the Toyota exhibition house, which was equipped with solar cell modules consisting of wall integrated 2.5m X 2.5m solar panels. Keeping a close eye on the energy produced it was revealed that the these modules gave a faster output rise in the morning and a slower fall in the afternoon due to a different dependence on solar incident angle. Stable and 10% efficient cells are expected to become easily affordable in a very short time. These cells can surly give shorter pay-back times than other conventional and new PV technologies. As evidence of chemical and thermal robustness, recent accelerated aging test showed that 8% efficient laboratory solar cell retain 98% of their initial performance over 0 1000h when subjected to thermal stress (80 C) in the dark or when exposed to both thermal 0 stress (60 C) and continuous light soaking over 1000h. These results strengthen the technologys case for real investment further proof of which is the evidence that suggests that and several companies are working toward commercializing (9). As to the next few years developments, it is expected that some companies will attain 10% efficient modules that approach the criteria for solar module certification for 0 thermal aging at 85 C for 1000h in the dark and for light soaking in full sunlight for 1000h at 0 60 C. A realistic goal is that 20% efficient laboratory sensitized solar cells will be achieved by
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2015.Research on innovative dyes, for example is expected to lead to considerable progress in the cells efficiency. Mitsubishi a manufacturer of traditional PV modules has developed a whole new series of undisclosed high efficient new dyes. Proprietary newly developed dyes available to Japan scientific community engaged in PV research. Among such dyes, the early 2000s saw the first example of metal-free entirely organic dye indoline that (at the beginning of the 2000s) gave 8% efficiency (10). This is only one of the many developments made in the last few years that will surely bring DSC technology to the fore for many manufactures as a viable processing method. 7. Conclusions
The Titanium dioxide nanocrystalline electrochemical photovoltaic system has become a validated and credible competitor to solid-state junction devices for the conversion of solar energy into electricity. It is the prototype of a series of optoelectronic and energy technology devices exploiting the specific characteristics of this innovative structure for oxide and ceramic semiconductor films. Recent developments in the area of sensitizers for these devices have lead to dyes which absorb across the visible spectrum leading to higher efficiencies. The recent development of an all solid-state hetero junction dye solar cell holds additional potential for further cost reduction and simplification of the manufacturing of titanium dioxide solar cells. These cells can meet the demands required by calculators, watches etc. under typical indoor conditions. From the point of view of production technology and special applications, these solar cells are an attractive alternative to the existing rigid systems. Further improvements are probable; they depend critically on systematic and successful materials research. Stability data under laboratory test conditions from the years are encouraging; These developments have fuelled an active commercial interest in the past few years. With its attractive features, like low-cost potential, good performance under typical changes in operating conditions (temperature and illumination conditions), and application variability, the appearance of the first commercial products in the marketplace seems close. References [1] Luis Moreira Goncalves, Veronica de Zea Bermudez, Helena Aguilar Ribeiro and Adelio Magalhaes Mendes, Dye sensitized solar cell : A safe bet for the future. an Advance Article on the web 24 October 2008. [2] M.Gratzel and A.J.McEvoy, Principle and Application of Dye Sensitized Nanocrystalline Solar Cells (DSC) Ecole Polytechnique Federal de Lausanne, Switzerland. 2005. [3] Michael Gratzel Review Dye-Sensitized solar cell Laboratory for Photonics and Interfaces,Swiss Federal Institute of Technology,July 2003. [4] Web reference [available online at http://www.dyesol.com]. [5] Web reference [available online at http://www.g24i.com]. [6] Pagliaro,M.,Palmisano, G. & Ciriminna, Flexible Solar Cells,Wiely-VCH, Weinheim. 2008 [7] Web reference [available online at http://www.orionsolar.net] [8] Matson,R., Sensitized Solar Cells,NREL/MP-520-41739 Management Report.June, 2007. [9] Horiuchi.T.,Miura,H.,Sumioka, K. & Uchida, High Efficiency of Dye sensitized Solar Cell Based on Metal Free Indoline Dyes, Journal of Americal chemical society S- 2004.
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A Numerical Investigation of Multi- Louvered Compact Plate Fin Heat Exchanger for Circular Tube with Hydrophilic Coating
S.Kalaiselvam *, P.Bharathidasan College of Engineering guindy,Anna University,Chennai - 600 025,Tamilnadu,India Corresponding author (e-mail: kalai@annauniv.edu) Heat exchanger is a thrust area, which required constant improvement in the performance. Recently multi-louvered plate fin heat exchangers, a kind of compact heat exchanger, have been the subject of vast research. In the present study, successively increased or decreased louver angle patterns are proposed and 3-D numerical analysis on heat and fluid flow are carried out. A steady-state threedimensional numerical model was used to study the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of an multi-louvered compact plate fin heat exchanger. Air was the heat transfer medium, and the Reynolds number ranged from 200 to 1600. A numerical study was performed on compact n-and-tube heat exchangers having circular tube with multilouvered fins. Air side performance for heat exchanger with and without hydrophilic coating has been studied.The pressure drops for the hydrophilic coated surface were lower than the corresponding un-coated surfaces.The heat transfer performance for the hydrophilic coating surface was found to be lower than the corresponding un-coated surface tested at the same condition. moreover, the increase in the heat transfer performance was found to be 20% for louver angle 26,n pitches of 1.2 mm with hydrophilic coating. The effects of number of tube rows, n pitch and louver angle on airside performance were analyzed.
1.
Introduction Plate fin heat exchanger is a kind of compact heat exchanger which chances upon its competition in automobile radiators, air conditioning evaporators and condensers, charge air coolers, electronic cooling devices and cryogenic exchangers to meet the demand for saving energy and resources. To reduce the size and weight of heat exchangers assorted augmented surfaces have been evolved to enhance the air side heat transfer performances.(Junqi Dong et.al,2007). Typical fin geometries are plain fins, wavy fins, offset fins, perforated fins, pin fins and louvered fins. For these complex geometries, which are customarily set up in a cross flow arrangement, Multi-louvered fin have a higher degree of surface compactness and high efficiency (Ching et.al, 2006). The Plate fin heat exchanger core is crafted with layers of plate and fins. Fluid will be streaming in the passage created between the plate and the fins. Hot and cold fluids flow alternatively in each plate fin assembly and heat transfer takes place between them. Chang et al. and Chang and Wang presented 27 samples of corrugated louvered fin heat exchangers with different geometrical parameters, including louver length, louver pitch, fin height and fin pitch. Jang et al. numerically investigated a three-dimensional convex louver finned-tube heat exchangers. The effects of different geometrical parameters, including louver angles, louver pitch and fin pitch are investigated in detail for the Reynolds number (based on the fin spacing and the frontal velocity) ranging from 100 to 1100. It was shown that, for equal louver pitch, both the average Nusselt number and pressure drop coefficient are increased as the louver angle is increased; while for equal louver angles, they are decreased as the louver pitch is increased. Finned tube heat exchangers are widely used in a variety of applications such as airconditioning, refrigeration and in the process industry. Generally,the heat exchangers consist of a plurality of spaced parallel tubes through which a heat transfer medium such as water, oil or refrigerant is forced to flow while a second heat transfer fluid like air is directed across the tubes.
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For automotive application, such as radiators, condensers and evaporators, the louver fins are generally brazed (or soldered, mechanically expanded) to a flat,extruded tube, with a cross section of several independent passages, and formed into a serpentine or a parallel flow geometry.For applications to residential airconditioning systems, the fin-and-tube heat exchangers are consisted of mechanically or hydraulically expanded round tubes in a block of parallel continuous fins. 2. Multi-louvered plate fin heat exchanger The multi-louvered plate fin heat exchanger are preferred to conventional heat exchanger due to their high surface area available, compactness and capability to have multi-louvered fin.( Chi-Chuan Wang.et al,2000) Heat exchangers are employed virtually in all industrial sectors and domestic appliances. Nowadays the applications of compact heat exchanger are expanding expeditiously. The principal parts of these plate fin heat exchangers is the secondary heat transfer surface called fin. 2.1 Methodology The various fin types are modeled for the standard specifications using the modeling software (pro-E). Each fin configurations are investigated for heat transfer and pressure drop for the specified boundary conditions using CFD analysis CFX. The numerically obtained heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of the fin arrangement will be validated experimentally. specifications of plate fin model Table 1. The plate fin arrangements specifications.(C-C.Wang.et.al,1999)
S.N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Multi-louvered fin Material Aluminium Louver Length Louver Pitch Louver Height Louver Angle Fin Pitch Fin thickness 6.25mm 2.4mm 1.4mm 26o 2mm 0.3mm Tube Material Outer Diameter Inner Diameter Wall Thickness No. of row in tube Longitudinal Pitch Transverse pitch 2 19.05mm 25.4mm Copper 9.5mm 6mm 3.5mm
2.3
2.4 Boundary conditions Plate temperature : 90oC, Air inlet temperature : 30oC, Air velocity : 3ms-1, Air density -3 : 1.19kgm , Fin material : Aluminium (k=204Wm-1K-1. 3. Numerical simulation 3.1 Plate fin & multi-louver fin model The plate fin models are a small representation of the plate fin heat exchanger. A single passage alone is taken into consideration.(Chi-Chuan Wang.et.al,1997) The various fin configurations are plain fin, multi-louvered fin as shown in figure.1 and fig.2.respectively. A simple fin and multilouvered fin model is analyzed.
Figure 1.simple plain fin
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Figure 2. Schematic of multi-louvered fin 4. Results and discussion Three dimensional computational fluid dynamics analysis has been done for a plain fin and tube heat exchanger with circular tube arrangement. Steady state analysis is effected to detect the temperature, pressure fluctuations inside the plate fin model. Steady state analysis is performed for simple fin and louvered fin to find the time required for the fin arrangement for a particular temperature drop to arrive at the more efficient fin. The fin arrangement which takes minimal time for transferring heat is the best fin arrangement. Steady state condition of plain fin The temperature diversification is more in the surface of the fin. It takes 3.900 seconds for the fin to drop from 363K to 323K. The fin temperature drops down linearly along the length of the plate fin model. The pressure distribution is shown in the figure.3.The profiles representing the temperature distribution of the plain fin are shown in figure.3 and 4respectively.
Figure 3.Temperature distribution
Figure 4.Pressure distribution
Steady state analyses of multi-louvered fin Multi louvered fin takes 3.900 seconds for the fin to drop from 363K to 323K. The fin temperature drops down linearly along the length of the plate fin model. The pressure variation is shown in the figure.5.The profiles showing the temperature distribution of the plain fin are shown in figure.6 and 4respectively.
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LOUVERED ANGLE vs TEMPERATURE

370 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270 1 3 8 12 18 21 23 26 30 34 40 Louvered angle 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1
LOUVERED ANGLE vs PRESSURE
Tempereture in K
temp
PRESSURE in Pa
pr
12
18
21
23
26
30
34
40
LOUVERED ANGLE
Figure 7.various temperature with louver angle
Figure 8.various pressure with louver angle
From figures.7 shows that air outlet temperature increase up to an angle of 26 and then it seens to be decreasing.This may be due to reduction in the contact area.figures.8 shows that the pressure drop is found to be minium for an louver angle 26. Multi-louvered fin with hydrophilic coating The pre-coated design is a two-layer surface with anti-corrosion layer above the base aluminum material and hydrophilic toping above the anti-corrosion layer.(Xiaokui Ma.et.al, 2007) . The major ingredients of the hydrophilic coating are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyisobutylene, polyvinylalcohol, polystyrene. The presence of condensate may act as a roughening mechanism and thus increase in heat transfer is accomplished. By decimating the fin pitch the roughness effect can be amplified significantly. For the Fin pitch of 2 mm the drop of heat transfer coecients for hydrophilic surfaces can be enhanced to 20%. In addition to the heat transfer performance, the eect of hydrophilic coating can considerably curtail the associated pressure drops.
Figure 9. Coatingstructure of fin surface

LOUVERED ANGLE vs TEMPERATURE
370 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270 1 3 8 12 18 21 23 26 30 34 40 LOUVERED ANGLE 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 3

TEMPERATURE
uncoated coated
PRESSURE
uncoated coated
12
18
21
23
26
30
34
40
LOUVERED ANGLE
Figure 12.various temperature with louver angle
Figure 13.various pressure with louver angle
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LOUVERED ANGLE vs TEPERATURE

370 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270 1 3 8 12 18 21 23 26 30 34 40 LOUVERED ANGLE
4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1 3
TEPERATURE in K
PRESSURE in pa
Temp-1 Temp-2 Temp-3 Temp-4 Temp-5
pr-5 pr-4 pr-3 pr-2 pr-1
12
18
21
23
26
30
34
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LOUVERED ANGLE
Figure 14.various temperature with louver angle 5. Conclusions
Figure 15. Pressure vs. louver angle
The numerical investigation carried out in the plate fin and multi-louvered fin models the following conclusions.It was found that there was no appreciable heat interaction between the plate fin and the air flow through the large surface contact area available. This is due to the fact that velocity of air is high.( Dohoy Jung.et.al,2006) At high velocity residence time of the air inside the plate fin arrangement is less, leads to less heat interaction between the plate fin and air.There is a gradual decrease in the pressure from the inlet to the exit whereas the velocity of airflow slightly increases from the inlet to the exit. This is due to the very small dimension of the plate fin arrangement.The contact area between the plate and the fin is also responsible for heat transfer enhancement. To improve the heat transfer characteristics of the plate fin model, the contact area between the plate and fin should be increased.(Thomas Perrotin.et.al,2004) Increase in the surface area of both plate and fin leads to better heat transfer characteristics. If the fin configuration is denser, heat transfer characteristics will be enhanced, but care must be taken to avoid excessive pressure drop.As per the analyses performed with the effects of fin pitch, fin length and fin height in the plain plate fin and the effects of louver angle, louver pitch and louver length in the multilouvered fin, the multi-louvered fin has a better heat transfer coefficient with an increase in pressure drop, which is at an acceptable level. References [1] Junqi Dong, Jiangping Chen, Zhijiu Chen, Wenfeng Zhang, Yimin Zhou. Heat transfer and pressure drop correlations for the multi-louvered fin compact heat exchangers, Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 15061515. [2] Ching-Tsun Hsieh, Jiin-Yun Jang. 3-D thermal-hydraulic for louver fin heat exchangers with variable louver angle. Applied Thermal Engineering 26 (2006) 1629-1639. [3[ C.-C. Wang, C.-J. Lee, C.-T. Chang, S.-P. Lin Heat transfer and friction correlation for compact louvered fin and tube heat exchangers International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 42(1999) 1945-1956. [4] Chi-Chuan Wang, Kuan-Yu Chi, Heat transfer and friction characteristics of plain fin and tube heat exchangers International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 43 (2000) 2681-2691. [5] Chi-Chuan Wang, Kuan-Yu Chi And Yu-Juei Chang, An experimental study of heat transfer and friction characteristics of typical louver fin-and-tube heat exchangers PII:S00179310(97)00154-35 [6] Dohoy Jung and Dennis N. Assanis, Numerical modeling of cross flow compact heat exchanger with louvered fins using thermal resistance concept SAE paper 2006-01-0726, 2006. [7] Thomas Perrotin and Denis Clodic, Thermal hydraulic CFD study in louvered fin-and-flattube heat exchangers International Journal of Refrigeration 27 (2004) 422-432. [8] Xiaokui Ma, Guoliang Ding, Yuanming Zhang and Kaijian Wang, Airside heat transfer and friction characteristics for enhanced fin-and-tube heat exchanger with hydrophilic coating under wet conditions.
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Measurement of Physical parameters of Four Stroke Single Cylinder I.C.Engine using DAQ
Umesh Kantute , Nilaj N. Deshmukh , Mrs. S.H.Kulkarni
1* 2 3
Agnel Polytechnic, Sector 9A , Vashi , Navi Mumbai 2 Fr. C. Rodrigues Institute of Technology, 3 V.J.T.I.,Matunga, Mumbai . Corresponding author (email: kantuteumesh@rediffmail.com)
A data acquisition system is a device designed to measure various parameters. The purpose of the data acquisition system is generally the analysis of the data and the improvement in accuracy of measurements. This paper involves measurement of temperatures at various points of internal combustion engine using data acquisition system . For this the data is acquired from internal combustion engine and send to computer after required conditioning. The acquired temperature readings will help to calculate heat lost to calorimeter & exhaust for fixed mass flow rate of water and A/F ratio respectively. The graphical display on the computer screen can be made by using any software like Visual Basic . The measurement of Temperatures of an I .C. Engine requires Software like Visual Basic , Hardware PCI 1050 Card with Signal Conditioning using INA128 IC and Sensors like RTD .
1.
Introduction
A data acquisition system is a device designed to measure various parameters. The purpose of the data acquisition system is generally the analysis of the data and the improvement of the object of measurements. The data acquisition system is normally electronics based, and it is made of hardware and software. The hardware part is made of sensors, cables and electronics components. The software part is made of the data acquisition logic and the analysis software . DAQ can be used to measure parameters such as temperatures at various points on an I.C.Engine in order to study its performance & behaviour over a period of time.
2.
Temperature Measurement
Temperature is one of the important physical quantities that need to be measured in many industrial applications. In I.C.Engines , measured temperature readings are useful to calculate heat lost to calorimeter, heat lost to exhaust for fixed mass flow rate of water and A/F Ratio. Resistance temperature detectors and themocouples are some of the commonly used temperature sensors. 2.1 Temperature Measurement using RTD Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are temperature sensors that uses the
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change in electrical resistance of some materials with change in temperature. As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs).Wire-wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature ranges. The most common devices used in industry have a nominal resistance of 100 ohms at 0 C, and are called Pt-100 sensors ('Pt' is the symbol for platinum). The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is a nominal 0.385 ohm/C. RTDs with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/C are also available.Resistance thermometers use electrical resistance and require a small power source to operate. The resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature.Resistance thermometers are usually made using platinum, because of its linear resistance-temperature relationship and its chemical inertness. The platinum detecting wire needs to be kept free of contamination to remain stable.[7]
Figure 2. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) 2.2 Signal Conditioners
The signal from any sensor must be converted from its analog form into a digital signal that the computer can understand. This can be done by a signal conditioner and by the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter on a data acquisition board. [2] . The signal conditioning consists of signal isolation, filtering, amplification, and linear conversion of signals ranging from 10 mV to 40 V to a more usable voltage. Sensor signals are often incompatible with data acquisition hardware. To overcome this incompatibility, the signal must be conditioned. For example, you might need to condition an input signal by amplifying it or by removing unwanted frequency components. [5]. Signal conditioning means manipulating an analogue signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing. For example, the output of an electronic temperature sensor, which is probably in the millivolts range is too low for an Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to process directly. In this case the signal conditioning is the amplification necessary to bring the voltage level up to that required by the ADC.[4]
Figure 3. Temperature
Signal
conditioner
for
Figure 4. Connector for ADC Card
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Gain of Designed Signal Conditioner
(1) Signal Conditioning using INA128 Instrumentation Amplifiers The INA128 and INA129 are low power, general purpose instrumentation amplifiers offering excellent accuracy. Their versatile 3-op amp design and small size make them ideal for a wide range of applications. Current-feedback input circuitry provides wide bandwidth even at high gain (200kHz at G = 100).A single external resistor sets any gain from 1 to 10,000. INA128 provides an industry standard gain equation; INA129s gain equation is compatible with the AD620. The INA128/INA129 is laser trimmed for very low offset voltage (50mV), drift (0.5mV/C) and high common-mode rejection (120dB at G 100). It operates with power supplies as low as 2.25V, and quiescent current is only 700mAideal for battery operated systems. Internal input protection can withstand up to 40V without damage. The INA128/INA129 is available in 8-pin plastic DIP, and SO-8 surface-mount packages, specified for the 40C to +85C temperature range. The INA128 is also available in dual configuration, the INA2128.[9] 2.3 Signal Conditioning for Temperature
RTD Pt 100 sensor is used for sensing the temperatures at various points in the I.C.Engine. This is a passive sensor . The resistance of RTD varies linearly with temperature which needs to be converted to voltage for measurement.INA 128 is used for signal conditioning . It has 8 pins . Resistor Rg (Rg = 51 K) is connected in between the pins 1 and 8. The value 51 K of resistance is selected according to the desired gain. The gain of INA 128 is given by
(2) The amplification required is 2 (the expected gain is assumed to be 2 as the voltage should not exceed 2.5 V max.) . For adjustment of the gain , a preset of 5 K is fitted in the circuit. This preset acts as a potentiometer and the value of resistance can be varied according to the gain required. The resistance of RTD is Rt and is connected to the pins 2 and 3 of INA 128. This is the input from RTD and output is obtained at pin no. 6 . ( output is Vo) Pin 5 acts as a reference and Vcc is given to the pin 4 ( -ve Vcc ) and pin 7 (+ve Vcc) . The Vcc supplied is 5 V d.c. The change in resistance Rt connected to pins 2 and 3 is converted into voltage as the current flowing in the circuit is constant and is about 10 mA. The voltage output of RTD is in mV which can not be sensed by ADC card and hence amplified to obtain volt (Vo) by using preset and adjusting the gain. Resistor Rg of 51 K can be identified by colour code Green--Brown---Orange. CMRR : Common mode Rejection Ratio can be defined as a ratio of differential mode gain to the common mode gain. (CMRR = Ad / Ac) Ac = gain of common signals like noise , air and environmental signals. Ad = Gain of differential mode. CMRR is theoretically infinite .Maximum CMRR is desirable.
Figure 5. Signal Conditioning for Temperature
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2.4
A/D Conversion using ADC Card
The PCI 1050 is a multichannel, multifunction DAS card for PCI bus. It features 16 single ended channels 12-bit A/D converter, a single channel 12-bit D/A converter, 16 digital inputs and 16 digital outputs. The input multiplexer used has a fault and overvoltage protection built in. It is supported by powerful 32-bit API functions for I/O processing under WIN98/2000 operating system. All the user interface signals are terminated on rugged 62 pin high-density D-Type connector.
Figure 6 . ADC Card 2.5 Software
The data acquisition system increases efficiency of measurement and lowers the cost for test, through easy to integrate software like VB,C++ , MATLAB or Lab VIEW. With this system , engineers can use graphical representation to meet their specific needs . A powerful windows based software can be developed with the system. This software takes input values of all temperatures of the engine and heat balance sheet can be obtained on the screen. The software consists of two parts a) software for front end i.e. display screen b) software for back end i.e. for calibration &computations
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2.6
Results and Conclusion
The testing & measurement of various parameters of an I.C.Engine can be done manually by operator or by using Data Acquisition System . It is done manually with the help of different mechanical conventional measuring instruments. The human errors are likely to occur while manual measurement as operator is involved in the measurement process. Secondly calibration errors are likely to occur in the measuring instruments .When data acquisition system is used for the testing/ measurement , the human errors are reduced to a large extent as operators involvement is very less in the measurement process but the errors due to noise signals from the surrounding , environmental distortions and air signals may be considerable. Also it helps to analyse the data as it can be stored directly to computer. It helps to reduce the nomber of operatore to note down the readings. References
[1] Rangan C.S. and Sarma R. Instrumentation Device and System, Tata McGraw Hill,
Second Edition. [2] Kalsi, H.S. Electronic Instrumentation, First Edition. [3] Domkundwar, S. Thermal Engineering. [4] Geddes, L.A. and Baker L. E. Principles of Applied Biomedical Instrumentation,Third Edition, John Wiley&Sons, 1989. [5] Bentle, J. P. Principles of Measurement Systems, Second Edition, Burnt Mill,: Longman Scientific and Technical, UK, 1988. [6] Doebelin, E.O. Measurement Systems: Application and Design, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill New York, 1990. [7] www. ni.com/sensorscollector [8] Fraser, R.E. Process Measurement and Control Introduction to Sensors,Communication, Adjustment, and Control, Prentice-Hall Inc.,Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001. [9] www.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheets_pdf/I/N/A/1/INA128P
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Prediction of Cavitation inside Mini-sac Diesel Injector Nozzle using Computational Fluid Dynamics
Shrinath S. Korgavkar1*, Prof. B.S.Gawali 1, M.V.Kulkarni 2
1 2
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli 416415, Maharashtra, India Mahindra Engineering Services Ltd Pune 410057, Maharashtra, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: shrinath.sk@gmail.com)
Fuel injector nozzle is important part of fuel injection system which plays dominant role in spray formation which directly and indirectly affects on combustion efficiency of diesel engine. The performance of the internal flow of the fuel injector nozzle is impeded by several factors. Cavitation is one of the factor which affects fluid flow. It is associated with local pressure distribution inside nozzle. Therefore cavitation plays major role while designing injector nozzle. In the present study, analysis of existing six hole mini-sac diesel injector nozzle is carried out using commercial CFD package. The main objective of research is to design of nozzle to avoid cavitation and to find out contribution of different parameters through parametric study. The results are predicted and compared with both test result and analytical result at steady state conditions for different needle lift. 1. Introduction
The injector nozzle plays very important role in engineering applications related to fuel injection systems. The internal flow through an injection nozzle is very important aspect of spray formation and atomization generated by the nozzle, and is correlated to the combustion efficiency and resultant formation of pollutants. A thorough understanding of the complex nature of flow intra nozzle and flow contagious to nozzle is necessary for predicting spray development [1]. On the other side cavitation occur inside diesel injector nozzle due to pressure drop below saturated vapour pressure which is also responsible to minimize the combustion efficiency directly and indirectly. Computational Fluid Dynamics has proved its importance in recent years, which is diagnostics tool for modeling thermal and fluid flow problems [2]. The work presented in this paper aims at predicting the cavitating area to minimize cavitation using CFD code, FLUENT 6.3.26 so as to improve the nozzle design. The design methodology is validated using experimental data reported by industry. 2. Theoretical background
In present analysis six hole nozzle with sac volume is considered and is shown in Figure 1. The nozzle is consisting of six holes and each hole located symmetrically. Therefore only single nozzle hole is considered for analysis to minimize the computational efforts.
Figure 1. Geometry of minisac nozzle with dimensions in mm

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3. Analysis The analysis is carried out analytically and numerically. Analytical solution is used to calculate reference mass flow rate at outlet and numerical solution provides vapour fraction along the nozzle hole. 3.1. Analytical solution A reference mass flow (Mref) is calculated using Bernoulli equation and value of coefficient of discharge is calculated from correlation reported by Martynov [3]. The obtained velocity at outlet is 231.12 m/s and mass flow rate is 0.0212479. 3.2. Numerical solution Analysis is done using CFD code. The steps in the analysis are geometry creation, meshing, assigning boundary conditions, solution and post-processing. In the geometry creation and meshing, the nozzle geometry is modelled and divided in small element. After that assigning boundary conditions and domain defining is carried out. Then the system is imported suitable solver to solve it using different physical model. In post-processing, various parameters are predicted to get more details about results. The present system is analysed using above steps with proper model as follows. 3.2.1. Computational model To analyze the flow characteristics of the in-nozzle flow, the 3D axisymmetric single nozzle is considered as continuum. The nozzle was modelled using GAMBIT 2.3.16 and meshing was done with tet/hybrid element and T-Grid meshing scheme for good surface meshing. Then model were imported to fluent with assigned boundary conditions. 3.2.2. Initial and boundary conditions In the present analysis, the pressure at inlet and outlet are specified with pressure 500 and 5 bar respectively with a temperature of 300 K and vaporization pressure 5400 Pa. Density and viscosity of diesel is 832 kg/m3 and 0.0065. The commercial code consists of different solver model such as turbulence, radiation and phase change. In the present analysis, the reference velocity indicates higher turbulent flows. Therefore standard K- model employed for analysis [4]. 3.2.4. Results and discussion The performance prediction for mass flow rate with different needle lift at steady state condition is carried out. The variation of needle lift Vs mass flow rate is presented in Figure 2. It is observed over full needle lift the maximum variation in predicted and experimental results is 8.67%.
Figure 2: variation of needle lift Vs mass flow rate

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The pressure and vapour distribution along nozzle length is presented in Figure 3. The cavitation formation is obtained at solid boundary of nozzle hole.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3: (a) Pressure contour plot. (b) Phase contour plot.

3.2.5. Parametric study As cavitation along nozzle hole, there is need to study the influence of different parameters. There are different geometrical parameters considered for parametric study such sac volume, nozzle hole angle and corner radius to predict the cavitation.
(a) 0.5 mm, 0 mm and 68
(b) 0.475 mm, 0 mm and 68
(c) 0.475 mm, 0 mm and 65 (d) 0.5 mm, 0 mm and 62
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(e) 0.5 mm, 0.375 mm and 65
(f) 0.5 mm, 0.75 mm and 65
Figure 4: pressure contour plots for different cases

Figure 4 indicate that the formation of cavitation mostly along the nozzle hole length near solid boundary due to abrupt changes in the flow path while fuel travels from sac area to nozzle hole inlet. In the figure nomenclature the first fraction and second fraction corresponds to sac volume radius and corner radius respectively. The last number indicates the nozzle hole angle. Following conclusions are based on the parametric study: 1. Larger sac volume has always problem of dribbling, therefore from that point of view the radius of sac volume reduced to 5 % and it shows effect of cavitation. Figure 4a and 4b indicate that less cavitation occurred at minimum sac volume area. 2. In the analysis, the nozzle hole angle was reduced up to 10% and its effect on cavitation was analysed. It is difficult predict the effect of nozzle hole angle on cavitation. However it was observed that minimum cavitation occurred for nozzle cone angle of 65 which is quite obvious from comparison of figure 4b, 4c and 4d. 3. In case of corner radius, corner radius was increased in the relation of nozzle hole diameter (CR = 0, 0.1 and 0.2 D) and the effect of corner radius is analysed in figure 4d, 4e and 4f. It indicates that the role corner radius more dominant for minimising cavitation.
Figure 5: Comparison of different combinations of parameter for minimizing of cavitation
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The Figure 5 shows the graph of combined effect of parameters on cavitation. It is useful to select the combination with minimum cavitation. From the graph, it is studied that the corner radius plays important role to minimize the cavitation. From the view point of nozzle hole angle, it is difficult to predict the role of nozzle hole angle for different sac volume and different corner radius. For given geometry and boundary conditions, 65 nozzle hole angle gives minimum cavitation for sac volume 0.475 mm and maximum for 0.5 mm with corner radius. Minimum vapour fraction is observed for combination of 0.475mm sac volume with 65 hole angle and 0.075 mm corner radius.
4.
Conclusions
1. The cavitation prediction for given minisac diesel injector nozzle is done successfully. CFD results are validated against test results. A deviation of 8.67% is observed. 2. The parametric study gives the optimum value of parameters to minimize cavitation. The cavitation is influenced more by change in corner radius compared to other two parameters. 5. Future scope
1. The present work can be extended to study the effect of variation in nozzle hole diameter and nozzle hole length. 2. In present study, analysis is carried out with fixed needle lift. It may possible to analyze the cavitation inside nozzle with transient needle lift. References [1] Lagumbay, R. S. and Wang, J. Numerical simulation of supersonic 3- phase cavitating jet flow through a gaseous medium in injection nozzle, IMECE2005-82948, 5-11 Nov. [2] Versteeg, H.K. and Malalaserekha, W. An Introduction to computational fluid dynamics, Publication Longman scientific and technical, Inc [3] Martynov, S. Numerical simulation of cavitation process in diesel injectors. PhD Thesis, University of Brighton, 2005. [4] Papoulis, D. Arcoumanis, C. Evaluation of predictive capability of diesel nozzles cavitation models, SAE Paper 2007-01-0245, 2007.
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Application of EGR for NOX Control in LPG- Diesel Dual Fuel CI Engine
Krishna Murthy1*, Mahesha G T 2*, Shrinivasa Rao B R 3,Samaga B.S.3* Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal - 576104, Karnataka, India 2 KVG College of Engineering, Sullia- 574327 Karnataka, India 3 , NMAM Institute of Technology, Nitte -574110, Karnataka, India * Corresponding authors krishnamurthy2k4@rediffmail.com & maheshveena59@rediffmail.com Due to projected increase in gasoline/ diesel vehicles use, even the strictest feasible emission controls on petroleum fuel vehicles will not eliminate total emissions. The use of petroleum fuels for transportation results in large quantities of pollutant emission from vehicles, refineries and fuel stations. Dual fuel engines suffer with high NOx emissions at higher loads. Its formation is a temperature dependent phenomenon, and takes place when the temperature in the combustion chamber exceeds 1100o C. To reduce NOX emission, it is necessary to attend the root cause which favors the formation of NOX. i.e one has to reduce the peak combustion temperature. One of the promising methods to control NOx is Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR). Recirculating proper amount of exhaust gas helps in reducing NOX, but appreciable increase in particulate emissions PM, at high loads. Hence there should be a trade off between NOX reduction and smoke emission. To get the maximum benefit from this trade off, attempt is made in this work to find the optimum recirculation of exhaust gas. The present work is an experimental investigation on control of NOx emissions using EGR in a LPG-Diesel Dual fuel engine wherein LPG is inducted along with intake air and diesel is injected in the conventional manner. It is observed that the NOx and particulate emissions are combindly influenced by EGR as well as LPG in the Dual fuel system. At 0.6kg/hr LPG flow rate and 15% EGR best performance was observed 1. Introduction
1
Diesel engines are predominantly used to drive heavy vehicles; public transport systems and, of late, they are also preferred for passenger cars due to their low fuel consumption. Despite their superior efficiency and resulting low fuel consumption and CO emissions, Diesel engines are notorious for relatively high level of emissions of particulate matter (PM) and NOX. Higher NO X emission with increasing load poses major problems for CI engine manufacturers to meet the stringent pollution standards. In order to meet the environmental legislations, it is highly desirable to reduce the amount of NOX in the exhaust gas. To reduce the pollutant emissions especially soot and NOX from DI Diesel engines, engineers proposed various solutions, one of which is the use of gaseous fuel as a supplement for liquid diesel fuel. These engines are known as Dual fuel engines [1,2,5 &,6]. The Dual Fuel Engine is a modified Diesel engine in which usually a gaseous fuel (called as secondary fuel) inducted with air is compressed but does not auto ignite due to high self ignition temperature. A small amount of diesel called pilot fuel or primary fuel is injected as in a normal diesel engine. This primary fuel auto ignites first and acts as a deliberate source of ignition for the combustion of gaseous fuel-air mixture, which occurs by flame propagation. Thus, it is a complex combination of CI engine and SI engine combustion processes. The dual fuel operation has many advantages like reduced levels of emissions, lower fuel cost, comparable power, smooth running and easy switch over to normal diesel mode. However, these engines suffer from poor part load performance and knocking at high output conditions. Therefore it is very essential to operate the engine with correct proportions of injected fuel and inducted fuel.
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In case of dual fuel engines with lean burning, the extra air provides sufficient cooling of the cylinder contents to prevent the formation of NOx. However, the tendency to increase the power has a negative effect on NOx. It has been observed that increasing the engine load results in increase in specific NOx emissions [3]. In order to reduce the NOx formation at higher load with higher LPG induction it is required to dilute the mixture by introducing the exhaust gas along with the inducted gas, called as exhaust gas recirculation. 2. Experimental set up
Fig.1 is a schematic diagram of engine set up. It consists of single cylinder variable compression ratio, 4-stroke CI engine which develops 5.2 kW at 1500rpm. It is provided with temperature sensors for various temperature measurements, pressure sensors for combustion gas pressure and fuel injection pressure measurement and an encoder for crank angle record. The signals from these sensors are interfaced with a computer to an engine indicator to display P-., P-V and fuel injection pressure. Provision is also made for volumetric liquid fuel flow measurement. A differential pressure transducer detects the air pressure difference across the orifice which is fed into the computer for calculation of the air flow rate. The built in programme in the system calculates various performance parameters. The software package is fully configurable and averaged P- plot and liquid fuel injection pressure diagram can be obtained for various operating conditions. The smoke density measurements are made using AVL 437C smoke meter and the NOx, CO and HC are measured by using DELTA 1600-L exhaust gas analyzer. To provide EGR, it was retrofitted with an EGR gate valve to control the flow rate, EGR cooler and an orifice meter to measure the flow rate. The LPG and EGR flow arrangements are shown along with the experimental set up. In such system, gas from the LPG cylinder is made to flow through a combined evaporator and pressure regulating unit and a unit for mixing the gas with air.
EGR
PTF FI T6
EGC
F1
Fuel Tank
F2
T5
PT FP T1 T2 F5
Air Box Control Valve LPG cylinder
Exhaust to Atmosphere
F3
Engine
LC
Eddy Current Dynamometer CA
PT Combustion Chamber Pressure Sensor FI Fuel Injector T1 &T2 Jacket Water Inlet & outlet Temperatures T5 Exhaust Gas Temperature before calorimeter T6 Exhaust Gas Temperature after Calorimeter F2 Air flow rate F4 Calorimeter water flow rate LC Load cell
PTF FP EGC EGR F1 F3 F5 CA
Fuel Injection Pressure Sensor Fuel Pump Exhaust gas calorimeter Exhaust gas circulation unit Liquid fuel flow rate Jacket water flow rate Gas flow meter to measure LPG flow rate Crank angle encoder
Figure.1: Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Set-up
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3.
Experimental procedure
The engine is first run with neat diesel at different loads and different performance parameters are obtained. Then engine is run on dual fuel mode with different percentages of LPG without EGR. Under each condition different performance parameters and emission levels are obtained. The EGR pipe is now connected from the outlet of the exhaust manifold to intake manifold. A gate valve is used to control the EGR quantity. The diverted gases pass through an air box packed with silica gel to remove moisture. To measure EGR quantity an orifice plate of 6 mm diameter is used along with an inclined water tube manometer. Difference in manometer columns is taken as a measure of EGR flow to the engine. Further the gases are passed through a counter flow water cooler. The EGR percentages are varied in steps from 5% to 15%. 4. Results and discussion
From the experiments it has been observed that engine thermal efficiency is a function of EGR percentage. The brake thermal efficiency increases with increase in LPG flow up to 0.6 kg/hr and then it decreases at higher loads. At lower loads, it decreases with increase in LPG flow rate. This is due to poor combustion of the mixture at part loads. For all loads it is found that as EGR percentage increases, brake thermal efficiency decreases, both in neat diesel mode and in dual fuel mode. It is observed that the brake thermal efficiency improves in dual fuel mode only at full load as the LPG flow rate increases till 0.6 kg/hr. There after, the brake thermal efficiency at higher loads starts decreasing. Highest brake thermal efficiency is obtained with LPG flow rates of 0.6 kg/hr. The brake thermal efficiency improves by 8-10% when operated in dual fuel mode as compared to neat diesel mode at 75% and full load conditions. This is due to improvement in combustion due to the gaseous fuel and its higher calorific value. From fig-2 it can be observed that a decrease in brake thermal efficiency by about 2.2% occurs when operated with 15% EGR as compared to operation without EGR at an LPG flow rate of 0.6kg/hr. The main cause for decreasing brake thermal efficiency with EGR is attributed to decreased indicated work. EGR reduces the concentration of oxygen and hence directly affects fuel-air mixture composition in a CI engine. Recirculated exhaust gas mainly contains CO2 and N2 since water vapor is removed by silica gel. EGR not only alters A/F ratio, but also causes a dilution effect which increases the ignition delay and reduces the burning rate once diffusion combustion starts. Both smoke and exhaust gas temperature are relatively less with EGR as seen from Fig. 6 & 7 compared to without EGR. 4.1 Effectiveness of EGR on NOx Reduction
The trends of NOx emissions with EGR rate are shown in Fig.3, 4 & 5. The observation shows a slight increase in NOx emission in dual fuel mode as compared to single fuel mode at all loads. The NOx emission increases with load and LPG flow rate. Fig.5 shows that NOx concentration decreases with increasing EGR. As the EGR increases to 15%, considerable reduction in NOx emission is observed. It is evident from the plots that NOx formation increases as the LPG flow rate increases in Dual fuel mode at all loads. At higher loads NOx levels reduce significantly, may be due to the dominant dilution effect of EGR. The NOx reduces by about 60% at 15% EGR. Further increase in EGR% is not suitable as smoke density increases and Brake thermal efficiency decreases considerably.
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Figure 2. Brake Thermal Efficiency for different % age of EGR & LPG flow rate of 0.6 kg/hr
Figure 3. NOx variation for different load at 5% EGR
Figure 4. NOx variation for different load at 10% EGR
Figure 5. NOx variation for different EGR and 0.6kg/hr LPG flow rate
Figure 6. Smoke variation for LPG flow rate
Figure 7. Variation of exhaust gas temperature
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5.
Conclusions The following conclusions can be drawn from the experimental results: Engine thermal efficiency tends to decrease with increase in EGR due to decreased indicated work. Combustion deterioration is dominant at higher Load due to decrease in A/F ratio with increase of EGR. This is accompanied by increased CO and unburned HC emissions. Brake Thermal Efficiency with LPG is found to be less than that for neat diesel at part load conditions and higher than that for neat diesel mode at higher loads. EGR of 15% effectively reduces NOx emission without much adverse effects on the performance, smoke and other emissions.
References 1. Poonia, M.P., Ramesh, A. and Gaur, R.R. Experimental Investigation of the Factors Affecting the Performance of a LPG- Diesel Dual Fuel Engine SAE paper No. 1999-011123, SAE Transactions, journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 1999, p499. 2. Ganesan, S. and Ramesh, A, Experimental Investigations on a LPG- Diesel DualFuel Engine Journal of Institution of Engineers, Vol. 83, October 2002, p105. 3. Ladommatos, N. ,S.M.Abdelhalim,H.Zhao, and Z.Hu, Dilution chemical effects of exhaust gas recirculation on Diesel engine emissions- part 1: effect of reducing inlet charge oxygen, SAE paper 961165, International spring fuel and Lubricants Meeting, Dearborn, Michigan, 1996. 4. Timothy Jacobs, Dennis Assanis, and Zoran Filipi, The Impact of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Performance and Emissions of a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine, SAE paper 2003-01-1068. 5. B.R. Shrinivasa Rao, Samaga B.S.,Mohanan P., Combustion Studies on a LPG-Diesel Dual Fuel Engine Proceedings of the 19th National Conference on I.C. Engine and Combustion,Chidambaram. Dec. 21-23, 2005. p.125 -130. 6. Karim, G.A., The Dual fuel Engine of the Compression Ignition type- Prospects, Problems and Solutions- A review. SAE paper No 831073, 1983, p3.569. Appendix Engine Details Type Rated power Bore, stroke Compression ratio Type of dynamometer used Crank angle sensor Cylinder pressure measurement Fuel injection pressure measurement : Single cylinder 4 stroke water cooled CI engine. : 5.2 kW at 1500rpm : 87.5x110mm : Variable compression ratio : 12-18 : Eddy Current : With resolution of 10 : By Piezo sensor, range 2000psi, make, PCB, USA. : by Piezo sensor, range 5000psi, make PCB, USA
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Boat Hull Slamming Analysis using Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) method with Abaqus/Explicit
Kunal Baxi , Rupal Vyasa , Sridharababu I R
1* 1* 2 3
L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad ,Gujarat, India 2 V.G.E.C., Chandkheda, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India 3 L&T Engineering Solutions, Vadodara, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: kunal_mecadcam@aol.in) During a high velocity impact of a structure on a nearly incompressible fluid, impulse loads with high pressure peaks occur. This physical phenomenon called slamming is a concern in boat design because of the possibility of hull damage. A study of boat hull impacting on sea surface was performed using explicit nonlinear finite element method. Abaqus 6.8.1 was used as the finite element engine. A Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian technique was used for predicting the interaction forces (i.e. contact forces) between hull and water surface during impact. Water domain is defined as Eulerian material and hull model is defined as Lagrangian material. Volume fraction tool available with CEL method in Abaqus/CAE is used to separate water domain and air (void) domain. Penalty contact algorithm is used to define the contact between hull surface and water surface. The model was solved for load case involving gravity loading and initial velocity 4.5 m/sec. Energy balance check was done for the obtained results of analysis. Closed form solution from Von-Karman was obtained and compared with the analysis results. From the Energy balance and from comparison to closed form solutions, it was concluded that the results obtained were fairly verified and acceptable. 1. Introduction
Many practical engineering problems require detailed water landing impact analyses. Examples of such problems include ship slamming, torpedo water entry, and space capsule sea landing. Analytical approaches for a rigid body water landing developed by von Karman and Wagner in the early nineteenth century are still being widely used for obtaining closed form solutions [5]. Recent advancement in the high-speed computing technology for largescale analyses and the development of the advanced explicit nonlinear dynamic finite element method provides a powerful capability for solving the fluid and rigid/flexible structure interaction (hydroelastic) problems [4]. Explicit nonlinear dynamic finite element codes with a Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) and Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) solver for modelling water landing impact are currently available in commercial codes such as ABAQUS 6.8.1, LS-DYNA 8 and MSC.Dytran9. These codes have been used by both researchers and engineers for simulating water impact of aircraft, spacecraft, and ship hull structures. These studies found that the computational methods implemented in the explicit nonlinear dynamic finite element codes can produce useful results and provide valuable insight into water impact problems [2]. In this paper, a wedge shaped hull is taken as a simplified model of a boat hull. It is modelled as rigid body. The closed form solutions from von karman [5]and wagner [6] considers the impacting projectile as rigid. This paper provides results of study using ABAQUS 6.8.1, an explicit nonlinear finite element program for slamming analysis of hull. The simulation is carried out through Coupled Eulerian and Lagrangian technique. It was found that Fluid Structure Interaction problems can be simulated accurately by CEL method. The objective of this study is to demonstrate that the numerical results obtained are reasonable and impact analysis in fluid structure interaction can be modelled in real time simulation.
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2.
Finite Element Model of Hull and Water
Figure 1 Meshed Model of Hull
Figure 2 Hull Placed in Eulerian Domain
The meshed model of the hull is shown in figure 1. The model is discretized with 4 node shell elements (S4), having composite section. Meshing is done using Hypermesh 8.0. Hull model contains 2635 elements and 2737 nodes. CEL method implies that, the structure is modelled as Lagrangian body and the fluid (Water or Air) as Eulerian bodies. For this, ABAQUS has special elements in element library for explicit analysis called EC3D8R.The eulerian domain is discretized with 8 node brick elements with eulerian section properties. No compressibility is considered for water and it is assumed to have a linear equation of state. Eulerian domain was separated in Water and Air domain as shown in figure 2. The water domain has 141120 nodes and 132308 elements, and the air domain has 79380 nodes, and 72556 elements. The depths of the water and air are 651 in. and 250 in., respectively. Figure 2 shows the position of hull on the water domain. Hull is inclined at an angle of 0.80 to the horizontal on water surface. Location of C.G. of the hull is also shown in figure as a reference point (RP). 2.1 Boundary Conditions, Constraints and Load
The eulerian domain was constrained on boundary nodes with velocity boundary conditions. Four sides of the domain were constrained in X and Y directions respectively. Bottom nodes of eulerian domain were constrained to Z direction. Hull was constrained with displacement BCs. Hull was allowed to move in Z Translation and Y Rotation, all other DOFs of hull were constrained. As shown in figure 2, one side of the hull was placed to just make contact initially with water domain. Contact formulation is a very important criterion in this analysis. Penalty contact was used as General Contact algorithm for the problem. The advantage of penalty contact algorithm is that it will allowed to move the deformed eulerian domain along with the Lagrangian body without penetrating the eulerian material in to Lagrangian body. As the elements for eulerian domain are 8 node brick elements with reduced integration, hourglassing was a factor of concern. So an artificial stiffness was added in form of section control parameter to the eulerian domain. Volume fraction tool was used for multi material formulation of eulerian domain. The highlighted part shown with red in figure 2 was assigned water material and the upper portion of the eulerian domain was kept as void (i.e. no material assigned). This problem is solved for two loading conditions considering Impact due to applied Initial velocity to hull. For obtaining a comparison of simulation results to closed form results of Von karman, hull is considered as a rigid body. For load case performed in this study, vertical velocity of impact for the hull is assumed to be 4.5 m/sec (177.165 in/sec). the comparison of the results are made for this particular load case. 2.2 Computational Method and Result parameters
As mentioned above, ABAQUS/Explicit and CEL method were used to analyze the model. Penalty contact algorithm was used to define contacts for whole model in order to determine the Fluid Structure Interaction forces (contact forces) between hull and water. This penalty method, allowing fluid to flow around a structure but not through the structure, was used to determine the impact force on a fluid node based on the penetration depth of this node into the structure. The penalty forces were then applied to both the fluid and structure to push the fluid out of the structure [6].
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As the analysis is of explicit type, energy output was requested for whole model. Energy balance is a important parameter for explicit analysis in order to check whether analysis is marching towards fairly accurate results. Energy balance can be checked by the equation,
E I EV E FD E KE EW E PW ECW E MW ETOTAL CONSTANT .
(1)
where EI is the internal energy, EV is the viscous energy dissipated, EFD is the frictional energy dissipated, E KE is the kinetic energy, EW is the work done by the externally applied loads, and EPW , ECW , and EMW are the work done by contact penalties, by constraint penalties, and by propelling added mass, respectively. The sum of these energy components is ETOTAL , which should be constant. In the numerical model ETOTAL is only approximately constant, generally with an error of less than 1% [3]. The other output requests requested for the analysis are: Histories of Acceleration in Z for C.G. of hull, Histories of Rotational Acceleration in Y for C.G. of the hull. Displacement histories for C.G. of hull. Element volume fraction output also requested for whole model for density plots. The model was solved until it bounces back on water surface after impact. 3. Analysis Results for Rigid Hull
Impact analysis results for hull, assumed to be rigid are presented in this section. The problem was solved with use of ABAQUS parallel processing technique in order to reduce the solution time for the simulation. The problem was simulated for 3 seconds in real time in order to observe the behaviour of the model while falling on water surface. The problem was solved on 4 CPU Intel Xeon Processor and it took about 3.5 hours to completely simulate the model. 3.1 Initial Velocity Load Case
For this analysis, Z- acceleration and Y- rotational histories are plotted in figure. During the impact, the wetted surface of the bottom structure grows continuously with time, and the peak pressure is located at the edge of the wetted area. In the explicit finite element simulations, the continuous growth of the wetted area introduces a series of discrete impacts, each of which is associated with a spike in the interface force. These intermittent spike forces are considered to be the sources of the oscillatory noise in the acceleration history curves. The high frequency noise was filtered out with a butterwoth filter available in Abaqus/CAE. From the plot for maximum acceleration it can be seen that the maximum acceleration for the C.G. has two peaks on the curve at time step 0.18 Sec and 0.28 seconds respectively. This is evident because initially the hull is inclined at an angle 0.80 to horizontal. During impact the upper side of the hull falls on water first at 0.18 sec, and there after at 0.28 sec another peak in acceleration can be seen. Y- rotational accelerations are also plotted for the C,G, in order to study the rotational movement in Y axis i.e. pitch. For this analysis, plots for Artificial Strain Energy (Hourglass Energy), Kinetic Energy, Internal Energy and Total Energy are shown in figure. First consider the Kinetic Energy history. At the beginning of simulation due to initial velocity applied to the model, K.E. is present in the model. As the analysis progresses there is a reduction in K.E. with increase in Internal Energy of the model due to transfer of energy from hull to water. As the analysis progresses external work done on model increases which leads to reduction in Total Energy. Another important energy is Hourglass Energy (ALLAE), which remains almost negligible throughout the analysis. Form plot of ALLAE we can conclude that the quality of results produced are acceptable.
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Figure 3: Z Acceleration for C.G. C.G.
Figure 4: Y - Rotational Acceleation for
Figure 5: Energy Plots for Whole Model
4.
Closed Form Solutions from Von Karman for Initial Velocity Load Case
For a wedge shaped hull, which is assumed to be rigid, closed form solutions based on the von Karman is available for correlating with the results from the explicit finite element analyses. The von Karman approach is based on the momentum theorem and using an added virtual mass. The penetration depth is determined without considering the splash-up of water level [5]. We proceed to calculate the force by application of the momentum theorem. The original momentum of the body is distributed at the time t between the body and the water. That part of momentum already transferred to the water at the time t depends on x and can be approximated as follows. It is known that if a long plate of width 2x is accelerated in a 2 fluid, its inertia is increased by the amount x where represents the density of the fluid. The equation for maximum acceleration for wedge shaped hull impacting on water surface is given by,
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(2)
Where, V0 is the initial velocity of the hull (4.5 m/sec), is the angle of inclination of 0 hull under surfaces (60 ), W is the weight of the hull (10.17e-3 Tonnes) and = g. is the density of fluid. X is the wetted length of the hull in water due to penetration. Substituting the values in to equation (2), we obtain the maximum acceleration is to found to be 5.99g (2437 in/sec2). From the plot for Z acceleration it is seen that the 2 maximum acceleration is around 6.7g (2600 in/sec ). So the results obtained from the simulation are fairly accurate and acceptable on the basis of von karman approach. Acknowledgement I would like to thank my guide for dissertation Mrs. Rupal Vyasa for providing valuable suggestions throughout the paper. I would like to acknowledge Mr. Sridharababu I R, Project Manager, FEA, L&T eEngineering Solutions for providing me the valuable resources and working environment. I would like to thank Mr. Raghupati and Mr. Reshad for their valuable technical suggestions during the work. References [1] N. Aquelet, M. Souli, L. Olovsson , Euler Lagrange coupling with damping effects: Application to slamming problems, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 195 (2006) 110132. [2] Ivan Stenius, Finite Element modelling in hydro elasticity in hull water impacts, KTH Centre for Naval Architecture Aeronautical and Vehicle Engineering SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden. [3] ABAQUS Inc., ABAQUS Version 6.8.1 Documentation. [4] ALE and Fluid Structure Interaction in LS Dyna, 8th International LS Dyna User Conference. [5] Th. Von Karman, The Impact on Seaplane floats during Landing, National Advisory Committee of Auronautics, Technical Note No.321, Aerodynamical Institute of the technical high school, Aachen, 1929. [6] John T. Wang, Water Landing Analysis with Explicit Finite Element Method, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Computation of Shell and Spatial Structures, IASS-IACM 2008: Spanning Nano to Mega 28-31 May 2008, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA John F. ABEL and J. Robert COOKE (eds.).
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Dynamics of Liquid Mixing at the Tube Junction and Effects of Additives

V. N. Lad*, B. Kishore and N. Undegaonkar S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India *Corresponding Author (E-mail: vnl@ched.svnit.ac.in) All the process industries incorporate transportation and handle variety of liquids. Most of the liquid reactants and final products or any of the liquid intermediate products in chemical industries are transported by means of piping or tubing. Range of viscosity of such liquids may vary from as low as that of water to as high as lubricating oil or heavy fuel oil. Often the stream carrying such liquid bifurcates or gets mixed with other stream of the same liquid or the other. The fluid flow phenomena occur at this junction point is of very much importance to have idea of the mixing pattern and also for designing such junctions. Experiments have been performed on motor oil, aqueous solutions containing surfactant and effect of such type of mixing has been studied for various types of situations. The response of mixing zone has been studied for addition of surfactant with various concentrations. The dynamics of mixing has also been studied for various types of geometry of the tubing junction with is very much helpful for designing suitable tubing systems to control the mixing index or mixing zone. If the dynamics of fluids at the mixing zone or the branching point is known, the knowledge can implanted for designing its replica of importance in some compact devices which can control the mixing pattern with well engineered design and geometry of the systems. 1. Introduction
Cost incurred in the transportation of fluids in the network of pipelines in the process industries having highly appreciable impact on the total project cost. Mainly the energy given to the fluid for transporting it through a piping system is supplied by the pump or compressor which in turn driven by electric motor in most of the cases. Often the piping systems contain branching or T-type of joints to facilitate inline addition of fluid or bifurcating the streams. Lots of pressure is lost at such junction point in the fluid systems. Recently, the momentum correction coefficient for mixing of air-air, air-water and water-water systems at the T- junction has been investigated by Ji et al [1]. Polymers have been used to reduce the drag of the air-water flow in a pipeline and it has been found that this reduction in drag is sensitive to the gas and liquid superficial velocity. [2] Effect of drag reducing polymer on airwater annular flow in an inclined pipe, Drag reduction by polymer thread in the liquid has been illustrated by Hoyt and Sellin [3]. The drag reduction phenomenon has been modeled for walled turbulent flow of polymeric solution which can perform dimensional analysis of turbulent boundary layer [4]. Reduction in drag upon addition of polymer was also measured by Nakken et. al. [5] in presence of Taylor vortices. Besides the addition of polymer, the energy of transportation of liquids through pipelines can also be saved using surfactants [6]. 2. Materials and Method
Two reservoirs were used to supply the liquids in the T junction by means of their control valves. The T junction element was made by joining the rubber tube, transparent in colour, with another piece of tube of identical size and material branching outward. Prior to insertion of the tube, the hole drilled in the horizontal tube was given the treatment to make the cut edge smooth and similar treatment was given to the connecting piece. Care was taken to have the flow of liquids at the branching point not affected adversely due to insertion of the branch. There were no any joints or fittings in the rubber tubes along its length nearer to 50
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times of its inside diameter. This ensures the condition of no any entry loss in the junction region [7]. Continuous over flow from the reservoirs were ensured to have uniform inlet pressure at every instance of the experimental runs. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in the figure 1. To visualize the dynamics of mixing of the two liquid streams at the junction point, one of the liquid of one the reservoirs was made colorful by adding some additives like potassium permanganate and iodine which does not affect the flowability of the liquid streams. The reservoirs were made up of stainless steel having capacity of 20 liters. The flexible tubes taken in various experimental runs were of 18.5mm, 4mm and 12mm in diameter. In all the piping arrangements, care was taken to eliminate any sharp corner to avoid any error due to pressure drop of sudden change in flow directions. Few images captured through a high speed motion camera (AOS Technologies, Switzerland) were analyzed to know the deflection of the interface between two liquids at T junction, flowing from different branches of the tubes. Details of T junction is shown in figure 2.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of experimental set-up (a & b reservoir tanks, c & d overflow lines of liquids, e & f control valves, g & h tube, j junction point, I outlet from T junction)
Figure 2. Details of T junction 3. Results and Discussion
Addition of large chain type polymeric solute to the liquid results in appreciable reduction in drag and is reported by many researchers . Addition of polymer reduces the drag and results in the transportation of the liquid in the pipeline with less energy requirements. It has been shown that the turbulent characteristics of the polymer-added solutions are different from that of the solvent [8,9]. Further, the scale of worm-like or rod-like micelles formed by surfactant additives is quite very much different from that of polymer solutions. Mechanical degradation is more prone to occur in polymer solutions causing shorter life for effective drag reducing agent for the added polymer. This can be avoided by using dragreducing surfactants. Figure 3 shows the distance of the interface in the T junction shifted from the centerline or the mid point as the effect of variation in the velocity of liquid in two
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branches. It shows the displacement of the interface at the junction with respect to variation of liquid velocity in two branches when polymer is added in the liquid of branch 1.
Figure 3. Effect variation in velocity of fluids on the distance of the interface in the T junction from mid point with added polymer For the range of Reynolds number observed with our experimental situations, the friction factor is found and plotted in figure 4 which incorporates the effect of polymer addition in the liquid.
Figure 4. Relationship of friction factor with Reynolds number for liquid with polymer flowing in branch 2.
Figure 5. Effect variation in velocity of fluids on the distance of the interface in the T junction from mid point with added surfactant
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Figure 5 shows the penetration of the liquid streams at the junction when surfactant is added in the liquid. It is very difficult to identify or locate the exact interface for solution containing surfactant. As the concentration of surfactant increases, interfacial tension reduces up to a limit at the junction and cause drastic movement with change in liquid velocity in any branch. Figures 6 and 7 shows the variation of friction factor for Reynolds number for the liquid with surfactant added in various concentrations.
Figure 6. Relationship of friction factor with Reynolds number for liquid with surfactant (3.8 %) flowing in branch 2.
Figure 7. Relationship of friction factor with Reynolds number for liquid with surfactant (5.4 %) flowing in branch 2. 4. Conclusions
Effects of variation of flow rate of the liquid on displacement of the liquid interface at the T junction have been explored with polymeric additive and surfactant. The visibility of the mobile interface for the liquid stream containing surfactant is very difficult and need extra care to locate its position. The penetration of the liquids is thus can be more restricted by adding the surfactant as it reduces the interfacial tension at the junction point and reduces the drag. The present work can be used for further exploration of the dynamics of the mixing in the inline mixers or various types of junction points in the pipelines.
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Acknowledgements Authors wish to acknowledge S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India, for providing facility to carry out experimental work. References [1] Ji L., Wu B., Chen K., Zhu J. and Liu H. Momentum correction coefficient for two jet flows mixing in a tee junction. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, In Press, 2009. [2] Al-Sarkhi A., Abu-Nada E. and Batayneh M., International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 32, 2006, 926-934. [3] J. W. Hoyt and R. H. J. Sellin, Polymer threads and drag reduction, Volume 30, Number 4 / July, 1991, 307-315. [4] Sher and G. Hetsroni, A mechanistic model of turbulent drag reduction by additives, International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 32, 2006, 926-934. [5] Nakken T., Tande M. and Elgsaeter A. Measurements of polymer induced drag reduction and polymer scission in Taylor flow using standard double-gap sample holders with axial symmetry, Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 97, 2001, Pages 1-12 [6] Usui H., Itoh T. and Saeki T. On pipe diameter effects in surfactant drag-reducing pipe flows, Rheologica Acta, 37, 1998, 122-128. [7] Bird R.B., Stewart W.E. and Lightfoot E.N. Transport Phenomena, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Singapore 2002. [8] Wei T. and Willmarth W.W. Modifying turbulent structure with drag-reducing polymer additives in turbulent channel flows, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 245, 1992, 619641. [9] Warholic M.D., Massah H. and Hanratty T.J. Influence of drag-reducing polymers on turbulence: effects of Reynolds number, concentration and mixing, Experiments in Fluids, 27, 1999, 461472.
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Numerical Analysis and Comparison of Phase Change Process in Rectangular and Cylindrical Latent Heat Thermal Storage System
Patel P. M, Rathod M. K*. , Banerjee J. S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India Corresponding author (e-mail: mkr@med.svnit.ac.in) In the present global scenario of rapid growth in energy demand and depletion of conventional sources of energy, developing efficient and inexpensive energy storage is as important a field of research as developing new sources of energy. The progress in the areas of harnessing non-conventional energy sources like solar, wind etc. is mired by the intermittent availability of these sources of energy. Application of solar devices requires efficient thermal energy storage. Latent heat thermal storage (LHTS) employing phase change materials (PCM) is a promising means of thermal energy storage. This paper presents a comparative study of the total freezing time of a phase change material (PCM) packed in two containers of different geometric configuration, viz. rectangular and cylindrical shell, having the same volume and surface area of heat transfer. In this paper, a simple computational model for isothermal phase change of PCM encapsulated in single container is presented. The mathematical model is based on the enthalpy formulation. The results of numerical analysis are presented for different mass of the PCM within rectangular and cylindrical shell. The solidification times for these containers are analyzed by varying the boundary conditions. It is found that cylindrical shell containers take less time for equal amounts of energy storage and this geometric effect is more pronounced with an increase in thickness of the shell i.e., mass of PCM.. Nomenclature C Specific heat of constant pressure, J/kg K f Liquid local fraction H Enthalpy, J/kg h Specific enthalpy, J/kg, or 2 k Thermal conductivity, W/m K L Latent heat of fusion, J/kg or m Mass of PCM, kg r Radius of shell, m 0 T Temperature, C l Length of the container Greek Symbols r Radial space step, m x Axial space step, m t Time step, s 1. Introduction It has been estimat ed t h a t if the present rate of population growth and exploitation of readily avai l abl e stored energy in fossil fuels continues, then the fossil fuels may be depleted completely in a century or so. Scientists all over the world are in search of new and renewable energy sources. However, developing efficient and ine xpensi ve energy storage devices is as i mp ort ant a field as developing new sources of energy. The requirement of thermal energy storage may also arise in several other cases such as in heat recovery Superscripts n+1 New value n Old value Subscripts 0 Initial condition f Heat transfer fluid (HTF) i Internal tube in Inlet l Liquid phase or latent m Melting o External out Outlet p Phase change material or constant chancdcccocconstconstant pressure
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systems where the waste heat availability and utilization periods are different. Therefore development of efficient and reliable thermal storage devices is one of the most important requirements for both conventional and non-conventional energy system. The latent heat thermal energy storage using phase change material (PCM) is a promising method of thermal energy storage. This is due to the advantage of the large heat storage capacity and isothermal behavior during the charging and discharging processes[1]. In the present study, the enthalpy based formulation is used to carry out thermal analysis of latent heat thermal storage (LHTS) unit. Both rectangular and cylindrical geometry of LHTS units are analyzed and the influence of volume of container on freezing time is also discussed. 2. Mathematical Formulation
r r
ro
X
rr i
ll
Figure 1. Physical models. (a) Rectangular container, (b) Cylindrical shell container Let us consider a rectangular and cylindrical shell container filled with a liquid PCM at an initial temperature, which is higher than its fusion temperature Tm. At t = 0, the internal boundary of the cylindrical container and lower boundary of rectangular container are maintained of constant temperature of Tin, which is lower than Tm. Due to the temperature dierence, heat exchange takes place and PCM starts to solidify. The time at which phase change front reaches at the center of the container is dened as the total solidication time of the PCM [4]. The following assumptions and approximations are introduced for the present analysis: The PCM is homogeneous and isotropic. The phase change process in the PCM is assumed to be isothermal. Thermal resistance across the wall of the container is negligibly small. Heat loss from the container to its surroundings is negligibly small. The heat transfer process in the PCM is dominated by conduction. The heat conduction in directions other than normal to the fluid is negligible. One dimensional phase change problems in rectangular and cylindrical regions are formulated in terms of enthalpy as follows:
H T k , t x x
x 0
(1) (2)
2H H 1 T k 2 t r r r
The temperature and enthalpy are related via,

H ; Cp T Tm ; H L ; Cp H C pTm C p Tm H C p T m L H c pTm L
(3)
Equivalently equation (3) can be written as
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C p T H (T ) C p T L
T Tm T Tm
(4)
An alternative form of equation (1) can be obtained by splitting the total enthalpy, H into sensible and latent heat components: Hp = hp + L f
T
(5)
Where, h p
C
Tm
dT p
(6)
And Tm is the melting temperature of the phase change material. For the problem of isothermal phase change, the local fraction f is defined as: Equation (1) and (2) represents the mathematical model of conduction controlled isothermal phase change for cartesian and cylindrical shell respectively. The initial conditions can be written as At t = 0; Tp T0 The boundary conditions can be expressed as Tp At (x = 0, t = t); T f Tin , 0 x At (x = w, t = t);
T f x 0, T p x 0
(7)
(8)
(9) (10) (11)
At (r = ri, t = t); Tf Tin At (r = ro, t = t);

Tp r 0
3. Numerical Solution Equations (1) and (2) are solved explicitly using finite difference method. After selection of space and time steps and appropriate treatment of boundary conditions, the numerical solution is marched in time. At each time step, governing equations are explicitly solved for the nodal enthalpy field, H. Calculations in a time step are completed on updating the nodal temperature field (T), via equation (3). In addition, if desired, the nodal liquid fractions can be calculated from
TP Tm 0; H P c pTm f ; Tm 0 L TP Tm 1;
(12)
Based on the methodology explained hereabove, a MATLAB code is written for determining the temperature distribution in the PCM with time.
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4. Validation Caslaw [6] studied the freezing of the PCM in a hollow cylinder. He proposed an approximate solution for R(t), the position of the interface at time t, for the equal thermal properties of the solid and liquid phases and large L/c ratio. The approximate solution for R(t) is, 2 2 2 2R(t) ln [R(t)/ri] R(t) + ri = (4KTmt/L) (13) The position of the interface at time t obtained by the present simulations are compared with the analytical solution proposed by Caslaw [6]. As can be seen in figure 2, the comparison of freezing fronts obtained by the present numerical solution for cylindrical shell and the approximate solution shows negligible difference.
1.3 1.2 1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0 100 200 300 Time [ hr] 400 500 600
Approximate solution Numerical solution
Figure 2 Comparison of the freezing fronts obtained by the numerical solution and the approximate solution 5. Results and discussion As the prime objective of the present study is to compare the total freezing time of the PCM encapsulated in containers having two different geometric congurations, viz. rectangular and cylindrical shell, the effect of the temperaturetime history for the both containers are presented here. To fulfill this objective a simple test problem is taken where at time t = 0 the region r > ri is in the liquid phase at its freezing temperature Tm > 0. For t > 0 the surface r = ri is maintained at zero temperature. The dimensions of the containers are chosen in such a manner that the volume as well as the convective heat transfer area for both the cylindrical shell and rectangular containers is equal. The xed dimensions are chosen to be the length of the cylindrical container lc=0.2 m (figure 1 and 2) and the width of the rectangular container b = 0.1 m and inner radius ri=0.5 m. The following thermal properties Tm = 10 C, k = 2W/m K, c = 2.5 MJ/kg K, = 1 kg/m3, L = 100 MJ/kg are considered for the analysis. Figure 3 (a), (b) and (c) illustrate a comparison of the temperaturetime history in general and total freezing time in particular of the PCM packed in rectangular containers of two different sizes with those of cylindrical shell containers. While the thickness of the rectangular containers for these comparisons are chosen to be 20 mm, 40 mm and 60 mm. The equivalent thickness of the cylindrical shell containers are determined as 8.28 mm, 16.56 mm, and 24.84 mm, respectively, on the basis of equivalent volume and surface area of heat transfer. Figure show the variation with time of the PCMs temperature in the centers of both the rectangular and cylindrical shell containers for the different dimensions of the containers. It is quite evident from this figure that the total freezing time of the PCM corresponding to all three cylindrical shell containers are considerably less than those of the rectangular containers having equivalent volume and surface area of heat transfer. For small values of w and ro, the difference in freezing time of the rectangular and cylindrical shell containers is not so pronounced. However, on increasing w for the rectangular container and ro for the cylindrical container and on increasing the mass of the PCM filing the container, the difference in the freezing time increases considerably. For higher thickness, the rectangular
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container needs more freezing time than the cylindrical shell container of the same volume and heat transfer area.
(a) thickness w= 20 mm and t=8.68 mm
(b) thickness w= 40 mm and t=16.56 mm
(c) thickness w= 60 mm and t=24.84 mm Figure 3 Comparison of the temperature-time history of the PCM at the center of the rectangular and cylindrical shell containers
6. Conclusions The total freezing time of the PCM encapsulated in the containers of different size and geometry are compared so as to select an optimum geometric conguration of a latent heat energy storage system. On the basis of the detailed discussion of these results, it is concluded that for the same mass of the PCM and surface area of heat transfer, cylindrical shell containers take less time for equal amounts of energy storage. This geometric effect is more pronounced with an increase in the mass of the PCM.
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References [1] Sharma, A., Tyagi, V., Chen, C. R., Buddhi, D. Review on thermal energy storage with phase change materials and applications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, 2007. [2] Vyshak, N. R., Jilani, G., Numerical analysis of latent heat thermal energy storage system. Energy Conversion and Management. 48, 2007, 2161-2168. [3] Voller, V. R., Fast implicit nite-difference method for the analysis of phase change problems. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part B 17, 1990, 155169. [4] Voller, V. R., Cross, M., Accurate solutions of moving boundary problems using the enthalpy method. International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer 24, 1981, 545556. [5] Zivkovic, B., Fujii, I., An analysis of isothermal phase change of phase change material within rectangular and cylindrical containers. Solar Energy 70, 2001, 5161. [6] Carslaw, H. S., Jaeger, J. C., Conduction of heat in solids, 2nd edition, Oxford University press, Great Britain,1959, 282287.
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Proc. of the Internal Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
Solar Water Distillator with Pre-Heater: The Need of Healthy World

Manish V. Sharma1*, Yogesh Dhote1, Y. M. Jibhakate2
1 2
Hindustan College of Science and Technology, Mathura 281 122, Uttar Pradesh, India Kavikulguru Institute of Technology and Science, Ramtek 441 106, Maharashtra, India * Corresponding author (Email Id: manish.mvs@gmail.com) The solar water distillator produces clean drinking water from polluted water and these types of installations are suitable for the rural areas. This paper presents the construction of a double slope solar still with a squarical water pre-heater which was carried out as a part of B.Tech project. In this type of solar water distillation plant the water is initially allowed to flow under gravity from over head tank to water pre-heater. In the water preheater the temperature of water is o raised to a temperature of around 60-65 C. This preheated water is allowed to drop in the double slope solar still. In solar still the heated water gets evaporated and gets condensed over the glass cover and is collected in the collection channels. This can be the best water purifier particularly for the tropical regions like India where the sun energy is available in huge quantity. With the use of preheater along with double slope solar still the rate of water distilled per unit time is also higher as compared to conventional solar stills. Further there is no need for a person to wait for a longer time in the hot sun. This plant is being designed and fabricated to have a flow rate of 16 liters per day.
1.
Introduction
The paper deals with the common problem of not having enough drinking water in the northern part of India, especially in the western part of Uttar Pradesh state and Rajasthan. The solar energy is used to distill the water for drinking purpose. Distillation is one of many processes available for water purification, and sunlight is one of several forms of heat energy that can be used to power that process. Sunlight has the advantage of zero fuel cost but it has few drawbacks as requirement of more space (for its collection) and requires more costly equipments. The basic idea that leads to the development of this project is to make distillation process as economical as possible. At the same time the device should be built in such a way that it can be fabricated in the rural welding workshop in southern countries after certain period of training. The locally available material should be sufficient. This cost effective solar still can satisfy the drinking water need of a small family. The basic functions of a solar still can be described as follows. 1.1 Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction. Commercially, distillation has a number of uses. It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power generation, and heating. Water is distilled to remove impurities, such as salt from seawater. Air is distilled to separate its componentsnotably oxygen, nitrogen, and argonfor industrial use. Distillation of fermented solutions has been used since ancient times to produce distilled beverages with higher alcohol content. The premises where distillation is carried out, especially distillation of alcohol are known as a distillery.
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1.2
Desalination
Desalination, desalinization, or desalinization refers to any of several processes that remove excess salt and other minerals from water. More generally, desalination may also refer to the removal of salts and minerals, as in soil desalination. Water is desalinated in order to be converted to fresh water suitable for human consumption or irrigation. Sometimes the process produces table salt as a by-product. It is used on many seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on developing costeffective ways of providing fresh water for human use in regions where the availability of water is limited. Large-scale desalination typically uses large amounts of energy as well as specialized, expensive infrastructure, making it very costly compared to the use of fresh water from rivers or groundwater. The large energy reserves of many Middle Eastern countries, along with their relative water scarcity, have led to extensive construction of desalination in this region. By mid-2007, Middle Eastern desalination accounted for close to of total world capacity. 2. Fabrication: The Solar water Distillator is prepared in two phases, namely; a) Pre-heater b) Double Slope Solar Still Pre-heater
2.1
The pre-heater is the element of the revolutionary concept related to solar still. This preheater is made of a long copper tube of smaller diameter which bent in squares and clamped on a square black painted plywood sheet. The cooper tube is made in the shape of squrical (combination of square and spiral shape). This shape is initially made on the plywood and then the bending of the tube is done. This arrangement is then fixed in a wooden casing covered with a transparent glass as shown in Fig. 2.1. The dimension of the plywood plate is kept 35 X 35 inches. The internal diameter of the tube is kept 10 mm whereas length of the cooper tube is kept 50 feet.
Figure 1. The snapshot of the fabricated Pre-Heater
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2.1.1
Dimensional details
The dimensional details of the primary pre-heater are as shown below. Aperture area of pre-heater = 0.4 meter Inner diameter of copper tube = 1 cm Area of inch thick plywood = 35 X 35 square inches Area of 3.2 mm thick transparent glass cover = 35 X 35 square inches Total Length of copper tube = 50 feet Elbow of copper tube by bend = 90o 2.1.2 Importance of Pre-heater:
The pre-heater is utilized to increase the temperature of the inlet water to a certain higher temperature. When the sun rays are incident on the black surface and copper tubes, it o absorbs the radiation and increases the temperature of the water upto around 64 C. 2.2 Double slope solar still:
The double slope solar still is a rectangular cross section storage tank. The slope to the still o provided is of the order of 20 . The base dimension of the tank is 35 X 35 inches. The height of the tank is of the order of 12 inches. The width of the condensate channel is 0.20 inches. The solar still consist of the G.I. sheet tank and the glass covers. 2.2.1 Dimensional details:
The dimensional details of the double slope solar still are as shown below. Aperture area of the still = 0.4 meters. Base Area of the tank = 35 X 35 Inches Thickness of the glass cover = 3 mm
Figure 2. Schematic of Double Slope Solar Still
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2.2.2
Importance of solar still
The solar still is used to increase the temperature of the pre-heated water to the evaporation temperature. The glass cover is used to collect the condensate. The glass cover is fixed with the seal to avoid the steam leakage and to reduce the other convective heat losses. 3. Working
The water from the over head tank is provided to the pre-heater. The pre-heater is filled in with the water. When the sun rays fall on the pre-heater blackened surface, the incident energy falling on it gets absorbed. The water picks up the heat from the pre-heater and its temperature rises up to 64 oC. The water after absorbing the initial heat from the preheater is passed to the solar still. The sun rays are allowed to fall on the still surface also. Thus pre-heated water again absorbs the heat in solar still also and gets evaporated. The evaporated vapor gets entrapped in the glass cover and then gets converted in the condensate on its inside surface. The condensate is transferred through the channel provided at edges of the still due to slope provided and gravity effect which then is collected at the outlet in a vessel. 4. Experimental results
A trial was conducted on the above described setup in a bright sunny day. Following observations were noted during this test. Input raw water quality: a) TDS: 6400 o b) Temperature: 24 C Output distilled water quality: a) TDS: 600. o b) Temperature: 64 C
5.
Conclusions
The results obtained shows that the solar energy can be well utilized to get pure and safe drinking water. The water in the northern part of west Uttar Pradesh is saline and is not fit for drinking, thus the filtration process becomes essential. Presently a large amount of electricity is consumed for running various water treatment plants. Solar energy is a natural and renewable source of energy which can be directly used for getting pure water which does not require complicated technology and there is no need of high grade energy. These small economical systems can be suitable for satisfying need of small family.
References [1] Tiwari, G.N. et. al. Present status of solar distillation. Solar Energy 75, 2003, 367373. [2] Tiwari, G.N. and Tripathi, Rajesh. Study of heat and mass transfer in indoor conditions for distillation. Solar Energy 154, 2003, 161-169. [3] Tripathi, Rajesh and Tiwari, G.N. Effect of water depth on internal heat and mass transfer for active solar distillation. Solar Energy 174, 2005, 187-200.
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[4] Dunkle R.V. Solar water distillation: The roof type still and multiple effect diffusion still. International Developments in Heat Transfer, ASME, Proc. of the International Conference on Heat Transfer, Part V, University of Colorado, 1961. [5] Tiwari, G.N. Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Design, Modeling and Applications. Narosa Publishing House New Delhi, 2002. [6] Sukhatme, S.P. Solar Energy. Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1999.
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Experimental Investigation Concerning the Effects of Jatropha Curcas Oil Percentage on a Diesel Engine
Mohd. Yunus Khan , Ehteshamuddin Khan , Md. Kamil Rashid , Md. Saheem Haider , 1 Shahbaz Ahmad
1 1* 1 1 1
Mechanical Engineering Section, University Polytechnic, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: khan_yunus123@rediffmail.com) The paper presents the experimental results carried out to evaluate short term performance of a C.I. engine when operated on blends of jatropha curcas (JO) and diesel. The important properties of JO have been compared with diesel. Positive and negative aspects of fuel properties have been discussed. The most undesirable property of this renewable non-edible oil is its viscosity, which was found to be about 15 times higher than that of diesel. The high viscosity can result in various long-term engine problems. Reduction in viscosity of JO was achieved by addition of diesel in different proportions (50%, 80% and 90%). The B.S.F.C. and B.T.E. values obtained with 20% JO was quite found to be quite close to those obtained with diesel. While E.G.T. to be maximum when engine was operated on 50% JO blend. It can be concluded that the blend containing 20% JO showed an engine performance comparable to diesel and can be added to diesel for short-term operation without any engine modification.
1.
Introduction
Due to gradual depletion of world petroleum reserves and the impact of environmental pollution of increasing exhaust emissions, there is an urgent need for suitable alternative fuels for use in diesel engines. In view of this, vegetable oil is a promising alternative because it has several advantagesthey are renewable, environment friendly and produced easily in rural areas, where there is an acute need for modern forms of energy. Therefore, in recent years systematic efforts have been made by several research workers to use vegetable oils as fuel in engines. Obviously, the use of non-edible vegetable oils compared to edible oils is very significant because of the tremendous demand for edible oils as food and they are far to expensive to be used as fuel at present. From previous studies [1-5], it is evident that there are various problems associated with vegetable oils when used as fuel in compression ignition (C.I.) engines, mainly caused by their high viscosity. The high viscosity is due to the large molecular mass and chemical structure of vegetable oils which leads to problems in pumping, combustion and atomization in the injector systems of a diesel engine. Therefore, a reduction in viscosity is essential to make vegetable oils a suitable alternative fuel for diesel engines. The problem of high viscosity of vegetable oils has been removed in several ways, such as preheating the oils, blending or dilution with other fuels, trans-esterification and thermal cracking or pyrolysis. In the present investigation, Jatropha Curcas oil (JO), a nonedible vegetable oil which has been considered as a potential alternative fuel for C.I. engines has been chosen to find out its suitability for use as engine fuel. The jatropha oil is slow-drying oil which is odourless and colourless when fresh but becomes yellow on standing. However, from the properties of this oil it is envisaged that the oil would be suitable as fuel oil. The oil compares well against other vegetable oils and more importantly to diesel itself in terms of its fuel rating per kilogram. But the greatest difference between jatropha oil and diesel oil is viscosity. The high viscosity of JO contributes to the formation of carbon deposits in the engines, incomplete fuel combustion and results in reducing the life of an engine. The main objective of the present study was to decrease the viscosity of JO by dilution with diesel, to see its effect on engine performance.
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2.
Fuel Characteristics
Jatropha curcas oil is non-edible oil, which is obtained from the dried ripe seeds of the Jatropha curcas plant. Jatropha curcas is a large shrub or tree native to the American tropics but commonly found and utilized throughout most of the tropical and subtropical regions of the world [5, 6]. It is commonly known as Physic nut, Ratanjot, Jamalghota, Jangaliarandi or Kala-aranda [7]. It is a drought-resistant, perennial plant, and has capability to grow on marginal/poor soils. It requires very little irrigation and grows in all types of soils [2]. The Jatropha curcas plants start yielding from the second year of plantation but in th limited quantity. If managed properly, it starts giving 4-5 kg per tree seed production form 5 year onwards and seed yield can be obtained upto 50 years from the day of plantation. The oil content of Jatropha seed ranges from 30 to 50% by weight [7]. The oil can be combusted as fuel without being refined. It burns with clear smoke-free flame, tested successfully as fuel in diesel engine. The fatty acid composition of JO consists of myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, oleic and linoleic acids [1, 8]. The important properties of JO were compared with diesel [1]. The properties are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Properties of JO compared with Diesel Fuel/ Property Flash Point (C) 219 76 Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 39.73 42.01 Density 3 (kg/m ) Cetane No. Kinematic Viscosity at 38C (cSt) 40.97 2.96
JO Diesel
0.915 0.858
38 50
The flash point of JO oil was observed to be much higher than diesel. Hence, it is safer in handling and storage. The calorific value of JO is 39.73 MJ/kg, which is lower as compared to diesel (about 42 MJ/kg). The density of JO is slightly higher than that of the diesel. This means fuel consumption rate for JO is expected to be higher than that for diesel. The cetane number of JO is 38 as compared 50 for diesel [5]. Thus, the propensity is higher for diesel knock in case of JO operation. Viscosity is an important property of any fuel as it is an indication of the ability of fuel to flow. In an engine, it is desirable to have a fuel that flows well. At 38C, kinematic viscosity of JO is 40.97 cSt while that of diesel is 2.96 cSt. 2.1 Fuels Tested
In the present study JO was used as a diesel fuel substitute for a C.I. engine. For that, engine tests were carried out using three blends of JO and Diesel (D). The blends investigated were 10% JO: 90%D, 20% JO: 80% D, 50% JO: 50%D. D was used as a reference fuel. The fuels used for the entire testing belonged to the same supply, to avoid the introduction of any variation during experimentation. 3. Experimentation
The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. It consists of single cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, vertical diesel engine mounted on rigid base frame. It is connected to rope dynamometer. A compact light-weight, portable engine is used. It is a versatile engine suitable for a variety of portable, traction or stationary applications such as thresher winch, blower, material handling truck, marine concrete mixer, tar mixer and pump set etc. The technical specifications of test engine are given in Table 2. Constant speed performance tests were carried out on this engine with diesel and different blended fuels. All experiments were repeated three times and mean value was taken.
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Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup Table 2. Specifications of Test Engine Make Type No. of cylinder Single Design fuel Diesel Stroke Bore length (mm) (mm) 110 85 Rated Rated speed Power (rpm) (B.H.P.) 1500 6.5
Harvest
4 stroke, watercooled, stationary engine
4.
Performance Analysis
The variations of B.S.F.C. with respect to B.P. for diesel and JO-D blends are shown in Figure 2. JO blends were tested, B.S.F.C. curve follows same trend as that of reference fuel. That is B.S.F.C. values are found to decrease with increase in B.P. This is due to the higher percentage increase in B.P. as compared to the increase in fuel consumption. Further, the BSFC values for JO blends are higher as compared to diesel for all B.P. This is mainly due to higher viscosity, higher density and lower calorific value of jatropha oil compared to diesel. The high viscosity results in poor atomization, which leads to improper mixture formation. Also, at given injection pump settings, the higher density of JO causes observed fuel to increase. Therefore, there is an increase in B.S.F.C. [5] Figure 3 compares the variation of B.T.E. with respect to B.P. for all test fuels. It can be seen that brake thermal efficiency for both fuels follows similar trend and increases with the power output. In all cases, B.T.E has increased with increase in B.P., due to the reduction in heat loss and increases in power output. While running the engine with JO blends, B.T.E is achieved in lower percentage as compared to diesel. The poor performance with vegetable oil is reflection of the high viscosity, high density and low calorific value of JO as compared to diesel [5]. The B.T.E. of engine running on 20% JO is closer to reference fuel in comparison to other fuel blends. Figure 4 compares exhaust gas temperature obtained with all test fuels. The E.G.T. increases with respect to B.P., due to increase in the amount of fuel used. The E.G.T. with JO blends oil is higher than that with diesel, particularly at higher loads. This may be due to slower combustion characteristics of JO. Vegetable oils contain constituents of poor volatility,
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which burns only during the late combustion phase [5]. The maximum value of E.G.T. was achieved with blend containing maximum vegetable oil i.e. 50%JO.
Figure 2: Brake Specific Fuel Consumption Vs Brake Power
Figure 3: Brake Thermal Efficiency Vs Brake Power
Figure 4: Exhaust Gas Temperature Vs Brake Power
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5.
Conclusions
Environmental concern and depletion of petroleum resources have forced researchers to concentrate finding renewable alternative fuels. A great deal of research and development on I.C. engines has taken place not only in the design area but also in finding an appropriate fuel. In this experimental work, an attempt has been made to evaluate feasibility of using blends of Diesel and jatropha curcas oil as fuel in C.I. engine. The shortterm performance test was carried out on CI engine separately with jatropha curcas oil and diesel for comparative assessments. It was found that jatropha curcas oil has good potential as a substitute for diesel in CI engine. The most important advantage of this non-edible vegetable oil is that it is a renewable source of energy compared to petroleum fuel. The engine performance obtained with 20% JO was quite found to be quite close to those obtained with reference fuel. The work has shown that by blend of 20% jatropha curcas oil and 80% diesel can be successfully used as C.I. engine fuel without requiring any engine modification. Acknowledgement The authors of this paper are grateful to the University Polytechnic, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for kindly providing the facilities to conduct the engine test. References [1] Ramadhas, A.S. Jayaraj, S. and Muraleedharan, C. Characterization and Effect of Using Rubber Seed Oil in the Compression Ignition Engines. Renewable Energy, 30, 2005, 795-803. [2] Agarwal, D and Agarwal, AK. Performance and Emissions Characteristics of Jatropha Oil (Preheated and Blends) in a Direct Injection Compression Ignition Engine. Applied Thermal Engineering, 27, 2007, 2314-2323. [3] Barnal, B.K. and Sharma, M.P. Prospects of Biodiesel Production from Vegetable Oils in India. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 9, 2005, 364-378. [4] Huzayyin, A.S. Bawady, A.H, Rady, M.A. and Dawood, A. Experimental Evaluation of Diesel Engine Performance and Emission Using Blends of Jojoba Oil and Diesel Fuel. Energy Conversion and Management, 45, 2004, 2093-2112. [5] Pramanik, K. Properties and Use of Jatropha Curcas Oil and Diesel Blends in Compression Ignition Engine. Renewable Energy, 28, 2003, 239-248. [6] Katwal, R.P.S. and Soni, P.L. Biofuels: An Opportunity for Socioeconomic Development and Cleaner Environment. Indian Forester, 129(8), 2003, 939949. [7] Kumar, R.V. Ahlawat, S.P. Handaand, A.K. and Gupta, V.K. Jatropha Curcas the Fuel of the Future. Employment News, XXIX (34), 20-26 November 2004. [8] Carraretto, C. Macor, A. Mirandola, A. Stoppato, A. and Tonon, S. Biodiesel as Alternative Fuel: Experimental Analysis and Energetic Evaluations. Energy. 29, 2004, 2195-2211.
226
Improvement in the Operating Characteristics of 4-Stroke Internal Combustion Engine Using Variation in Compression Ratio
Yadav Milind S. , Kelkar Avadhut A. ,Mokashi Onkar A.,Chikhale Vinit V., Khatu Vaibhav N. Finolex Academy of Management & Technology, Ratnagiri - 415639, Maharashtra, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: yadav_milind@yahoo.com) Vast developments are taking place in the field of internal combustion engines especially to improve fuel economy, power delivery and to reduce the emission percentage. To increase the power delivery best option is to increase the compression ratio. However higher compression ratios may lead to detonation and knocking. To prevent this lower compression ratio is desired especially at high loads. This suggests that there should be variation in compression ratio and hence comes the concept of variable compression ratio (VCR) engine. Many VCR engines are designed and tested and have given successful results. However complexity of VCR engine gives problem in their mass manufacturing. Objective of this research work is to design and fabricate a simple mechanism for variation in the compression ratio, installing same on selected fix compression ratio (FCR) engine, finally converting given FCR engine into VCR engine. Variation in the compression ratio is done by lifting the cylinder head thereby changing clearance volume. By using same method, modification of two stroke FCR engine into two stroke VCR engine have been successfully done. No knocking tendency, high power, high power to weight ratio, better fuel economy and good cold starting performance are the advantages of the modified engine. 1. Introduction
*
All methods of increasing power output of an engine bring with them a host of problems. Like increasing RPM of engine imposes dynamic load on engine and thus increases frictional losses and pumping losses as well. Turbo charging develops very high pick cycle pressure and gives high thermal loads. Increase in compression ratio increases detonation and knocking tendencies of engine [1]. In fact, the reason for exploring the technology of variable compression ratio is to meet different situation on road use and maximize the fuel economy. For example, at low engine speed, the speed of car usually low, air intake is inefficient. The engine has to increase its compression ratio so that the power output is higher due to high pressure produced during combustion process. At high engine speed and vehicle speed due to higher compression ratio combustion chamber will get hotter and fuel may burn itself causing detonation or knocking. In order to prevent this, lower compression ratio is required to lower the temperature of combustion chamber. To satisfy both conditions variation in compression ratio is required. VCR engines are complex in construction and hence difficult for mass manufacturing. In this regard a simple mechanism is designed which will convert given FCR engine into VCR engine. This mechanism has been successfully tested on the two stroke engine. This research work aims towards mounting of same mechanism on to four stroke engine with little modifications. 2. Modifications Suggested In Existing Engine
For the selected 4Stroke engine, cylinder block is casted separately from the crank case and also from the cylinder head. Four cylinder head bolt goes pass through the cylinder head and cylinder block and clamps the assembly to the crank case. In modified design instead of using conventional cylinder block a split type cylinder block is used. Split type cylinder block consist of
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over bored cylinder block of much shorter height than conventional cylinder block and a sleeve. Sleeve is having conventional cylinder block shape at top and cylindrical shape at bottom. The outer diameter of sleeve at bottom and inside diameter of over bored cylinder block is same. The inside diameter of sleeve is same as that of conventional cylinder block diameter. Thus sleeve will be acting as a guide for the piston similar to conventional cylinder block. Sleeve and split type cylinder block together form a shape very similar to that of conventional cylinder block. Conventional cylinder head will be fitted to the sleeve with gasket in between with the help of inverted Allen bolt. The cylinder head and sleeve assembly can slide in and out inside the shortened cylinder block. For mounting the modified cylinder block on the crank case the existing hole on the split type cylinder block will be counter bored up to certain depth and now the shortened cylinder head bolts of Allen type will go pass through the same hole and they will fix the cylinder block on to the crank case. The counter bored holes on the split type cylinder block have internal threads and four separate cylinder head studs fits into it. Finally the assembly of cylinder head and sleeve is placed into cylinder block through these studs. At the top of cylinder head a plate is mounted. All four studs projects out through this plate. Just below one stud a compression ratio scale is fitted on the upper plate. Stud corresponding to compression ratio scale has a pointer resting on this compression ratio scale. Finally to tighten the whole assembly four nuts are used at the top the plate on the studs. This medication is exactly similar to one that has done on the two stroke engine [3]. In existing engine oil is supplied to the cylinder head from oil pump through one of the stud. As we are going to lift the cylinder head and sleeve, a gap is created in between modified block and sleeve and cylinder head assembly which in turn cause leakage of crank case oil. To prevent this leakage a separate oil pipe is used which takes oil from oil pump to the cam shaft bearing externally. Figure 1 shows details of the modified engine.
Figure1. Split type cylinder block with sleeve & cylinder Head Assembly and Studs 3. Actual Variation in Compression Ratio
Figure 2. Graph Showing Variation in Compression Ration
Pitch of the stud at its bottom is 1.5 mm and hence one rotation of the stud corresponding to compression ratio scale lifts up the cylinder head and sleeve assembly with 1.5 mm. This increases or decreases the clearance volume of the engine by 4 D 2 1 .5 mm , where D is the inside diameter of sleeve. Thus just with little modification it is possible to vary the compression ratio without stopping the engine. With the above design modification it is possible to vary the compression ratio of the engine from 9.5:1 to 7.49:1. Fig. 2 gives an idea in which the compression ratio can be varied. It is also possible to vary the compression ratio beyond the above mentioned level however there are maximum chances that engine wont take load onwards. It may happen also that due to insufficient compression engine may not get started.
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4.
Test Performed On Modified Engine
Total four different load tests have been conducted on modified engine. During these tests the compression ratio is varied from 9.50:1 to 8.62:1.The load is varied from 0 kg to 4 kg. The speed for each reading is varied from 800 RPM to 1200 RPM in step of 200 RPM. Following are the performance graphs obtained from the test conducted. All the tests are performed in fourth gear.
10
B S F C in k g /k W -hr
7
C .R =9.50:1 C .R =9.18:1
B S F C in k g /k W -hr
8 6
6 5 4 3 2 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
C .R =9.50:1 C .R =9.18:1 C .R =8.89:1 C .R =8.62:1
C .R =8.89:1
4
C .R =8.62:1
2 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M

Figure 3. Graph of BSFC v/s Speed for Load = 1 kg
Figure 4. Graph of BSFC v/s Speed for Load = 2 kg
6.5
B S F C in kg/k W-hr
5.5 4.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
C .R =9.50:1 C .R =9.18:1 C .R =8.89:1 C .R =8.62:1
Figure 5. Graph of BSFC v/s Speed for Load = 3 kg From the graphs of BSFC v/s Speed it is observed that the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption for the modified engine decreases with increase in load. Even the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption decreases for the given compression ratio with increase in load. For the given load the Brake Specific Fuel Consumption decreases with the decrease in compression ratio. As load on the engine increases from 1kg to 3kg, Brake Specific Fuel Consumption increases; but there is a considerable decrease in Brake Specific Fuel Consumption due to decrease in compression ratio from 9.50:1 to 8.62:1.The minimum value of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption registered during test is below 2.5 kg/kW-hr for the compression ratio of 8.62:1
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B rake T hermal E ffic ienc y in %
Brake T hermal E ffic ienc y in %
2.5
C .R =9.50:1
3
C .R =9.50:1
2.5
C .R =9.18:1
C .R =9.18:1 C .R =8.89:1 C .R =8.62:1
1.5 1
2 1.5 1
C .R =8.89:1 C .R =8.62:1
0.5 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
Figure 6. Graph of Brake Thermal Efficiency v/s Speed for Load = 1 kg

Brake T hermal Efficiency in %
Figure 7. Graph of Brake Thermal Efficiency v/s Speed for Load = 2 kg
5
C .R =9.50:1 C .R =9.18:1 C .R =8.89:1 C .R =8.62:1
4 3 2 1 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
Figure 8. Graph of Brake Thermal Efficiency v/s Speed for Load = 3 kg From the above graphs it is clear that Brake thermal efficiency for the engine increases with increase in load. Even the Brake thermal efficiency increases with load for the given compression ratio. Also for the given load brake thermal efficiency increases with the decrease in compression ratio. Maximum value of almost 5% is registered for the compression ratio of 9.50:1.
1500
C .R =9.50:1
1800
C ombus tion C hamber T emp. in Deg.
C ombus tion C ha mbe r T e mp. in D eg .
1350
C .R =9.18:1
1600 1400 1200 1000 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
C .R =9.50:1 C .R =9.18:1 C .R =8.89:1 C .R=8.62:1
1200
C .R =8.89:1
1050
C .R =8.62:1
900 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
Figure 9. Graph of Combustion Chamber Temperature v/s Speed for Load = 1 kg
Figure 10. Graph of Combustion Chamber Temperature v/s Speed for Load = 2 kg
230
1600
Combustion Chamber
Temp. in Deg.
1400 1200 1000 800 1000 1200 S peed in R P M
C .R =9.50:1 C .R =9.18:1 C .R =8.89:1 C .R =8.62:1
Figure 14. Graph of Combustion Chamber Temperature v/s Speed for Load = 3 kg For the modified engine the significant decrease in the combustion chamber temperature is observed. Even the combustion chamber temperature decreases with slight increase in load. With decrease in compression ratio the combustion chamber temperature decreases this is because of drop in pressure inside combustion chamber with decrease in compression ratio. Minimum value of almost 1000C is registered for the compression ratio of 8.62:1 during the test. 5. Observation Made & Results Obtained The brake specific fuel consumption for the engine decreases with decrease in the compression ratio. For the load of 2 kg and 3 kg the value of brake specific fuel consumption decreases rapidly for compression ratio of 8.89:1 and 8.62:1. It has been observed that the value of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption also decreases with increase in load. Value of brake thermal efficiency also increases with decrease in the compression ratio. Maximum value of Brake thermal efficiency is registered for the compression ratio of 8.62:1. Combustion chamber temperature of the engine also decreases with decrease in the compression ratio. Minimum combustion chamber temperature is also registered for 8.62:1. Overall we can say engine is giving better performance at 8.62:1 after modification which is very less as compared to the existing compression ratio of engine which is 9.50:1 before modification. Along with above results modified engine gives few more advantages. As the compression ratio is under control engine has shown low knocking tendency. Also high power obtained from the same engine with almost same engine dimensions and due to this high power to weight ratio is obtained. As the peak pressure developed in the engine will be high (due to high compression ratio) higher values of brake mean effective pressures are obtained. High mechanical efficiency is obtained due to higher values of Brake mean effective pressure. Use of high compression ratio at low loads, engine gives good cold starting and idling performance. Complete combustion takes place due to higher compression ratio which provides both low pollutants emission levels (CO, HC and NOx), and low CO2 emissions levels for the modified engine [3]. References [1] M.L.Mathur & R.P.Sharma, A Course in Internal Combustion Engines, Dhanpatrai Publications, 1994 revised edition. [2] Service and user manual of Kinetic Honda K4-100, Kinetic Motors. [3] Yadav M.S., Wankhade P.A., Improvement in the Operating Characteristics of Internal Combustion engine using variation in compression ratio. Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering (ICAME) 2008, S.V. National Institute of Technology (SVNIT), 15-17 December 2008, Surat, India.
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Simulation and Performance Enhancement of the Single Cylinder Gas Engine

Y.K.Madaria1 and P.Srinivasa Rao2
1,2
M.P.Christian College of Engineering and Technology, Bhilai, Chhattisgarh, India
It is an established fact that the world will be facing acute shortage of energy resources in near future. Especially Internal combustion engines, which have become an indispensable device in present due to its versatile applications, are facing shortage of their conventional fuels. To increase the intensity of the problem manifold, the ecology disturbance has become an unignorable threat for the whole mankind. Keeping these in mind, several researchers are keenly involved in search of some alternative fuels for the I.C. engines. Among the alternative fuels suggested and tried so far, CNG and LPG have proved themselves as better alternative than others. But it is seen that none of the two can solve the problems completely and it can be concluded that although these two fuels can prove to be a good alternative to the conventional fuels but none can replace the conventional fuels in all respects. One dimensional engine performance simulation software package GT-Suite version 6.2 is the leading engine simulation tool which is most useful in obtaining quick results. In this paper one dimensional modeling of the single cylinder gas engine has been done. The simulation covers full engine cycle consisting of intake, compression, power and exhausts for different engine speed (rpm).In the simulation investigation has been done to predict the effect of various modification that have been done to improve the performance of the engine, along with the heat release pattern have been investigated. The accuracy of the simulation is scrutinized against experimental test results from the engine dynamometer. The validation includes comparison of the performance characteristics of engine, which shows good agreement with the experimental results. 1. Introduction
Energy crisis and environmental issues have resulted in opting CNG and LPG as alternative fuels to replace the present automotive fuels. But the technological developments till date and fuel properties put a barrier in the way of complete replacement of the existing fuel. Less flame speed in case of CNG as compared to that in case of gasoline is also a major issue that affects the performance of the engine. That could be resolved by increasing the incylinder turbulence. BSFC in case of CNG and LPG as compared to that with gasoline favors the use of these fuels. Emissions considerably reduce with the use of these fuels. To save time and money, simulation has always served as a good aid to the analysis, as simulation saves number of trials and prototypes required. In the present project work, the simulation and experimental investigation of a single cylinder gas engine of 395 cc manufactured by Greaves Cotton Limited (GCL), have been performed at R&D (Technology Centre) of GCL. For simulation GT-POWER software was used which is a one dimensional gas dynamics analysis software specialized for I.C. engine performance simulations. The GT-POWER uses explicit method to solve the fluid dynamics equations for analysis of performance. For the grid formation, it uses staggered grid method. The experimental work was carried out at the testing facility of Technology Centre of GCL. The project work was basically to investigate the effects of combustion chamber geometry and compression ratio on the performance parameters (Brake Power, BSFC, Exhaust gas temperature, Lubrication oil consumption, etc.) of the above mentioned engine. For the same, the effects were first analyzed on simulation software results. The simulation results shown the effects of replacing flat top piston with bowl-in-type piston, in the form of increased peak pressure in the cylinder during the cycle, increased and advanced heat release pattern, increased torque, decreased exhaust gas temperature, and decreased BSFC. Encouraged by the simulation results, experiments were
232
performed by using different combinations of combustion chamber geometry and compression ratios which showed good agreement with the simulation results and thus validated those results. 2. Engine Specifications
The engine used for this project work was a 395 cc gas engine (G400AG) manufactured by Greaves Cotton Ltd., Aurangabad. The specifications of this engine are given in Table 1 below. Fig. 1 shows the schematic of engine in bi-fuel mode Table 1 Engine Specifications S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 3. Bore (mm) Stroke (mm) Displacement (cm ) Compression Ratio Rated Speed (RPM) Rated Power (HP) Maximum Torque (N-m)
3
86 68 395 9.8:1 3600 8.5 21@2200 RPM
Experimental set-up
The experimental setup was based at R&D of Greaves Cotton Ltd, Aurangabad. The experimental setup consists of an engine dynamometer (make-DYNALEC; Eddy current type), different temperature and pressure sensors as mounted on the test cell of R&D of GCL. The oxygen sensor (make- HORIBA) was used to check the lambda value of the fuel air mixture. The combustion pressure measurement setup included the TDC sensor (makeBosch), the piezoelectric pressure sensor (make-AVL), the signal amplifier (make-AVL), and the Liquid Crystal Display type Oscilloscope (make-YOKOGAWA). Fig. 3.2 shows the schematic of this experimental setup.
Figure 1. Schematic of Gas Engine in Bi-Fuel Mode Legends: 1- Engine; 2- Petrol Tank; 3- Petrol Solenoid; 4Gas Tank; 5- Gas Tank; 6- Gas Regulator; 7Fuel Selector Switch; 8- Mixer; 9- Carburetor; 10- Air Filter; 11- Capacitor; 12- HT Coil; 13Starter Motor; 14- Battery; 15- Connector
Figure 2. Schematic of Experimental Set-up Legends: 1-Engine; 2- Eddy Current Dynamometer; 3Air Filter; 4- Air Fuel Mixer; 5- Carburetor; 6Spark Plug; 7- Piezoelectric Sensor; 8Piezoelectric Transducer; 9- AVL Signal Amplifier; 10- Oscilloscope; 11 to 16Temperature and Pressure Sensors; 17- TDC Sensor
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4.
Modifications done for performance improvement
As is already known, the performance of a gas engine observes a considerable influence of the intake port design (swirl), in-cylinder turbulence, combustion chamber design, ignition timing, and compression ratio. Out of these important parameters, in this project work, the effect of changes in the combustion chamber design and variation in compression ratio, on the engine performance was investigated. For this investigation, the existing flat top piston was tested with different compression ratios by adding gaskets of varying thickness between the cylinder head and barrel. Also the new design of combustion chamber was tested having cylindrical bowl in the piston and the effects of these modification on the BSFC, Exhaust gas temperature, Lubricating oil consumption was investigated. Fig.3 shows the flat top piston. In contrast to it, Fig.4 shows the modified piston with cylindrical bowl in it.
Fig. 3 Flat Top Piston

5. Results and discussion
Fig. 4 Bowl-in-Piston
5.1 Effects of Change in Combustion Chamber Geometry The results of the change in combustion chamber geometry were better heat release pattern and improved and advanced in-cylinder peak pressure. The improvements in performance were observed with both the fuels, CNG as well as LPG. But, in case of CNG, the improvement in the performance was more, as compared to that with LPG. The improvement in heat release pattern resulted in increased Power, reduced BSFC, reduced exhaust gas temperature, and reduced lubrication oil consumption. Table 2 shows the advantages obtained from the change in the combustion chamber geometry. It can be seen that there is increase in maximum brake torque and brake power, and reduction in BSFC and Exhaust gas temperature, which indicates the improvement in the engine performance obtained from the change in combustion chamber geometry.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 5. In-Cylinder Pressure Comparison for two combustion chamber geometries @ 3600 RPM (a) CNG Mode (b) LPG Mode
(a)
Figure 6. BSFC comparison for two combustion chamber (a)CNG Mode (b) LPG Mode
(b)
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Brake Torque Comparison for two combustion chamber geometries (a) CNG Mode (b) LPG Mode
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5.2
Effect of Compression Ratio Change
During the tests with the 9.8 C.R. pistons, the knocking in case of LPG was observed with both the type of pistons. Although with bowl-in-piston, the intensity of knocking was reduced and also the speed range of knocking was limited. It is quite possible that this kind of knocking would not occur on the vehicle as the speed would not remain constant for a long period of time on the vehicle. To overcome this knocking, it was the must to decrease the compression ratio. Hence different compression ratios were tried with the flat top piston by adding different gaskets between the cylinder head and barrel. But by decreasing the compression ratio, only effect that was observed was deterioration of performance of the engine, without considerable effect on knocking. Only the compression ratio of 8.8 showed less knocking. The brake torque, brake power values were dropped considerably with the compression ratio of 8.8 with flat top piston. 6. Conclusions and scope for future work It was found that due to improvement in the turbulence generated, as a combined effect of intake port and combustion chamber geometry (modified), the performance of the engine was improved to a considerable level. The combustion chamber geometry has shown positive effects on Brake Power, Brake Torque, BSFC, Exhaust gas temperature and Lubrication oil consumption of the engine. Different configurations viz. flat top piston with 9.8 C.R., bowl-in-piston with 9.8 C.R., flat top piston with different compression ratios varying from 9.8 to 8.5, bowl-in-piston with 8.8 C.R., were tested, and the results of the configuration having cylindrical bowl-in-piston with compression ratio of 9.8:1 was found to be best in terms of engine performance, with both CNG and LPG mode. However with the LPG, the knocking was less but not completely eliminated with this configuration. Thus with LPG, the configuration of bowl-in-piston with larger bowl volume and hence reduced compression ratio of 8.8:1 was found most suitable, as it eliminated knocking along with other beneficial effects of reduced BSFC, reduced Exhaust gas temperature, and reduced Lubrication Oil Consumption. The simulation results showed a good agreement with the experimental results. The simulation and experimental investigation of the project engine has been done in the present work. Following works can be suggested as the scope for the future work. The effect of the combustion chamber geometry on the emissions could be studied for this engine. This geometry could be tried for other gaseous fuels like Hydrogen and its effect could be compared with that of the existing combustion chamber geometry. Direct gas injection is supposed to give even better results in the terms of Brake Power, BSFC, as well as emissions. References [1] Automotive Fuels for the Future, Survey Report, By International Energy Agency; 1999. [2] Bechtold, Richard L. P.E., Alternative Fuels Guidebook, SAE International Publications; Edition :1997. [3] Weaver, Christopher S. P.E., Automotive Fuels Reference Book, SAE International Publications; Second Edition; 1995. [4] Heywood, J.B, Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals, ISBN-0-07-100499-8; McGraw Hill Publication. [5] Ganesan, V, Internal Combustion Engines, ISBN-0-07-049457-6; Tata McGraw Hill Publication. [6] Amorim, Rogerio Jorge et.al., The Influence of Different Compression Ratios on the Performance of an CNG-Fuelled Flex Internal Combustion Engine, SAE Paper-2005-014141
236
Numerical Analysis of Transition from Stratified to Slug Type of Two-Phase Flow Patterns
*
Mahesh J Vaze , Jyotirmay Banerjee Corresponding author (e-mail: mjvaze@gmail.com)
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India The transition from stratified to slug flow is an important consideration in the design and operation of process equipment, especially in transport of mixtures of gas with associated liquids. This transition is analyzed by giving known perturbation to the flow in the form of sine wave. Numerical results are obtained by changing the relative velocity between the phases and by changing the wavelength of the wave. It is observed that the waves grow when the value of wavelength exceeds the critical wavelength for a certain value of relative velocity, otherwise waves diminishes. Further, investigations of two-phase flow for a wavelength of 0.5 m show similar results. 1. Introduction
Simultaneous flows of gases and liquids occur in numerous pieces of engineering equipment such as boiler and refrigeration tubes, oil and natural gas pipelines. Such flows are particularly difficult to analyse, except in certain simple cases, because the phases usually have very different properties and can be arranged in a variety of geometrical patterns in the duct. It has been long recognized that there are numerous possible regimes in two-phase flow and that accurate theoretical predictions or correlations can only be developed if means are available for determining the flow regime. For this purpose, it is very useful to have a flow regime map showing which regime will occur for various combinations of the flow rates of the phases in a given system. When using the flow regime maps for practical prediction, it should be realized that quite definite transitions between regimes may be recognized. The transition from stratified to slug flow is important in practice because it gives rise both to radically increased pressure drops and to an intermittency in the flow which may cause large fluctuations. This later phenomena is a nuisance and should be avoided. The prediction of the flow conditions at which slugs will be observed has received considerable attention. One approach is to analyze the stability of a stratified flow. Kordyban and Ranov [1] suggested that the transition from a stratified flow to a slug flow may be described through a classical linear stability analysis. Wallis and Dobson [2] and Lin and Hanratty [3] examined the growth of linearly unstable long wavelength disturbances on a flowing liquid. The evolution of a slug from a finite amplitude wave, with a wavelength in a range that would be considered stable by the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism, has been considered by Taitel and Dukler [4], Mishimi and Ishii [5], Fan et al. [6], Ansari [7] and by Ansari and Sani [8]. The stability of stratified flow is a very complex phenomenon and, it is studied in connection with the generation of waves on the interface and on the other hand, it is studied in connection with the transition from stratified flow into slug flow. Waves generated on an interface owing to interfacial instability can either lead to a wavy interface or to conditions where the waves reach the top of the pipe and cause transition from stratified flow. Interest in the stability of stratified flow covers both these aspects. A goal of this paper is to predict the initiation of slugs at various relative velocities and different wave lengths. This effort provides more insight into slug formation. A further objective of the present work is to examine the interfacial stress distribution during the evolution or damping of the waves.
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2. 2.1
Numerical analysis Introduction A horizontal duct is considered with air and water that are flowing separately and concurrently as shown in the Fig. 1. In order to find the instability initiation from the stratified regime, a disturbance in the form of a sinusoidal wave with very small amplitude is applied on the interface. In order to examine the wave growth on the duct scale, the flow regime is considered to be two-dimensional and parallel to the duct length. The duct height is very small in comparison with the duct length. The gravitational effect, viscosity, and mass transfer between phases are neglected. The liquid density is assumed to be constant and the duct scale is a function of wavelength. Any variation of the amplitude (increase or decrease) with respect to time is considered as wave growth (unstable condition) or wave damping (stable condition).
Figure 1 Initial perturbation for stratified flow 2.2 Governing equations In two-phase flow, the two phases coexist with different concentrations at different locations in the flow domain and move with unequal velocities. Analysis of two-phase flow, which, flows at different velocities begin with the most general principles of conservation of mass and momentum. These principles can be expressed mathematically at every point in space and time and must be satisfied for both the phases. Unsteady, convection, diffusion, pressure and gravitational terms are multiplied by the variable known as volume fraction. The various conservation equations are:
m m t m m ui m t
m m u m 0
(1)
m m u m ui m m m tm ui m m P m g
(2)
In addition to the mass and momentum conservation equations (1)(2), a geometric conservation equation is needed for location of the interface between the two phases. This equation is derived from the phasic mass conservation equation. Physically, this equation is a statement indicating that the sum of volume fractions occupied by the different phases, within a cell is equal to the volume of the cell containing the phases, and is given as:
m
(3)
The effect of turbulence on interfacial mass, momentum, and energy transfer is difficult to model and is still an active area of research. Similar to single-fluid flow, researchers have established several flow-dependent models to describe turbulence. These models vary in complexity from simple algebraic models to Reynolds-stress models. In this work, the widely used two-equation turbulence model is used. The phasic conservation equations
238
governing the turbulence kinetic energy () and turbulence dissipation rate () for the m fluid are given by,
th
m m m t
m m m t
m
m m m mu m m m tm m m m G m m I
(4)
m m m mu m m m tm m m m m c1 G m c2 m I m (5)
m
where I k and I represent the interfacial turbulence terms. The turbulent viscosity is calculated as,
m C m
m t m
(6)
2.3
Solutions of governing equations These governing equations are solved using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) model. In the VOF model, a single set of conservation equations is shared among the phases and the volume fraction of each of the phases is tracked in each computational cell throughout the domain. The interface can be tracked by solving the continuity equation for the secondary phase. These conservation equations can be solved using the appropriate boundary conditions at the interface. However, the interface between different phases does not necessarily remain stationary. As a result, imposing boundary conditions at an interface becomes a very complicated moving-boundary problem. To avoid this difficulty, the VOF model directly determines the motion of all phases and deduces the motion of the interfaces indirectly from this result. Interface is tracked by piecewise linear interface calculation (PLIC) algorithm [9]. This assumes that the interface between the two fluids has a linear slope within each cell and this linear shape is used for the calculation of the advection of the fluid through the cell interfaces. Interfacial forces - surface or adhesion forces can be modeled accurately using this approach. The values for all variables and properties are shared by the phases and calculated as volume-averaged values, as long as the volume fraction of each of the phases is known at a given location. Thus, the variables and properties in any given cell are either purely representative of one of the phases, or representative of a mixture of the phases, determined by the volume fraction contributions. 3. Stability analysis For the stability condition, the critical wave number, kc is defined as [8],
1 2 kc u1 u2 H 1 2 2 1
0.5
(7)
Figure 2 Critical wavelength change with relative velocity of two phases
From the eq.-7, it becomes clear that for wavelengths larger than 2/kc, the system is unstable. The instability at large wavelengths is called Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Fig. 2 shows the variation of the critical wavelengths with relative velocity of two phases. For wavelengths shorter than 2/kc, the system is stable.
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4. 4.1
Results and discussions Effect of wavelength and initial relative velocity
Figure 3 Wave growth at the interface of stratified two-phase flow (rel. vel. = 2 m/s and wavelength = 1m)
Figure 4 Wave damping at the interface of stratified two-phase flow (rel. vel. = 0.1 m/s and wave length = 1m)
Figure 5 Wave growth at the interface of stratified two-phase flow (rel. vel.= 10 m/s and wave length = 0.5m)
Figure 6 Wave damping at the interface of stratified two-phase flow (rel. vel.= 0.1 m/s and wave length = 0.5m)
In order to study the effect of wavelength on the interface between two phases, first a wavelength of 1m length is assumed. The initial and boundary conditions are: water = 998.2 3 3 kg/m , gas = 1.225 kg/m , the surface tension between two phases = 0.073 N/m, the initial uwater = 1 m/s and ugas = 3 m/s. The time duration for study = 0.2 s. The initial value of void fraction and wave length is 0.5 and 1m, respectively. The duct length and height is 1 m and 0.1m, respectively. The domain is discretized in 500 50 grids. The boundary layer is generated near interface and walls to take care of interfacial and wall effects. Fig. 2 is obtained analytically and shows the wavelength effect versus relative velocity with respect to surface tension. It shows that for the relative velocity of 2 m/s, the critical wavelength is 0.16 m. Thus, a wavelength higher than this value will grow with time. Hence, the growth of 1m wavelength is certain and has been shown in Fig. 3. The result in
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Fig. 3 has been obtained numerically for relative velocity of 2 m/s with 1m wavelength. It is observed that amplitude of wave increases to 0.0555 m at the time of 0.2 sec. This is expected; as the waves are growing over time because of gas velocity exceeding the instability limit. For the relative velocity of 2 m/s, if the wavelength is more than 0.16, then the wave grows and stratified flow is converted to slug type of flow. In the second step, all the parameters are kept constant except the relative velocity. The relative velocity between the phases is reduced to 0.1 m/s and the effect of relative velocity is observed. Fig. 4 shows that the interface for the same condition. For lower relative velocity, the waves show attenuation. For all the values of wavelength lower than critical wavelength for the relative velocity of 0.1 m/s, the initial perturbation gets damped. This is the characteristics of stratified flow. The secondary waves are observed behind the primary wave and are of lower amplitude. This secondary wave leads to another secondary wave with further reduction in amplitude. This means wave are damped out and the stratified flow remains stable. Similar analysis has been carried out for the wavelength of 0.5 m. The relative velocities selected for the simulation is 10 m/s and 0.1 m/s. Fig. 5 shows wave growth for the relative velocity of 10 m/s as the time elapses. Fig. 6 shows the wave damping. As the time lapses the interface becomes smooth behind the initial perturbation. Initial perturbation becomes almost flat for half of the duct length after 0.2 seconds of time. 5. Conclusions
The present work is carried out to study the transition phenomena from stratified flow to slug flow. It is observed that for a fixed wavelength the initial perturbation damp out by decreasing the magnitude of relative velocity between the phases. Further numerical simulation for the wavelength of 0.5 m shows similar effect. The value of surface tension considered in this work is 0.073 N/m. The effect of altering surface tension can be studied. The surface tension parameter has a positive effect on stabilizing flow instability. References [1] Kordyban, E. S. and Ranov, T. Mechanism of slug formation in horizontal two-phase flow. Journal of Basic Engineering, 92, 1970, 857-864. [2] Wallis, G. B. and Dobson, J. E. The onset of slugging in horizontal stratified air-water flow. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 1, 1973, 173-193. [3] Lin, P. Y. and Hanratty, T. J. Prediction of the initiation of slugs with linear stability theory. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 12, 1986, 79-98. [4] Taitel, Y. and Dukler, A. E. A model for predicting flow regime transitions in horizontal and near horizontal gas flow. AIChe Journal, 22, 1976, 47-55. [5] Mishima, K and Ishii, M. Theoretical prediction of onset of horizontal slug flow. Journal of Fluid Engineering, 102, 1980, 441-445. [6] Fan, Z., Lusseyran, F. and Hanratty, T. J. Initiation of slugs in horizontal gas-liquid flow. AIChE Journal, 39, 1993, 1741-1753. [7] Ansari, M.R. Effect of pressure on two-phase stratified flow modelling. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 41, 2004, 709-714. [8] Ansari, M. R. and Sani, E. Surface tension effect on stability of two-phase stratified flow. Journal of Fluid Dynamics Research, 39, 2007, 279-291. [9] Rider, W. J. and Kothe, D. B. Reconstructing volume tracking, Journal of Computational Physics, 141, 1998, 112-152.
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Application of DOE Using Taguchi Approach in reduction of Valve Seat Leakage in Cylinder Head Assembly of 45 HP Tractor : A case study
Mrs. Manisha S.Lande*, Prof. S.K. Ganguly Bhilai Institute of Technology, Durg, India. *Corresponding author (e-mail:landemanisha@yahoo.com) Design of Experiment (DOE) using taguchi approach is a powerful and efficient method for optimizing quality and performance output of manufacturing process. This paper discusses and investigates the use of taguchi parameters design for reducing the leakage from the valve seat in cylinder head sub assembly. This study utilizes a standard orthogonal array for determining the optimum turning parameters with applied noise factor. The control factors includes concentricity ,circularity ,spring force , Ra of valve sheet , valve stem diameter , valve guide inner diameter , noise factor , filling air temperature , stem axis deviation from valve guide axis and hammer puffing by the operator. The noise factors are included to increase the robustness and applicability of this study. The detail about DOE and taguchi method has been discussed and availed in the cited case study. After running the experiments using the selected orthogonal array and other parameters, which helps us to verify the various combinations of controlled factors and a predictive equation for minimized leakage flow rate for the given set of parameters. 1. Introduction
The DOE using Taguchi approach can economically satisfy the needs of problem solving and product/process design optimization project in the manufacturing industry. Design of experiments(DOE) plays a powerful role in many organization today in terms of improving process efficiency, product quality and process capability and reducing process variability, costs for poor quality such as scrap, rework and other failure costs.Dr.Taguchi has successfully integrated statistical method into the powerful engineering process for achieving greater process stability, capability and yield.Taguchi emphasized the importance of designing quality into product and processes right from the design stage through to entire product development cycle. The DOE methodology developed and promoted by Taguchi has accentuated the importance of making product functional performance or process performance insensitive to various sources of noise conditions (Ambient temperature change, relative humidity fluctuation, equipment or machine performance degradation, tool wear, product to product variation) This is also known as robust parameter design (RPD).RPD is essentially a part of Taguchi SDOE.[1] 2. Design of experiment
A well planned set of experiments, in which all parameters of interest are varied over a specified range, is a much better approach to obtain systematic data. Mathematically speaking, such a complete set of experiments ought to give desired results. Usually the number of experiments and resources (materials and time) required are prohibitively large. Often the experimenter decides to perform a subset of the complete set of experiments to save on time and money.[2] 2.1 Design of experiment using taguchi approach This approach emphasizes pursing quality back to the design stage, seeking to design a product/process which is insensitive or robust to causes of quality problems. It is a systematic and efficient approach for determining the optimum experimental configuration of design parameters for performance, quality and cost. Overall application goals: Optimize product and process designs
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Study the effects of multiple(i.e.-variables, parameters, ingredients etc) on the performance Solve production problems by objectively laying out the investigative experiments Specific Objectives Influence of individual factors on the performance Which factor has more influence, which ones have less Which factor should have tighter tolerance, which tolerance should be relaxed Which factor influence are significant and which are not How to allocate quality assurance resources based on objective data. Whether a suppliers part causes problems or not (ANOVA data) How to combine different factors in their proper setting to get the best results How you can substitute a less expensive part to get the same performance How much money you can save if you make the design improvement How you can determine which factor is causing most of your problem etc. 2.2 Advantages of doe using taguchi approach Taguchi very user friendly; It doesnt require lots of statistical knowledge. The design can be tailor-made upon your specific situation. Robustness by simulating noise. Especially with new technology no blockage of experience. Fast and reliable, consistent results. 2.3. Problem identification The valve seat leakage in cylinder sub assembly of tractor engine is one of the major problems facing by M&M.So the problem is taken as challenge and tried to solve the problem by using Taguchi Approach. So all the required data has collected from M&M, Nagpur plant. 3. Methodology Ten stages to solve the valve seat leakage problem in cylinder head sub-assembly Define the objective of the experiment. Define the response or quality characteristics of interest. Identification of process or design parameters which influence the response or quality characteristics. Define the level of the process or design parameters and the feasible ranges. Selection of appropriate orthogonal array from standard orthogonal array designs. Execute the experiment and record data on pre-prepared design matrix. Perform statistical analysis of data. Determination of optimum condition. Predict response at optimal settings and establish confidence interval.[3] Stage 1:Leak flow rate measurement from the valve seat and valve is the objective function to be optimized. For best results the flow rate should be as low as possible. Stage 2:In this problem flow rate should be reduced to zero. So by using smaller-the-better function, the difference between measured flow rate and ideal value is expected to be as small as possible. The generic form of SNR then becomes, SNR=-10log[mean of sum of squares of {measured-ideal}.For smaller the better case, ideal value is zero Stage 3&4:During brainstorming 7 control factors and 3 uncontrolled factors are identified as most influencing factors are Concentricity, Circularity, Ra of valve seat, Ra of valve, Valve stem diameter, Valve guide inner diameter, Spring force .The 3 uncontrolled factors are fluid temperature, Valve axis deviation from valve guide axis, Puffing by the operator. Stage 5:In this problem, there are 7 controllable factors with 2 levels has to be dealt with. So L8 orthogonal array should be selected.The four output readings in order to make the experiment insensitive to the uncontrolled factors.That standard L8 orthogonal array is as shown below. An L8 orthogonal array with 3 replication and 4 repetitions was used to design the experiment. So 8*3=24 runs and each run with 4 repetitions will make the experiments more robust to noise . Stage 6:The same run has performed 4 different time intervals of each 25 minutes.So the
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randomization is occurred based on the obtaining the combination of different factor levels The leakage flow rates (outputs) for 24 runs were noted down in table as shown in below Stage-7:Analysis was performed for the 24 runs to find the most significant factors and their level which gives optimum result. The maximum signal to noise ratio (SNR) is the best as calulated Table-1 Threshold levels of control factors. Factor Concentricity (C1) Circularity (C2) Ra of valve seat (C3) Ra of valve (C4) Valve stem diameter(C5) Valve guide inner diameter (C6) Spring Force (C7) Level-1 15 m 3 m 0.11 m 0.19 m 8.12 mm 8.71 mm 440N Level-2 32 m 9 m 0.38 m 0.33 m 8.25 mm 8.77mm 486.8N Table-2 .Coded Orthogonal E, C1 C2 C3 C4 No 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 2 1 4 1 2 2 2 5 2 1 2 1 6 2 1 2 2 7 2 2 1 1 8 2 2 1 2 array C.5 C6 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
C7 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
Table-3 Orthogonal array
Table-4 .SNR values of outputs
Table-5 . SNR value of each factors Factor C1:Concentricity C2:Circularity C3:RA of seat C4:Ra of valve C5:Stem dia C6:VGID C7:SF Level-1 -20.1004 -23.9579 -21.5894 -21.6704 -21.3551 -22.0122 -22.5123 Level-2 -22.9451 -19.0877 -21.4562 -21.3752 -21.6905 -21.0334 -20.5333
SNR 10 log10 ( MSD )
n
(1)
(y
MSD
i
m)2 (2)
2
Ystd
ym ean
( X m)
( N 1)
3
(4)
Sum (outputs ) No. of outputs
Where MSD=mean square deviation, Yi=output (flow rate in ml/min),n=no of repetitions (here in this case n=4),m=target value (here in this case target value is zero) # Sum of the 24 values of the SNR and avg.SNR are: -516.5471 & -21.52279 .Now SNR for each factor at each level is calculated by using the formula SNR at level-x=(sum of all SNR values at levelx)/(no of level-x in table) From SNR levels table ,SNR plot were drawn for mean SNR at each level of SNR value as shown in fig.2-5. Stage 8:The optimal settings are those which provide the best performance based on the data obtained from the experiment. Based on main effect plot the optimal condition was determined as: It is clear from the table that concentricity, circularity and spring force should be selected at the maximized SNR values at levels 2,1,2 respectively. But remaining factors
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can be selected at any level as they do not have high impact on leakage. Stage 9: From the SNR plots and ANOVA it is clear that concentricity, circularity and spring force are most significant factors among all other controllable factors. Now from the analysis we should estimate the predicted SNR at these predicted optimal levels of these significant factors. The variation will be as shown as below Concentricity varies from -20.1004396dB to 21.52279dB.
Fig.2 . Plot of SNR for circularity

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Fig.3 . Plot of SNR for spring force
Term Effect Plot

2.500 Y Std Y' = Y Mean Values 2.425
Main Effect Plot

Main Effect Y Std Y' = Y A :concentracity Mean Line B:circularity Mean Line C :v olv e sheet Mean Line D:v alv e Mean Line E:diameter Mean Line F:inner dia Mean Line G:spring force Mean Line
2.280 2.255
Fitted Means
2.084
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Fitted Means
1.840 1.620 frewfrew wejnfjk ef sdfjdf 4/8/2009 12:23:15 PM
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1.743
1.572 frewfrew wejnfjk ef sdfjdf 4/8/2009 12:22:39 PM 0.600 1.200 1.800 2.400 3.000
A:concentr...
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C:volve sh...
D:valve Effect
E:diameter
F:inner dia
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1.400 0.000
Factor
Least Squares Means
Least Squares Means
Fig. 4 SNR Main effect plot for control factors Fig. 5. SNR Individual factor effect plot Circularity varies from -19.0877 dB to -21.52279 dB Spring force varies from -20.5333 dB to 21.52279dB. Predicted SNR at optimal condition is SNRPredicted T C11 T + C22 T C72 T (5) Where T=Average SNR=-21.52279 dB, SNR predicted = -16.6758596 F ( ,1, v 2 ) M S E CI Ne dB Confidence
(6)
Interval N Ne 1ve
for
predicted
SNR
Where MSE=Error variance=0.5811 From ANOVA table).F ( ,1, v2 ) tabled valued of F with 1 degree of freedom for the numerator and V2 degree of freedom for the effort term Where N=total number of SNR values=8,Ve is the number of degree of freedom used in the estimate of the SNR=3.Substituting the values, we get CI=2.52,Therefore the predicted SNR at the optimal condition is -16.6758596 dB 2.52 at the 95% confidence level[5]. Stage 10:As the part of the confirmation tests,eight runs were performed at the optimum conditions.Concentricity at level-1,circularity at level-2 and spring force at level-2 and remain 4 parameters at possible levels were adjusted during confirmation run. The average SNR from the confirmation experiments was found to be -16.548 dB which are within the confidence interval (-14.1552,-19.1958) and the leakage flow rate corresponding to confirmation SNR is 6.212ml/min.
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Table 7. SNR values for confirmation run C1 1 1 C2 2 2 C3 1 1 C4 1 1 C5 1 2 C6 1 2 C7 2 2 FR 5.87 7.1 MSD 34.45 50.41 SNR -15.37 -17.02
AVG -16.54 3. Results and discussion From the confirmation runs it proved that concentricity, circularity and spring force have the most significant effect on leakage through valve and valve seat.The mean leakage flow rate from the confirmatory runs was found as 6.212ml/min which is said to be very good product.From analysis the contribution of main factor in valve leakage was identified as Circularity-64.23%, Concentricity-20.73%,Spring force-11.04%. The remaining factors have only 4% (Ra of valve,Ra of valve seat,Stem diameter and Valve guide inner diameter) contribution in valve seat leakage machining process of concentricity and circularity has recommended and spring force is adjusted from 440 N to 486.8N. 4. Conclusions On the basis of experimental results , ANOVA and confirmation test , We conclude that among all the seven factors ,three factors i.e. concentricity, circularity and spring force are the most significant factors in valve seat leakage in cylinder head sub assembly. The first priority should be given to circularity and least priority to spring force in design to be manufactured . It has been found that valve seat leakage problem can be reduced to great extent by handing above three control parameters carefully. References [1] Madhav S Phadke Robust design engineering. [2] Paul Mathew Design of experiments using minitab [3] http;//www.business.com/directory/management/operationmanagement/ quality_management/taguchi_methodsanddesign_of_experiment [4] Http://www.freequality.org/site/www_freequality_org/documenttools/tagaarray_files/ tamatix.htm [5] JIju Antomy,V.somasundaram and Craig FergussonApplication of taguchi approach to statistical design of experiments. [6] Ranjit K. Roy Die casting process parameters study [7] Jiju Antony, V. Somasundarum, Craig Fergusson, Pavel Blecharz Applications of Taguchi approach to statistical design of experiments in Czech Republican industries International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management Year-2004 Vol 53 Page No 447-457. [8] Robert G.Batson and Mathew E. Elam An experiment-based approach to design for reliability maintenance & reliability conference (MARCON 2001) May 2001,gatlingburg,TN. [9] Resit Unal Edwin B Taguchi approach to design optimization for quality and cost 13th Annual Conference of the International Society of Parametric Estimators. [10] Ranjit .K. Roy Vane pump cylinder block process parameter study using DOE with taguchi approach http://nutek-us.com/wp-nut.html.
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Numerical Prediction of Velocity and Temperature Distributions in a Diffusion Flame under Reduced Gravity Conditions
Manjula Das (Ghatak) , Sujoy Kumar Mukherjea , Bijan Kumar Mandal Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: dasmanjula71@yahoo.com) In this paper, Numerical simulation has been carried out to predict the velocity and temperature distributions in a methane-air laminar confined diffusion flame under reduced gravity conditions. The results are presented for air inlet temperature 300 K and the fuel inlet temperature 300 K under normal gravity, 75% of normal gravity, 25% of normal gravity and zero gravity levels. At normal gravity, a very high temperature gradient at the base of the flame and higher isotherms near the axis are observed. As the gravity level is decreased the higher isotherms gradually spread over the computational domain. The velocity fields show that there is entrainment of flow from the co-flowing air into the flame zone at all gravity levels. But there is recirculation from the exit plane only at 1.0G and 0.75G gravity. The maximum centreline temperature is almost same with all gravity levels. The centreline velocity decreases with the decrease of gravity level. The flame height found to decrease with reduced gravity levels. 1. Introduction
1* 1 2
Now-a-days, the study of combustion under reduced gravity condition has extended the understanding of combustion science to unravel important physical and chemical processes. Edelman et al. [1] and Sunderland et al. [2] investigated the flame shape under microgravity conditions obtained in the NASA Lewis 2.2-s drop tower. Sunderland et al. [2] measured the shapes of buoyant and nonbuoyant laminar jet diffusion flames. Lin et al. [3] investigated the shapes of laminar jet diffusion flames obtained on orbit in the Space Shuttle Columbia. Kim et al. [4] investigated characteristics of oscillating lifted flames numerically and experimentally by varying the gravity level in co-flow jets using propane fuel highly diluted with nitrogen and found that the oscillation amplitude and frequency increased with gravity level. Yuan et al. [5] demonstrated that in a microgravity environment, produced using a drop tower facility, a spherically symmetric flame configuration could be established. Although the literature is rich in combustion under normal gravity level, there is a lack of study of combustion phenomenon in diffusion mode under reduced gravity conditions. The knowledge of the temperature and velocity distributions in a diffusion flame is essential for the understanding of different physical and chemical processes taking place within the flame. In this paper, the results of the simulation of methane-air diffusion flame are presented for four gravity levels of 1.0G (normal gravity), 0.75G, 0.25G and 0.0G (zero gravity). 2. Physical model and the governing equations
The combustion system considered in this work is the laminar diffusion flame in a confined physical environment with co-flowing fuel and air (oxidizer) streams. The physical model represents a burner consisting of two concentric tubes. The fuel (methane) is admitted as a central jet through the inner tube and air as a co-flowing annular jet through the outer tube. A variable property formulation has been made for the transport and thermodynamic properties. Considering the axi-symmetric geometry, the numerical simulations have been performed on one side of the axis only. Radiation heat exchange from the gas phase and also the Soret effect have been neglected for the present simulation model.
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The conservation equations with transient terms for mass, radial momentum, axial momentum, species concentrations and energy in cylindrical co-ordinate system are presented in Eq. (1) to Eq. (5) respectively. 1 ( r vr ) ( vz ) 0 (1) t r r z
p v v r 1 r v r2 v r v z 2 r r t r r z r r r r
2 vr r r2
(2)
v z vr z r z 2 v r v r v z 3 r r r z

v z 1 r v r v z v z2 p 1 r v z v r r t r r z z r r z
(3)
2 z
vz z
2 vr vr v z 3 z r r z
C Cj S cj (4) C j 1 r v r C j v z C j 1 r D jm j D jm t r r z r r r z z
h 1 r v r h v z h 1 r h h t r r z r r cp r z cp z Cj Cj 1 n n 1 1 h j Le j 1 h j Le j 1 r r r c p j 1 r z c p j 1 z
(5)
where, C j is the mass fraction of the respective species and D jm is the diffusion coefficient of the species in a binary mixture of that species and nitrogen and Le j is the local Lewis number defined as
Le j 1 c p D jm
(6)
The source term, S cj is the rate of production or destruction of the species j per unit volume due to chemical reaction. The temperature dependence of viscosity (), thermal conductivity (), mass diffusivity (Djm) and specific heat (cp) has been taken into account using suitable correlations available in the literature.The axial and radial directions are denoted by z and r respectively.The conservation equation for chemical species is solved for five gaseous species, viz. CH4, O2, CO2, CO and H2O. The concentration for N2 is obtained by difference.
3.
Boundary conditions Boundary conditions at the inlet are given separately for the fuel stream at the central jet and the air stream at the annular co-flow. The streams are considered to enter the computational domain as plug flow, with velocities calculated from their respective mass flow rates. In conformation with the conditions used by Mitchell et al. [6] and Smooke et al. [7], the -6 -4 fuel flow rate is taken as 3.71 10 kg/s and the air flow rate is taken as 2.214 10 kg/s.
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Considering the axial length of the computational domain to be 0.3 m, the fully developed boundary conditions for the variables are considered at the outlet. In case of reverse flow at the outlet plane, which occurs in the case of buoyant flame, the stream coming in from the outside is considered to be ambient air. Axi-symmetric condition is considered at the central axis, while at the wall a no-slip, adiabatic and impermeable boundary condition is adopted. The methane-air diffusion flame is simulated under different gravity conditions with fuel inlet temperature of 300 K and air inlet temperature of also 300 K. 4. Results and discussion The numerical code for the reacting flow is validated by comparing the predictions against experiments conducted by Mitchell et al. [6] The temperature values in the high temperature regions are over predicted by 50-100 K. This may be attributed to the fact that the present model has not considered the radiative heat exchange. The species distributions of the combustion products also show good agreement. 4.1. Temperature Field The structure of the flame can be illustrated from the temperature distribution in the form of isotherms as shown in figures 1(a)-(e). A very high temperature gradient is observed at the base of the flame near the axis under normal gravity condition as shown in Fig. 1(a). The temperature away from the axis and near the wall is almost same as that of the inlet air or ambient air. Higher isotherms are present near the axis only and the isotherms are vertical in nature. Figure 1(b) shows that isotherms are expanding slightly towards the wall at 0.75G gravity level, but wall temperature is still remaining the same as that of the inlet air temperature. Higher isotherms are gathered near the axis and the point where the maximum temperature line meets the axis is decreased slightly indicating a small decrease of flame height. The strong buoyant force convects the high temperature gas in the upward direction. A significant change is observed in the isotherm distribution pattern at 0.25G gravity level as shown in Fig. 1(c). The nature is completely different from the previous two cases. The higher isotherms now spread over the computational domain and the wall temperature is increased significantly. The point where the maximum temperature line meets the axis is further decreased and as a result the flame height is also decreased. Figure 1(d) shows that isotherms are now completely spread over the computational domain and the higher isotherms are also not confined near to the axis at zero gravity (0.0G) level. Rather, they are distributed in the whole computational domain. The maximum temperature line meeting the axis is further lowered and the flame height becomes the minimum at zero gravity. This may be attributed to the complete absence of buoyant force at zero gravity. 4.2. Velocity Field The flow structure is illustrated from the velocity distributions in the form of vector plots as shown in Fig. 2(a)-(d). An entrainment of flow from the co-flowing air into the flame zone is clearly indicated in the velocity vector plot diagram at normal gravity (1.0G) as shown in figure 2(a). There is always a tendency of entrainment of flow towards the axis in case of a confined co-flow diffusion flame. The high temperature in the central zone and the presence of gravity create strong buoyant force there. As a result, the flow is accelerated and hence very high velocity is noted within the flame surface and also above the flame surface. At the same time, the pressure near the periphery drops and it results in ingress of atmospheric air from the exit plane, giving rise to a recirculation zone. However, the flow velocity in the recirculation zone is very low. The gravity effect is slightly reduced at 0.75G, other things remaining the same. Hence, almost the similar velocity field is observed at this gravity level as shown in Fig. 2(b). An entrainment of flow from the co-flowing air into the flame zone and accelerated motion in the central region are indicated in the figure. The recirculation pattern from the exit plane is also same. The depth of penetration of the recirculation is slightly reduced. It is interesting to note that the velocity fields show different nature at 0.25G and 0.0G gravity level as shown in figures 2(c) and 2(d) respectively. At the lower height, there is entrainment of flow from the co-flowing air into the flame zone. But due to weak buoyant force, acceleration in the central region is small in case of 0.25G. The velocity in the central region
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is also not that high and as a result the pressure near the periphery does not drop by significant amount. So, although there is a tendency of recirculation from the exit plane, but actually no recirculation from the exit plane is noticed at 0.25G gravity level. Obviously, recirculation through the exit plane does not occur under zero gravity condition due to the non-existence of buoyant force in the absence of gravity.
(c) (c)
(a)
(b)
(d)
Figure 1. Temperature contour plot at (a) 1.0G, (b) 0.75G, (c) 0.25G and (d) 0.0G gravity levels.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 2. Velocity vector plot at (a) 1.0G, (b) 0.75G, (c) 0.25G and (d) 0.0G gravity 4.3. Centreline Temperature and Centreline Velocity The variation of centreline temperature and centreline velocity are shown in Fig. 3(a) and Fig. 3(b) respectively. In all the cases, the temperature increases upto a certain axial length and then decays. The position of the maximum temperature in the axial direction indicates the flame length. From figure 3(a), it is clear that the flame length is less with zero gravity compared to other gravity levels. Figure 3(b) shows that the centreline velocity is much higher at 1.0G and 0.75G than at 0.25G and 0.0G. This is due to the presence of strong buoyant force at gravity levels of 1.0G and 0.75G. Also the recirculation from the exit plane near the wall also increases the centreline velocity. At zero gravity, the absence of recirculation as well as the buoyant force limits the centreline velocity to a low value.
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2400 (a) 2100 1.00G 0.75G 0.25G 0.00G
4.0 (b) 3.5
Centreline temperature (K)
1800 1500 1200 900 600 300 0.00
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Axial distance (m)
Axial distance (m)
Figure 3. Variations of (a) Centreline Temperature and (b) Centreline Velocity with axial height at different gravity levels. 5. Conclusions The following conclusion can be drawn from the results of the numerical simulation of co-flowing confined diffusion flame for air inlet temperature 300 K and the fuel inlet temperature 300 K. It is observed that as the gravity decreases from normal gravity, the buoyant force becomes weak and it disappears at zero gravity. Isotherms gradually spread over the computational domain with decrease in gravity and the temperature distribution shows a uniform pattern. The flame height decreases with the decrease of gravity level. There is a recirculation from the exit plane under normal gravity and 75% of normal gravity. The flow is accelerated near the axis. The centreline velocity is very low at zero gravity compared to that at other gravity levels. Hence, it can be concluded that buoyant force plays a significant role in change in behaviour of a diffusion flame under reduced gravity condition. References [1] Edelman, R. B. and Bahadori, M. Y. Effects of buoyancy on gas-jet diffusion flames: experiment and theory. Acta Astronautica, 13, 1986, 681688. [2] Sunderland, P. B. Mendelson, B. J. Yuan, Z. G. and Urban, D. L. Shapes of buoyant and nonbuoyant laminar jet diffusion flames. Combustion and Flame, 116, 1999, 376386. [3] Lin, K.C. Faeth, G. M. Sunderland, P. B. Urban, D. L. and Yuan, Z.G. Shapes of nonbuoyant round luminous hydrocarbon/air laminar jet diffusion flames. Combustion and Flame, 116, 1999, 415431. [4] Kim, J. Kim, K. N. Won, S. H. Fujita, O. Takahashi, J. and Chung, S. H. Numerical simulation and flight experiment on oscillating lifted flames in coflow jets with gravity level variation. Combustion And Flame, 145, 2006, 181193. [5] Yuan, Z. G. Hegde, U. and Faeth, G. M. Effects of electric fields on nonbuoyant spherical diffusion flames. Combustion and Flame, 124, 2001, 712716. [6] Mitchell, R. E. Sarofim, A. F. and Clomburg, L. A. Experimental and numerical investigation of confined laminar diffusion flames. Combustion and Flame, 37, 1980, 227- 244. [7] Smooke, M. D. Mitchell, R. E. and Keys, D. E. Numerical solution of two-dimensional axisymmetric laminar diffusion flames. Combustion Science and Technology, 67, 1989, 85-122.
251
Effect of Rayleigh Number on Natural Convection in a Square Enclosure

Mukul Bisoi , Kamal Kanti Dattagupta and Bijan Kumar Mandal Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah 711103, INDIA * Corresponding author (e-mail: mukul.1712@gmail.com) A numerical study of steady two-dimensional laminar motion of air ( Pr 0.71 ) in an enclosed square cavity, of which the top and the bottom walls are insulated, is conducted. The motion is generated due to temperature difference between vertical walls, where left wall is at higher temperature. The solution is based on control volume based finite difference method. A numerical mesh size of 102 102 has been adopted after grid independence test. In this paper the velocity field distributions and the temperature distributions have been shown for Rayleigh numbers in the range of 10 3 Ra 10 6 in the whole cavity. The local Nusselt number variation along the left wall for different Rayleigh number has been calculated. The average Nusselt number has also been calculated for different Rayleigh numbers. The present prediction of average Nusselt number has been compared with the results of some previous theoretical and experimental studies available in the literature and it shows a good agreement. 1. Introduction
*
Natural convection has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers because of its presence both in nature, and in engineering applications. Natural convection can happen on small-scale (computer chip) to large-scale process equipment. Some other useful applications are: solar water heating systems, cooling of gas turbine blades, heat exchangers, building insulation, flows in rooms due to thermal energy sources etc. In this paper, the effect of Rayleigh number on Nusselt number in a differentially heated cavity is numerically investigated. A comprehensive survey on flows driven by temperature gradients was presented by Ostrach [1]. Numerical investigations of steady laminar two dimensional motion of a fluid, in an enclosed cavity was carried out by Davis [2] to study the streamlines and isotherms, velocity distribution, temperature distribution, effect of Prandtl number and Rayleigh number on the flow of fluid. Shu and Wee [3] solved the two-dimensional incompressible Navier-Stokes equations for a square cavity in primitive variable form, by using the GDQ method with SIMPLE strategy. Basak and Roy [4] investigated the influence of uniform and non-uniform heating of wall(s) in terms of stream function and isotherm contours of natural convection flows in a square cavity using finite element method. 2. Model formulation and governing equations
Y
u 0, v 0, 0 y
u0 v 0 0
u0 v 0 0
X
u 0, v 0,
0 y
Figure 1. Square cavity with boundary conditions
The fluid is contained in the square cavity of length L (Fig. 1). The vertical walls are maintained at uniformly imposed different temperatures. The top and the bottom walls are insulated and assumed to be adiabatic and impermeable. It is also supposed that the cavity is sufficiently long in the direction normal to the plane for the motion to be assumed two-dimensional. It is assumed that the effect of the temperature on density is confined only to the body force term of the momentum equation and all other fluid properties are independent of temperature and pressure (Boussinesq approximation). The fluid flow is considered to be steady, laminar and incompressible. The dimensionless governing
252
equations for the problem are based on the balance conservation laws of mass, linear momentum in x and y directions and energy in two-dimensional steady state condition and can be written as
U V 0 X Y
(1)
2U 2U U U P V Pr 2 X Y X Y 2 X
(2)
2V 2V V V P V Pr 2 Ra.Pr . . X Y Y Y 2 X
2 2 . V X Y X 2 Y 2
x , L Y y , L U uL , V vL , P pL2 2
(3)
(4)
T Tc Th Tc
where, X
and
A finite difference technique based on SIMPLE algorithm as proposed by Patankar [5] has been used to solve numerically the above equations with appropriate boundary conditions. A staggered grid arrangement has been used, in which velocities have been calculated at the control volume faces and pressure and temperature have been calculated at the grid points. 3. Boundary conditions The height and the width of the cavity are taken as L (square cavity). With respect to velocity, no-slip condition and impermeable boundary conditions are imposed at the four walls of the cavity. The temperature of the left side-wall ( Th ) is more than that of the right side-wall ( Tc ). Temperature gradient at the top and the bottom surfaces are set to zero (adiabatic condition). Boundary conditions in the dimensionless form are shown in Fig. 1. 4. Results and discussion The simulation was carried out for Prandtl number 0.71 (air) and Rayleigh number was varied from 10 3 to 10 6 . The results of the simulation have been presented in the form of temperature contours and velocity vectors for the entire computational domain. The vertical velocity ( v ) distribution at mid-height of the cavity and horizontal velocity ( u ) distribution at mid-length of the cavity are also shown for different Rayleigh numbers. Finally, the local values of Nusselt number ( Nu y ) and the average Nusselt number ( Nuav ) have been evaluated along the left (hot) wall. 4.1. Temperature distributions Isotherms have been plotted for Rayleigh numbers of 10 3 , 10 4 ,10 5 and 10 6 in figures
2(a), 2(b), 2(c) and 2(d) respectively. At the lower Rayleigh number of 10 3 , temperature profile is almost linear and heat flow across the cavity is mainly due to conduction. At Ra 10 4 , the isotherms spread more, and become curved as shown in the Fig. 2(b). Figure 2(c) and figure 2(d) show the isotherm patterns for Ra 10 5 and Ra 10 6 respectively. It is observed that the isotherms distribution pattern takes a symmetrical shape at higher Rayleigh number. This is due to the increase of convective heat transfer at higher Rayleigh number. With the increase in Rayleigh number, Grashof number also increases and it generates more buoyancy effect. A thermal stratification takes place at the lower part of the
253
left wall as well as at the upper part of the right wall. This suggests that even at Rayleigh number of 10 5 , conduction plays a major role in heat transfer at the areas mentioned above. The same effect has increased at Rayleigh number 10 6 as shown in Fig. 2(d). 4.2. Velocity field distributions Figure 3(a) presents the velocity distribution for Ra 10 3 and it shows that recirculation of the fluid takes place with the centre of the cavity as the centre of recirculation. The recirculation pattern changes at Rayleigh number 10 4 and a tendency of extra vortex formation within the recirculation zone is observed. The effect is clearly observed at Ra 10 5 , where two vortices in same direction, separated by small distance, are found. The positions of the vortices are symmetrical with respect to the diagonal connecting left lower point and right upper point of the cavity. As the Rayleigh number increases more, the vortices elongate in the vertical direction and then move away from each other, but maintain the diagonal symmetry as shown in Fig. 3 (d).
(a)
(b)
3
(c)
4 5
(d)
Figure 2. Temperature contours plot at: (a) Ra 10 , (b) Ra 10 , (c) Ra 10 , (d) Ra 10 6
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3. Velocity fields at: (a) Ra 10 3 , (b) Ra 10 4 , (c) Ra 10 5 , (d) Ra 10 6 3.3. Mid-height and Mid-length Velocity Distributions For further illustration of velocity field, the vertical velocity distributions at the midheight and the horizontal velocity distribution at the mid-length of the cavity have been shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 respectively. The distribution pattern of the vertical velocity is similar for Rayleigh number of 10 4 ,10 5 and 10 6 as shown in Fig. 4. The velocity is positive in the zone adjacent to the hot wall and negative in the zone adjacent to the cold wall. In between these two zones, there is a zone whose width depends on Rayleigh number where the vertical velocity is almost zero. The maximum positive velocity and the maximum negative velocity are found to be same for a particular Rayleigh number and the values increase with the increase of Rayleigh number. Also the width of the zero velocity zone decreases with increasing Rayleigh number. The phenomenon may be attributed to increased buoyancy effect with higher Rayleigh number. Similarly, the horizontal velocity at
254
the mid-length of the cavity also shows similar variation for different Rayleigh numbers. As expected, the horizontal velocity is positive in the upper half and negative in the lower half of the cavity. It is also seen that the velocity increases with increase of the Rayleigh number both in the upper half and the lower half. This can be explained from the point of view of continuity of flow. 3.4. Mid-height Temperature Distribution Temperature distribution across the cavity has been shown in Fig. 6 at the mid-height, for several values of Rayleigh number. At the lowest Rayleigh number the temperature profile is virtually linear. The flow of heat across the cavity is almost entirely due to conduction as mentioned earlier. As Rayleigh number increases, convection becomes increasingly significant and the profile shows a progressive departure from linearity. The horizontal temperature gradient becomes smaller, showing that the amount of heat crossing the cavity directly by conduction is diminishing.
Figure 4. Vertical velocity distribution at mid-height 3.5.
Figure 5. Horizontal velocity distribution at mid-length
Figure 6. Temperature distribution at mid-height
Local Nusselt number variation with Rayleigh number The parameters of practical importance are the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number. The local Nusselt number at the left (hot) wall can be defined as
Nu hx x . k x x 0
(5)
The local Nusselt number distribution along the left wall ( x 0 ) is shown in the Fig. 7 for several values of Rayleigh number. At the top of the left wall local Nusselt number is in the range of 0.5 to 1 for different values of Rayleigh number. But near the bottom of the left wall, the local Nusselt number varies over a wider range of 3 to 17. 3.6. Average Nusselt number variation with Rayleigh number The average Nusselt number is defined by
Nu av
L hL dy . k 0 x x 0
(6)
The value of average Nusselt number is evaluated integrating the above equation using Simpsons one-third rule of integration. The variation of average Nusselt number with Rayleigh number has been shown in Fig. 8. Results obtained by some previous researchers [6, 7] are also plotted on the same figure for average Nusselt number. The figure clearly shows there is a good agreement between the present predicted values and the earlier works conducted by Wilkes [6] and Poots [7].
255
Fig. 7. Local Nusselt number variation along the left wall

4. Conclusion
Fig. 8. Average Nusselt number variation with Rayleigh number
In the present numerical study, two-dimensional steady flow analyses have been made on natural convection in a differentially heated square enclosure. The detailed structures of the two-dimensional velocity and temperature fields are investigated by high-resolution numerical results for Rayleigh number in the range of 10 3 Ra 10 6 . As the Rayleigh number increases, the convective activities intensify and accordingly, the flow field and the temperature distribution change. The local as well as the average Nusselt number increases with increase of Rayleigh number. Near the top of the wall the local Nusselt number does not vary much with Rayleigh number, but a large variation is observed near the bottom of the cavity. The present two-dimensional data are found to be in fair consistency with the available experimental and theoretical measurements. References [1] Ostrach, S. Natural convection in enclosures. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, 110, 1988, 1175-1190. [2] De Vahl Davis, G. Laminar natural convection in an enclosed rectangular cavity. International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer, 11, 1968, 1675-1693. [3] Shu, C. and Wee, K. H. A. Numerical simulation of natural convection in a square cavity by SIMPLE-generalized differential quadrature method. Computers & Fluids, 31, 2002, 209-226. [4] Basak, T. and Roy, S. Finite element analysis of natural convection flows in a square cavity with non-uniformly heated wall(s). International Journal of Engineering Science, 43, 2005, 668-680. [5] Patankar, S.V. Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow. Hemisphere McGraw-Hill, Washington DC, 1980. [6] Wilkes, J.O. The finite difference computation of natural convection in an enclosed rectangular cavity. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, 1963. [7] Poots, G. Heat transfer by laminar free convection in enclosed plane gas layers. The Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics, 11, 1958, 257-273.
256
Heat and mass transfer study of Liquid Desiccant with solar Cooling technology
Naresh Kumar1*, G. Srivastava2, I.E.T.,B.U., Jhansi, India 2 BIET, Jhansi, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: jhansi_naresh12@rediffmail.com ) The main objective of this paper is to explore liquid desiccant cooling as a solar alternative to conventional air conditioning techniques, with additional objectives of reducing the electrical energy requirement and improving the humidity control in buildings. Since the desiccant air dehumidification and regeneration processes greatly influence the overall system performance, a detailed study of the simultaneous heat and mass transfer between air and a desiccant in a falling film heat exchanger conducted. Triethylene glycol is selected as the desiccant since it is non corrosive and has good wetting characteristics. Modeling and simulations of absorber/ regenerator performance, is carried out. In addition, desiccant cooling system expected to provide reliable and efficient air conditioning is proposed, and a performance simulation of this system is carried out to provide insight into the design of desiccant cooling systems. Through the study of the absorber/ regenerator, important design variables are defined as the air flow rate and humidity, the desiccant temperature and concentration. Results from the performance simulation of the proposed liquid desiccant cooling system show that in applications with a large latent cooling load, as the electrical energy can be saved as compared to conventional cooling techniques when care is taken to minimize the amount of electrical energy used for auxiliary regeneration heat and a mathematical model is developed for calculation. 1. Introduction
1
One way of handling the control of humidity and temperature independently is to bring the air in contact with a desiccant material that absorbs moisture before the sensible cooling in vapor compression system, absorption chiller, or an evaporative cooling unit. The main energy requirement for desiccant is low temperature heat for generation of the desiccant. Hence, when using desiccant cooling it is possible to shift part of the cooling energy demand from high quality electrical energy to low temperature heat which can be obtain from solar flat plate collector or other low grade energy sources.
2.
Liquid Desiccant System Liquid absorbents absorb moisture from or add moisture to the air depending on the vapor pressure difference between the air and the solution. The equilibrium vapor pressure of the solution depends on the temperature and concentration of the solution. The concentration
257
of liquid absorbents is decided by the latent and sensible heat removal requirements and the temperature of the cooling medium.
Liquid desiccant systems essentially consist of an absorber for dehumidifying the air, a regenerator for regenerating the solution, a series of heat exchangers and evaporative coolers for cooling the air and also liquid liquid heat exchangers for pre cooling and preheating of solution. In the absorber air comes in direct contact with the desiccant solution and loses its moisture due to the lower equilibrium water vapor pressure of desiccant solution. The process of absorption is always accompanied by heat release and this is removed by a heat is not removed simultaneously the equilibrium vapor pressure would rise thus decreasing the mass transfer potential. In film absorbers the gas and liquid come into contact on the surface of a flowing liquid film. The film flows over vertical surfaces which will be tubes. a. Tubular absorber in which the film flows over the internal surface of a vertical tube. b. Absorbers with upward movement of the film due to gas flow from bottom to top. When heat has to be simultaneously removed. These are very efficient with respect to the interface per unit volume and the rate of mass transmission. Absorbers with ascending film operate at high gas velocities and are highly efficient. Psychometric diagram for desiccant cooling system shown in figure 3. This figure shown the air first dehumidifies in absorber heat exchanger then sensible cooled. After sensible cooling air passes to the evaporative cooler. There are its humidity increases and desired conditions achieved.
3.
Assumptions 1. Negligible heat lost to the surroundings 2. Negligible K E and PE change 3. Constant Properties 4. Negligible tube wall thermal resistance and fouling factor
258
5. Each tube is thin walled.
4.
Result & Discussion Results come out by calculation Air velocity: range (10 20 m/sec) Air flow rate: range (0.062 0.093 kg/sec) TEG flow rate: range (0.040 0.083 kg/sec) Water flow rate: range (0.083 0.093 kg/sec) Concentration of TEG at inlet: range (0.8 0.99) Air inlet temperature: range (35 42 deg. Cent.) TEG inlet temperature: range (20 -30 deg. Cent.) Water inlet temperature: range (24 27 deg. Cent) Relative Humidity of inlet Air: range (0.60 0.70) Air temperature (regene.): range (40 45 deg. Cent) Air flow rate (regene.): range (0.062 0.093 kg/sec) TEG flow rate: range (0.40 0.083 kg/sec) Air velocity: range (1 3.5 m/sec) Steam flow rate: range (0.33 0.05 kg/sec) Temperature of steam: range (100 120 deg. Cent.)
Air temperature Tiaa Toaa 35 29.508 35 36.521 35 41.606 35 45.368 TEG Temperature Tregia Ttegoa 25 27.519 37.787 37.106 47.181 44.246 54.256 49.661 Regenerator air temp. Tiar Toar 40 62.502 40 62.502 40 62.502 40 62.502 TEG Temperature Tregia Ttegoa 25 27.519 35.127 34.850 40.199 38.196 45.810 40.181 Regenerator air temp. Tiar Toar 40 62.502 40 62.502 40 62.502 Water Temperature Twia Twoa 24 26.572 24 24.731 24 27.194 24 29.018 TEG Temperature Cir Cor 27.51 37.787 37.10 47.181 44.24 54.256 49.66 59.656 Water Temperature Twia Twoa 24 26.572 24 24.073 24 25.594 24 26.948 TEG Temperature Cir Cor 26.57 35.152 35.08 45.882 42.18 51.274
10 0.083 0.083 0.093 0.9 35 25 24 0.7 40 0.083 0.083 2.5 0.033 110
Relative Humidity Rhia Rho 0.7 0.498 0.7 0.378 0.7 0.332 0.7 0.252 TEG Conc. absorber Cia/Cor Coa/Cir 0.9 0.861 0.882 0.844 0.864 0.826 0.846 0.808 Relative Humidity Rhia Rho 0.7 0.498 0.7 0.390 0.7 0.345 0.7 0.270 TEG Conc. Absorber Cia /Cor Coa/Cir 0.9 0.861 0.873 0.854 0.842 0.836
Output for absorber
Output for regenerator

Steam Temperature Tsi Tso 110 81.776 110 81.776 110 81.776 110 81.776 Air temperature Tiaa Toaa 35 29.508 35 34.903 35 38.333 35 41.153 Steam Temperature Tsi Tso 110 81.776 110 81.776 110 81.776
Output for absorber (with heat exchanger)
Output for regenerator (with heat exchanger)
259
110
81.776
40
62.502
45.18
54.277
0.835
0.813
6. Result & Discussion The results from the theoretical modeling of the desiccant air dehumidification process are depicted graphically in graph 1 -6. 1. First graph represent absorber air O/P temp vs I/P temp. The graph shows a straight line. The O/P temperature first decreases i.e. I/p temperature then increases. It is due to flow of air in the tube and flow of cooling agent (i.e. water) which flows in shell. Cooling air cools the air first decreasing the temperature of air then increasing the temperature when it comes in contact with TEG.TEG absorbs the water vapors from the air. The capacity of moisture absorbing with heat exchanger will be increases due to decrease the temperature of TEG. 2. Second graph represent absorber water O/P temperature vs I/P temperature. The graph shows a straight line which indicates cooling agent temperature increases with 0 one cycle and approaches to 24 to 29 C. It happens because when hot air and desiccant come in contact with each other therefore heat is librated. This heat is absorbed by cooling agent causing increase in temperature. With heat exchanger temperature 0 approaches to 24 to 26.9 C . 3. Third graph shows absorber air input temperature vs Cir CIR linearly increases w. r. t. air input temperature because low temperature of air causes more absorbing capacity of desiccant. Therefore if absorbing capacity increases then concentration decreases. Temperature of O/P air increases causing increases of concentration. With heat exchanger quality of Cir will improve. 4. Fourth graph shows plot between absorber air I/P temperature Cir re VS Rho
260
It is evident from graph that O/P Rho of absorber H.E. increases w.r.t. air inlet temperature due to increase in air temperature, less quantity of water vapors absorbed by T.E.G. so relative humidity Rho O/P increase. But heat exchanger rho will more decrease as required. 5. Fifth graph shows plot between steam temperature (TS) vs CTEG in regenerator. It is evident from graph that it steam temperature increases then CTEG at output regenerator also increases. This is due to increase in steam temperature causing more water vapors to evaporate from dilute TEG. And with heat exchanger CTEG will improve. 6. Sixth graph shows plot between mass flow rates of TEG at inlet vs Rho at outlet of absorber. It is evident from the graph that if mass flow rate of TEG increases, then there is also increase in Rho value. Due to increase in mass flow rate there is also an increment in mass transfer coefficient. Therefore humidity ratio increases causing increase in relative humidity. With heat exchanger Rho will decrease. 7. Conclusions The main objective of this paper is to explore liquid desiccant cooling as a solar alternative to conventional air conditioning techniques with additional objectives of reducing the electrical energy requirement and improving the humidity control in buildings. Since the desiccant air dehumidification and regeneration process greatly influences the overall performances of a desiccant system, the main part of this paper consist of a detailed study of the heat and mass transfer between air and desiccant in a falling film heat exchanger. The following points are covered in this paper. 1. A detailed analysis review of liquid desiccant cooling is presented with heat exchanger and without heat exchanger. 2. Analysis is employed for the adiabatic gas absorption in a falling film heat exchanger serving as the air dehumidifier and desiccant regenerator. This model is used to carryout a theoretical parametric study of the simultaneous heat and mass transfer between the air and the desiccant. References [1] Lof G.O.G., 1955 Cooling with solar energy, congress on solar energy, Tucson, Arizona, pp 171 189 [2] Lof G.O.G., Cler G, and Brisbane. T, 1988, Performance of a solar desiccant cooling system, ASME JI of solar energy engg, Vol. 110, AUG pp 165 171. [3] Gandhidasan, P and Gupta, M.C., 1977. Sun powered air conditioning by absorption chemical dehumidification and evaporative cooling, proc. Of the conference on the physics of solar energy, Arab development institute, Tripoli, 231 236. [4] Jonannsen. P, 1984, Performance simulation of solar air conditioning system with liquid desiccants, Int. J1 of ambient energy, Vol. 104 pp229 236. [5] Lavan. Z, Monnier. J.B., and Worek. W.M., 1982, Second law Analysis of desiccant cooling systems, ASME Jl of solar energy engg. Vol. 197, pp 102- 104. [6] Maclaine cross.I.K, 1985, High performance adiabatic desiccant open cooling cycles, ASME Jl of solar energy engg. Vol. 197, pp 102-104. [7] Howell.J.R, 1987, Design of liquid desiccant dehumidifier and cooling systems, solar energy utilization: fundamental and application. Martinus, Nijhoff publication, the Netherlands pp 374 387. [8] Sanjeev Jain, Prof. P.L. dahr, Dr. S.C. Kaushik June 1992, advanced evaporative cooling systems for space conditioning, Mech engg. IIT, Delhi. [9] Godara, Bhupinder, 1990, Studies on liquid desiccant Augumented evaporative cooling system, M.Tech. thesis Mech. Engg. Deptt., IIT, Delhi. [10] Viktoria oberge, May 1998, Heat and mass transfer study of a packed bed absorber/ regenerator for solar desiccant cooling, University of Florida. [11] Rbert E. Treybell, 1955, Mass transfer operation Mcgraw Hill book company, 109 -189. [12] Hovell J. R, and Peng, 1987, Design of liquid desiccant dehumidification and cooling systems, solar energy utilization: fundamentals and applications, martinus. Nijhoff publishers, the Netherlands, pp 374 384.
261
Expansion Pressure Range and Effect of Pressure on Tube to Tubesheet Joint

Nikunjkumar G. Patel1, Dr.K.P.Desai2, Mr. R.D.Molia3
1,2
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India 3 Larson & Toubro, HED, Hazira, Surat. 394510, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: niksvnit@gmail.com)
For tube to tubesheet joint, in shell and tube type heat exchanger, when tube is expanded by hydraulic expansion process, applied pressure plays an important role on strength of the joint and on the geometry of next holes. The pressure required for expansion is calculated using hydro expanding principle for double layer tube. The results are applicable to cases where the inner tube is either thin-walled or thick-walled. The minimum and maximum pressure required for tube expansion has been calculated. The strength of Tube-to-tubesheet joint is decided in terms of residual contact pressure between the outer surfaces of tube and the hole of the tube sheet. The residual stress and deformation can also be obtained. Key Words: expansion, tube to tubesheet joint, residual contact pressure, minimum and maximum required pressure 1. Introduction
Hydraulic expansion is a relatively new method for the connection of tube and tubesheet but it is being more and more widely used in engineering. Compared with other techniques, hydraulic forming can be more conveniently operated by measuring and controlling the pressure. N. Merah, A. Al-Zayer, A. Shuaib and A. Arif [4] have explained that tube-to-tubesheet joint strength is measured in terms of residual contact pressure between the tubes outer surface and the tube sheet hole surfaces, which is influenced by many factors, such as expansion pressure, material property, geometry, and dimensions of tube and tubesheet [5]. As residual stress depends upon the expansion pressure, expansion pressure plays very important role in expansion process for desirable joint strength. Effect of yield stress of the tube and tubesheet material is explained by Stanley Yokell [3]. Equal Tube and Tubesheet Yield Stresses In the circumstance in which the tube and tubesheet yield stresses are equal, the plastic zone is essentially continuous. In this circumstance, the optimum expanding pressure is the maximum that will not cause the tube to begin to extrude. Tubesheet Yield Stress Higher Than Tube Yield Stress If tubesheet yield stress so is higher than that of the tube, a new elastic-plastic boundary is established in the tubesheet metal after full tube plasticity has been achieved. As the ratio of tubesheet to tube yield stress, so si increases, radius of the elastic-plastic boundary in the tubesheet moves closer to the tube. At a ratio of two, the location of the elastic-plastic interface is at the tube-tubesheet contact surface and the tubesheet metal remains fully elastic. Tubesheet Yield Stress Lower Than Tube Yield Stress In a tube with some thickness, which is in the fully plastic condition, there is a calculable pressure drop across the tube. The pressure that the tube exerts on the hole is the tube
262
expanding pressure, less the pressure drop across the fully plastic tube. In order to prevent tubehole extrusion, the external tube pressure must not exceed the tube plate plastic limit of 2 so 3 . Therefore, the maximum expanding pressure to apply in the tube cannot exceed the sum of the plate plastic limit and the pressure drop across the fully plastic tube. This provides a means of determining the maximum permissible pressures for tube-wall, tube-diameter, and tube-plate constructions. 2. Hydro-Expanding Principle
Nomenclature
di , d o
Di , D0
Internal and external diameters of the inner tube, respectively Internal and external diameters of the outer tube, respectively Hydro-expanding pressure Contact pressure during the process of hydro-forming Residual contact pressure after the process of hydro-forming Youngs modulus of the inner and outer tubes, respectively Poissons ratio of the inner and outer tubes, respectively Yield stress of the inner and outer tubes, respectively
pi pc p* Ei , E o i , o si , so io , oi
* io ,
k, K
, Pt
Hoop strain at the external surface of the inner tube and the internal surface of the outer tube, respectively * oi Hoop strains at the external surface of the inner tube and the internal surface of the outer tube caused by pp, respectively Radius ratio of the inner and outer tubes, respectively, k Ligament efficiency and Pitch of the tubesheet.
ro R ,K o ri Ri
The hydro-expanding principle, explained by Fujun Liua, Jinyang Zheng, Ping Xu, Mingze Xu and Guohui Zhu [1], for a double layered tube, is setout in detail for tube to tubesheet joint, considering as a double layered tube, as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1. Tubesheet hole and Tube
263
In this consideration, tube is considered as an inner tube. The diameter of the hole of the tubesheet is considered as an inner radius of outer tube. But here, the equivalent outer diameter is required to find out. Here equivalent outer diameter can be find out for the tubesheet, is used to calculate the expansion pressure. Equivalent outer diameter can be found out as discussed by kohlpaintner [2], the tube-totubesheet joint analysis can be simplified by considering a single tube surrounded by a tube representing the tubesheet. The equivalent outer diameter used in the single-model can be determined from the referenced equation:
D P
o t
12.55009 16.21818 10.88288 2.43388 1.94683 0.98034
(1)
The relation between hydro-expanding pressure pi and residual contact pressure p * can be derived from the deformed compatibility
io io oi oi
[1, 4].
In other words, the hoop strain at the internal surface of the outer tube must be greater than or equal to the one at the external surface of the inner tube 2.1 The Expression between Hydro-expanding Pressure and Residual Contact Pressure [1]. According to the deformed compatibility, namely io io oi oi , the
expression between hydro-expanding pressure pi and residual contact pressure p can be obtained from Equation [1]. Namely B C pi p * D A A (2) where
1 1 K 2 1 A 1 i o Ei Eo K 2 1 1 k 2 1 1 B 2 i Ei k 1 Eo 2 ln k C si 2 Ei k 1 D si ln k K 2 1 o 2 K 1
2.2
The Work range of Hydro-expanding Pressure and Hydraulic Expansion Criterion following two equations must be satisfied simultaneously [1].
so K 2 1 C D pi D A 2K 2
and
(3)
264
C C B k 2 1 D pi si D D 2 A A k A
(4)
From equation (4) minimum and maximum required pressure range for hydro-expanding pressure pi can be find out. 3 Experimental Analysis
The experiments were performed using a Duplex stainless steel UNS 31803 tube and a low-alloy steel SA 765 GRII tubesheet, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Experimental setup demonstrating hydraulic expansion process

The dimensions and properties of the tube and tubesheet are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Data for Tube and Tubesheet and Experimental Results [5]
Material Yield stress MPa Poissons Ratio Elastic Modulus MPa Inner diameter mm Outer diameter mm Pitch mm Results Pressure Range (bar ) 2060.78 pmin Expansion pressure (bar ) pmax 3779.64 3200 Tube UNS31803 648 si Tubesheet SA765GRII 326 so
i Ei
di do
0.3 196000 46.48 50.75
o Eo
Di Do Pt
0.3 210000 51.31 70.83644 58.74
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As is evident from table 1, the calculated data have good convergence with the experimental ones. A comparison of some previous data, hydraulic expansion is carried out in the industries shows that they have quite satisfactory convergence. 4. Conclusions The following conclusions can be drawn from the present work. 1. The empirical co relations proposed by W.R. Kohlpaintner and Fujun Liua, Jinyang Zheng, Ping Xu, Mingze Xu, Guohui Zhu, have been efficiently integrated and implemented in the present work to determine the expansion pressure range. The proposed relation is used to calculate the maximum and minimum required pressure. It is sufficiently simple and does not require carrying out auxiliary calculations to determine the parameters contained in it. 2. The usage of correlations is found satisfactorily and convincing. Hence, the present correlation has been extensively employed in industrial test condition. 3. Required pressure for expansion should be within calculated expansion range. If applied pressure for expansion is less then minimum required pressure, tight joint will not be formed. If applied pressure is higher than required maximum pressure, surface of the hole and ligament will deformed plastically which affects geometry of the next hole. Acknowledgments The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to L & T, Heavy Engineering Division, Surat, for funding and for providing necessary accessories and equipments for the Tube to tubesheet joint samples. References [1] Fujun Liua, Jinyang Zheng, Ping Xu, Mingze Xu, Guohui Zhu, Forming mechanism of doublelayered tubes by internal hydraulic expansion, Journal of pressure vessel technology,81, 2004, 625-633. [2] W.R. Kohlpaintner, Calculation of hydraulically expanded tube-totubesheet joints, Trans. ASME J. Pressure Vessel Technology, 117, 1995, 2430. [3] Stanley Yokell. Appropriate Correlations for Assessing Expanded Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Strength. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 126, 2004, 376-381. [4] N. Merah, A. Al-Zayer, A. Shuaib, A. Arif. Finite element evaluation of clearance effect on tube-to-tubesheet joint strength. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 80, 2003, 879-885. [5] H.F.Wang, Z.F.Sang. Effect of Geometry of Grooves on Connection Strength of Hydraulically Expanded Tube to Tubesheet Joints. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 127, 2005, 430-435. [6] Egor P. Popov, Engineering Mechanics of Solid, PRENTICE-Hall of India Fourth Indian Reprint, Delhi, 1998. [7] L & T Record manual.
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Comparative Analysis of Different Types of Layouts of Run-offRiver Hydropower Scheme

Bhosale Nilesh Raghunath*, S.K. Singal Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India *Corresponding Author (e-mail:nilesh147@gmail.com) Energy is considered to be one of the key factors in economical development. Sustainable energy resources are of vital importance and the energy resources, which are continuously available for long durations and which have no detrimental social effects, are compulsory for sustainable development. The fact that fossil originated energy resources are both exhaustible and have detrimental effects to environment has made inevitable to focus on alternative resources. The alternative energy resources, including hydropower, are advantageous, such as being sustainable, renewable, environmentally friendly and clean resources. The inherent technical, economic and environmental benefits of hydroelectric power make it an important contributor to the future world energy mix, particularly in the developing countries. In this paper, an attempt has been made to discuss the reviews of different types of layouts of run-off-river hydropower schemes. The reviews of the topic suggest that the small hydropower project is site specific and site is to be developed for power generation by taking into consideration of natural characteristics of the site. The detailing of various components of the projects for arriving at realistic cost and benefits are very important for its sustainable development. 1. Introduction The potential of small hydro makes it an attractive option for meeting part of the future energy needs of the rural areas in India. The investments needed for small hydro constructions are generally lower than for conventional, centralized energy systems. Small hydropower offers a unique opportunity to meet the needs of the rural population in a cost-effective way, with an investment lower than that for individual solar home systems and providing high power systems. Though the total hydro potential in the country is estimated at 150,000MW, only about 23.47% of it has been exploited so far which contributes about 24.96% to the total power generating installed capacity [1, 2]. In India, SHP projects have been classified as: (i) micro-hydro (up to 100kW), (ii) mini hydro (101kW to 2MW) and (iii) small hydro (225MW) by the Central Electricity Authority (CEA). However, the term SHP is used to describe all hydro projects up to 25MW capacities [3]. The present study deals with the analysis of the various components of the runoff-river hydropower schemes. 2. Small hydropower and run-off-river scheme As discussed earlier, hydropower plants are classified into large, small, mini, and micro hydro power plants, based on the generating capacity of the plant. In India, hydro projects up to 25 MW station capacity have been categorized as SHP projects [4]. The hydro power potential of a site is dependent on the discharge and head of water. It is estimated by the following equation [5]. P (power in kW) = Q H 9.81 (1) 3 Where, Q = discharge (rate of flow) in m /s; H = head (height) in meters; and = overall power generating system efficiency.
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2.1 Run-of-River scheme In these schemes, water available and instantaneously is used to generate power. Practically, water is not stored during flood periods as well as during low electricity demand periods. After power generation, water is again discharged back to the stream. Generally, these are high head and low discharge schemes 3. Components of run-off-river hydropower scheme Each project requires significant infrastructure, and always includes the following components (as shown in Figure 1): (a) A small dam or weir, (b)Intake, (c) Pipes, known as penstocks, (d) Powerhouse building, (e) Tailrace, (f) Access roads (g) Transmission lines [6-7].
Figure. 1 Typical Layout of Run-off-River Hydro Power Plant 3.1 Civil works In run-off-river based SHP projects the major components of civil works are Intake (head works), Desilting arrangement, Power channel / Tunnel, Forebay Tank / Surge tank, Penstock, Power house building and Tail race channel [7]. 3.2 Electro-mechanical equipment The Electro-mechanical equipment is considered to be the equipment and system required to develop the energy available. The major Electro-mechanical components are inlet valve, turbine, draft tube, gates, generator, control and protection equipment and substation [8]. 4. Types of layouts of run-off-river schemes 4.1 Intake (Head Works) The task of an intake structure to divert from the channel at the tapping point the water necessary for whatever purpose with or without water being stored. An intake structure for evacuating the water and possibly a structure for damming up the river are necessary [9]. 4.1.1 Intakes adjacent to a diversion structure Here, an intake for a tunnel is placed upstream of the diversion structure to draw water from the pool (Fig. 2) [10]. For a canal intake (Fig. 2) [10], the head regulator resembles that of an irrigation canal intake. The exit passage from the turbines is called the Tail Race Channel. There is also a Bye-Pass Channel to release water when the turbines shut down suddenly.
268
Figure. 2 Intake adjacent to a barrage leading to a tunnel and canal
4.1.2 Intakes for in-stream power house These are used for powerhouses located across rivers or canals to utilize the head difference across a canal drop. Here, the intake length is kept quite short and leads to either a vertical axis Kaplan turbine or a horizontal axis bulb turbine (Fig. 3) [10]. Figure. 3 Intakes for River or Canal Fall Power House Integrated with Turbine Unit (a) Kaplan Turbines (b) Bulb Turbines
4.1.3 Reservoir Type Intakes Intakes for concrete dams are located on the upstream face of the dam as shown in Figure 4 [10]. The face of the intake is rectangular and is reduced to a smaller rectangular section through a transitory shape known as the bell-mouth. Figure. 4 Intake from a Reservoir upstream of a Storage Dam (a) Sectional Elevation XX (b) Sectional Plan YY
(a) 4.2 Desilting chamber
(b)
Desilting chambers and sand traps constructed behind a water intake. Water collected from natural rivers mostly contains a certain amount of suspended sediment particles. These particles are removed in case of increasing water discharge and finally interact with guide vanes, Pelton Needles or runner blades of the power plant. The resulting abrasion erosion is an undesired fact.
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Sediment transported in the flow, especially particles of hard materials such as quartz, can be harmful to turbine components [10].
Figure. 5 Desilting Tank 4.3 Power Canal After flowing through the intake structure, the water must pass through the water conveyance system may be either of closed conduit type, as shown in Figure 6 (tunnel off-taking from upstream of the river diversion) or could be open-channels as shown in Figure 7. High pressure intakes, for example as in the entry to penstocks [10] would be either reinforced concrete lined or steel lined. Open channels are usually lined canals to reduce water loss through seepage as well as to minimize friction loss. The design of canals for hydropower water conveyance follows the same rules as for rigid bed irrigation channels, and are usually termed as power canals.
Fig. 6 Cross Section of Power Canal in Canal in Cutting
Figure. 7 Cross Section of Power Partly Cutting and Partly Filling
4.4 Surge Tank A surge tank (or surge chamber) is a device introduced within a hydropower water conveyance system having a rather long pressure conduit to absorb the excess pressure rise in case of a sudden valve closure [10]. (1) Simple Surge Tank: A simple surge tank is a shaft connected to pressure tunnel directly or by a short connection of cross-sectional area not less than the area of the head race tunnel (Fig. 8(a)). (2) Restricted Orifice Surge Tank: A simple surge tank in which the inlet is throttled to improve damping of oscillations by offering greater resistance and connected to the head race tunnel with or without a connecting/communicating shaft (Fig.8 (b)). (3)Differential Surge Tank: Differential Surge tank is a throttled surge tank with an addition of a riser pipe may be inside the main shaft, connected to main shaft by orifice or ports (Fig. 8(c)). Figure. 8 Surge Tanks (a) Simple (b) Restricted Orifice (c) Differential 270
4.5 Penstock A penstock is a steel or reinforced concrete conduit to resist high pressure in the water conveyance system and may take off directly from behind a dam, from a forebay, or from the surge tank end of a head race tunnel [10]. Similar to a tunnel, a penstock needs to be designed for different types of loads. Further, they have to be equipped with different accessories, which may be different for over ground or ground embedded types. 4.6 Power House and Tailrace The Power House Building is normally a Reinforced Concrete Framed Structure, with the columns having isolated or combined footings. The Power House Building houses the Turbines and Generators. Roofing is normally of corrugated sheets supported on sloping beams of the frame/ Roof Trusses. Service bay and Control Room portions may have R.C. C. lab. Masonry walls/ Concrete Block walls are provided as filler walls to provide the enclosure. Walls are normally non load bearing elements. An Over head Travelling Crane is provided in the machine area, which moves on R.C. Gantry Girders supported on brackets attached to the columns. 5 Conclusions The planning of layout of Run of river small hydropower scheme is carried out by taking into account the topographical and geological condition. The Run-off-river schemes on hill streams comprising a diversion structure, a water conductor, a desilting tank, a surge tank, penstock, power house and tail race. The water conductor could comprise any or a combination of the following types, viz., power channel, cut and cover duct, concrete pipe, steel pipe, tunnel depending on topographical, geotechnical and economical considerations. The dimensioning of the power house has to be done in co-ordination with the features and dimensions of turbine, generator and the auxiliary equipment. Layout plan of the project could be effectively achieved by proper planning and designing of various structures and equipment systems. 6 References [1] Annual Report (2007-08), Ministry of Power, 2008. [2] R.Venkateswaran, Small Hydro Potential in India, Rightlinx (India) Limited New Delhi, 2007. [3] Nounia, M.R., S.C. Mullickb, T.C. Kandpal, Techno-economics of micro-hydro projects for decentralized power supply in India, 2006. [4] Small hydro power, Initiatives and private sector participation, third edition, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, 2003 [5] Naidu, B.S.K., Small Hydro, NPTI Publication, Faridabad, India, 2003 [6] Nigam P.S., Hand Book of Hydro Electric Engineering, Nem Chand and Brothers, Roorkee, India, 1985. [7] CEA, Guidelines for Development of Small Hydro Electric Scheme, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1982 [8] IS: 12800 (Part 3), Guidelines for the Selection of Hydraulic Turbine, Preliminary Dimensioning and Layout of Surface Hydro-Electric Power House (Small, Mini and Micro Hydro-Electric Power House), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1991. [9] Guidelines for Layout of Small Hydro Plants, Standards / Manuals / Guidelines for Small Hydro Development, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, 2008. [10] Module 5: Hydropower Engineering, Version 2 CE, IIT Kharagpur, Lesson 2: Hydropower Water Conveyance System, 2008 [11] http://mnes.nic.in, May 2008. [12] http://www.ahec.org.in/, May 2008
271
FLOW MEASUREMENTS IN 0.55M LOW SPEED WIND TUNNEL

Niyati Shah1*, Jaydeep Trivedi2, Mathur N.B.3 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Inst. of Technology, Vasad-388 306, Gujarat, India 3 Scientist *F*, National Aerospace Laboratories, Banglore-560 017, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: niyati_svit@yahoo.com) The main function of the wind tunnel is to generate steady stream of air in the test section, free from angularities and possessing uniform velocity distribution. The work is related to the measurements of quality of flow in the test section of 0.55M low speed wind tunnel and calibration of the test section is carried out. The velocity distribution in the test section is a direct indication of the quality of the flow in wind tunnel. Measuring the velocity fluctuation in the wind tunnel does the calibration of test section. The test was carried out on the tunnel having test section of 0.55m X 0.55m. The quality of the flow in the test section was measured with the help of hotwire anemometer at different locations in the test section at different velocities. The experiments were conducted using single screen and with honeycomb to evaluate the flow quality at the given condition. For the calibration, free stream velocity is varying as 6m/s, 10m/s, 20 m/s and 30m/s. the test was carried out to obtain the calibration constant for hot wire anemometer and the turbulence intensity of the flow in the test section at mentioned free streams. From the results, the average turbulence intensity in the test section is 0.2 for the velocities below 30m/s and approximately 0.25 for the velocity 30m/s. The turbulence intensity is higher near the walls of test section and to reduce the turbulence intensity the number of screens should be increased by two or three. Nomenclature: B e(intersect of line on Log(Eu2-E02) Axis E0 Mean flow voltage at U = 0 EU Mean flow voltage at U=U I Current through the wire M Mach number n Slope of the Log(Eu2-E02) Vs. LOG(U line) P,P0 Static, Stagnation pressure q Dynamic Pressure Rg & Rw Mean resistance of the wire in cold and hot condition respectively U,V Velocity of the fluid Density of the fluid 1. Introduction: Wind tunnels are one of the most important tools in aerodynamic research. They are mainly used to generate aerodynamic data for design of aircraft and the modeling airflow over and around different objects. For design purpose of any aerodynamic body the theory needs to be supplemented by experiments, which often are most conveniently conducted on as scale model in a wind tunnel. The main requirement of a wind tunnel is the generation of steady stream of air in the test section, free from angularities and possessing uniform velocity distribution. Today the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics is increasing rapidly to simulate the flow. Still it is necessary to compare the results obtained by CFD with wind tunnel experiments to make sure that they are meaningful. Screens have been used to improve the flow quality in wind tunnel and are placed normally in the settling chamber. Screens improve the mean flow uniformity and to
272
reduce the turbulence intensity of oncoming turbulence. To provide the uniform velocity distribution across a duct, screen is used and the non-uniformities are reduced by the greater resistance offered by screens to flow at high speeds. The component of the turbulence are modified in the contraction on entering the gauze and provided the porosity is suitably chosen, the overall turbulence downstream of screen is considerably reduced. Fine gauze screen is used for the purpose in low turbulence wind tunnel. The work is related to the measurements of quality of flow in the test section of 0.55M low speed wind tunnel and calibration of the test section is carried out. The velocity distribution in the test section is a direct indication of the quality of the flow in wind tunnel. Measuring the velocity fluctuation in the wind tunnel does the calibration of test section. 2. Importance Of Measurement Of Quality Of Flow In Test Section Effect Of Turbulence in Wind Tunnels In a wind tunnel, the air stream is never completely uniform and steady. In particular, small eddies of varying size and intensity is always present and is referred to collectively as the turbulence of the stream. In is important to differentiate between the time variations of velocity which constitute the turbulence and the large scale spatial variations which are usually referred to as non-uniformity. It is found that higher the Reynolds number of a wind tunnels test, the greater are the effects of the wind tunnel turbulence, because the stability of the laminar regions of the boundary layer decreases as the Reynolds number is increased. Velocity Variation in the Wind Tunnel Test Section: The velocity distribution in the test section is a direct indication of the quality of flow in the wind tunnel. Variation of 0.2% in the area occupied by a typical model is acceptable for a general purpose wind tunnel the variation in the dynamic pressure is measured across the test section by means of a pitot static tube. The local velocities may be then obtained from . For the velocity measurement, pitot tube is moved in test section, and the velocities as calculated are then plotted, and points are connected by contour lines equal values. The variation in q in the test section should be less than 0.5% from the mean which is a 0.25% variation in velocity. The greater loss near the walls would be expected to yield a lowered velocity near the perimeter of the test section, and this would occur if the contraction cone did not tend to remove such irregularities. Screens may be added in the largest section that corresponds to high velocity regions in the flow. The loss in energy ratios they cause is quite small. Hot Wire Anemometer: The hot wire anemometer is an instrument used foe the measurement of fluctuation quantities in turbulent flows like the fluctuations of velocity, temperature, concentration etc. here the constant current type anemometer is used. 3. Experiments Specification of Low Speed Wind Tunnel Its a open circuit section type wind tunnel having the velocity range of 10 m/s to 50 m/s. The entrance section is octagonal 2.2 m diameter, settling chamber is 2.2m long and 2.2 m wide, the honey comb is 180 mm long with 33 mm diameter tubes. Contraction area ratio is 16:1. The test section 0.55 m0.55m cross section, 1.8m long, the contraction section 2.4m long and the diffusion section is circular 4.87 m long.
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Work procedure and calculations:.The pitot static tube is used to measure the incompressible flow velocity by following the Bernoullies equation which describes the relationship between the velocity and pressure along a streamline. (1) Micro manometer is used to measure the static and total pressure in test section. . The readings from the micro manometer and hot wire anemometer can be automatically stored through the computerized data acquisition system. And finally the RMS value of voltage is obtained as a gain. Governing Equations: 1. The basic equation governing the equilibrium between the eat transferred by the hot wire to the lowing fluid and the heat input the wire in the form of a heating current is of the form of Kings equation. The calibration is made by keeping the hot wire in a wind tunnel and either measuring current or by measuring the resistance at different wind speed at constant current. 2 calibration constants n and B for hot wire anemometer are obtained through the slope of (2) 3. At different locations of test section using hot wire vertical movement mechanism Eu & ERMS is taken. At the same time P value is taken from the micro manometer. By differentiating the equation (3) the turbulence intensity is measured in terms of URMS/U. turbulence intensity is given by 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION For the calibration, free stream velocity is varying as 6m/s, 10m/s, 20 m/s and 30m/s. the test was carried out to obtain the calibration constant for hot wire anemometer and the turbulence intensity of the flow in the test section at the mentioned free streams. (3)
Figure1 Calibration of Hot wire Anemometer at U=6 m/s, 10M/S, 20 m/s and 30 m/s free streams Calibration Of Test Section: Fig.1 Represents The Calibration of HWA at different free streams by comparing the results obtained from the Kings Equation. From the results, it is concluded that, the hot wire anemometer is calibrated and the calibration constants are n=0.476 & B=0.382 for free stream velocity of 6m/s and n=0.453 and B = 0.393 for the free streams of 10 m/s, 20 m/s and 30 m/s. Calibration of wind tunnel consists in determining the mean values and uniformity of the flow parameters in the test section.
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Figure 2. Calibration of Wind tunnel test section Turbulence Intensity: For the used low speed wind tunnel, the mean velocity profile and the turbulence intensity profile are obtained for the test section at appropriate cross sections. The resulting profiles as shown in Fig. 2 represents that, the quality of the flow is smooth in the test section. Fig.2 represents the calibration of wind tunnel test section by comparing the velocities obtained from Hot wire Anemometer and Micro manometer.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3. Turbulence intensity profile
275
The result shown for the turbulence are obtained with honeycomb and with one screen indicates that at this condition, the average turbulence intensity in the test section is below 0.2 for the velocities below 30m/ s and approximately is 0.25 for the free stream velocity of 30m/s.
Figure 4. Comparison in quality of the flow and Turbulence intensity for two configurations of settling chamber The mean velocity profiles measured downstream of two screens is shown in Fig. 4. The first effect of the screen is to impose a static pressure drop proportional to the square of flow velocity. The value of turbulence intensity is high near the walls of the test section due to influence of boundary layer. To reduce the turbulence intensity in the test section than current values, the number of screens should be increased by two of three. Percentage reduction in turbulence intensity is 18.33 with the settling chamber with three screens and honeycomb compared to settling chamber with single screen and honeycomb. 5. CONCLUSION: From the quantitative analysis of the performed experiments, it can be seen that the turbulence intensity has been reduced for 3-screen configuration from its single screen configuration. Mean velocity profiles were also be found to be more uniform and steady with the 3-screen configuration. So the flow quality has been improved though the test section, with increasing the number of screens. ACKNOWLEDGMENT: The authors wish to thank Dr. K.T.Madhvan and Dr. N.B.Mathur, Scientists F, Experimental Aerodynamics Division, National Aerospace Laboratories, for their support to complete the present work. References: [1] NACA report 320: The Measurement of Fluctuations of Airspeed by Hot wire Anemometer [2] Bradshow, P. and Ferris, D.H, NPL Aero Report 1001, Measurement of Free Stream Turbulence in Low Speed Wind Tunnel at NPL. [3] Pope, A. Low Speed Wind Tunnel Testing John Willey & Sons [4] E.Perry, Clarendom. Hot Wire Anemometry Press Oxford, 1982. [5] Pope and Gain, High Speed Wind Tunnel Testing
276
Analysis of a Downdraft Biomass Gasifer using Kinetic Model of the Reduction Zone: Effect of particle size
Prokash C. Roy , Amitava Datta , Niladri Chakraborty
1 1* 2 2
National Institute of Technology Silchar, Assam 788010, India 2 Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700098, India Corresponding author (e-mail: prokash.roy@gmail.com) Effect of particle size of biomass on the performance of a downdraft gasification process has been studied using kinetic modelling of the reduction zone. It has been observed that pressure drop across the reduction increases with the decrease in particle size. Due to this fact heating value of the gas decreases. This effect is marginal when the particle size is maintained in the range of 30mm to 40 mm. 1. Introduction
Biomass energy plays a pivotal role in the filed of renewable energy due to its availability and suitability for distributed power generation of remote regions[1]. Energy can be recovered from biomass either by direct combustion or initial gasification and subsequent combustion. Out of these, second method is favoured as it is more efficient and less polluting to the atmosphere. The thermo-chemical processes occurs inside the gasifier is very complex not only due to pyrolysis, partial oxidation and successive gasification at different elevated temperatures but also dependent on biomass composition, moisture content, ash content, particle size, reactivity of biomass and also gasifier design. Recently kinetic modeling of the gasification zone got special attention as it correctly predicts the composition variation along the reduction zone [2]. Many researchers [2-7] adopted the kinetic modelling in the reduction zone of the gasifiers after considering equilibrium in the pyrolysis/oxidation zone. This is based on the fact that char reduction rate, being a surface phenomenon on the char surface, is slow and the overall gasification is controlled by char reduction zone [2]. It has been shown that the predictions of the equilibrium model match those of the kinetic model only beyond a critical char bed length [5]. Giltrap et al. [3] introduced four important reactions whose kinetics are to be considered in the reduction zone for a good prediction of the producer gas composition and temperature. The model output was found to be sensitive to the initial temperature and composition at the top of the reduction zone, which was suitably assumed in the model. They considered a constant char reactivity factor, to take care of the active reaction sites in the reduction zone. Babu et al. [4] studied that exponentially varying CRF provides better accuracy in their model. Sharma et al. [5] considered two distinct zones in the gasifier: pyro-oxidation zone and char reduction zone. The gaseous products of the pyro-oxidation zone are considered to be in equilibrium, while the char is considered as a non-equilibrium product from this zone. Formation of methane is neglected in the pyro-oxidation zone. Kinetic controlled reduction by char is considered in the reduction zone with the same equations as suggested by Giltrap et al., but with linearly varying char reactivity factor. Roy et al. [6] modified the kinetic model introducing the methane formation pyro-oxidation zone and taking contribution of the ash in the energy transport equation. Detailed parametric studies such as effect of equivalence ratio, moisture content and divergent angle of the reduction have been studied. Later on Roy et al. [7] made an assessment of cow dung as a supplementary fuel in a downdraft biomass gasifier. They neglected the effect of biomass particle size in their models. In the present work, the gasification process has been modelled considering the effect of particle size as well as pressure drop in the reduction zone to find out the effect on dry gas composition and calorific value of the product gases. In the present work, a biomass fired downdraft gasifier model has been presented considering two distinct zones: (i) oxidation zone lumped with drying and pyrolysis, and (ii)
277
reduction zone. The oxidation zone has been solved based with the thermodynamic equilibrium approach, while the reduction zone has been solved based on char chemical kinetics considering a large number of small control volume along the reduction zone [6,7]. The species and energy balance equations have been solved across each control volume taking into account the chemical reaction rates. 2. Model Description
The downdraft biomass gasifier unit shown in Figure 1 consists of two distinct zones [8]: zone-1 (pyro-oxidation zone), where the drying, pyrolysis and oxidation reactions occur, and zone-2 (reduction zone), where the gasification or reduction reactions take place. The modelling of zone-1 has been performed considering chemical equilibrium of the species in the zone and that of zone-2 considers finite rate chemical reactions following the reaction kinetics. Input data of the zone-2 comes as the output from the zone-1. The assumptions of model has bee reported in the references [6,7]
Figure 1. Schematic of the gasifier unit and elemental control volume of reduction zone. 2.1 Modelling of Pyro-oxidation Zone The chemical formula (CHxOyNz) of the dry and combustible part of the biomass fuel (without moisture and ash) can be derived from the ultimate analysis data. The moisture content in the biomass has been separately accounted in the chemical reaction equation. In the pyrooxidation zone, the fuel is pyrolyzed and oxidized in a sub-stoichiometric environment of air following a global reaction equation: CH x O y N z wH 2 O aO2 3.76aN 2 x1 H 2 x2 CO x3 CO2 x4 H 2 O x5CH 4 x6 N 2 x7 C (1) The number of moles of moisture in the fuel (w) and the number of moles of oxygen from air (a) per mole of the combustible biomass are obtained as follows: MW F FM (2) w
100 FM 100 ASH
MWW
1 x 4 y 2 a
(3)
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FM and ASH, in Eq. (2), are the percentage moisture content in the biomass as received and percentage ash from the ultimate analysis performed on dry fuel. MWF and MWW are the molecular weights of dry biomass (CHxOyNz) and water respectively. In Eq. (3), denotes the equivalence ratio of the air-fuel mixture supplied to the gasifier (i.e., stoichiometric air-fuel ratio/actual air-fuel ratio). The yield from the pyro-oxidation zone is quantified by solving the values of x1 through x7 in Eq. (1) and Temperature T has been solved from energy balance equation as per reported in our recent work [6,7] 2.2 Modeling of Reduction Zone The products formed in pyro-oxidation zone are reduced in the reduction zone to form the final producer gas. The reduction reactions are evaluated as kinetically controlled chemical reactions which is elaborately reported in references [6,7]. The char reactivity factor (CRF), used in the rate equations, account for the active sites present on the char surface. In our earlier works [6,7], we adopted a constant char reactivity factor (CRF =100). However, Babu et al. [4] suggested an exponential variation in the char reactivity factor along the reduction zone length, while Sharma et al. [5] proposed a linear variation of the char reactivity factor. Considering these into account, we further optimized the char reactivity factor in predicting the performance of the gasifier and found a variation of the following nature to perform the best: (4) C RF 10 100.z d exp 27.z d where, zd is the distance from the inlet to the reduction zone in m. Pressure drop across the reduction zone has been calculated considering a packed bed of char particles of varying particle diameter due to the char reduction through the zone. Pressure drop across one cell of the reduction zone is given by Erguns equation as follows [9]:
1 2 gU g 1.75 1 gU g2 p h 150 3 s d p 2 3 s d p
where, h is the cell height,
g
(5)
the viscosity of gases, g the density of producer gases, U g
the superficial velocity, d p the particle diameter, fraction
s the sphericity of particle and the void
The diameter of the char particle (dp) changes continually in the gasifier. A certain amount of char is consumed in the pyro-oxidation zone to form methane. Considering no change in char density, the mean diameter of the char particles entering zone 2 is obtained as [10]
1
X o 3 r (6) d p d o ci p Xc r o where, d p is the mean diameter of char particle entering the reduction zone and d p is the
mean diameter of the particle coming to the oxidation zone. X c and X c are the molar flow rates of char at the inlet and outlet of the oxidation zone, respectively. In the reduction zone particle size reduces in each cell due to char conversion through reduction reactions. The mean particle diameter in different cells can be evaluated as
1
i o
d r ( k 1) p
X r ( k 1) 3 r d p( k ) c r ( k ) Xc
(7)
279
where, d p
r ( k 1)
is the mean diameter of particles entering the (k+1)th cell, d p

th
r (k )
is the mean
diameter entering the k cell and X and X are the molar flow rates of char at the th th k cell and (k+1) cell, respectively. The void fraction ( ) varies with the change in particle diameter and is evaluated using a correlation suggested by Chen and Gunkel. [11]
r(k ) c
r ( k 1) c
d r ( k 1) (T ) 0.5 0.21 p rk dp
(8)
2
The viscosity of gases (in Ns/m ) is obtained from the correlation of Hagge and Bryden [12] as (9) g (T ) 4.847 X 10 7 T 0.64487 Superficial velocity, U g , is calculated using the volume flow rate of product gases across the mean cross section area of each cell. 3. Results and Discussions The model presented are validated against the experimental results of Jayah et al.[8] The biomass properties and operating conditions are similar with the original reference. Figure 2. (a) shows the variation of temperature along the length of the gasifier reduction zone both from the model and from the experiment of Jayah et al. [8]. A good agreement has been found between the experimental and predicted data. Figure 2. (b) shows that mole fractions of different gases in the predicted dry gas composition from the model agree well with the experimental results of Jayah et. al. [8]
1400 Exp. Jayah et al. 1300 Model Predicted
0.6
Exp. Jayah et al. Model prediction
0.5
Temperature (K)
1200
1100
Mole Fraction
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22
0.4
0.3
1000
0.2
900
0.1
800
0 H2 CO CO2 Dry Ga s Composition CH4 N2
Distance (m)
Figure 2. (a) Temperature validation and (b) composition validation against Jayah et. al Available biomass particle sizes vary based on its origin as well as sources such as woody biomass and agricultural residues. Proper sizing of biomass is also a cost effecting process. But particle size is an important factor which affects on gasification performance. Particle sizes of the feedstocks depend mainly on the gasifier diameter and length of the gasification zone. Smaller the particle size gets faster char conversion compared to larger due to slow conversion which leads to little increase in conversion efficiency. Pressure drop across the reduction zone is increased with smaller particle diameter shown in Figure 3. (a).
102000 101500 101000
0.6
5000
10 mm 30 mm 50 mm
20 mm 40 mm
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
H2 CH4
CO N2
CO2 HV
4980 4960
Mole Fraction
Pressure (Pa)
4940 4920 4900 4880 4860 4840 10 20 30 40 50 Particle Diam eter (m m )
100500 100000 99500 99000 98500 0 0.05 0.1 Dis tance (m ) 0.15 0.2
Figure 3. Effect of particle size on (a) the variation of pressure along the reduction zone and (b) gas compositions and heating value
280
In that case higher blower capacity is necessary to maintain the gas flow rate. Particle sizes in the range of 30mm to 50mm provide a reasonable pressure drop compared to 10mm and 20 mm particle diameter. With the decrease in particle size, pressure drop increases, due to that there is a little decrease in mole fraction of H2 and CO that leads to decrease in heating value shown in Figure 3.(b). But this effect is very less when particle size used in the range of 30mm to 50 mm compared to 10 mm to 20 mm. 4. Conclusions Effect of particle size on pressure drop across the reduction zone, dry gas composition and heating value of product gas has been presented using kinetic modelling of the reduction of the downdraft gasifier. It has been observed that particle size plays a key role to maintain the pressure drop across the reduction zone. With the decrease in particle size, pressure drop across the zone increases due to which heating value of the gases decreases. This effect is marginal when the particle size is maintained in the range of 30 mm to 50 mm. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Nouni, M.R. Mullick, S.C. and Kandpal, T.C. Providing electricity access to remote areas in India: Niche areas for decentralized electricity supply, Renewable Energy, 34, 2009, 430-434. Wang, Y., and Kinoshita, C.M. Kinetic model of biomass gasification, Solar Energy, 51, 1993, 1925. Giltrap, D.L. McKibbin, R. and Barnes, G.R.G. A steady state model of gaschar reactions in a downdraft gasifier. Solar Energy, 74, 2003, 8591. Babu, B.V. and Sheth, P.N. Modeling and simulation of reduction zone of downdraft biomass gasifier: effect of char reactivity factor, Energy Conversion and Management 47, 2006, 26022611. Sharma, A.K. Equilibrium and kinetic modeling of char reduction reactions in a downdraft biomass gasifier: A comparison, Solar Energy, 82, 2008, 918-928. Roy, P.C. Datta, A. and Chakraborty, N. Simulation of a Down-Draft Biomass Gasifier with Finite Rate Kinetics in the Reduction Zone, International Journal of Energy Research, 2009, DOI:10.1002/er.1517, in early view. Roy, P.C. Datta, A. and Chakraboti, N. Assessment of cow dung as a supplementary fuel in biomass gasifier: Indian perspective, Renewable Energy, 2009, DOI:10.1016/j.renene.2009.03.022, article in press. Jayah, T.H. Aye, L. Fuller, R.J. and Stewart, D.F. Computer simulation of a downdraft wood gasifier for tea drying, Biomass and Bioenergy, 25, 2003, 459469. Ergun, S. Fluid flow through packed columns, Chem. Eng. Prog., 48, 1952, 89105. Sharma, A.K. Modeling fluid and heat transport in the reactive, porous bed of downdraft (biomass) gasifier, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 28, 2007, 1518-1530. Chen, J. and Gunkel, W.W. Modelling and simulation of cocurrent moving bed gasification reactors Part II: A detailed gasifier model, Biomass, 14, 1987, 7598. Hagge, M.J. and Bryden, K.M. Modeling the impact of shrinkage on the pyrolysis of dry biomass, Chem. Eng. Sci. 57, 2002, 28112823.
[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]
281
An Experimental Comparison of Performance & Exhaust Emission of 4 stroke 4 cylinder Diesel Engine using Esterified Jatropha, mustard oil & Palm oil with Diesel Fuel
* P.D. Patel, S.M.Patel, V.R.Bhatt, M.A.Shaikh A. D. Patel Institute of Technology, New V V Nagar Gujarat, India. Corresponding author (e-mail: paresh.adit@yahoo.com) This paper studies the possibility and comparison of biodiesel made from jatopha oil, mustard oil and palm oil to be used as an alternate fuel for four stroke four cylinder direct injection diesel engine. The term alternative fuel is used for any fuels other than gasoline or diesel fuel used in vehicles. A four stroke four cylinder direct injection 10 H.P. diesel engine was used to test and compare different parameters of jatropha curcas biodiesel & its blends, esterified mustard oil & its blends and palm oil & its blends. In this experimental work different blends (B10, B20, & B100) of jatropha curcas, mustard oil and palm oil were prepared and tested for the performance and exhaust emission of four stroke four cylinder diesel engine. The engine performance parameter studied were power output, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature, hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) emission by using diesel fuel alone and above mentioned blends. Graphical representation of comparison of diesel and esterified jatropha, mustard oil & palm oil for performance and exhaust emission with different blends has been carried out. 1. Introduction The term alternative fuel has been used to describe any fuels suggested for use in vehicles other than gasoline or diesel fuel. With the experimentation using alternative fuels rather than petroleum fuels, it has been proved that alternative fuels had inherent environmental advantages over petroleum fuels. The original impetus for development of alternative fuels to gasoline and diesel fuel was the realization that the petroleum oil producing nations that held the majority of the worlds reserves had the power to dictate the price and availability of what had become a truly international commodity. 2. Experimental setup In tune of the scope and objectives of the project an experimental setup was prepared consisting of a four stroke, four cylinder diesel engine coupled to hydraulic dynamometer and arrangements for measurement of fuels consumption. Cooling water circulation was provided for the requirement of maintaining of controlled thermal condition of the engine. Specifications of the experimental setup are as stated below. 2.1 Engine specifications The specifications of test engine are as follows: Make : Hindustan Motors. (Altech Industries, Coimbatore) Type of Engine : Compression ignition, four stroke, four cylinder, water cooled No. of Cylinders : 04 (four) Bore : 73 mm Stroke : 90 mm Cubic Capacity : 1500 cc Rated Speed : 1500 RPM
282
Rate of Output Fuel Used 3. Experimentation
: 10.0 HP @ 1500 RPM : High Speed Diesel Oil
Following readings are to be taken for each load applied on the engine. (I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII) Speed of the engine (constant 1500 rpm). Time in seconds for 100 cc fuel consumption. DBT, WBT of ambient air. Height difference between two limbs of U-tube water manometer (for measurement of air flow). Cooling water inlet & outlet temperature and mass flow rate. Calorimeter inlet and outlet temperature. Exhaust gas temperature. Exhaust emission by Exhaust Gas Analyzer for HC and CO.
Performance Evaluation with Diesel and Bio Diesel In this phase of experimental work, the engine is operated on diesel fuel with different percentage of Bio Diesel. Methodology used must be identical with that of high-speed diesel operation with respect to change of loads, recording of fuel consumption, exhaust emission and various temperatures. Experiments were conducted on different blends of Bio Diesel with diesel as below: 1. 100% Diesel 2. 90% Diesel and 10% Biodiesel (B10) 3. 80% Diesel and 20% Biodiesel (B20) 4. 100% Biodiesel (B100) 4. Results and discussion A four stroke, four cylinder direct injection diesel engine of 10 HP output was used to test jatropha curcas, palm and mustard biodiesel and its blends, and compared with conventional diesel fuel for the different parameters. The fuel properties of jatropha, palm and mustard biodiesels were very much similar to the conventional diesel fuel. The comparison of different observations between conventional diesel fuel and biodiesels are as follows. 4.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency Comparing Brake Thermal Efficiency at 13.5 kg load : B10 : B20 : Diesel fuel : 20.06 % Diesel fuel : 20.06 % Jatropha : 22.09 % Jatropha : 21.72 % Palm : 23.69 % Palm : 23.96 % Mustard : 22.12 % Mustard : 22.60 % B100 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard
: : : :
20.06 % 23.85 % 24.03 % 23.98 %
283
Fig.1 :BP Vs. Brake Thermal Efficiency (B10)
Fig.2 :BP Vs. Brake Thermal Efficiency (B20)
Fig.3 :Brake power Vs. Brake Thermal Fig.4 :Brake power Vs. Exhaust Gas Efficiency for B100 Temperature for B10 So, we can say that, the Brake Thermal Efficiency for jatropha, palm and mustard biodiesel and its blends was found to be slightly higher than that of diesel fuel at tested load conditions. The reason being that, the biodiesel contains approximately 10% higher oxygen than diesel fuel which may results in better combustion. (Refer Figure 1,2,3). 4.2 Exhaust Gas Temperature B10 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard
0
: 257 C 0 : 236 C 0 : 360 C 0 : 367 C
B20 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard
: : : :
257 C 0 242 C 0 359 C 0 360 C
: : : :
257 C 0 325 C 0 345 C 0 315 C
Fig.5 :Brake power Vs. Exhaust Gas Fig.6 :Brake power Vs. Exhaust Gas Temperature for B20 Temperature for B100 From the graphs shown, we can see that the exhaust gas temperature for palm biodiesel at higher load conditions is greater than exhaust gas temperature of remaining. (Figure 4,5,6).
284
4.3 Carbon Monoxide (Exhaust Emission) B10 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard B20 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard B100 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard
: 0.28 % : 0.27 % : 0.27 % : 0.28 %
: : : :
0.28 % 0.26 % 0.25 % 0.26 %
: : : :
0.28 % 0.19 % 0.21 % 0.21 %
The comparison says that there is definitely improvisation in exhaust emission if jatropha, palm and mustard biodiesel is used instead of diesel fuel. The reason may be, the carbons which are not converted into carbon dioxide will be converted into carbon monoxide in the exhaust. So, it is very much clear that CO keeps on reducing by increasing the percentage of biodiesel in blends. (Refer Figure 7,8,9).
Fig.7:Brake power Vs. CarbonMonoxide(B10)
Fig.8:Brake power Vs. CarbonMonoxide(B20)
Fig.9:Brake power V CarbonMonoxide(B100) 4.4 Hydro Carbons (Exhaust Emission) B10 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard : 1140 ppm : 1110 ppm : 1087 ppm : 1150 ppm B20 : Diesel fuel Jatropha Palm Mustard
Fig10 : Brake power Vs. Hydrocarbons (B10)
: : : :
1140 ppm 1098 ppm 1100 ppm 1152 ppm
: : : :
1140 ppm 0973 ppm 1120 ppm 0997 ppm
The theory for emission is, in the presence of air, HC burns inside the cylinder of the engine. And the amount of hydro carbon which is not taking any part in the combustion process will be referred as unburned hydro carbons in the exhaust emission. (Refer Figure 10,11,12).
285
Fig11 : Brake power Vs. Hydrocarbons (B20)
Fig12:Brake power Vs. Hydro carbons (B100)
5. Conclusions This paper studies the possibility and comparison of biodiesel made from jatopha, palm and mustard to be used as an alternate fuel for four stroke four cylinder direct injection diesel engine. The term alternative fuel is used for any fuels other than gasoline or diesel fuel used in vehicles. A four stroke four cylinder direct injection 10 H.P. diesel engine was used to test and compare different parameters of jatropha curcas, palm oil and mustard oil & its blends. In this experimental work different blends (B10,B20,& B100) of jatropha curcas, palm oil and mustard oil were prepared and tested for the performance and exhaust emission of four stroke four cylinder diesel engine. The engine performance parameter studied were power output, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust gas temperature, hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) emission by using diesel fuel alone and above mentioned blends. The Brake Thermal Efficiency for jatropha and palm biodiesel and its blends was found to be slightly higher than that of diesel fuel at tested load conditions. There is definitely improvisation in exhaust emission (CO & HC) if jatropha, palm and mustard biodiesels are used instead of diesel fuel. References [1] Ramesh, D. and Sampathrajan, A. Iinvestigations on performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine with jatropha biodiesel and its blends, Agriculture engineering international:the CIGR Ejournal, manuscript EE07013,VolX.(March 2008). [2] Richard L Bechtold, Alternative fuels guidebook Properties, storage, dispensing, and vehicle facility modification.Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. Warrendale, Pa.Transport-2005 Vol. XX, No.-5 ,186-195 [3] Performance and exhaust emissions of direct injection engine operating on rapeseed oil and its blends with diesel fuel. Department of transport and power machinery, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. [4] Surendra R. Kalbande and Subhash D. Vikhe, , Jatropha and karanj bio-fuel: An alternate fuel for diesel engine, ARPN Journal of engineering and applied sciences, Vol. 3, No.1, (February 2008). [5] Jatropha curcus A sustainable source for production of biodiesel journal of Scientific and industrial Research. Vol. 64, Page-883-889, November 2005. [6] Methods of testing internal combustion engines, I.S.I. 1980, IS 10000, part I-XII, Indian standard institute, New Delhi, India. [7] Sobotowaski, R.A., Investigation of cetane response of U.S. diesel fuels. SAE- 950249, 1995. [8] Bureau of Indian Standards IS 1460 :2000.
286
[9] Karukar.R.S.,Combustion and performance characteristics of diesel engines with Karanji oil M.Tech dissertation ,Department of mechanical engg, IIT Bombay,2001.case study" jatropha curcas by GFU. [10] Barat Ghobadian, TalalYusuf, Gholamhassan, Najafi, hadi Rahimi, Combustion analysis of a CI engine performance using waste cooking biodiesel fuel with an artificial neural network aid, American journal of applied sciences4(10), p756-764,2007. [11] John B Heywood, Internal combustion engine fundamentals, Mcgraw-Hill international editions. [12] Murayama, T.,Simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke of diesel engines without sacrifiring thermal efficiency , JSME vol. 37,1992. [13] M L Sharma, R P Sharma, A Course in Internal combustion engines, Dhanpat Rai Publications, New Delhi India, 1999. [14] A V Domkundwar, V M Domkundwar, A Course in Internal Combustion Engines, Dhanpat Rai & co., Delhi- India, 2002. [15] Singer, M. Heinze, P. Mercoglino, R. Stein H.J., European Programme on emission fuels and engine technologies(EPEFE) Heavy duty diesel study,SAE -961074,1996. [16] Sinha S, and N C Misra, Diesel fuel alternative from vegetable oils, Exhibition and communication enterprises (India) pvt. Ltd, 1997.
287
Effect of Variation in CR using Annands Heat Transfer Model and Combustion Analysis of LHR Diesel Engine Performance
A. N. Pawar , J.D Golhar , R.P.Borudkar , K.R. Bhageriya
1* 2 3 4
Govt. Polytechnic, Yavatmal. (M.S.), India-445001 2 Govt. Polytechnic, Sakoli (M.S.) 3 Womens Residential. Govt. Polytechnic, Yavatmal. (M.S.), 4 Nagar Parishad Polytechnic, Achalpur, Amravati. (M.S.), * Corresponding author (e-mail-anandpawar5000@rediffmail.com)
A cycle simulation program has been developed for mathematical model of compression ignition engine. Models for the prediction of combustion and heat transfer have been formulated and developed. Annands heat transfer models for I.C engine have been considered for the calculation of gas -wall heat transfer. A wall heat transfer model has been formulated and developed and coupled along with the above combustion and gas -wall heat transfer model. The effect of varying compression ratio, wall temperature on combustion, heat release, heat transfer and overall performance of a low heat rejection direct injection diesel engine have been predicted. Two different thermal insulation-coating materials (zirconia and silicon nitride) are considered for insulating combustion chamber. In the present work, effect varying Compression ratio, varying load of the engine, and using two different ceramic insulation coating on combustion chamber have been considered and critically analyzed heat transfer, wall temperature, heat release and the overall performance of the LHR and conventional diesel engine. 1. INTRODUCTION: To improve the performance of the internal combustion engine the different energy losses must be considered in order to minimize them. One of the main reasons for the energy losses is the heat transfer between the working fluid and cylinder wall-coolant. In the recent years particularly in the last decade, lots of enthusiastic researchers have carried out investigations on LHR engines. However, the research has produced favourable results through numerical simulation and partly favourable and contradictory results through experimental findings. Hence it is very important to evaluate the detailed analysis of combustion, heat release, heat transfer of the LHR engine [1]. In this direction to acquire some insight on above parameters, this combined combustion and heat transfer models has been formulated and developed. Additional power and improved efficiency derived from this LHR engine concept occur because thermal energy normally lost to the cooling water and exhaust gas is potentially converted to useful power. By greatly reducing lost energy and essentially eliminating need for a conventional cooling system, this engine system will dramatically improve overall performance and could potentially result in a 50 % reduction in volume and 30 % in weight for the entire diesel engine. 2.GAS WALL HEAT TRANSFER MODEL: The heat transfer from the combustion chamber of a diesel engine is a combination of two types viz. a convective and a radiative component. The convective component depends on the turbulent fluid motion and the radiative component depends the temperature of the gas. The heat transfer between the gas-wall calculated on the basis of mean bulk gas temperature and heat transfer coefficient based on Annands [24].
288
2.1 Calculation Of Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient using Annands heat transfer model: k = 6.194410 + (67.381410 ) Tg 1.249110 Tg = 7.45710 6 + (4.1547105) Tg 7.47931012Tg2 gVpdc Re = K Nu c. (T g T w) W/m .K
2 4 4 3 5 8 2
W/ mk Kg/ms
(1) (2)
and
Nu = a(Re)b
(3)
hg = dc
and
hr =
( Tg Tw )
W/m2.K
(4)
To predict the varying temperature in the combustion chamber surfaces a wall heat transfer model is developed, [5]. The mathematical expression for the calculation of instantaneous wall temperature of diesel engine [5 -7] without ceramic insulation coating is given below. Tg Tc Qs = rs1 where, rs1 = 1.0/(hg 2 r1l ) + 1.0/(hc 2r3 l) +1.0/(hcoil r6r6) + log (r2/r1)/(2kll) + 3.0log (r5/r4)/(2krlr) + log (r7/r6)/(2 ks ls) + tp /(kp r7r7) + th /(kh r1r1) Ts = Tg Qs/ (hg 2 r1l) dQs/dt = ( hg + hr) Aw (Tg Ts) Kelvin KJ/cycle (7) (8) KJ/cycle (6)
The mathematical expression for the calculation of instantaneous wall temperature of diesel engine with ceramic insulation coating is given below. Tg Tc Qc = rc1 Where, rc1 = rs1+ log (r3/r2)/(2kc l) + tcc/ (kc r7r7) + tcc/ (kcr1r1) Tci = Tg Qc/(hg 2 r1l ) dQc/dt = (hg +hr) Aw (Tg Tci) Kelvin KJ/cycle (10) (11) KJ/cycle (9)
The instantaneous temperatures (Tci and Ts) calculated from these models are used for the calculation of convective heat transfer through diesel engine with and without insulation coating on combustion chamber.
3.Results and Discussions: Compression ratio directly influences the gas pressure, temperature and hence, ignition and combustion of fuel. The processes that occur within the cylinder for LHR engine are investigated using different compression ratio. The other constant input parameters are -5 4.51510 Kg/cycle diesel supply, engine speed of 1500 rpm, coating thickness of insulation is
289
taken 0.5 mm and 1 mm of zirconia and silicon nitride, injection timing of 15 BTDC and the initial gas temperature of 300 K. Fig. 1 shows the cylinder gas pressure as a function of crank angle for LHR engine with 0.5 mm insulation coating of zirconia using different compression ratio. The different peaks of gas pressure are easy to observe from the figure. In case of compression ratio 20, The peak gas pressure is 86.04 bars at 4 ATDC, this trends exhibit due to effect of insulation and higher compression ratio, the heat retainment is obtained and complete combustion of fuel due higher operating temperature is exhibited, which leads to increase gas pressure. In case of compression ratio of 14, the peak pressure of gas is 58.38 bars at 10 ATDC; this tends to produce complete combustion of fuel. Similarly in case of compression ratio of 12, the peak of gas pressure occurs 50.16 bars at 10 ATDC, which is less due to lower compression ratio. Hence, indicated thermal efficiency is less for compression ratio of 12 than that of compression ratio of 14, 16 and 18. This indicates that, with increase in the compression ratio, the peak gas pressure and temperature increases. This leads to achieve the maximum thermal efficiency. However, beyond a specific compression ratio, due to increase in heat losses at very high gas pressure and temperature, the indicated thermal efficiency is slightly decreased.
LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr= 12) LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr =14) LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr = 16) LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr = 18) LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr = 20) 92 77 62 47 32 17 2 120 140 160 180 200 220 Crank angle (degrees) FIG.1 GAS PRESSURE ANALYSIS 240
LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr =14) LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr = 16) LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr = 18) LHR (0.5 mm zn,cr = 20)
Heat tranfer rate (KJ/CA)
0.09 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.01

140 160 180 200 220
Crank angle (degrees) FIG2. RATE OF HEAT RELEASE
Fig.2 shows the rate of heat release as a function of crank angle for LHR engine with 0.5mm insulation coating of zirconia using different compression ratio. In case of compression ratio 14, the peak rate of heat release is higher than any other operating condition. In case of LHR engine with compression ratio of 14, the maximum rate of heat release is occurred at 4 ATDC that is higher by about 7.25%, 11.7 % and 15 % when compared with compression ratio of 16, 18,20 respectively. It indicates that, heat release rate is increasing with decreasing compression ratio. It is clearly seen from figure that, during main combustion phase close to TDC, the heat release rate is considerably higher in case of LHR engine with compression ratio 14. The reason is surface volume ratio is lower in this case than that of other the compression ratios (i.e. compression ratio of 16,18,20). This may be the possible reason to increase the heat release rate. Fig.3 shows the indicated thermal efficiency as a function of compression ratio for LHR engine with 0.5 mm and 1 mm insulation coating of zirconia and silicon nitride. General trend shows that, indicated thermal efficiency is increasing with increasing compression ratio for conventional and LHR engines both. In case of LHR engine with 1mm zirconia insulation coating, the indicated thermal efficiency is higher than conventional engine. Further, it indicates that, the LHR engines exhibit higher indicated thermal efficiency than conventional engine at all compression ratio. However,
290
it is also indicated that, LHR engines with increase in thermal insulation coating thickness predict better performance of the engine at all compression ratio. However, beyond the specific thickness of insulation coating, due to increase in heat loss, possibly higher proportion of diffusion combustion and reduction in premixed combustion, the performance of the engine is deteriorated. Moreover, deterioration of the LHR engine may further increase due to a likely increase in leakage past the piston rings. Because reduction in viscosity of the lubricants at very high-elevated operating temperature.
Con. Engine LHR (0.5 m m zn) LHR (1 m m z n) LHR (0.5 m m sini) LHR (1 m m sini)
Ind. Thermal Eff.(%)
Con. e ngine LHR (0.5 m m zn) LHR (1 m m z n) LHR (0.5 m m sini) LHR (1 m m sini) 12 10
Delay Period (CA, degrees)
48
8 6 4 2 10 12 14 16 18 20 Com pre ssion Ra tio 22
43
38
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Com pression Ra tio FIG.3 INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY
FIG.4 DELAY PERIO D AT V ARIOUS COM P RES SIO N RATIO
Fig.4 shows the delay period as a function of compression ratio for conventional and LHR engines with 0.5 mm and 1 mm insulation coating of silicon nitride and zirconia. In case of LHR engine with 0.5 mm and 1 mm zirconia coating at full load, the maximum delay period is reduced by about 0.77 and 1.05 crank angle than base line engine respectively. Similarly, in case of LHR engine with 0.5 mm and 1 mm silicon nitride coating, the maximum delay period is reduced by about 0.42 and 0.62 crank angle than the baseline engine respectively. Further, the delay period reduces with the increase in compression ratio. Increase in compression ratio will decrease the ignition lag. As compression ratio increases, the minimum auto-ignition temperature decreases. This is apparently due to the increased density of the compressed air, resulting in closer contact of the molecules, which thereby hastens the time of reaction when fuel is injected. Moreover, cylinder air temperature increases with increase in compression ratio. As the difference between cylinder air temperature and the minimum auto-ignition temperature increases, the ignition delay decreases. 4. CONCLUSIONS: The effects of combustion chamber insulation were investigated and results were evaluated. The characteristic was work conversion efficiency, which showed how much thermal energy was converted to indicated work. The results of present study are summarized below. (1) Combustion chamber insulation shows the reduction of heat rejection. (2) Thermal efficiency improves to some extent due to elevated combustion chamber temperature of LHR engine. (3) Heat release for LHR engines was found lower than conventional diesel engines. (4) It was observed that as the compression ratio is increased thermal efficiency and cylinder gas pressure were increased and delay period was found to be decreased for LHR engine. (5) The predicted values and the trend are agreeable with the published results [7]. 5.NOMENCLATURES: a , b & c = constants for Annands heat transfer equation k & = Thermal conductivity in W/mk & Viscosity of cylinder gas in kg/ms respectively
291
g = Density of cylinder gas in kg/m Vp = Mean piston velocity in m/s dc = Cylinder diameter in m Nu & Re = Nusselt number & Reynolds number respectively Tg &Tw = instantaneous gas & wall temperature respectively in K Toil & Tc = Lubrication oil temperature &cooling water temperature in K Tci and Ts = instantaneous temperature of LHR engine and conventional diesel engine K 2 Aw = total surface area exposed to the gases at the given instant m 2 hg & hr = convection & radiation heat transfer coefficient respectively in W/m .K hc & hcoil = coolant & Oil convection heat transfer coefficient respectively in W/m2.K kl, kp, kr, ks, kh, kv, kc are the thermal conductivity of material in W/mK (l = liner, p = piston, r = piston ring , s = skirt length, h = cylinder head ,v = valve c = ceramic material) and r1,r2,r3,r4,r5,r6,r7 Radii of the composite cylinder wall with insulation with respect to cylinder axis in m tcc = thickness of ceramic insulation coating in m tp,th &tv = thickness of piston ,cylinder head & valves respectively in m Qc and Qs = heat transfer through diesel engine with and without ceramic insulation coating respectively in kJ/cycle dQc/dt and dQs/dt = rate of heat transfer through diesel respectively in kJ/cycle zn & sini = PSZ zirconia & silicon nitride (ceramic insulating coating material) respectively. ls and lr = length of skirt and piston ring respectively in m
REFERENCES:
[1] Wade W.R., Havstad P. H., Ounsted E. J., Trinkler F.H., and Garwin I.J., Fuel Economy opportunities with an uncooled DI Diesel Engine Transaction of SAE 841286, 1984. [2] W.J.D. Annand, Heat transfer in the cylinders of reciprocating internal combustion engines, Proc. I. Mech. E., Vol.177, p.973, 1963. [3] W.J.D. Annand, and T.H.Ma, Instantaneous Heat transfer rates to the cylinder heat surface of a small compression ignition engine, Proc .I. Mech. E; Vol 185,p.976, 1970 71. [4] W.J.D. Annand and Pinfold, Heat transfer in the cylinder of a motored reciprocating engine, Society of Automotive Engineers, international congress and exposition, Detroit, Mich, February, 1980, SAE paper No.800457 [5] Amann, C.A. Promises and challenges of the low heat rejection diesel engine , ASME transaction Vol.110/475, (1988) [6] P. Tamilporai and N. Baluswamy ; Simulation and analysis of heat transfer in Low heat rejection direct injection diesel engine using a two zone model ; Third Asian Pacific international symposium on combustion and energy Utilization 1995 . [7] P. Tamilporai and N. Baluswamy combustion analysis in low heat rejection diesel engine with two zone combustion model and different heat transfer models proceeding of the xvth National Conference on I.C. Engine and Combustion, held at College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai, December 17-19,1997
292
Use of Advanced Emission Efficient Technology of Fuel-Cat to Improve Engine Performance and Exhaust Emissions of I.C. Engine.
Pinkesh R. Shah , Divyang R. Shah , Prof. S.M. Bhatt , Dharmendra Gor
2 1* 2 3 4
L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad 380015, Gujarat, India Government Engineering College, Modasa 383315, Gujarat, India 3 L. J. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad. Gujara, India 4 Director, Dharam International, Ahmedabad.-380054, Gujarat, India * (e-mail: pinkeshrshah@gmail.com)
The exhaust emissions of an I.C. engine is one of the major contributors to worlds air pollution problems. Two methods are used to reduce harmful emissions of engine now a day. One is after treatment of the exhaust gases by using catalytic converters. The second method is to improve the technology of engines and fuels so that better combustion occurs and produces fewer emissions. The Fuel-Cat technology used in this paper is concerned with this second method. This paper presents the perspective of use of innovative advanced energy efficient technology of Fuel-Cat which comprises of a device to be fitted in fuel supply line, just before the combustion chamber in an I.C. engine without any modifications in the engine. This technology is based on formulation of the fuel, which plays a relatively small, but significant role in improving the engine performance and achieving lower exhaust emissions without any adverse effect on short term performance test carried out at authors laboratory. An attempt has been made here to compare the engine performance and exhaust emissions of single cylinder four-stroke stationary diesel engine with and without use of Fuel-Cat technology. The results showed that there were drastic reductions in smoke opacity, CO, HC and NOx emissions about more than 40%, 50%, 25% and 30% respectively and improving thermal efficiency by 10% when engine run with Fuel-Cat than that of engine run without Fuel-Cat. 1. Introduction
The internal combustion engines have so deeply penetrated into our life style in transportation as well as for mechanized agriculture sector that is impossible to think of any substitute as prime movers but abatement of environmental pollutions caused by them has become one of the greatest global concerns on opposite side. Four major emissions produced by I.C. engines are hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (Nox) and smoke opacity. These emissions pollute the environment and contribute to global warming, acid rain, smog, odours and respiratory and other health problems [1]. Thus, in order to meet more stringent and tougher emission norms various advanced engine technologies such as engine modifications, retarded ignition timing, lower compression ratios, carburettor modifications, MPFI, lean burn engine, EGR, wire mesh filter, form filter, ceramic coating of piston-cylinder, catalytic converter, etc. were developed but all these technologies have certain limitations of either reducing efficiency and mileage or maintenance and durability problems [2]. This has induced us to look for the best way in which we can counter the challenges put forward, keeping in mind the importance of fuel conservation as well as emission control, by advanced development of Fuel-Cat technology which exhibits the ability to reduce the smoke density, CO, HC, and NOx emissions substantially without any loss of performance of an engine [3]. From the authors early study to examine the emissions characteristics of Tata Indigo LS diesel car and Maruti Omni petrol van with and without use of Fuel-Cat technology, it was found that there was drastic reduction in the levels of Carbon Monoxide (more than 90%) as well as Hydro Carbons (more than 85%) after use of the Fuel-Cat in
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petrol fuelled vehicles and smoke opacity (more than 88%) in diesel fuelled vehicles compared to vehicles run without Fuel-Cat. The experiments were carried out on Toyota Qualis and Maruti Zen cars in addition to above mentioned two cars with Fuel-Cat and it was found that there was remarkable decrease in CO, HC and Smoke opacity in all these petrol and diesel vehicles. There was significant improvement in the average of all the four vehicles when run with Fuel-Cat compared to the vehicle without Fuel-Cat [4]. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to study the performance and emissions characteristics of single cylinder four-stroke stationary diesel engine with the installation of Fuel-Cat technology which is located before combustion chamber without any engine modifications. The various performance parameters such as BSFC and thermal efficiency as well as exhaust emissions parameters of smoke density, CO, HC and NOx were measured and compared the results. 2. Working principle of Fuel-Cat
Figure 1. Constructional details of Fuel-Cat technology
Figure 2. Fuel spray pattern without and with use of Fuel-Cat technology
Fuel-Cat is operating on molecular sieves technology, i.e., the ability to selectively sort molecules based primarily on a size exclusion process. This is due to a very regular pore structure of molecular dimensions, used for the first time in pre-combustion process. It is developed on the basis of zeolites technology and accordingly designed by artificially synthesized inorganic materials, which are solid and porous Zeolites [5]. Zeolites confine molecules in small spaces, which cause changes in their structure and reactivity. It forms a rich variety of beautiful structure which contains linked cages, cavities or channels, which are of the right size to allow small molecules to enter [6]. It is added with CEM (Combustion Efficient Material) and PFM (Pollution Fighting Material) as shown in the constructional detail of above figure-1. It is seen from the above figure-2 that the engine without Fuel-Cat delivers fuel in large and inefficient molecules, whereas after installation of Fuel-Cat it delivers fine atomized molecules because it is added with a mixture of CEM and PFM through which fuel is passed through creating a molecular sieve, where the fuel molecules are atomized (Stoichiometric Combustion - better air to fuel mix). The smaller molecules are easier to vaporize providing better mixing. Ideal molecule size with Fuel-Cat is 40 to 80 microns range, where all fuel is consumed giving maximum energy efficiency, and minimum pollution. Further when they are released through fine orifice of an injector, carburettor, burner etc., the same fuel is nebulized i.e. it goes into the plasma form. In short the molecules size of the fuel is reduced to the smallest size possible, without creating any pressure drop in the fuel-flow. The finer molecules reacts with oxygen giving better combustion for cleaner burn, which gives more efficiency, more power, better mileage, less pollution. As the combustion increases it saves on fuel, which is very costly, and also the torque of the engine increases giving more compression in the engine and there is almost no carbon deposition on the engine walls and cylinders, so the engine remains clean reducing the maintenance cost. [7].
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3.
Experimental Set-up and Procedure
Considering the specific features of diesel engine, a typical diesel engine that is widely used in agricultural sector was selected for present investigation as shown in the figure 3(a). The detail technical specifications of the engine are given in the table 1. Table 1. Technical specifications of diesel engine 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Manufacturer Model Bore Stroke Swept Volume Compression Ratio Brake power & Speed Fuel Injection Pressure Fuel Injection timing Lubricating oil Dynamometer Dhoraji Engineering Works Ltd; Rajkot, Gujarat. Single cylinder, 4-stroke, vertical, water cooled Engine. 114mm 140mm 1429.6 CC 18:1 5.96 KW (8.0 H.P.) and 850 rpm 175 kg/ cm
2
Injection starts 22 before TDC. SAE- 30 Rope brake type
Fuel Cat
Figure 3(a) Diesel engine without Fuel-Cat
Figure 3(b) Diesel engine with Fuel-Cat
The engine was started with neat petroleum diesel as fuel at no load by pressing the inlet with decompression lever and it was released suddenly when the engine was hand cranked at sufficient speed and it was allowed to run about 30 minutes till the steady state conditions are reached. The engine was then loaded gradually from no load to overload (i.e. 0 % to 110 %) in the step of 20 % keeping the speed within the permissible range and the observations of different parameters such as brake load reading, engine speed, exhaust gas temperature, etc. were recorded. The same procedure was adopted to run the engine after installation of Fuel-Cat before fuel injector i.e. before combustion chamber without any engine modifications as shown in the figure 3(b) and the performance data like BSFC and thermal efficiency were then analyzed from the graphs. Besides these parameters, Smoke density, CO, HC, and NOx emissions were also measured using exhaust gas analyzer and smoke meter respectively and the results were compared. 4. Results and Discussion
A short-term performance test was carried out on the engine with and without the use of Fuel-Cat technology at different loads on the diesel engine and the results were compared and discussed as below.
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4.1
600.00 500.00
Performance Analysis
45.00 40.00
Thermal Efficiency (%)

1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
BSFC (g/kwh)
35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00
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Without Fuel-Cat With Fuel-Cat
Brake Power (kW)

Without Fuel-Cat W ith Fuel-Cat
Figure 4. BSFC Vs. Brake Power
Figure 5. Thermal Efficiency Vs. Brake Power
Figure 4 shows variation of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with respect to brake power which showed that as the B.P. increases, BSFC decreases to the minimum at full load (5.77 kW) and then increases for both the cases i.e. with and without Fuel-Cat technology. One can observe that over the entire load range the BSFC of the engine with Fuel-Cat is quite less than that of diesel engine without use of Fuel-Cat. The BSFC for the case when engine run with Fuel-Cat is about 15% less under part load conditions and about 10% less at higher load conditions respectively as compared to that of engine without FuelCat. The BSFC before installation of Fuel-Cat was 245.65 g/kWh and after installation of Fuel-Cat it was 221.5 g/kWh at rated load. Figure 5 shows that brake thermal efficiency (BTE) has the tendency to increase with increase in brake power up to full load and then decreases at overload for both the cases tested. This is due to occurrence of knock at higher load. It can be observed from the figure that the brake thermal efficiency of the engine with Fuel-Cat is significantly higher about 10 to 15% than that of engine without Fuel-Cat. The maximum thermal efficiency of 38.24% is observed at 5.85 kW B.P. when engine run with Fuel-Cat compared to 34.48% at 5.78 kW B.P. when engine run without Fuel-Cat as shown in figure. 4.2
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Emissions Characteristics Analysis

0.06 0.05 0.04
Smoke opacity (%)
20 15 10 5 0 0.00
CO (%)
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0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0.00
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Brake Power (kW)

Brake Power (kW)

Figure 6. Smoke opacity Vs. Brake Power
Figure 7. Carbon monoxide Vs. Brake Power
The figure 6 illustrates that smoke density increases with increase in brake power however, at lower loads (up to 40%) smoke density of engine for both the cases tested were almost closer to each other. It has been observed that the smoke opacity is significantly reduced beyond 60 % load when engine run with Fuel-Cat compared to engine without Fuel-Cat. The smoke opacity of engine with Fuel-Cat reduces from 40 to 60% in comparison to engine run without Fuel-Cat for all power. The smoke opacity of diesel engine with Fuel-Cat at full load is only 8.8 % which is significantly low compared to 22.1 % of engine run without Fuel-Cat. Figure 7 illustrates the variation of carbon monoxide (CO) emission with respect to brake power. The trend of CO emission is initially decrease with increase in brake power and further increases sharply near higher brake power for both the cases tested as shown in the figure. This is due to rich mixture at higher load than that of lower load and therefore there is drastic reduction of volumetric efficiency at full load due to abnormal combustion reduces
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oxygen availability and hence leads to the higher CO emission at higher load. It can be observed from the figure that the CO emission of the engine when engine run with Fuel-Cat is significantly lower than that of engine run without Fuel-Cat. The CO emission of diesel engine with Fuel-Cat is about 65 % less at part load and about 25 % less at full load respectively compared to engine without Fuel-Cat.
30 25 350 300 250
NOx (ppm)
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
HC (ppm)
20 15 10 5 0 0.00
200 150 100 50 0 0.00
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Brake Power (kW)

Brake Power (kW)

Figure 8. Hydrocarbons Vs. Brake Power
Figure 9. Oxides of Nitrogen Vs. B. P.
Figure 8 depicts the variation of hydrocarbons (HC) with respect to brake power. It can be observed that the (HC) emissions showed no definite trend either increasing or decreasing for both the cases as shown in figure. HC emission of the engine when run with Fuel-Cat is remarkably lower than that of engine run without Fuel-Cat at all power except at 3.65 kW (i.e. 60 % load). It is clearly seen from the figure that at full load the HC emission of engine with Fuel-Cat is reduce by about 20 % than that of engine without Fuel-Cat. Figure 9 depicts the variation of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) with respect to brake power. It shows that the NOx emission has the tendency to increase with increase in brake power for both the samples tested. It reveals that the NOx emission of the engine when run with FuelCat is significantly reduce by about 30 % at lower power and 10 % to 15 % at higher power than that of engine run without Fuel-Cat. 5. Conclusion Thus, with the use of Fuel-Cat technology it helps to promote drastic reduction in all kind of exhaust emissions as well as significantly improve diesel engine performance without any adverse effect. This may be due to efficient combustion because for efficient combustion, the fuel has to atomize, mix and ignite properly. The smaller fuel droplets would have mixed thoroughly throughout the combustion chamber hence led to more complete combustion as explained in working principle of Fuel-Cat technology. Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledge Director of Dharam International, Ahmedabad for providing the Fuel-Cat device and related literature. References [1] Willard, W.Pulkrabek. Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine. Pearson-Prentice Hall, Platteville. [2] William, L. Husselbee. Automotive Emission Control. Reston Publishing Company, Reston, Virginia. [3] ETV (Environmental Technology Verification) Report, Fuel-Cat technology performance and emissions verifications, Dept. of science & technology, Industrial Technology Development Institute, Republic of Philippines, 2008. [4] Gor, Dharmendra. Potential for improving the emissions characteristics of passenger cars by the advanced energy efficient technology of fuel-cat. Proceedings of the National Conference Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering (eds. Shah, D. R. and Shah, P.R.), National Engineering College, 13-14 March 2008, Kovilpatti (Tamilnadu), India. [5] U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular, Natural and Synthetic Zeolites, 1987, 9140. [6] http://www.izastructure.org/databases. [7] Literature of fuel-cat, M/s. Dharam international, Ahmedabad. India.
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Fly Ash Handling and Utilization

Pooja Khitoliya*, Rajesh Purohit Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, (NSIT), * Corresponding author (e-mail: pooja_me_878@yahoo.co.in) Power plants fueled by coal produce more than half of the electricity we consume today. But in addition to electricity, these plants produce fly ash that is fast becoming a vital ingredient for improving the performance of wide range of products. It is comprised of the non-combustible mineral portion of the coal. Earlier it was given the status of a harmful industrial waste, but today looking at the several domains of fly ash utilization, it is clear that it is no longer a waste. Fly ash utilization creates significant benefits for our environment, its utilization conserves natural resources and avoids landfill disposal of ash products. This paper presents the applications of fly ash and establishes it as an important resource. Various fly ash handling systems and ash disposal systems have also been discussed. Looking at the several domains of fly ash utilization today, it is clear that fly ash has redeemed itself of the status of a harmful industrial waste and has left a landmark. 1. Introduction
Fly ash is the fine powder formed from the mineral matter in coal, consisting of the noncombustible matter in coal plus a small amount of carbon that remains from incomplete combustion. Fly ash particles solidify as microscopic, glassy spheres that are collected from power plants exhaust before they fly away, hence the products name: Fly ash. It is collected by electrostatic precipitators or filter bags. Fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and range in size from 0.5 m to 100 m. They consist mostly of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2O3). In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere via the smoke stack, but pollution control equipment mandated in recent decades now require that it be captured prior to release. This paper covers innovative methods of ash utilization, convenient methods of ash collection, its short term storage and its disposal as an integral part of power generation. It brings to light the immense potential of ash as a useful resource. 2. Types of fly ash (as per ASTM C618-93)
ASTM categorizes natural pozzolans and fly ashes into three categories. (1) Class N: Raw and calcined pozzolans such as some diatomaceous earths, opaline chert and shale, stuffs volcanic ashes and pumice are included in this category. Calcined kaolin clay and lateral shale also fall in this category of pozzolans [1]. (2) Class F: Fly ash normally produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal falls in this category. This class of fly ash exhibits pozzolanic property but rarely, if any self hardening property [1]. (3) Class C: Fly ash normally produced from lignite or sub-bituminous coal is the only material included in this category. This class of fly ash has both pozzolanic and varying degrees of self cementitious properties. (Most Class C fly ashes have more than 15% CaO. But some class C fly ashes may contain as little as 10% CaO) [1]. 3 Fly ash handling systems
Ash handling refers to the method of collection, conveying, interim storage and load out of various types of ash residue. The different types of fly ash handling systems are:
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Vacuum Pneumatic Ash Handling Systems System Operation: Ash, which has accumulated in various collection hoppers, is pneumatically conveyed to a centrifugal receiver atop the ash storage silo. Overall solids recovery typically exceeds 99.9% for 2 micron and larger particulates. The figure below shows a Vacuum pneumatic ash collection & ash conveying system [2]. Table 1 shows the parts of the Vacuum Pneumatic Ash Handling Systems.
3.1
Figure 1: A Vacuum pneumatic ash collection & ash conveying system [2] Table 1: Parts of a Vacuum pneumatic ash collection & ash conveying system. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 3.2 Air Intake Fully Enclosed, Quick Acting, Swing Disc valve Pipe Fittings with Replaceable, Reversible, Interchangeable Wear backs (550 BHN) Paddle Type Ash Conditioning Unit Abrasion Resistant centrifugally Cast Conveyor Pipe Silo Vent Filter Centrifugal Receiver/Separator Pulse Jet Bag Type Dust Collector Continuous Ash Collecting Double Dump Gates Silo Relief Valve Ash Storage Silo Air Pipe Fugitive Dust Filter Telescopic Dry Unloader Vacuum Breaker Vacuum Breaker Mechanical Exhausters
Pressure Pneumatic Ash Handling Systems Pressurized pneumatic ash handling systems are most often used for conveying ash over long distances.
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The figure below shows a Pressure Pneumatic Ash Collection/Ash Conveying System.
Figure 2: A Pressure Pneumatic Ash Collection/Ash Conveying System [2] 3.3 Combination Vacuum/Pressure Ash Handling Conveying Systems
Combination vacuum/pressure pneumatic ash conveying systems can be beneficially applied to take advantage of the simplicity of a vacuum system for the collection and delivery of ash to a transfer hopper from which it is reclaimed through an air lock feeding device for pressurized pneumatic conveyance to a remote location silo for subsequent load out. [2] Figure below shows a Combination Vacuum/Pressure Ash Handling Conveying System.
Figure 3: A Combination Vacuum/Pressure Ash Handling Conveying System [2] 4 FLY ASH UTILIZATION Major domains of fly ash utilization are as follow: 4.1 Use of fly ash in agriculture
It has been found that Fly-ash affects the physicochemical characteristics of soil because it is generally very basic, rich in various essential and non-essential elements, but poor in both nitrogen and available phosphorus. The research conducted on the use of fly ash in agriculture indicates that main constituents of fly ash are silicates of iron and aluminum. It contains fairly high available major nutrients like P, K and S and micronutrients such as Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and B with high bio available heavy metals. Depending upon its source of availability it may be acidic or alkaline in reaction and therefore, it can be used as ameliorant to reclaim acidic and alkali soils. Fly ash also acts as a soil modifier to upgrade the physical properties of clay as well as sandy soil [3]. The other benefits of fly ash are: An 'effective and safe' fertilizer or soil amendment, enhances seed germination, plant biomass production from degraded soils, higher pH compared to manure, reduces coli form bacterial growth when mixed with various forms of manure, improves permeability, fertility, soil texture, soil aeration, water holding capacity / porosity of soil, it reduces bulk density, crust formation, helps in early maturity of crop, improves the nutritional quality of food crop, carry over of trace & heavy metals & radioactivity is insignificant.
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4.2 Advantages of FAPPC (Fly Ash waste Portland Pozzolona Cement) over OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) Working of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): When water is added to cement, it hydrates and produces calcium silicate hydrate gel (C-S-H) and calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2. The C-S-H gel gives the strength and binding property to cement, whereas calcium hydroxide does not have any utility and gets liberated. It actually provides the weakest link in concrete as it gets attacked easily by outside agents such as SO3, CO2 toxic water etc and weakens the concrete. FAPPC (Fly Ash waste Portland Pozzolona Cement): In FPPAC, fly ash reacts with liberated lime (calcium hydroxide) at normal temperature in presence of water and forms additional calcium silicate hydrate gel (C-H-S), the binding material; which is more stable and provides an additional strength to concrete. The reaction of fly ash with liberated calcium hydroxide provides many other added advantages to concrete like: reducing permeability, increased life of concrete i.e. the durability of concrete, low expansion and very low drying shrinkage, comparatively higher fineness and imparting better workability, and heat of hydration. 4.3 Improving the quality of concrete
The advantages are Greater long term strength and reduced alkali-aggregate reactions, increased sulphate resistance, reduced porosity and uniform matrix structure, reduced heat of hydration, improved workability, increased corrosion resistance, increased durability, reduction in cost of concrete, increased sulphate resistance, improved workability, increased corrosion resistance, reduced permeability. Fly ash based geopolymer concrete: Portland cement production is under critical review due to high amount of carbon dioxide gas released to the atmosphere. Geopolymer concrete is a new material that does not need the presence of Portland cement as a binder. Instead, the source of materials such as fly ash, that are rich in Silicon (Si) and Aluminum (Al), are activated by alkaline liquids to produce the binder. Hence, concrete with no cement. [4] 4.4 Fly ash flowable fill mixes
There are two basic types of flowable fill mixes that contain fly ash: high fly ash content mixes and low fly ash content mixes. There are no specific requirements for the types of fly ash that may be used in flowable fill mixtures. "Low lime" or Class F fly ash is well suited for use in high fly ash content mixes, but can also be used in low fly ash content mixes. "High lime" or Class C fly ash, because it is usually self-cementing, is almost always used only in low fly ash content flowable fill mixes. There is also a flowable fill product in which both Class F and Class C fly ash are used in varying mix proportions. 4.5 Controlled low strength material
Fly ash can be utilized in manufacture of Controlled Low Strength Material. CLSM is a fluid mixture made of small quantity (4-6%) of Portland cement, sufficient quantity of water and large quantity of fly ash or fine aggregate or both. The CLSM is neither a concrete nor soil cement but it has property similar to both. CLSM or fly ash slurry fill material provides many advantages, which are as follows: Excellent flow ability; can be filled with minimal efforts; fill all the voids, no compaction and curing required, easy to produce and apply, no settlement after final set, low unit weight, can be dug back later, when required, different strength can be designed as per requirement, cost effective, uses large quantum of ash. 4.6 Mine reclamation/filling/stowing
In open cast mines after extraction of coal and completion of mining operation, mines are back-filled with over burden materials and remaining area can be backfilled with ash. In case of
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under ground mines the conventional material for back filling is river sand. The study indicates that it is technically feasible to utilize bottom ash in stowing operations. 4.7 Bricks and some other products
In May 2007, Henry Liu, had invented a new, environmentally sound building brick composed of fly ash and water. Owing to the high concentration of calcium oxide in class C fly ash, the brick can be described as "self-cementing". The manufacturing method is said to save energy, reduce mercury pollution, and costs 20% less than traditional clay brick manufacturing. Other Ash based products are blocks, floor tiles, terrazzo tiles, cellular lightweight blocks (CLC), MCR tiles, different concrete products, door and window frame (Chowkhats), Interlocking blocks, and flowerpots. 5 Conclusions:
Fly ash has generally been considered as a waste material, which actually it isnt. The government of India recognizing the importance/ potential of fly ash established the Fly ash mission in the year 1994 to undertake concreted efforts in selected thrust areas of fly ash utilization. The present study on fly ash, keeping in mind the interests of human life indicates that: Fly ash is not a waste but a high potential building material, Fly ash has a technical edge in enhancing the durability of concrete, Fly ash based technologies should be used to benefit the human life, Fly ash has a great utility in agriculture. Its utilization helps in making earth greener; Fly ash is used as fill material and to make controlled low strength materials (CLSM), Bricks etc. Use of fly ash is mandatory as per government directives. REFERENCES: [1] Joshi, R.C. and Lohtia, R.P. Fly Ash in Concrete: Production, Properties and Uses. Gordon and Breach Science, Netherlands, 1997, 15-16. [2] www.nationalconveyors.com [3] Suwalka, R. L. Utility of fly ash in agriculture - a review. Agricultural Reviews Vol. 24 No. 3, 2003, 197-203. [4] Djwantoro Hardjito, Steenie E. Wallah, Dody M.J. Sumajouw, B.Vijaya Rangan. State of the Art: Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete, Construction Material for Sustainable Development. Invited Paper of the Concrete World: Engineering & Materials, American Concrete Institute India Chapter, 9-12 December 2004, Mumbai, India.
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CFD based analysis on cavitation in Francis turbine

Pardeep Kumar and R.P. Saini
1* 1
1 Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 247667, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: pardeep290884@yahoo.co.in)
One of the main reason is erosive wear of the turbines due to cavitation. However reaction turbines are more prone to cavitation especially for Francis turbine where a zone in the operating range is seriously affected by cavitation and considered as forbidden zone. Computational fluid dynamics analysis of cavitation in reaction turbines could be cost effective solution for an extensive analysis. In this paper, a computational fluid dynamics analysis of cavitation has been carried out in order to identify the different zones and impact of cavitation in Francis turbines by varying the critical parameter responsible for cavitation. Different values of cavitation factor are considered as the main parameter. Numerical simulation of 3MW Francis turbine using commercial Navier-Stokes code called FLUENT has been carried out. In first step the creations of 3-dimensional computational model of Francis turbine in GAMBIT and then numerical simulation in carried out by using FLUENT. The simulation is carried out at different operating conditions by varying the values cavitation factor. It is found that, a low pressure zone is developed near the inlet portion of the draft tube and inlet and outlet of the runner which causes pressure fluctuation in the draft tube and runner Keywords: Hydro turbine; cavitation; rotating machinery; computational fluid dynamics.
1. Introduction The phenomenon which manifests itself in the pitting of the metallic surfaces of turbine parts is known as cavitation because of the formation of cavities. Due to sudden collapsing of the bubbles on the metallic surface, high pressure is produced and metallic surfaces are subjected to high local stresses. Thus the surfaces are damaged [1]. Prof. D. Thoma suggested a dimensionless number, called as Thomas cavitation factor (sigma), which can be used for determining the region where cavitation take place in reaction turbines.
Hb H s H
(1)
Where, Hb is barometric pressure head in m of water, Hs is suction pressure at the outlet of reaction turbine in m of water or height of the turbine runner above the tail water surface, H is net head on the turbine in m of water [2]. The value of Thomas cavitation factor () for a particular type of turbine is calculated from the Eq.1. This value of Thomas cavitation factor () is compared with critical cavitation factor (c) for that type of turbine. If the value of is greater than c cavitation will not occur in that turbine. For safe operation (cavitation - free) of turbine, it is evident that; c (2) The following empirical relationships are used for obtaining the value of turbines [3].
c for different
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For Francis turbines,
c 43110 8 N s2
Where, Ns is specific speed of turbine
(3)
Figure1.Variation of efficiency with respect to cavitation factor Fig.1 shows the variation of Thomas cavitation factor () with efficiency. With increase in suction head (Hs), a corresponding decrease in is obtained and this has no effect on the turbine performance as is seen from constant efficiency trend. A stage is however reached when any further increase in suction head (Hs) deteriorates the turbine performance and the turbine efficiency falls. The critical value of cavitation coefficient c is determined by this point marking the change in the trend of efficiency [3]. The studies carried out by various investigators in order to determine the effect of cavitation as follow: Kjolle [4] studied the causes of damages in hydro turbines and found that the main causes of damage of water turbines were due to cavitation problems, sand erosion, material defects and fatigue; Duncan [5] provided information about cavitation, cavitation repair, cavitation damage inspection, date of inspection, cause of pitting, runner modifications, cavitation pitting locations, methods of cavitation pitting repair, and areas of high stress in runner ;Farhat et al. [6] illustrated the benefits of the cavitation monitoring in hydraulic turbines using a vibratory approach. This technique was used in a large Francis turbine in order to validate as light modification of its distributor, which was intended to reduce the cavitation aggressiveness and thereby the related erosion; Karimi and Avellan [7] presented a new cavitation erosion device producing vortex cavitation. A comparative study between various cavitation erosion situations was carried out to verify the ability of this vortex cavitation; Escaler et al. [8] carried out an experimental investigation in order to evaluate the detection of cavitation in actual hydraulic turbines. The methodology was based on the analysis of structural vibrations, acoustic emissions and hydrodynamic pressures measured in the machine; Bajic [9] carried out noise sampling, signal processing and analysis and data processing, analysis and interpretation in vibro-acoustic diagnostics of turbine cavitation. These were investigated in a series of prototype and model experiments by several weak points of the practice; Zou et al. [10] carried out a study related to cavitation associated pressure fluctuations in hydraulic systems which was an important phenomenon that affected the design, operation and safety of systems such as hydropower plant, pumping station, rocket engine fuel system, water distribution network etc; Athavale et al. [11] investigated a new full cavitation model developed for performance predictions of engineering equipment under cavitating conditions. All the test cases with cavitation showed plausible results (no negative pressures, and good convergence characteristics); Qianz et al. [12] carried out a three-dimensional unsteady multiphase flow simulation in the whole passage of Francis hydraulic turbine. The pressure pulsation was predicted and compared with experimental data at different positions in the draft tube, in front of runner, guide vanes and at the inlet of the spiral case; Sick et al.[13] suggested two equation models i.e. k- and k- models for the numerical simulation of hydro turbines. Wu et al. [14] applied standard k- model to simulate the Francis turbine
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2. CFD based analysis of cavitation in Francis turbine Detailed methodology adopted to carry out the numerical simulation of 3.14 MW Francis turbine using commercial Navier-Stokes code called FLUENT. The simulation is carried out at caviating operating conditions. The simulation technique adopted in FLUENT is described.Francis turbine having rated capacity of 3MW with rated head and discharge of 48 3 m and 7.2 m /s respectively is considered for the present study. The configuration of Francis turbine consist of spiral casing, 18 no.s of stay vanes (including one nose vane), 18 no.s of hydrofoil shaped guide vanes, 13 no.s of runner blades and draft tube. 3. Results and discussion The simulation is carried out at caviating operating points. The complex flow structure predicted inside the different components is presented. The variation of pressure inside the runner and draft tube by varying the suction head by keeping the constant net head and discharge 3.1 Pressure variation By studying the variation in static pressure in different parts we can find the regions of the turbine where the pressure goes below the vapor pressure. This will help in finding whether any region of turbine is subjected to cavitation or not. The zones of flow separation, vortex formation and regions of secondary flow can be detected. The results are obtained at caviating conditions by changing the suction head because the value of Thomas cavitation factors depends upon suction head and value will vary by varying the suction head. The study of pressure variation in the form of magnitude and direction in different components is done by considering different cases the study of variation of absolute pressure in different components is done and discussed below = 0.125, c = 0.15 < c
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Counters of absolute pressure in (a) Draft tube and (b) Runner (Pascal)
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4. Conclusions It is seen that the pressure side of the blade is subjected to higher pressure compared to suction side. It is also observed that, due to forced vortex flow through the runner low pressure zone is created below the hub of the runner. It is found that, a low pressure zone is developed near the inlet portion of the draft tube called vortex rope. It is found that, due to acceleration of the flow in the draft tube, pressure in the bend portion goes below the vapor pressure of water and hence this region is prone to cavitation.It causes pressure fluctuation in the draft tube and may lead to variation in power output, vibration of the shaft, damage to the runner blade and hence ultimately results in decrease in efficiency. References [1] Lal, J. Hydraulic Machines. Sixth edition (1975), Metropolitan Book Co. Private Ltd., New Delhi. [2] Bansal R.K. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines. Nov (1998): 839-841. [3] JAIN A.K. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines. Dec 2002: 835-836. [4] http://www.tev.ntnu.no/vk/publikasjoner/pdf/ArneKjolle/chapter14.pdfS . [5] William Duncan, Jr.Turbine manual. facilities instructions, standards, & technique Sept 2000; 2-5. [6] Mohamed Farhat, Paul Bourdon, Jean-Louis Gagne. Improving hydro turbine profitability by monitoring cavitation aggressiveness. CEA Electricity 99 conference and exposition Vancouver 1999:1-15. [7] Karimi, Avellan F. Comparison of erosion in different types of cavitation. Wear 1986; 113: 305-322. [8] Xavier Escalera , Eduard Egusquiza, Mohamed Farhat, Francois Avellan Detection of cavitation in hydraulic turbines. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 2006; 20: 9831007 [9] Branko Bajic. Methods for vibro-acoustic diagnostics of turbine cavitation . Hydro dynamic research 2003; 41:87-96. [10] Li S C, Zuo Z G, Carpenter, Li S. Cavitation Resonance. 5th Int. Symp. on Cavitation, Japan 2003. [11] Mahesh M. Athavale, H. Y. LI, YU Jiang, Ashok K. Singhal. Application of the Full Cavitation Model to pumps and inducers. Rotating Machinery 2002; 8(1): 4556. [12] QIAN Zhong-dong, YANG Jian-dong, HUAI Wen-xin. Numerical simulation and analysis of pressure pulsation in hydraulic turbine with air admission. Hydrodynamics 2007; Ser.B, 19(4):467-472 [13] Sick, M., Drtina, P., and Casey, M.V. The use of stage capability in CFD for turbomachinery, with application in a Francis turbine. Int. J. CA in Technology, 1998; v 11, n 3-5, pp.219-29. [14] Wu, J., Shimmei, K., Tani, K., Niikura, K., and Sato, J., CFD-Based Design Optimization for Hydro Turbines. ASME J. Fluids Eng., 2007; 129, pp. 159-168.
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Proc. Of the international conference on advances in mechanical engineering, august 3-5, 2009 S.v. National institute of technology, surat 395 007, gujarat, india
Emission Reduction in DI Diesel Engine using Catalyst Diesel Particulate Filter

R.Anand , G.R.Kannan Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli-620 015, TamilNadu *Corresponding author (e-mail: anandachu@nitt.edu)
*
Diesel engines are preferred power plants in the transportation sector due to their higher thermal efficiency and lower operational cost. They are used in all countries, especially in developing countries like India. In diesel engines usage pollutants like oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and smoke have been considered as barriers for pollutant free environment in urban areas. Since engine modifications are expensive, an attempt has been made to improve exhaust emission characteristics without engine modifications. The present study uses a particulate trap with Copper oxide/ Zeolite and Cobalt oxide/ Zeolite as oxidation and reduction catalyst respectively. An Effective reduction of NO and smoke emissions by 30% and 39% respectively has been observed the use of particulate trap at full load. A simultaneous increase in brake specific fuel consumption by 5% as compared to baseline operation has also been observed.
Keywords: NOX, Smoke opacity, copper oxide, cobalt oxide, zeolite, particulate trap 1. Introduction
Light duty diesel engines are popular in developing countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh [1].Main drawback in the use of diesel engine is its high soot and NOx emissions. Soot from diesel engine can cause allergies and asthma. Long term exposure to gases that are emitted from diesel engine can cause irreversible genetic side-effects [2]. Due to and the alarming rise in the number of diesel vehicles and the health hazards caused by diesel emissions, governments all over the globe have passed rules and regulations to control the emission of these harmful gases. Thus, it is essential to develop improved pollution control equipment that addresses the NOx/soot emission problem from diesel engines [3-5]. Many researchers have been undertaken and many methods are being researched for the cheapest and most efficient emission reduction in diesel engines [6]. Among all the methods catalytic treatment of exhaust gases has been found to be one of the very cheapest and most efficient emission reduction methods in diesel engine without any modification in the engine [7].
2.
Experimental system
The diesel engine (details given in Table-1) was coupled to an electrical generator. A single cylinder constant speed diesel engine was run under variable output conditions up to 3.75 kW, which is the rated value. The injection timing was maintained at 23 before TDC throughout the experiment. Air flow rate was measured with the orificemeter. To improve mixing and to reduce pressure pulsations before the intake part, separate surge tank was installed for air flow. Chromel-alumel (k-type) thermocouples connected to digital indicators were employed for the various temperature measurements which included exhaust gas temperature and catalyst bed temperature. AVL DI GAS 444 was used to measure the concentration of NO present in the exhaust gas. The smoke opacity was measured using AVL 437 opacity meter. The schematic layout of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 1.
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Table 1. Engine Specifications

Make Rated Brake power Speed Number of cylinder Method of cooling Bore Stroke Type of ignition KIRLOSKAR 3.75 kW 1500 rpm 1 Water cooled 80 mm 110 mm CI 1- DI Diesel Engine 2- Generator 3- Fuel tank 4- Surge tank 5- Pellets 6-Pellet type particulate trap 7- Back pressure valve 8- U-Tube Manometer
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Experimental setup 3. Experimental investigation

Pellet Type Particulate Trap (PTPT), which consists of a pellet type substrate coated with a transition metal oxide catalyst was proposed for use in the present investigation. The convertor consists of small pellets made of clay, which can provide catalyst support and thermal stability. The clay balls filter is cheaper and more efficient because the porous network structures have low mass, low density and low thermal conductivity. Many factors contribute to the selection and preparation of a good catalyst. Copper oxide impregnated in zeolite (Cu/ZSM-5) and cobalt oxide impregnated in zeolite (Co/ZSM-5) is selected as oxidation catalyst and reduction catalyst respectively. Oxidation catalysts are used to oxidise CO and HC to CO2 and H2O. Reduction catalysts are used to reduce NOx to N2. A few types of metal oxide catalysts were prepared and coated on the pellets before selecting a particular catalyst for the present study. The catalysts are converted into pellets using clay and placed inside a specially designed module which is then connected directly to the exhaust. The engine was allowed steady state condition and the experiments were repeated several times to ensure consistency of result.
3.1
Preparation of Cu/ZSM-5 and Co/ZSM-5
To prepare oxidation catalyst and reduction catalyst, 3.04 grams of Copper nitrate and 3.63 grams of Cobalt nitrate are mixed with 20 g of zeolite separately in the 250 ml of water. The solution was then stirred on a magnetic stirrer and was evaporated to dryness. During this process the copper nitrate and cobalt nitrate present in the solutions got adsorbed into pores of the zeolite. This process is called impregnation.The precipitates obtained were crushed into powder form and was heated to about 115C for about 3 hours. This procedure was to remove the water molecules trapped in the zeolite pores. The heated powder was further heated to about 550 C in a muffle furnace for about 5 hours (calcination). During this process the copper nitrate and cobalt nitrate present in the pores of the zeolite had been converted into copper oxide and cobalt oxide thus giving copper oxide impregnated in zeolite (Cu/ZSM-5) and cobalt oxide (Co/ZSM-5).
3.2
Preparations of catalyst substrates
To prepare catalyst substrates 20 grams of Cu/ZSM-5 and Co/ZSM-5 was mixed with 40 grams of clay. Adequate amount of water was added to the mixture. The clay was rolled into
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small spherical pellets of 4 6 mm in diameter. The clay pellets were then heated in a furnace at 115 C for about 5 hours. The photographic views of pellet before and after the experimental investigations are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Photographic views of the clay pellets before and after experimentation 3.3 Design and fabrication of PTPT
The particulate trap was designed based on the amount of exhaust gas flow, displacement volume of the cylinder, the number of cylinders, rated speed of the engine and the bore-tostroke ratio. The PTPT consists of 2 hollow pipes placed one inside the other. The outer pipe (module) has a diameter of 57mm, thickness of 4 mm and length of 142mm. The inner pipe has a diameter of 50mm, thickness of 3mm and length of 62mm. This inner module is divided into two chambers of length 21mm each and was separated from one another with the help of circular Galvanized Iron (GI) wire meshes. There are wire meshes at both ends of the inner module. The wire meshes are attached to the inner module by means of TIG welding done at very low current. The catalysts were added through 8mm hole of inner module. The dimensions of the inner and outer module are given in Figure 3. The photographic view of inner module and sectional view of the PTPT are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Schematic layout showing the dimensions of the module 4. Results and Discussion
Figure 4. Photographic and sectional view of trap
A series of tests were conducted on the single cylinder DI diesel engine for varying loads from 0 to 100% in the range of 20% for the constant speed of 1500 rpm. The performance and emission characteristics were measured with and without PTPT.
4.1
Effect on performance characteristics
Figure 5 shows the variation of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with load. It is seen from the figure, that the specific fuel consumption is more while the usage of trap compared to
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without trap. This is due to the development of backpressure in the presence of particulate trap that makes the engine to consume more fuel. As a result of this, BSFC is found to increase when the trap is used.
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Diesel without trap Diesel with trap
BSFC(kg/kwh)
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Load (%)

Diesel without trap Diesel with trap
20
40 60 Load (%)
80
100
Figure 5. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with load
Figure 6. Variation of Brake Thermal efficiency with load
The variation of brake thermal efficiency with load is shown in Figure 6. It is noted that the brake thermal efficiency of the engine without particulate trap is greater than that for the engine with trap. This is due to the reduction in inlet oxygen concentration in the case of internal exhaust gas recirculation and also higher fuel consumption due to the development of backpressure with PTPT.
4.2
Effect on the emission characteristics
Figure 7 shows the variation of NO emission with load by using trap and without trap. It is seen that NO emission decreases for PTPT for all the loads. It shows that a reduction of 30% when compared to without trap at full load. This is mainly due to NO adsorption by the metal oxide coating. Hence from this study it is concluded that the application of trap may be beneficial method for the suppression of NO in the diesel exhaust.
Figure 7. Variations of NO with load
Figure 8. Variation of Smoke opacity with load
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The variation of smoke opacity with load while using PTPT is shown in Figure 8. It is seen that with PTPT, no drop in smoke opacity is observed up to 20% load. But for the remaining loads, the introduction of trap results in significant drop in smoke opacity. It illustrates the necessity of trap in diesel exhaust. It is also observed that for 100% load, the smoke opacity for PTPT filter is 60% which is lower than that of the diesel without trap by 39%. This may be due to the presence of a catalyst, which aids the regeneration of soot in the exhaust gases.
5.
Conclusions
This experimental study conducted to evaluate and compare the emission and performance characteristics of a DI diesel engine with and without the PTPT for different loads. The following results are obtained: 1. PTPT was found to be an effective device for the reduction of NO and smoke emissions. 2. BSFC increases whereas brake thermal efficiency decreases for all the loads. 3. The engine operated with 100% load with catalysts Cu/ZSM-5 and Co/ZSM-5 resulted in simultaneous reduction of NO and a smoke emission by 30% and 39% respectively was achieved.
References
[1] Anand, R. and Mahalakshmi,N.V. Effects of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and exhaust gas with intake air on DI diesel engine emission and performance characteristics. SAE, 200526-345, 283-287. [2] Shaobin Wang , Brian S. Haynes .Catalytic combustion of soot on metal oxides and their supported metal chlorides. Catalysis Communications, 4, 2003, 591596. [3] Qing Liang, Xiaodong Wu , Duan Weng, Zhenxiang Lu . Selective oxidation of soot over Cu doped ceria/ceriazirconia catalysts. Catalysis Communications, 9, 2008,202206. [4] John P.A. Neeft, Michiel Makkee, Jacob A. Moulijn . Catalysts for the oxidation of soot from diesel exhaust gases. I. An exploratory study. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 8, 1996, 57-78. [5] Giovanni Neff a, Lucio Bonaccorsa, Andrea Donato , Candida Milone , Maria Grazia Musolino , Anna Maria Visco Catalytic combustion of diesel soot over metal oxide catalysts. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 11,1997, 217-231 [6] B. J. Adelman, T. Beutel, G.D. Lei, W. M. H. Sachtler1. Mechanistic Cause of Hydrocarbon Specificity over Cu/ZSM-5 and Co/ZSM-5 Catalysts in the Selective Catalytic Reduction of NOx. Journal of Catalysts 158,1996, 327335 [7] Hirofumi Ohtsukaa, Takeshi Tabataa, Osamu Okadaa, Luigina M.F. Sabatinob and Giuseppe Bellussib (1998) A study on the roles of cobalt species in NOx reduction by propane on Co-Beta,Catalysis Today, 42,1998, 45-50.
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Performance and Emission Characteristics of a DI Compression Ignition Engine Using Carbon Nanotubes Blended Diesel
J. Sadhik Basha & R.B. Anand
*
National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli - 620 015. Tamil Nadu. INDIA. * Corresponding author (e-mail: rbanand@nitt.edu) An experimental investigation is carried out to establish the effect of carbon nanotubes (CNT) on the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine. The carbon nanotubes addition to the base fluid (diesel) enhances diesel fuel properties to achieve better performance and reduced emission. The carbon nanotubes are mixed with the diesel by mass fraction (0.5 g/lit, 1 g/lit &1.5 g/lit) and the ultrasonic vibrator is used for the uniform dispersion of the carbon nanotubes. The settling of nanotubes is continuously monitored under static conditions. The experiments are conducted in an experimental setup consists of a single cylinder diesel engine with an electrical loading device at a constant speed of 1500 rpm using neat diesel and CNT blended diesel without any engine modification. It is observed that there is a significant improvement in the brake thermal efficiency for the engine using CNT blended diesel compared with neat diesel; at the rated load of the engine, the mass fraction of 0.5 g/litre CNT blended diesel showed 7% increase in brake thermal efficiency. In addition to the performance improvement, significant reductions of NOx , CO & HC in the engine exhaust are observed. 1. Introduction
In the present day global context scenario, automobile revolution focuses on controlling the harmful emissions from the diesel engines. For the past three decades the use of diesel in all the sectors like industry, transportation and power plant sector has increased due to population growth. Incomplete combustion of fuel in an engine results in a lower power output and increase in hazardous emissions such as NOx, CO, soot, smoke, HC, PM etc. Due to stringent emission regulations all over the world, the effect of minimizing the emission is under way. Low combustion efficiency and high pollutant contents, causing air pollution are the peculiar characteristics of diesel fuel. Many investigations have focused on improvement of diesel fuel properties, such as using cetane improver, diesel ignition improvers etc. [1, 2]. Several researches have been carried out on adding metallic powders to fossil fuel to increase the thermal efficiency and combustion stability [3] studies in rocket solid fuel propulsion. Metin Guru et al. [4] observed that the inorganic based manganese drops improved the viscosity and flash point, and the content of exhaust gases. The concept and application of nanotechnology is one of the efficient techniques to achieve desired fuel properties in coming years. The main application of the nanoscience technology is the nano particles and nanotubes. The term Nanofluid is envisioned to describe a solid-liquid mixture which consists of nano particles and a base liquid, and which is one of the new challenges for thermo-science provided by the nano-technology [5]. The nanoparticles have excellent dispersions in all the base fluids such as water, oil, and ethylene glycol to form stable suspensions (no significant settling observed during static suspensions even after weeks or months) [6]. DeLuca et al. [7] studied that at such nano dimensions, the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the particle increased considerably and hence allows more amount of fuel to be in contact with the oxidizer. This in turn makes the fuel to undergo improved combustion to enhance the performance and reduced harmful emissions. As a result, it is possible to achieve desired physical and thermal properties of a fluid by adding some specifically tailored nanoparticles. Even at very low fractions, the nano particles dramatically increase thermal conductivity and the critical heat flux of the fluid. Larger relative surface area of nano particles, compared to those of conventional particles, should not only significantly
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improve heat transfer capabilities, but also enhance the stability of the suspensions. Prasher et al. [8] work on nano particles, revealed that the addition of nano particles to a fluid can enhance its physical properties, such as thermal conductivity, mass diffusivity, and radiative heat transfer. The improved heat transfer performance of nanofluids is due to fact that the nanoparticles exhibit [9], increase in surface area and heat capacity of the fluid, improvisation in thermal conductivity of the fluid and causing more collisions and interactions between the fluid, particles and flow passages. Marquis & Chibante [10] conducted experiments on carbon nanotubes and found that the thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes at room temperature is over 3,000 times greater than that of water and over 10,000 times greater than that of engine oil. Therefore, fluids containing suspended carbon nanotubes in the base fluid such as diesel will enhance the thermal conductivity to a higher extent. In addition the above the suspended carbon nanotubes will also enhances the surface area-to-volume ratio of the added particles. The conditions of nanotubes mixing, settling time and thermal degradation with diesel oil and found that nanotubes blended diesel could affect the thermal and mechanical efficiency of the engines. In addition, they observed that carbon nanotubes possess oxidation stability upto 550 C and chemically stable to over 1000 C and also found that under extreme thermal conditions, the nanotubes will not degrade in the base fluid. Furthermore, it was found that nanotubes blended diesel began to decompose at around 200 C which is pre requisite thermal property of diesel. Owing to the above potential physical and thermal properties of carbon nanotubes, the present work is carried out to establish the effect of CNT blended diesel in the DI diesel engine on the performance and emission characteristics. 2. 2.1 Experimental setup and Procedure Experimental setup
The experiments are conducted in a single cylinder, four stroke, water cooled, DI diesel engine (brake power = 5.2 kW, bore = 87.5 mm, stroke = 110 mm, compression ratio = 17.5) with an electrical loading device. An exhaust gas analyzer (AVL DIGAS 444) and smoke meter (AVL 437) are used for the exhaust emission investigation for neat diesel and carbon nanotube blended diesel at a constant speed without any engine modification. 2.2 Preparation of CNT blended diesel
Carbon nanotubes (OD = 16 nm, ID = 5 nm) are synthesized by electric arc discharge method. The carbon nanotubes is weighed and blended with diesel at the desired mass fractions (0.5 g/litre, 1 g/litre and 1.5 g/litre). The carbon nanotubes blended diesel is subjected for dispersion by means of ultrasonic vibrator with the ultrasonic frequency of 36 kHz and 100 W for 30 minutes for the uniform dispersion of CNT. The blended diesel is subjected for settling tests and noted that CNT blended diesel is stable for more than 8 hours under static conditions. 3. Results and discussions
All the experiments are conducted at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. Based on the experimental data, brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) are evaluated for the performance analysis and the amount of NOX, HC, and CO, exhaust gas temperature (EGT), unused oxygen in the exhaust and smoke opacity are measured for emission characteristics for both neat diesel and carbon nanotubes blended diesel. 3.1 Performance characteristics
The variation of brake thermal efficiency & brake specific fuel consumption with respect to brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) for neat diesel and CNT blended diesel is shown in Fig.1 & 2.
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50 40
Neat Diesel 0.5 g CNT/litre
1.0 g CNT/litre 1.5 g CNT/litre
2.0 1.8 1.6

BSFC (kg/kW-hr)
BTE (%)
1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 BMEP (bar) 4 5
2 3 BMEP (bar)
Figure.1: BMEP vs BTE
Figure.2: BMEP vs BSFC
From the Fig.1, the brake thermal efficiency increases continuously until the rated brake power for the neat diesel and for all the CNT diesel blends. The blend 0.5 g CNT/litre with diesel has better thermal efficiency than other blends and neat diesel. This could be probably due to better dispersion of CNT in the diesel which enhances the heat capacity of the diesel to undergo combustion. For the increase of load beyond the rated load, the brake thermal efficiency is decreased for the neat diesel and CNT blended diesel. However, the addition of CNT more than 0.5 g/litre is deteriorating performance of the engine. Similar observation is reflected with variation of BMEP & BSFC as shown in the Fig.2. This is probably due to better optimum temperature during combustion of the CNT blended diesel compared to neat diesel. 3.2 Emission characteristics
The variation of NOX, HC, EGT, smoke opacity, CO, and unused oxygen in the exhaust with respect to BMEP for neat diesel and the CNT blended diesel are shown in Fig.3,4,5, 6,7 & 8, respectively.
700 600
NOx (ppm)

HC (% Vol.)
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
500 400 300 200 100 0 0 1 2 3 BMEP (bar) 4 5
2 3 BMEP (bar)
Figure.3: BMEP vs NOx
Figure.4: BMEP vs HC
In the Fig. 3, shows the variation of NOX with bmep for CNT blended diesel and neat diesel. The NOX emission is increased continuously for neat diesel and CNT blended diesel due to higher combustion temperature inside the engine cylinder. It is observed that the CNT blended diesel, the magnitude of NOX emission is less compared to neat diesel at all the loads. It is observed that the CNT 1.5 g/litre has less NOX emission than neat diesel and other CNT blends (0.5 g/litre & 1 g/litre). From the Fig.4, it is noted that as the load on the engine increases, the unburnt hydrocarbon emission is decreased for CNT blended diesel till the
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rated load as compared to neat diesel. This is probably due to at lower loads oxidation reactions takes place slowly due to lower temperature and lean mixture formation. However, as the load on the engine is further increased till the rated load value the UHC emission for neat diesel starts increasing due to poor combustion than CNT blended diesel. However at the higher loads, the decreasing trend observed after the rated load of the engine. The Fig.5 depicts that at lower loads the exhaust gas temperature of diesel is same as that of CNT blended diesel. However at higher loads, the exhaust gas temperature for CNT blended is comparatively lower than neat diesel, this is probably due to better thermal decomposition and the heat capacity characteristics of CNT. The Fig.6, reveals the magnitude of smoke opacity of CNT blended diesel is comparatively less than neat diesel because of the better combustion rate in turn the reducing the smoke opacity at lower loads. However at higher loads, the combustion process is deteriorated and thus smoke opacity of CNT blended diesel is same that of neat diesel.
600
Exhaust Gas Temperature ( C)
500 400 300 200 100 0 0
120
Smoke Opacity ( %)
100 80 60 40 20
2 3 BMEP (bar)
2 3 BMEP (bar)
Figure.5: BMEP vs EGT

1.0 0.8
CO ( % Vol.)
Figure.6: BMEP vs Smoke Opacity

25
Unused Oxygen (% Vol.)
20 15 10 5 0
0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0 1 2 3 BMEP (bar) 4 5
2 3 BMEP (bar)
Figure.7: BMEP vs CO
Figure.8: BMEP vs Unused Oxygen
It is observed that as the load on the engine increased, the CO emission is marginally increased for neat diesel compared to CNT blended diesel as shown in the fig.7. The 1 g/litre and 1.5 g/litre of CNT blended diesel shows reduced CO emission than 0.5 g/litre CNT blended diesel and neat diesel. Till the rated load, the difference of CO emission between neat diesel and CNT blended diesel is marginal, but however at above the rated load, the magnitude of CO is high for neat diesel than CNT blended diesel. At lower loads the quantity of the fuel to the engine supplied is minimal (lean) and so there is increase in incomplete combustion for neat diesel due to less heat in the combustion chamber resulting in lower flame temperature. The Fig.8 shows the unused oxygen content in the exhaust gases varia-
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tion with BMEP for neat diesel and CNT blended diesel. It is observed that oxygen content of exhaust gases for neat diesel is decreased considerably from lower loads to higher load of the engine compared to CNT blended diesel. At lower loads, the fuel supplied to the cylinder is small and the mixture remains lean ensuing more unused oxygen in the exhaust. However at higher loads, more oxygen is consumed for neat diesel than CNT blended diesel. The difference in oxygen content in the exhaust among CNT blended diesel (0.5 g/litre,1 g/litre & 1.5 g/litre) in the exhaust is quite marginal compared to neat diesel. 4. Conclusions Based on the experimental investigations following conclusions have been made: The CNT blended diesel has better dispersion with ultrasonic vibrator. The settling time and stability of CNT blended diesel carbon tubes blended diesel 0.5 g/litre,1 g/litre and 1.5 g/litre is stable for more than 8 hours under static conditions. The CNT blended diesel of 0.5 g/litre shows improved brake thermal efficiency by 7% compared to neat diesel. Also, the brake thermal efficiency of CNT blends of 1 g/litre, 1.5g/litre is also improved, while compared to neat diesel. The CNT blended diesel of 0.5 g/litre has minimal specific fuel consumption compared to neat diesel. The emissions characteristics such as NOx, CO, HC, EGT and smoke opacity is comparatively less compared to neat diesel.
1.
2. 3. 4.
References [1] Ullman Terry L, Spreen Kent B, Mason Robert L. Effects of cetane number, cetane improver, aromatics & oxygenates on heavy-duty Diesel emissions, 1994, SAE 941020. [2] Cunningham L.J, Henly T.J, Kulinowski A.M. The effects of Diesel ignition improvers in low-sulfur fuels on heavyduty Diesel emissions, 1990, SAE 902173. [3] Interagency Working Group on Nanoscience, National Nanotechnology Initiative: Leading to the Next Industrial Revolution, Technology National Science and Technology Council, U.S.A., 2000. [4] Metin Guru, Uur karakaya, Duran Aliparamak & Ahmet Alicilar, Improvement of Diesel fuel properties by using additives. Energy Conversion & Management, 43, 2002, 1021 1025. [5] Dae-Hwang Yoo, K.S.Hong, Ho-Soon Yang. Study of thermal conductivity of nanofluids for the application of heat transfer fluids, Thermochimica Acta, 455, 2007, 6669. [6] J.A.Eastman, U.S.Choi, S. Li, G. Soyez, L.J. Thompson, R.J. Di Melfi. Novel thermal properties of nanostructured materials, Material Science Forum 312-314, 1999, 629-634. [7] L. T. DeLuca, L. Galfetti, F. Severini. Combustion of composite solid propellants with nanosized aluminum, Combustion, Explosion & Shock Waves, 41, 2005, 680692. [8] R.S. Prasher, P. Bhattacharya, P.E. Phelan. Thermal Conductivity of Nano scale colloidal Solutions, Physical Review Letters, 94, 2005, 025901-1- 025901- 4. [9] Argonne National Laboratory Transportation Technology R&D Centre. The Effect of nanoparticle additions on the heat capacity of common coolants, 2008, SAE 2002-013319. [10] F.D.S. Marquis & L.P.F. Chibante. Improving the heat transfer of nanofluids and nanolubricants with carbon nanotubes, Journal of the Minerals, Metals & Material Society, 57, 2005, 32-43.
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Discharge Measurement in Penstock of Small Hydropower Stations using Clamp-on Type Ultrasonic Transit Time Flowmeters (UTTF)
S. S. Rao, R. P. Saini*, B. K. Gandhi Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India. (e-mail : *rajsafah@iitr.ernet.in) Discharge measurement is the most important and tedious exercise in the evaluation of the efficiency of hydr-electric power generating units, even in small hydropower (SHP) stations. For an accurate estimation of discharge in closed ducts and open channels, it is generally recommended to measure the flow velocity at a number of points in the measuring section. One good method of velocity measurement in a closed duct is applying a Clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeter (UTTF). The UTTF can be installed on penstock before MIV of the turbine, after forebay and as near as possible by MIV i.e., depending on flow and penstock conditions, and on the convenience of mounting and using the UTTF. The paper reports the measurement of average velocity in penstock and there by actual discharge which is entering into the turbine to evaluate the performance of the hydro turbine.Discharge measurements carried out in 14 SHP stations using UTTF are reported here. For one typical situation of Multi Jet Pelton Turbine is the generating unit of SHP plant where flow through the penstock, the mounting arrangements, procedure of evaluation of discharge by UTTF has been discussed. This paper reports the experience of the scientists, faculty and student of the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee (IITR), an Institution of global repute and academic and professional excellence in India, on the use of clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeters (UTTFs) for measurement of discharge in closed ducts with high accuracy i.e., small measurement uncertainty.
1. INTRODUCTION
Clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeter (UTTF) is being used as a convenient portable non-intrusive device to measure the liquid flow through the circular pipe. The clamp-on type flowmeter uses a pair of transducers which can be installed in a single, double and multipath arrangements depending upon the pipe size and the availability of space. The two transducers of clamp-on type UTTF simultaneously act as a transmitter and receiver when ultrasonic sound wave pulses are transmitted through a moving liquid. The travelling time of sound wave from upstream transducer to downstream transducer is less than that of downstream transducer to upstream transducer due to flow velocities. Both the travelling times are determined to calculate the average flow velocity. The flow rate in the pipe is obtained by multiplying the available crosssectional area with the average velocity. The whole programme of calculations of flowrate is integrated in the flowmeter itself. For measurement of flow within the specified accuracy of the meter, Sanderson and Yeung [1] have suggested to perform the measurement in flow velocity between two perpendicular planes and specified the requirement of straight pipe length of 10 times of pipe diameter upstream of the plane and pipe length of 5 times of pipe diameter downstream of the plane. Sanderson and Torley [4] identified that an errors derived from the re-clamping of the meter may occur due to misalignment of the transducers or poor acoustic coupling between the transducers and the pipe. Voser et.al. [5] reported that for an error more than 1% in roundness of the pipe of hydroelectric power plants needs estimation of the uncertainties in discharge measurement by ultrasonic flowmeter. Brumer [2] has tested the removal and reinstallation of ultrasonic transducers on the pipe to isolate the act of reapplying a clamp as a source of
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uncertainty. He also found that this could give an estimated uncertainty of 5%. Cairney WD [3] has been investigated that the clamp-on meters are sensitive to pipe quality, diameter and thickness. If the ratio between the pipe diameter (D) and the wall thickness (t) becomes too small, a relatively large part of the ultrasonic pulses will travel around the pipe wall instead of passing through the fluid and also it may cause non-linearity and zero drift. He found that the errors increased markedly when D/t was around 10:1 and increased to nearly 10% when D/t ratio decreased down to five. It is also very important to know the inner diameter of the pipe. A small error in measuring the pipe diameter can result in rather large errors Svensson and Delsing [10] investigated that below a Reynolds number of approximately 5000, % error of deviation is large with respect to the billing meters and it is not recommended to use clamp-on type meters for comparison measurements in the low flow region. And also indicates that not all brands of clampon meters are useful for in-situ testing. Kenichi Tezuka et.al [6] have obtained velocity profiles in the steel penstock at actual power plants with an ultrasonic-Doppler flow velocity profile flow meter at different flowrates and different measuring positions. In 2004, the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee has taken the responsibility of performance testing of small hydropower (SHP) stations in India. By, now its testing team has an experience of carrying out unit efficiency test in more than 30 stations of different types and different capacities. Discharge measurement in penstock of SHP stations has been carried out in 14 SHP stations using clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeters (UTTF). This paper gives some details of these stations and the measurement with UTTF. One representative case study is given to explain the procedure followed for estimation of uncertainties in discharge measurement by UTTF. 2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF UTTF
Fig.1 shows the principle of operation of the clamp-on UTTF measuring the flow rate of a liquid whose speed of sound is cl in a pipe of internal diameter D. The flowrate is measured by using the transit time difference between ultrasound travelling from transducer T1 to transducer T2 and when the ultrasound is travelling from transducer T2 to transducer T1. If the ultrasonic beam in the fluid is at an angle to the pipe axis then the volumetric flowrate Qv is related to the time difference T= T12-T21 by where k, the correction factor, is given by (1) If the wedge on which the transducers are mounted is made of a material for which the speed of sound is cw and having an angle to the pipe axis, then Eq. (1) can be re-written as
(2) In order to obtain an accurate measurement it is necessary to obtain an accurate measurement of the required separation of the transducer T1 and T2. From simple geometric considerations this separation, s, in the case of a two path meter is (3) There sw is the separation through the wedge, sp is the separation through the pipe and sl is the separation through the liquid in equation no (4).The correct separation of the transducers can be obtained by providing the flowmeter with the pipe wall thickness, t, and internal diameter, D, and the speed of sound in the pipe wall, cp, material and the speed of sound in the liquid, cl. This can be used with internally stored values to indicate to the user the required separation. UTTFs generally provide outputs indicative of volumetric flowrate or totalised volume flow.
(4)
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Figure 1. Working Principle of Clamp-on Type UTTF 3. DETAILS OF UTTF APPLICATION
The name of the SHP station, details of the penstock, the discharge measured by ultrasonic transit time flowmeter, number of UTTFs used, design discharge of power station and uncertainty in discharge measurement for each of the 14 SHP stations referred above are given in table.1. 4. UTTF MOUNTING ARRANGEMENT AND MEASURING PROCEDURE
The mounting arrangement of the transducers have been carried out in two path method, the two transducers are mounted on the same side of the pipe and the sound pulse crosses the pipe flow twice. The transducers of the ultrasonic flow meter have been clamped with magnetic clamping fixtures after applying the couplant and pipe preparation for removing coatings and rust. The purpose of the couplant is to provide reliable transmission of ultrasound between the transducer and pipe wall. The spacing between the transducers obtained by providing penstock wall thickness, diameter, transducers model and configuration, fluid type and process temperature etc., to the flowneter by user interface. 4.1 Discharge measurement during performance testing of Loharkhet SHP station (3 x 1.5 MW) Loharkhet, District Bageshwar (Uttarakhand) Discharge Measurement The penstock size being small (1200 mm internal diameter), a portable ultrasonic transit-time flowmeter (UTTF) with clamp-on transducers (PT878, GE Sensing make) was used. A pair of transducers was fixed in reflection mode on the common penstock. Readings of the UTTF averaged over 60 second periods by the instrument were taken every minute during the 15minute duration of efficiency test at each discharge. Average flow over this 15-minute duration was used for calculating the unit efficiency. Uncertainty in Discharge Measurement Uncertainty in average velocity measurement by flowmeter = 1 % Uncertainty in cross-sectional shape and dimensions of penstock = 2.0 % Therefore, total uncertainty in discharge measurement is = 2.236% (5) Make and Type of UTTF: GE Sensing make, Model 878 Location of UTTF : Common Penstock At this site there were two number of ultrasonic transit time flow meters installed side by side to measure the discharge in the penstock. The average discharge obtained by both the flow meters is taken for performance calculations at each plant load operation.
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Table 1: Details of Discharge Measurement by UTTF in 14 SHP Stations Sl. No. Name of SHP Station and Capacity ALEO SHP (2x1500 kW) BRAHMAGANGA SHP (2x2.5 MW) CHING SHP 2x500 kW) CHUNCHI DODDI SHP (3x3.5 MW) DEBAL SHP (2X2.5 MW) KHAULI SHP (2X6 MW) LOHARKHET SHP (3 x 1.5 MW) MANAL SHP (2x1500 kW) Penstock Dia, Thick, Material 800 mm,6 mm to 14 mm, IS 2062 1 m,8 mm to 12 mm, SAILMA350HI 600 mm, 8 mm, MS 2.4 m,10 to 16 mm, Steel (IS 2062) 2 m, 10 mm 12 mm, MS IS 2062. 0.90 m,10 mm to 40 mm, MS Pipe 1.2m,10 to 12 mm, MS 780 mm,8 to 12 mm, IS 2002/ASTM A-285Gr.C 875 mm,20 mm, ASTM-516 Gr. 70 1.3 m,14 to 32 mm, IS 2002 Gr.2 300 mm,7 mm, ISI 1.25m,12 to 20 mm, MS IS 2002, Grade-2 1.2m,14mm, MS-IS-2006 700 mm,10 to 22 mm, Steel IS 2002 Gr 2B Average Discharge Measured By UTTF in cumecs 100 % L 0.6289 80 % L 0.5064 60 % L 0.3855 110 % L 0.7010 No. of UTTFs used 1 Design Discharg e (cumecs) 1.350 Uncertainty in Discharge Measureme nt 1.28 %
2.5900
2.0970
1.5880
3.1480
2.520
2.236%
0.3612
0.2915
0.2234
0.4010
0.900
1.414 %
3.9220
3.2320
2.5450
4.3370
15.000
2.236%
4.4130
3.7460
3.2130
5.2250
14.000
1.803 %
1.1250
0.8280
0.5870
1.3740
3.050
1.803%
0.9310
0.7520
0.5730
1.0310
3.420
2.236%
0.8981
0.7077
0.5362
0.9966
0.888
1.414 %
MARHI SHP (2X2.5 MW)
0.5080
0.4100
0.3120
0.5540
1.060
1.803%
10
PATIKARI SHP (2x8 MW) SALAG SHP (1x150 kW) SARBARI SHP (2x2.25 MW)
2.7480
2.1970
1.6500
3.0370
5.830
2.236%
11 12
0.3111 1.3460
0.2490 1.0890 0.8240 1.6600
1 2
2.700 3.600
2.266 % 2.236%
13 14
TARAILA SHP (2x2.5 MW) UPPER AWA SHP (2x2.5 MW)
1.6580 0.5800
1.3740 0.5030
1.0880 0.4100
1.8120 0.6680
2 2
3.200 1.500
2.236% 2.693%
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5.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the discharge measurement in 14 SHP stations using clamp-on type UTTF, the following conclusions can be drawn: The clamp-on type UTTF can be conveniently installed on closed conduit and to determine the average flow velocities and thereby obtained the discharge in the section. Further, it can be installed anywhere on the penstock depending on the conditions of the penstock and flowrate. Discharge in the steel penstocks at actual power plants was obtained with a clamp-on type UTTF at different flow rates. Ultrasonic couplant and the binding of the transducers are also important factors in obtaining good ultrasonic transmission through Plexiglass to the pipe wall. Moreover, two line measurements were conducted simultaneously and satisfactory results were obtained. The application of this method to flow rate measurement at power stations is expected to provide uncertainty range. In order to enhance the applicability of this method, further investigation is necessary with respect to ultrasonic parameters. REFERENCES M.L. Sanderson and H. Yeung. Guidelines for the use of ultrasonic non-invasive metering techniques. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation. July 2002. [2]. R.F. Brummer. Theoretical and experimental assessment of uncertainties in non-intrusive flow measurement. NBS SPECIAL Publication 84, Proc. Symp. On flow in open channels and closed conduits.1977, pp 277291. [3]. Cairney WD. Typical flow measurement problems and their solution in the electricity supply industry. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation. October 1991. [4]. Sanderson ML, Torley B. Error assessment for an intelligent clamp-on transit time ultrasonic flowmeter. International Conference Flow Measurement. Glasgow. UK. Paper11.1. 1986. [5]. A. Voser et al., Improving acoustic flow measurement. Water Power & Dam Construction. April 1996. [6]. Kenichi Tezuka et al,. Ultrasonic pulse-Doppler flow meter application for hydraulic power plants. Thermal-Hydraulics and Fluid-Structure Dynamics Research Group, R&D Center, Tokyo Electric Power Company, 4-1, Egasaki-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, 230-8510, Japan. [7]. J.E. Heritage. The performance of transit time ultrasonic flowmeters under good and disturbed flow conditions. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation (1989) 2430. [8]. K. Zanker. Installation effects on single and multi-path ultrasonic meters. Proc.FLOMEKO2000, Salvador, Brazil, 2000. [9]. S.R. Smith, Z.F. Cui. Analysis of developing laminar pipe flowan application to gas slug enhanced hollowfibre ultrafiltration. University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK.2004. [10]. Bernt Svensson , Jerker Delsing. Application of ultrasonic clamp-on flow meters for in situ tests of billing meters in district heating systems. Lule University of Technology, Industrial Electronics, S-971 87 Lule, Sweden.1998. [1].
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Cryogenic Application of Composites Materials

Rajiv Sharma1*, V. L. Tanna1 and B.V. Dave2 Institute for Plasma Research, Bhat, Gandhinagar 382 428 India L.D. Engineering College, Navarangpura, Ahmedabad -380009 India * Corresponding author (e-mail: rajivs@ipr.res.in) The effective use of composites materials in cryogenic application requires familiarity with the advantages and disadvantages of available composites systems. These specific composites materials demand higher reliability at cryogenic temperatures. The reasons of increased reliability, higher specific strength, low thermal conductivity, reduced weight, and increased efficiency. For cryogenic applications of composites materials below 100 K temperature, the mechanical and electrical behavior stronger than room temperature as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength etc. [1] A steady state superconducting tokamak (SST-1) fusion machine comprises of superconducting coils as toroidal field and poloidal field in process for achieving fusion energy at Institute for Plasma Research, Ahmedabad. GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforcement Plastics) of NEMA cryogenic grade G-10/G-11 CR, insulation materials is used for fabrication of cryo- compatible components as Helium Breaks to feed the liquid helium/supercritical helium to the magnet system at 4.5 K and 4 bar and electrical isolation of 2 kV. The helium breaks fabricated from GFRP, stainless steel and low temperature epoxy system to make helium leak tightness up to -8 1x10 mbar l/s at 4.2 K. The mechanical and electrical performance of the GFRP composites has been tested at 300 K, 77 K and at 4.2 K, the tests results compatible to cryogenic application. In this paper, we summarize composites materials details, the mechanical and electrical performance tests at room temperature and cryogenic temperature (77 K & and 4.2 K). 1. Introduction The steady state superconducting Tokamak (SST-1) is being designed and developed at Institute for Plasma Research. The superconducting magnets system (SCMS) of SST-1 consists of toroidal (TF) and poloidal (PF) SC Coils. The electrical isolators are required to isolate electrically the current leads and superconducting magnets from liquid helium and supercritical helium feeders and LHe plant from the SCMS and current feeder system. The composite material of cryogenic grade G-10 CR has been used for fabrication of isolators with stainless steel tube and low temperature epoxy. In the magnet system NEMA grade G-11 CR sheet form have used for separate the hydraulics path. The different insulation materials as Nylon, Teflon, Ceramic, Polystyrene etc have considered, compared and analyzed for insulators and properties at room and cryogenic temperature. This study has demonstrated that G-10 (CR) / G-11 (CR) is the potential candidate materials for design of Electrical breaks. We have used G-10 CR material in tube form for fabricating of electrical breaks, it is a heatactivated amine catalyzed, bis-phenol solid type epoxy resin reinforced with continue filament E-glass having a silane finish. 2. Materials selection and details
1
The Glass fiber Reinforcement Plastics (GFRP) material have been selected after analyzing and comparing the properties of different insulators materials properties at room temp and at cryogenic (77K, 4.2K) temperature considering the strength to weight ratio high, thermal contraction near about stainless steel and low temperature epoxy, low thermal and electrical conductivity, ease of processing, high Tensile, compressive and shear strength, corrosion resistance, directional strength, dimensional accuracy, stability, high impact strength etc.
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The details of the GFRP material for we have used of cryogenic components for electrical breaks as shown in table1. Table 1. Detail of GFRP material Material GFRP G-10 CR grade composite material Form of material Tube Manufacturing process The laminated tube form is manufactured by rolling CR prepeg [3] around hot mandrels held between heated pressure rolls. After rolling, the wrapped tubing is placed in oven for curing. The mandrels are then pulled and the outside diameter ground to size. Type of glass E glass (64% to 68% by weight), a low alkali borosilicate glass with good electrical and mechanical properties and good chemical resistance. Thread details Glass fiber woven from continuous filament yarn according to EN 10 204 from Interglas Company Weave pattern: Plain Nominal value thickness 0.185 mm 97 mil thick Tensile strength of Warp: 210 N/cm (Minimum) thread used Weft: 140 N/cm (Minimum) Resin Bisphenol A based medium viscosity liquid epoxy resin Hardener Diamino Disphenyl Sulphone (fine white powder) Accelerator Diamino diphenyl methane white colored flakes 3. Technical Requirement of Composites Materials
A bird view of Electrical Breaks is shown in fig 1 and Breaks along with superconducting magnet manifolds in fig 2, the GFRP composite material used for fabrication has the following technical compatibility as mentioned in table 2.
Figure 1. GFRP composite Breaks
Figure 2. Electrical breaks at magnet location
Table 2. Technical requirement of GFRP composite Operating conditions Compatibility with temperature at 4 bar pressure (inside) SHe flow at 4.5 K Helium leak rate Better Less than 10-8 mbar l/s @ 4.5 K with Super-critical helium flow to vacuum (Outside): 10-5 mbar Design pressure 40 Bar (a) Electrical Isolation required during operation ~ 2 kV (DC) Electrical Isolation required during test for ~ 5 kV (DC) 10 15 min. 4. Qualification Tests and Examination on Composite Material
Followings tests have been conducted on the composite material at different stages at raw material inspection, at fabrication stage and during testing on composites material to check the compatibility with the operating conditions of SST-1 superconducting machine.
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4.1
Helium leak rate test at room temperature by vacuum method using helium leak detector Hydraulic test at 40 bar holding for 10 minutes for each isolator, water used as fluid Pneumatic test at 40 bar helium pressure with ferrule arrangement by sniffer probe method Thermal shock test at 77 K, 5 times dipped in LN2 bath and warm up to 300 K Helium leak test at LN2 and LHe flow condition Repeated helium leak rate test in LHe flow condition of cryogenic component to check the aging/thermal cycling problems. Voltage Breakdown test at 5kV isolation voltage at room temp in vacuum condition from atmospheric pressure to 10-6 mbar vacuum. Outgassing rate of GFRP sample at 300 K and 77 K. Experimental Set-up for Helium Leak Rate Measurement at 300 K, 80 K & 4.2 K
In figure 3 the experimental set up for helium leak rate at 300 K, 77 K and 4.2 K for GFRP samples; we have observed the helium leak rate better than 1.0x10-8 mbar l/s in all GFRP samples for repeated thermal cycle in flow condition.
Figure 3. Experimental set up for Helium leak rate check at 300 K, 77 K & 4.5 K 4.2 Out gassing rate measurement:
The GFRP material has been used in cryogenic components and for insulation system of SST-1, the outgassing rate influence the gas load and pump down time of the system. We have measured the outgassing rate of GFRP G-10 tube samples at 77 K. The out-gassing rate of sample material 5.80E-08 mbar l/s cm2 observed experimentally, the schematic diagram is shown in figure 4.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the system 4.3 Breakdown Strength Measurement Experiment:
To measure the helium breakdown strength, the insulation material GFRP G-10 CR composite has meggared to check the insulation resistance of G-10 material (~50 G) in
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varying pressure from 1000 mbar to 5.5x10-5 mbar conditions, the insulation resistance was observed infinity level in GFRP samples, voltage performance graph the and experimental set-up is shown in figure 5a and 5b.
Figure 5a. Voltage breakdown strength performance graph Fig 5b. Experimental Set-up 4.4 Analysis of GFRP Composite MaterialIn order to meet the design requirement and simulate the actual operating condition, analysis have been carried out by Ansys 10 software to check the maximum stress and deflection level as shown in fig 6a and 6b in the helium breaks components as SS tube, GFRP materials and low temperature epoxy using Solid 98 element, here we summarize the analysis result on GFRP composite material interface.
Fig 6. Stress in GFRP G-10 Tube

Figure 6a. Stress in GFRP G-10 Tube
Fig 7. Deflection in GFRP G-10 portion

Figure 6b. Deflection in GFRP G-10 portion
4.5 Effect of Irradiation On Insulation Materials and Experimental Test Plan The effect of irradiation at the room temperature and cryogenic temperature range degrade the mechanical, electrical, thermal properties of nonmetallic insulators and effect the more load on the refrigeration system, as the residual flexural and compressive strength of G10 and G-11 (CR grade) laminates reduced to 10 to 15% of original volume after exposure to 9 22 2 2.4 x10 radiation by the fast neutron flux of 2.2 x 10 n/m . We are in process to irradiate and check the insulation materials mechanical and electrical performance after irradiation at 300 K and 77 K temperature using Neutron flux 1.0 x1010 n /s at 10 cm in operating mode: 12 Sv/h and energy level of 14 MeV (DT). From the test result of ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) the mechanical performance of the materials stated degrades 10 to 40% after neutron dose of irradiation. 5. Test Result of GFRP (G-10) Composite Material
The different performance, mechanical, electrical and thermal tests [2] have been carried out on GFRP tube/samples (at 300 K, 77 K and 4.5 K) at our Cryogenic laboratory and different government approved laboratory, the results are summarized in table 3.
325
Sl No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Properties/ Performance tests Tensile strength (MPa)
Table 3. Results of GFRP composites materials Test Temperature K Test parameter/standard 300 254 198 ~35 kV 2.54x10 2.66x10
14
77 459 450
4.5 As per standard ASTM D 638-91 As per standard ASTM D 695-91 Test at room temp. Measured thickness 3.22 mm, ASTM D 149-92 Applied voltage: 500 V DC, ASTM 2571992 Applied voltage: 500 V DC ASTM 2571992 Time of electrification: 60 sec -8 Acceptable helium leak rate: 1x10 mbar l/s, Test in vacuum mode
Compressive strength (MPa) Dielectric strength kV/mm Surface resistivity Ohm Volume resistivity, Ohm-cm Average Helium leak rate mbar l/s (LN2/LHe inflow condition) Thermal shock test Hydraulic test at 40 bar Pneumatic test at 40 bar Outgassing rate test (mbar l/s cm2) Breakdown strength (Ohm) Analysis of G-10 tube with Ansys
13
6.
1x10-8 mbar l/s

-8
1x10-8 mbar l/s
1x10-8 mbar l/s
7. 8. 9. 11. 12.
1x10 mbar l/s -8 1x10 mbar l/s -6 1x10 mbar l/s
1x10
-6
Max temp gradient of 30 K/hr, 5 no. of thermal cycle from 300 K to 77 K Water as a fluid used, no leak was -8 observed, 1x10 mbar l/s He leak rate Sniffer probe method used Sample GFRP tube, test temperature 77 K, Fixed conductance: 2.20 l/s used Voltage range 0-5 kV in 1000 mbar to -5 5.5x10 pressure range, resistance observed infinity level of GFRP sample Max stress level range: 31 - 51 MPa Max deflection range: 0.677 - 0.763 mm (On G-10 tube interface)
~5x10 Samples size 8 mm OD Sample 8 mm OD tube
-8
13.
6. Conclusion The glass fiber reinforcement plastic of G-10 and G-11 CR grade composite materials have been tested and compared with the other insulation materials, the test results and materials properties are compatible for our cryogenic components and insulation system application for superconductiing magnet tokamak. References [1] Reed,R.P. Material at low temperature, Composites, 415-441. [2] Kesan, M.B. Mechanical, electrical and thermal characterization of G-10 CR and G-11 CR glass cloth/epoxy laminates and between 300 K and 4 K, National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Collorado, D-1 235-244. [3] Benzinger, J.R. Manufacturing capabilities of CR- grade laminates, D-3, 252-258
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Reliabilty Engineering in Distribution Wing of Power Sector - A Global Scenario

Er. Rakesh Kr.Sinha PMREP,WBSEDCL, india Reliability engineering consists of the systematic application of time-honored engineering principles and techniques throughout a product/service lifecycle and is thus an essential component of a good Product/Service Lifecycle Management (PLM/SLM) program. The goal of reliability engineering is to evaluate the inherent reliability of a product/Service or process and pinpoint potential areas for reliability improvement. Realistically, all failures cannot be eliminated from a design, so another goal of reliability engineering is to identify the most likely failures and then identify appropriate actions to mitigate the effects of those failures. The reliability evaluation of a product/service or process can include a number of different reliability analyses. Depending on the phase of the product/service lifecycle, certain types of analysis are appropriate. As the reliability analysis are being performed, it is possible to anticipate the reliability effects of design changes and corrections. The different reliability analyses are all related, and examine the reliability of the product/service or system from different perspectives, in order to determine possible problems and assist in analyzing corrections and improvements. Reliability engineering can be done by a variety of engineers, including reliability engineers, quality engineers, test engineers, systems engineers or design engineers. In highly evolved teams, all key engineers are aware of their responsibilities in regards to reliability and work together to help improve the product/services. The reliability engineering activity should be an ongoing process starting at the conceptual phase of a product/service design and continuing throughout all phases of a product/service lifecycle. The goal always needs to be to identify potential reliability problems as early as possible in the product/service lifecycle. While it may never be too late to improve the reliability of a product/service, changes to a design are orders of magnitude less expensive in the early part of a design phase rather than once the product/service is manufactured/delivered in service. 1. Introduction
Reliability of Service needs to be always given primary importance by electric utility system.Consumer is least interested about the availability of power sources, grid conditions but he must be ensured a power supply, which is most reliable and qualitative. Reliability to a consumer means that power made available to him is fault free and the outage or interruptions are tolerable and do not disturb his normal life. Reliability and quality of supply were rarely an issue till recent past and little or no attention was paid to the reliability and quality of power supply. But a change in attitude has been observed in the supplier as well as takers of energy and a customer friendly definition of reliability and benchmarking of performance has been laid down. A reporting system for the reliability analysis to log type of consumers interruption duration, number of consumer affected and reason for interruption with an aim to improve the reliability through adequate measures has become essential. Reliability analysis requires large amount of data regarding consumer interruption such as number of consumer affected, duration of interruption and the type of power cut viz. scheduled or unscheduled. The analysis can be made through a computer based software tool by measuring past performance, comparing with that of envisaged new system and predicting future performances. Creation of comprehensive up
327
to date consumer index and system data basis on computerized environment are essential for efficient commercial and technical operation and management of any distribution system. The APDRP programme has focused on this basic need and creation of such data base which is a prerequisite to reliability monitoring so as to identify the trouble some consumer and system element. Time is not far when customer will be given incentive for poor performance of the utility and utility will be awarded for their better performance through performance based tariff. Thus utility has to be more vigilant to improve their performance. The objective of reliability monitoring is manifold and is as follows: i) Furnish management with performance data regarding the quality of customer service on the electrical system as a whole and for each voltage level and operating area. 1.1 SAIDI (System Average Interruption Duration Index)
SAIDI is more commonly known as average customer minutes off supply and is generally reported over a one-year period. It is the total of interruption duration in minutes per year per customer experienced by customers for both planned and unplanned interruptions. A SAIDI of 200 minutes means that customers connected to the feeder or supply area being measured experience in average 200 minutes off supply in 12 months. 1.2 SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index)
SAIFI is a measure of how often an average customer loses supply during one year. A SAIFI of 3 means that the average customers connected to the feeder or supply area being measured on average lost supply thrice during the past 12 months. For example Tasmanian Electricity Code is using SAIDI and SAIFI and have set average and lower bound requirement of reliability for these indices. Their endeavor is to ensure that total duration of planned and unplanned interruption to supply of electricity to a customer does not exceed on average the average reliability value set and that no more than 5% of all feeders in a supply area category exceed the lower bound of reliability. Their average reliability (SAIDI) for different category of feeders vary from 30 minutes to 480 minutes and lower bound of reliability is set to 60 minutes to 720 minutes. Their average reliability(SAIFI) for different category of feeders vary from 1 to 6 and lower bound of reliability is set to 2 to 9. There is no internationally accepted figure for this indices and utility have to set their own targets in consultation with regulators depending upon the past performance and allowed violations. In most of the developed countries, the average SAIFI ranges from 0.5 to 5.0 interruption per year. The average SAIFI in USA is 1.3. The data of various countries is indicated . Further in order to demonstrate the improvement in reliability of supply with the implementation of project, following other reliability indices are available for assessing performance. i) Provide data for an engineering comparison of electrical system performance among consenting companies. ii) Provide a basis for individual companies to establish service continuity criteria. Such criteria could then be used to monitor system performance and to evaluate general policies, practices, standards and design. iii) Provide data for analysis to determine reliability of service in a given area (geographical, political, operating, etc) to determine how factors such as design differences, environment or maintenance methods, and operating practices affect performance. iv) Provide reliability history of individual circuits for discussion with customers or prospective customers v) To identify substations and circuits with substandard performance and to ascertain the causes. vi) Obtain the optimum improvement in reliability per rupee spent for design, maintenance and operating programs.
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vii) Provide performance data necessary for a probabilistic approach to reliability studies. This can be done by comparing and consistently evaluating the effects on a systems performance of varying the configuration, protective methods, equipment, structural design and/or operating and maintenance practices. The purpose is to determine the design, operating and maintenance practices that prove optimum reliability per rupee spent and, in addition, to use this information to predict the performance of future transmission and distribution system arrangements. 2. Reliability evaluation criteria
Every customer is connected to a feeder. A feeder is the connection from a sub-station through wires, transformers etc. to a customer. It is fairly common practice in the electric utility industry to use the SARFI (x) Total No of Voltage Sags(below x%) per year 2.1 Present status of reliabilty monitoring in india
In the absence of data base for consumers and systems and also computerization of logging complaints ,following information in respect of 11 kV feeders of towns having population of more than 8 lakhs is initially being collected by CEA and soon will be published.. * Total No. of 11 kV Feeders * Total Outage Duration (Hrs) both Tripping &Scheduled in the month * No of Scheduled Outage in the Year * No. of Trippings Per Feeder * Reliability Index 2.2 Limitations in assesment of consumer supply reliability
* No Consumer Indexing * No Computerised Based Trouble Call Management System * No Data Base Of Consumers and System * Lack of Awareness Of Utility Staff 2.3 Road map for reliability evaluation
Sl No Particulars Commenced/to be commenced from 1. R.I(11 kV feeders) for towns having population of more than 8 lakhs 2. R.I (11 kV feeders) for State Capitals 3 R.I (11 kv feeders) for Distt HQ 4. R.I for Consumers based on CAIDI,SAIDI etc 2.4 Measures to improve reliabilty
* Adequate maintenance * Adoption of preventive maintenance rather than break down maintenance * Better control of system operation * Avoid over loading of lines & transformers * Employ better quality equipments * Minimisation voltage transformations * Ensure coordinated protection settings * Use of HVDS * Improve power quality * Human Resource Development
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Standard IEEE reliability indices like CAIDI, SAIFI, SAIDI to track and benchmark reliability performance. 2.5 Monitoring of distribution transformers faliure
Nearly 20 Lakh distribution transformers are in place in the country and every year 10 % transformers are being added to the system. The failure rate in India is around 20 %. This is considered to be very high and the monitoring of transformers failure is also very essential to improve reliability of power supply to consumers. The transformer failure rate of the order of 6-8 % is generally acceptable. 2.6 Factores reckoned for reliability analysis:
The reliability indices can be evaluated considering the following factors: * 33 kV breakdowns * 11 kV breakdowns * Incoming supply failure at 132 kV substations. * Daily rostering of 11 kV rural feeders. * Failure of distribution transformers. The following factors, which affect reliability indices, shall also be considered subject to availability of data * Momentary interruptions on 33kV and 11kV feeders. * Momentary incoming supply failures * Pre-arranged shutdowns on lines and feeders * Breakdown on LT feeders * Blowing of transformer fuses both HV and LV individual fuse off calls 3. Global Scenario (scenario in USA)
In its 1998 Reliability Assessment 1998-2007,the North American lectric Reliability Council(NERC) projected that the total net internal demand for summer 2001 of the three continental U.S Interconnections(Eastern,Western and ERCOT) would equal 700,283 MW. NERC also projected total capacity additions of 27,770 MW by 2001.In 1997 U.S Electric utilities in their reports to the Energy Information Administration on DSM program had projected actual peak demand reduction from the energy efficiency component of their programs totaling 17,771 MW.If all three projections hold true,energy efficiency in 2001 could contribute load reductions amounting to over 2.5 percent of total net internal demand,account for over 15 percent of interconnections,total projected capacity margin and supply64% of projected capacity additions.Unfortunately,the projection was wishful thinking. The U.S Department of Energys(DOE)Power Outage Study Team composed of DOE professionals,scientists from many of DOEs National laboratories and professions from several of the Nations leading University Industrial Engineering programs,examined the causes of eight major outages and power disturbances across the country during the summer of 1999 and made recommendation for improving Reliability. In its report,the POST team recognized the connection between energy efficiency and Reliability and included among its twelve recommendations,yhe explicit call toencourage energy efficiency as a means for enhancing reliability.In particular the POST study recommended that the Federal Governmentwork with the State Governmentto support development and implementation of cost effective energy efficiency programs and expand existing federal programs to promote Reliability Engineering in maintaining energy efficiency.
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4.
Conclusions
This paper argues that policymakers should appreciate and provide a means to fund Energy Efficiency programs as least cost Reliability Insurancein legislation to restructure the Electric Utility Industry.Distribution system Reliability Monitoring which was rarely an issue some time back is now generating waves in the minds of management of the distribution utilities. The consumer who was tolerant earlier ha become demanding. He is becoming conscious about the interruption free service. He has started realizing that he should get electricity for which he is a stakeholder in the entire game.Reliable service is directly associated with the proper asset utilization, adequate and timely maintenance, power availability, redundancy in the system and fixing of performance targets for improvement in years to come. In our country maintaining of power supply has gained momentum and some utilities have started monitoring through the above indices. In years to come a performance standard will be set by utility on their own depending upon the type of network, customer and load profile and the power requirement. Maintenance is one aspect, which should not be ignored at all. Strategic maintenance planning taking a higher view of how maintenance dovetails with other activities and events that impact reliability will enable optimum utilization of the assets which will go a long way in providing reliable supply to consumers. The reporting process of reliability indices must begin with monthly submission of these indices to CEA for publishing in the newspaper etc. These indices must be displayed in each work location. This process will reinforce the point that reliability issues at the work location do impact the overall utility programme and all efforts will be made to improve the same with a target bound programme. Statistical approach to reliability monitoring will also assist the regulators to set more optimum performance standards. Reliability is a random process. These standards will be undoubtedly violated. It is to be seen how often these standards are violated and what corrective actions are taken to bring them within limits. Average values of reliability indices are not enough to predict rate of violation of standards and utility need to know the probability distribution adopting statistical methods. References [1] Tom Key and Ick Langley;Short term Storage-The bridge between DG & Quality & Reliability,in Proceedings of Power Quality 2002 conference,Rosemont Illinois,2931,October 2002,pp 55-69. [2] M.Bollan;Understanding Power Quality Problems-Voltage sags and InterruptionsIEEE Press Series on Industrial Engineering-John Wiley and Sons,Piscataway,USA 2000,ISBN:0780347137. [3] M.Mc Granaghan;Costs of Interruptionsin proceedings of Power Quality 2002 Conference,Rosemont,Illinois,October 2002 pp 1-8 [4] B.Kennedy;Power Quality PrimerMCGraw-Hill,USA 2000,ISBN:0071344160 [5] D.Chapman;Cost of Poor Power Qualityguide,Power Quality Application-Copper Development Association .March-2001. [6] Energy Information Administration,1998,Volume 2.Washington ,DC:US Department of Energy,Energy Information Administration,1997,US Electric Utility Demand side Management,1996,Washington DC:US Department OF Energy.
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Analysis of Performance, Combustion and Emissions on a Variable Compression Ratio Diesel Engine Fueled With Cotton Seed Methyl Ester
V.Rambabu1*, V.J.J Prasad1, Dr.T.Subramanyam2, Dr.B.Satyanarayana2
1
GMR Institute of Technology, Rajam-532121, Andhrapradesh. 2 Andhra University,Visakhapatnam, Andhrapradesh. Corresponding Author* (e-mail: vrb_gmr@yahoo.co.in)
In this work the single cylinder diesel engine operated at different compression ratios i.e. 15.5:1, 16.5:1, 17.5:1, 18.5:1, 19:1 with cotton seed methyl Ester. Delay period reduced on increasing of compression ratio. On the other hand when the compression ratio increases the back flow of the air in the suction stroke will causes for reduction of oxygen. It leads to increase of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide in the exhaust gas. But methyl or Ethyl esters of vegetable oils are having inbuilt oxygen and this oxygen influencing the combustion. At the same time the thermal efficiency should be high. By considering these factors the best compression ratio for cotton seed methyl Ester is found to be 18.5:1
1.
Introduction
The adoptability of alternative fuels to the conventional diesel engines without rigorous modifications needs the primary analysis towards performance, combustion and emissions. In performance aspect thermal efficiency should be maximum and in the emissions aspect pollution should be minimum. Methyl or ethyl esters of vegetable oils are having nearly equal characteristics with the petroleum diesel and they can use directly on the diesel engines [1, 4]. But utilization of best compression ratio, injection pressures and with some external modifications likes increasing the inlet temperature of the esters [5] and by using retro fittings efficiency can improve. In this work with out changing valve timing or valve clearance adjustments, compression ratio is changed. We know that the full cylinder volume of an IC engine is divided into two parts that is clearance volume and swept volume. When the compression ratio is increased, clearance volume gets reduced and vice-versa. There is no effect on swept volume. So when the compression ratio increased, molecules of air get more closer and pressure as well as temperature increases in the compression stroke. Into that hot compressed air, the fuel is injected. Due to this, its delay period will decrease [7]. As per the chemical structure of biodiesel, it can be seen from Table.1, their flash point and fire point temperatures are higher when compared to diesel [2, 3]. These conditions will lead to increasing of delay period, which causes steep rise of pressure during combustion. High pressure and high temperature inside the cylinder will lead to formation of NOx [6]. On the other hand, due to the reduction of full cylinder volume, the amount of air intake, in the suction stroke will decrease and lead to incomplete combustion of fuel and as a result CO, HC emission will increase. But methyl or Ethyl esters of vegetable oils are having inbuilt oxygen and this oxygen influencing the combustion and caused for reduction of HC and CO [6,8]. Due to reduction of full cylinder volume the retention of exhaust gases in the cylinder in the exhaust stroke will decrease. So, the dilution of inlet air will decrease. With these predictions from the literature we analyze performance, combustion and exhaust gas. 1.2. Effect of compression ratio on performance and emissions:
Compression ratio is defined as the ratio of total cylinder volume to the clearance volume. Higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the intake air in the compression stroke which reduce the initial preparatory phase of combustion and hence it leads to reduction in the delay period and the operation of the engine becomes smoother. High pressure and temperatures of the compression mixture also speed up the second phase
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of combustion. Increased compression ratio reduces the clearance volume and therefore increases the density of the intake air in side the cylinder and the total combustion duration is reduced. This results in a closer contact between the molecules of fuel and oxygen reducing the time of reaction [5]. The maximum peak pressure during the combustion process is marginally affected by the compression ratio. 2. Experimentation:
To conduct the experiment, cotton seed methyl ester was prepared from the raw cotton seed oil using trans-esterification method, in our laboratory. In the trans-esterification glycerin content from the raw oil is removed and the raw oils transformed into Cotton seed methyl ester (CSME). Then it is characterized and the properties are compared with petroleum diesel as shown in the Table1.
Table.1 Properties of Diesel & CSME

S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6. Name Of The Oil Sample/ Characteristics. Density (Kg/m ) Calorific value (KJ/Kg) Viscosity (cst) at 33 C Cetane number Flash point ( C) Fire Point ( C)
0 o 0 3
Diesel 0.833 43000 3.30 45-55 50 53
Cotton seed Methyl Ester. 0.866 38100 4.33 55 160 164
For the testing of the CSME on the engine the experimental setup was made, which consists of Variable Compression Ratio diesel engine, Exhaust gas analyzer, Smoke meter, data acquisition system to generate P-. A brief description of each component is presented in the next subsections. After the setup was prepared the experimentation was carried at different compression ratios such as 15.5:1, 16.5:1, 17.5:1, 18.5:1, 19:1 and varying the loads from no load to full load at each compression ratio. Lastly the observed data is evaluated and necessary calculations are performed to evaluate the performance and combustion parameters of the engine.
2.1.
Experimental Setup:-
The VCR Engine is a vertical single cylinder, water-cooled engine; the compression ratio is varied by raising the bore and the head of the engine. This adjustment is done by using screw and nut mechanism. As the bore and the head of the engine is raised and lowered, the clearance volume is changed resulting in the change of the compression ratio. The engine was coupled to an air cooled eddy current dynamometer using a tyre coupling; the output shaft of the eddy current dynamometer is fixed to a strain gauge type load cell for measuring applied load on the engine. Details of the engine shown in Table2. The Crypton 290 series 5gas analyzer is used for analyze the exhaust gas of the engine. This is a fully microprocessor controlled exhaust gas analyzer employing Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR) techniques. The unit measures carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydro carbons. A further channel is provided employing Electro chemical measurement of Oxygen and nitric oxides. Hetridge smoke analyzer is used to find the particulate matter in smoke in Hetridge units. Computer based data acquisition system connected to the engine to get the values and graphs of pressure versus crank angle and heat release rates.
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Fig. 1 Variable Compression Ratio, Direct Injection, Diesel Engine
Table .2 VCR Engine Specifications Engine Kirloskar Bhp 5 HP Speed 1500 RPM Number Of Cylinders 1 Compression Ratio 15:1 TO 20:1 Bore 80 mm Stroke 110 mm Type Of Ignition CI Method Of Loading Eddy Current Dynamometer
3.
Results and Discussions
Compression ratio is one of the parameter which influences the performance of an engine. On increasing of compression ratio delay period decreases and due to the back flow of compressed air the oxygen availability to participate in the combustion will decrease. From the mass of fuel flow per hour Vs compression ratio (Graph.1) we can observe on increasing of compression ratio F.C.H decreases upto 18.5:1 Compression ratio, again it is increasing. The same trend is followed at part loads and full load operations. Due to increasing of C.R the distance between the molecules of air decreases and they are very close to each other, into that fuel is injected. So the fuel will evaporates very quickly and each particle of fuel is surrounded with air, as result fuel consumption per hour will decreases. The brake thermal efficiency is maximum and specific fuel consumption is minimum at 18.5:1 CR. In the Volumetric efficiency Vs C.R graph (Graph.3), we can observe a continuous decrement in the volumetric efficiency. At higher compression ratios a rapid oscillation of fluid in the mono-metric column is observed which indicates back flow of the air, and at 19.5:1compression ratio the engine running is instable. Due to increasing of compression ratio the swept volume will not change, but the clearance volume decreases. The designed inlet valve opening and closing times are not changed. We know inlet valve closes after BDC where in side cylinder pressure is equal to ambient pressure. Hence some portion of the air flow in reverse direction due to increasing in compression ratio, and it will causes for reduction in the air which is participating in the combustion. It leads to incomplete combustion of the fuel and causes for increasing of pollutants. There is a trade-off between complete combustion due to increase of CR and increase of pollutants due insufficient air available to participate in combustion From the H.C Vs CR and CO Vs CR graphs, we can observe a continues decrement upto 18.5:1 CR, CO2 increases upto 18.5 :1 compression ratio after that it decreases. The presence of oxygen in exhaust gas is nearly equal, at all compression ratios. The entering of air in the suction stroke gradually decreases with increase in compression ratio. CSME is the oxygenated fuel. The inbuilt oxygen assist the combustion upto some extent. At 18.5:1 CR the inbuilt oxygen and the available oxygen in the air just sufficient and further increase in the compression ratio caused for incompleteness in the combustion. It is indicated by the increase of HC and CO at 19:1 CR. The entering of air in the suction stroke gradually decreases with increase in compression ratio. CSME is the oxygenated fuel. The inbuilt oxygen assist the combustion upto some extent. At 18.5:1 CR the inbuilt oxygen and the available oxygen in the air just sufficient and further increase in the compression ratio caused for incompleteness in the combustion. It is indicated by the increase of HC and CO at 19:1 CR. The flash point and auto ignition temperature of the CSME is higher than the Diesel and it causes for more delay period. If it is more it will leads to a sudden increment in the pressure and temperature. Compression ratio is one of the factors which govern the delay period. When compression ratio increases delay period decreases i.e. from 15.5:1 to 19:1 compression ratio increment delay period decreases around 50. From the P- graph we can observe the decrease in the delay period on increasing of compression ratio.
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Due to decrease in delay period the rate of increment of pressure gradually decreases. But the NOx is more at 18.5:1 CR. This is due to increase of peak pressure and temperature as compression ratio increases. The rate of increment of NOx is not so high. Particulate matter is also minimum at 18.5:1 CR due to fine cracking of fuel drop lets
4.
Conclusions
1. Due to increase of CR fuel droplet evaporates very quickly and causes for proper combustion. In the performance point of view18.5:1 is the best compression ratio for CSME. 2. CSME is oxygenated fuel. Hence due to increase of compression ratio, even though the amount of air available for combustion in the suction stroke decreases, the inbuilt oxygen caused for proper combustion and caused for reduction in pollutants. In the environmental aspect also 18.5:1 is the best compression ratio for CSME.
References
[1] Avinash Kumar Agarwal Bio fuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuel for internal combustion engines Science Direct (Elsevier) progress in energy and combustion science 33 (2007), pg.No. 233-271. [2] Sukumar Puhan, G.Nagarajan, B.V.Ramabramhmam, Mahua (Madhuca Indica Oil) Derivatives as a renewable fuel for Diesel Engine Systems in India A Performance and Emissions comparative study, International Journal of Green Energy, vol.4,issue-1,Jan2007. [3] G.Amba Prasad, P.Rama Mohan, Performance Evaluation of DI and IDI Engines with Jatropha oil based Biodiesel IE(I) Journal-MC, Vol.86,July-2005. [4] Y.C Batt, N.S murthy, R.K.Datt Use of Mahua oil (maduca indica) as a diesel fuel extender, IE(I) Journal-AG, Vol.85,June-2004, [5] A.K.Babu& G. Devaradjane Vegetable oils and their Derivatives as fuel for CI Engines SAE 2003-01-0767 [6] Avinash Kumar Agarwal Biofuels (alcohols and Bio Diesel) applications as Fuels for internal Combustion Engines, Elsevier,2006. [7] Mustafa Ertunc Tat, Investigation of oxides of Nitrogen Emissions from Biodiesel fueled Engines, Iowa state university, 2003. [8] Heywood, John B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, Text book published by McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988. [9] A.Senatore and M.Cardone A comparative Analysis of combustion process in D.I.Diesel Engine fueled with Biodiesel and Diesel FuelSAE 2000 world Congress,Detroit,Michigan march 6-9,2000
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, December 15-17, 2008 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
Influence of Injection Pressure on Performance and Emission of Neem Methyl Ester- Fuelled Diesel Engine
Ramesha D.K , Premakumara G , Gnanendra.P.M , Ravikumar. M Department of Mechanical Engineering, U.V.C.E Bangalore-01
1 2 3 3
This paper deals with the study of usage of methyl esters blend in C.I engines is discussed. The test runs reveals that the methyl ester blend (B-20) performs well in running a diesel engine at 200 bar injection pressure giving higher brake thermal efficiency and lower objectionable emissions. These fuels are good in fuel properties compared to conventional diesel fuel oil. 1. Introduction:
One hundred years ago Rudolf Diesel first tested vegetable oil as a fuel for his engine. With advent of refined petroleum products to serve as fuel, the diesel engine started running with diesel fuel. Because of the increase in crude oil prices limited resources of fossil fuels and environmental concern; there has been renewed focus on vegetable oils and animal fats for production of bio fuel. India imports about 70% of its petroleum consumption mainly from gulf countries which are under disturbed supply system. This has made the potential users including India to search for an alternate renewable fuel which make them not only self sufficient in the resources but also to think of an alternate fuel for petroleum based products. Present day Internal combustion (IC) engines are operating essentially on petroleum base fuels, which is non-renewable in nature and lead to depletion in short period due to its indiscriminate use in different sectors. There arises the necessity of alternative fuels. India has the high potential in the production of vegetable based oilseeds. Vegetable oils from crops such as soyabean, peanut, sunflower, rape, coconut karanja, neem, cotton, mustard, jatropha, linseed and caster have been evaluated in many part of the world. Compare to other non-edible oil seeds in India, potential production of neem oil seed availability is more. 2. Characteristics of neem tree: The neem tree is an evergreen tree of the mahogany family that is native to India and Burma. It is found in tropical and subtropical climates, withstanding extremely dry conditions, but also tolerating sub-humid conditions. Neem trees are fast-growing and can grow up to 35 m tall, and although evergreen, they will lose their leaves in times of severe drought. One tree can produce millions of flowers, and in one flowering cycle, a mature tree may produce many thousands of seeds. Seeds are small and round to oval in shape, with oil content ranging from 20-33%, depending on the variety. Neem tree needs little water and plenty of sunlight. The tree grows naturally in areas where the rainfall is in the range of 450 to 1200 mm. A Neem tree normally begins to bear fruit between 3 and 5 years and becomes fully productive in 10 years. A mature tree produces 30 50 kg, fruit every year. Neem tree has a productive life span of 150 200 years. Neem oil is a vegetable oil pressed from the fruits and seeds of Neem (Azadirachta indica), an evergreen tree which is endemic to the Indian sub-continent and has been introduced to many other areas in the tropics. Neem oil is generally light to dark brown, bitter and has a rather strong odour that is said to combine the odours of peanut and garlic. It comprises mainly triglycerides and large amounts of triterpenoid compounds, which are responsible for the bitter taste. It is hydrophobic in nature and in order to emulsify it in water for application purposes, it must be formulated with appropriate surfactants.
3.
Transesterification: The formation of methyl esters by transesterification of vegetable oil requires raw oil, 15% of methanol and 5% of sodium hydroxide on mass basis. However,
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transesterification is an equilibrium reaction in which excess alcohol is required to drive the reaction very close to completion. The vegetable oil was chemically reacted with an alcohol in presence of a catalyst to produce methyl esters. Glycerol was produced as a by-product of transesterification reaction. The mixture was stirred continuously and then allowed to settle under gravity in a separating funnel. Two distinct layers were of methyl ester and lower layer was of glycerol. The lower layer was separated out. The separated ester was mixed with some warm water (around 10% volume of ester) to remove the catalyst present in ester and allowed to settle under gravity for another 24 hour. The catalyst got dissolved in water, which was separated and removed the moisture. The methyl ester was then blended with mineral diesel in various concentrations for preparing biodiesel blends to be used in CI engine for conducting various engine tests [3, 4, and 5]. The chemical reaction involved in this process is shown in Figure1. A stoichiometric material balance yields the following simplified equation. Fat or oil + 3 Methanol 3 Methyl esters + Glycerol 1000 Kg + 107.5 Kg 1004.5 Kg + 103 Kg
Figure 1: Basic Scheme for Bio diesel production 4. Engine test The engine used for the study is Kirloskar make single cylinder four stroke constant speed, vertical, water cooled, direct injection , 5HP diesel engine. The computer assisted experimental set up of engine. The eddy current dynamometer was used for load measurement the engine speed was sensed and indicated by an inductive pick up sensor with digital meter output. AVL make smoke meter used for smoke measurement the carbondi-oxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), hydro carbons, nitrous oxide and oxygen content was measured by MRU air fair emission monitoring systems. The experiments were conducted at 2 three different injection pressures (180,200,220 N/m ) for studying effect of injection pressure on the performance and emission of diesel engine with conventional diesel and neem methyl ester diesel blends (B-20) as fuels. Tests were repeated for three times and average value has taken for analysis. The performed date was analyzed from graph regarding Brake thermal efficiency, Smoke density, UBHC and CO for all fuels. The results obtained with diesel fuel as baseline data for comparison. 5. Results and discussions: 5.1 Properties of fuel: The basic composition of vegetable oil is triglycerides which are the esters of three fatty acids and one glycerol. The properties of esterified oil compared with the diesel and 0 crude neem oil are presented in Table 2. The conventional diesel has the flash point 47 C 0 and methyl esters (80 C) has a considerable higher flash point than the diesel, thereby the
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fire hazard associated with transportation, storage utilization of methyl esters is much less. The specific gravity of crude neem oil is 0.968 and that of methyl ester is 0.934 which are higher than the diesel fuel. The kinematic viscosity of neem oil is 37.42 centistokes and transesterification oil 6.3 centi stokes. The calorific value is the total energy derived from the combustion of unit mass of the fuel. The calorific value of diesel crude neem oil and methyl esters is close to each other. From this the properties derived from transesterification are compatible and acceptable as a fuel oil when compared with conventional diesel oil [6, 7]. 6. Optimization of injection pressure 6.1 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE): Variation of BTE with load at three injection pressure for B-20 oil shown in Figure 1 and compared with diesel mode of operation. It is observed from figure that maximum efficiency (28.34%) for B-20 oil obtained at 200 bar. High injection pressure means that the injection always takes place at high pressure and hence atomization better and mixing with oil is good. 6.2 Engine emissions: Figure 2 shows the hydrocarbon emissions with load at three different injection pressure considered. From the figure it is clear that significant drop in hydro carbon emissions levels as injection pressure increases because of better combustion. Enhanced atomization also led to lower ignition delay which in turn enhances performance with vegetable oils, which have high ignition delay to account of their high viscosity. 6.3 NOX Emission: The variation of NOx emission with load shows in the figure 3. The NOx level increases with incoming injection opening pressure due to faster combustion and higher temperature reached in the cycle. [2, 3, 4, 7] 6.4 Smoke opacity: Figure 4 indicates the smoke level variation with load smoke levels decrease with increase in the Injection opening pressure due to improved mixture formation due to a well atomized spray.
Figure 1: Variation of BTE vs BMEP
Figure 2: Variation of UBHC vs BMEP
Figure 3: Variation of NOx vs BMEP
Figure4: Variation of smoke opacity vs BMEP
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7.
Conclusions:
1. Neem oil is a renewable source of energy; it can be used in conventional compression Ignition engine as a substitute fuel. 2. After transesterification of neem oil, Kinematic Viscosity, Specific gravity has reduced and calorific Value is increased. 3. The injection of 200 bar is formed to optimum injection pressure for better results. 4. The emission such as hydro Carbon, NOx and Smoke density are reduced and Comparable BTE with B 20 fuel when compared to diesel fuel Table 1: Chemical analysis of neem oil Parameter Iodine value Saponification value Palmatic acid Stearic acid Arachidic acid Oleic acid Linoleic acid Value 65-80 180-200 13-18% 12-15% 2-4% 55-62% 6-10%
Table 2: Comparison of properties of Neem oil Methyl ester with Diesel

Properties Cetane No Specific gravity Viscosity(cst) Calorific value(MJ/Kg) Flash point 0C Carbon residue % References [1] Pringin, V. Non Traditional oil seeds of India. Oxford and IBH publishing company Pvt Ltd, 1987. [2] Ramesha D.K, Premakumara G., P.M. Gnanendra, Ravi Kumar. M Performance and Exhaust Emission in a Diesel Engine Using Methyl Esters of Neem oil as Fuel. Proceedings International Conference on Advances in Mechanical EngineeringICAME-2008December 1517, 2008 [3] Ramesha D.K, Premakumara G, M Swamy Performance and Emission Characteristics of Four Stroke Diesel Engine Using Bio Oils-Diesel Blends as Fuel Proceedings International Conference on Advances in Mechanical EngineeringICAME-2008December 15-17, 2008. [4] Ramesha D.K, B.J. Ranganath, N.Rana Pratap Reddy.(2007) Effect of injector opening pressure on performance and evaluation of esterified Mahua and Honge oils for CI Engine applications Proceedings of National conference on Advances in materials and manufacturing processes, October 5-6,2007, UBDT, Kuvempu university, Karnataka, pp509 [5] R J Crooks, Comparative bio-fuel performance in internal combustion engines, Journal of Biomass and Bio energy vol 30, [2006], pp461468. Diesel 45-55 0.83 4.7 42 50 86 Neem oil 31 0.968 37.42 29.97 210 78.92 Methyl Ester 48 0.934 6.3 31.142 80 83
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[6] Ramesha D.K, Ramesha D.K Dr. B.J. Ranganath, Dr. N. Ranapratap Reddy,., Dec 2007, Performance and Evaluation of Ethanol Conditioned Mahua and Honge oils for IC Engine applications Intl CONICI-2007, JNT University, Andhra Pradesh, India, 57-62 [7] A.SRamdas, S.Jayaraj, C Muraleedharan Use of vegetables oils as IC engine Fuels-A review Renewable Energy29 (2004) 727-74211) [8] Gerhard Knothe, Monitoring a Progressing Transesterification Reaction by Fiber-Optic Near Infrared Spectroscopy with Correlation to 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, Paper no. J9483 in JAOCS 77, May 2000. [9] Ramesha D.K, B.J. Ranganath, N.Rana Pratap Reddy. Control of physical properties of Bio- oils for application in IC engines Proceedings of national conference on emerging trends in physics, electronics and engineering sciences Allied publishers Pvt ltd, New- Delhi .ISBN-81-8424-098-8 [10] Ramesha D.K, B.J. Ranganath, N.Rana Pratap Reddy. Effect of Injection Parameter on performance and emissions characteristics of ethanol esterified Mahua and Honge oils for CI Engine applications Proceedings of the National Conference on Recent Advances in Mechanical Engineering (RAIME 08) 20- 21 March 2008, National Engineering College, K.R. Nagar, Kovilpatti 628 503. Tamil Nadu, India 53-60
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Exploring regions of application of Single and Double axis Solar Tracking Systems
M. A. Kadam and S. B. L. Garg
B. V University College of Engineering Dhankawadi, Pune-411043 Corresponding authors (email: makpalus@gmail.com, sbl.garg@yahoo.com)
Fixed solar collector installations of all types, P V panels, Flat plates, parabolic and paraboloid, have poor collector efficiency. The collector efficiency can be increased by solar tracking. Because of bidirectional sun trajectory, bidirectional collector tracking is required. The studies have shown that both axes tracking does not give equal increase in the collector performance. Single axis tracking (East West) is generally quite effective and may increase the collector efficiency by 30 to 45%. The tracking in other direction (North South) may increase the performance further but by only 15 to 20%. Different types of solar collectors have different application range. One example is a solar water heater (which is essentially fixed in space). Many applications such as PV panels and parabolic collectors, used for generating electricity either by direct conversion or through hot water and steam, require high operational efficiency. For small power devices, the advantage gained by using a double axis tracking system may be considerably neutralized by extra expenditure on double axis tracking system and its maintenance. For many applications, an alternative is to provide a low cost single axis tracking system with some compromise on collector performance.
1. Introduction The developments of last two centuries in physical sciences and their applications have caused unprecedented growth in all directions and have changed the living conditions on planet earth giving its inhabitants a comfortable living. These developments could not have been possible without availability of abundant energy in useable forms. During last two centuries, nature helped mankind by providing abundance of exhaustible fossil fuels in the form of coal and oil which have been used by man at frighteningly high rates, causing their fast depletion. The fast depletion of energy resources has made man conscious for developing alternative energy resources. Of these alternative resources, nuclear form is high intensity energy but has problem of waste disposal. Solar energy is freely available inexhaustible and environmentally clean energy. It is low intensity energy and therefore poses the problem of high collection area. The concentrated energy in heat form is achieved by solar concentrators like parabolic or paraboloid collectors. Devices using heat or thermal energy can use the solar energy directly for low temperature applications (say about 1000 C) or by concentrating it to obtain medium and high temperatures (1000 to 6000) for power production. Vigorous efforts are under way for using solar energy for electric power production and it is estimated that by 2030, about 7% worlds energy will come from sun. For converting solar energy into electrical energy, photo voltaic cells are gaining popularity. A large number of solar cells connected in series and parallel are used as solar panels for generating electricity from sun energy directly. The panels directly convert the solar radiation falling on them into DC electricity. To get highest conversion efficiency, the sun rays must fall at right angles to the receiver surface. As the sun orientation is changing continuously, a sun tracking system must be used which should periodically modify the collector orientation for remaining normal to the sun rays. Development of an inexpensive and efficient solar tracking system is an important development problem for use with solar PV panels and concentrating collectors (parabolic and paraboloid).
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2. Solar Tracking Sun tracking systems ensure that the solar collector receives maximum solar irradiation all times by making the sun rays fall normal to the collecting surface. During the day, the suns movement is East - West and North-South. The collector surface can be kept normal to the sun rays (called sun tracking) by providing motions to the collector in both the directions. A good tracking mechanism must be reliable and should be able to track the sun at the right angles even in the periods of cloud cover. For making the tracker to orient the collecting surface for absorbing maximum insolation on its surface, the transducers for determining the intensity of insolation must be set for Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) [1]. This would enable the collector to collect maximum energy. For working at Maximum Power Point, photo voltaic cell operated solar panels are used. The effectiveness of a solar panel connected to a fixed constant load voltage using MPPT has been investigated in references [1, 2]. In 24 hours (one full day) the earth completes 0 one rotation; rotating by 15 in one hour in E-W direction. The polar axis of the earth is inclined and the angle of declination changes in a cyclic manner. The position of sun on its path provides input data for tracking. Because of periodic motion of earth in NS and EW directions, for ideal tracking, the collector orientation must be continuously adjusted in both directions (see Figure 1).
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Degress M isalignment
20 10 0 -10 0 -20 -30 Solistce 100 200 300 400
Figure 1 Sun movement in E-W and N-S directions source-[11]
Figure 2 Daily alignment of collector for Single axis tracking [4]
Solar tracking systems Solar tracking in two directions requires design and fabrication of two directional movements making tracking an expensive proposition. The preference of Fixed, Single axis or Bidirectional tracking depends upon the application and desired collection efficiency. Since, continuous tracking requires powerful tracking motors (depending up on the size of the collector); tracking at discrete intervals may be sufficient in large number of cases (particularly in cases not used for power generation). Reference [3] has examined the issue of continuous v/s discrete two positional tracking. Figure shows performance of a collector with tracking in E-W direction at two hour interval. It is seen that collector performance is not severely affected. Single axis tracking systems Single axis tracking system is cheaper and can be used for collectors with low to medium concentration ratios but misalignment should be taken care of at regular intervals. The axis of the collector should be regularly adjusted in N-S plane at the angle of the latitude of the concentrators site i.e. along the polar axis equal to suns declination for the day. The alignment of the collector in the N-S direction is needed to be adjusted [4] for the number of days from equinox. Figure 2 gives alignment angles to be adjusted for number of days after equinox The frequency of adjustment per week decides the efficiency of the collector. For E-W direction, the sun is tracked by the collector continuously by following it at the rate of earths rotation. For single axis tracking systems, continuous tracking is done only for E-W direction, for N-S direction, if the misalignment between the sun and the concentrator normal is within accepted angle limits, perfect tracking can be assumed.
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Two axis tracking systems Both the directional movements (E-W and N-S) are the most commonly used sun tracking method and have their own sun tracking formulae, which not inter-related. This makes it necessary to provide independent control for movement for both directions. Reference [5, 2] presents a general formula combining both movements. The movement of the two axes of the tracker is microprocessor controlled [6]. Following types of systems have been developed for solar tracking. (i) Microprocessor controlled (ii) Electro- optical type For finding the sun direction, the microprocessor controlled types are based on mathematical formulation for both movements and the tracking is carried out by utilizing the astronomical coordinates of the sun. The electro-optical types use sensors for finding solar intensities by two or more separate sensors mounted at two different positions such that the difference of intensities found by both is used to orient the collector such that this difference is reduced to a minimum. 3. Application of Sun Trackers to different Solar Collectors Five decades of intensive research for developing alternative resources of energy has resulted in use of following application dependent solar devices. (a) Fixed Flat plate type solar collectors These devices are fixed in space type and are generally bulky. They are not generally subjected to solar tracking as the gain in performance using tracking does not justify the investment in installing a tracking device. Flat Plate Collectors are used for water heating and solar cooking and are simple in design having no moving parts requiring little maintenance. As in any collection device, the principle followed is to expose a dark (blackened) surface to solar radiation. The surface absorbs radiation and the absorbed radiation is transferred to a fluid like air or water. Temperatures ranging from 40 C to about 100 C are achieved. Some common solar devices are solar drier, solar water heater and solar stills. The results of some studies made for solar driers, solar stills and solar water heater are given below. (i) Solar drier Mwithiga and Kigo [7] studied the performance of a solar drier with limited number of discrete sun tracking. The drier performance was measured by measuring the moisture ratio of coffee beans at two hour interval starting from 8 AM. The study was conducted for fixed drier, and for three, five and nine tracking positions.
Figure 3 Moisture content removed as a function of time source[7])
Figure 4 Condensate collected in ml in a Solar Still source[8]
Figure 3 gives a clear effect of the tracking condition. With more tracking, (9 positions), and after eight hours the moisture content is reduced from 100% to 25% whereas without tracking, it is reduced from 100% to 50% only showing that solar tracking drastically reduces the drying time and should be employed if possible. (ii) Solar still
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Condensate collected in ml
%Moisture
Abdallah and Badran [8] have studied the productivity enhancement of solar stills for producing clean water using sun tracking system. The sun rays fall on the inclined glass and enter the still for heating water in the basin. The heated water evaporates and condenses on the glass plate to flow along the glass plate and is collected as a condensate. Figure 4 shows the rate of water production in the form of collected condensate. For the case of tracking, it is considerably more and increases from 20 ml to 85 ml between 11 AM and 2 PM. It is important to consider this point before a decision for investment is made for employing tracking system as an increase in yield of about 20% is obtained by using two axis trackers. (iii) Solar water heater 60 Prakash, Garg and Harikishan [9] studied the effect of tracking on the performance of built in storage 50 type of solar water heaters for fixed surface, single axis tracking and double axis tracking. The results of 40 hourly variation of water temperature with respect to day time are given in Figure 5. It is seen that there is 30 hardly any difference in the performance of single Doubl e Ax i s and double axis tracking systems. However with Single ax is 20 Fix ed Sur f ac e fixed systems the difference is noticeable and there is difference of 6-70 in the peak temperatures 10 reached. It is found that without tracking a lower performance is obtained. The double axis and single 0 axis tracking give nearly same result. It evident from 10 20 30 this study, that a single axis tracking system is good Tim e in Hours F i g Ef f e c t o f T r a c k i n g enough for most purposes. In this case a single axis tracker is sufficiently good.
T m e a r inD gC e p r tu e e
Fig 5 Effect of Sun Tracking on water temperature in a solar water heater [9]
(b) Parabolic collectors and PV panels Parabolic collectors are used for heating fluids at relatively high temperatures (say between 1000 and 3000). Single axis and double axis tracking systems are useful for parabolic and paraboloid solar collectors and PV panels working on Photo Voltaic principle [10, 11]. Table 1 gives the efficiencies for fixed, single and two axes tracking systems for both summer and winter seasons for a particular place. The values are only of relative importance and will vary from place to place. Table 1. Typical efficiency values for Fixed, Single, and Double axis Tracking Systems SUMMER Fixed axis Single Axis Double axis EFFICIENCY 52% 68% 82% WINTER Fixed axis Single Axis Double axis EFFICIENCY 44% 47% 55%
The effect of using a fixed, single axis and double axis tracker are shown in figure 6 and 7. The research has resulted in considerable improvements in conversion efficiency of PV cells. Presently direct conversion efficiency is about 14%. It is expected that in near future conversion efficiency will approach about 28% or more which would be a remarkable attainment. During summer for single and double axis systems the collection efficiency approaches 70% for single and 80% for double axis trackers (see Figure 6). Figure 7 show that during winter (in January) the collection efficiencies are poor varying from 40% to 55%. This is perhaps for the reason that whether is cloudy; for places having clear sky, better efficiencies can be expected. The single axis system is therefore not useful in winter for all places.
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Figure 6 Typical power output curve for doubleaxis, single-axis and fixed array system respectively for one summer daysource[10]
Figure 7 Typical power output curve for double-axis, single-axis and fixed array system respectively for one winter day source[10]
4. Conclusions 1. Solar trackers give substantial advantage for increasing collection efficiency for solar concentrating devices like parabolic collectors and PV panels. The advantage gained depends upon the whether. In summer with clear sky, the efficiency of energy collection may reach 80-90%, whereas in winter the efficiencies may be as low as 40-50%. 2. For heat to direct electric power conversion devices solar tracking gives substantial advantage by increasing solar collection efficiency. This is particularly true for direct energy conversion devices like PV panels, which presently give about 14% overall solar energy to electricity conversion efficiency. With further development in technology, this figure may reach a substantially high value of about 28% in near future. 3. For solar driers, solar stills and solar water heaters, using direct solar heat energy, a single axis tracking system is sufficient. One need not go to double axis solar trackers as by using double axis systems, the efficiency of energy collection is only marginally increased and does not justify the investment in a double axis tracker. The efficiency of collection of solar energy over a fixed collector can be increased by 25 -30% by using a single axis tracking system. References [1] Hwang, LH, SK Na, HS Kim, HS Oh, YS Kim, Han Xiao, Yu MingZhi, MT Cho, SC Chang and GS Choi, A development of Solar position tracker on Program Method for Small typed Stand Alone PV System, The 7th International Conference on Power Electronics, October 22-26, 2007/EXCO, Daegu, Korea. [2] Armsstrong S, and WG Hurley, Investigating the effect of Maximum Power Point Tracking for a Solar system, 0-7803-9033-4/05 (c) 2005 IEEE. [3] Teolan Tomson, discrete two position tracking of solar collectors, Science Digest, Renewable Energy, 33 (2008) 400-405. [4] Cope AWG, and N. Tully, Simple Tracking Strategies for Solar Concentrators, Solar Energy Vol.27,No.5 361-365,1981. [5] Chong KK, CW Wong, General formula for on-axis sun tracking system and its application in improving tracking accuracy of solar collector, Science Digest, Solar Energy 83 (2009) 298305. [6] Sawawu, RI and TA Oduyemi, a microprocessor controlled solar tracking system, Journal of Micro computer Applications, (1987) 10, 55-62. [7] Gikuru Mwithiga and Stephen Njoroge Kigo, Performance of a solar drier with limited sun tracking capability, Science diret, available online , www.elsevier.com/jfoodeng. [8] Abdallah S, OO Badran, Sun tracking system for productivity enhancement of solar still, Science Direct, Desalination 220 (2008) 669-676. [9] Prakash J, HP Garg and DS Hrishikeshan, Effect of tracking performance of a built-in-storage type solar water heater, Solar and Wind technology, Vol,5, No. 4,pp-440,1988. [10] Chun-Sheng Wu, Wang Yi-Bo, Liu Si-Yang, Peng Yan-chang and Xu Hong-Hua, Study on Automatic sun tracking Technology in PV Generation DRPT2008 6-9 April 2008. [11] Alexandru Catalin,and Claudiu Ponza, Virtual prototype of a Dual-axis Tracking System used for Photo Voltaic panels, 978-1-4244-1666-0/08/ (c) IEEE.
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Simulated Solar Still Performance Using With and Without Water Film Cooling of Top Glass Cover
Mr. Sitansh D.Golwala Prof. Alpesh Mehta
1 2 1* 1
Mr. Bhavik D. Upadhyay
GCET, V V Nagar 388 120 A. D. Patel Institute of Technology, New V.V.Nagar-388121, Gujarat, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: sitanshgolwala@rediffmail.com) Underground water is available in huge quantities in arid, semi arid and coastal areas but it is highly saline. Therefore it is not useful for drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes. In earlier days, the population was small so, average consumption of fresh water was small. But due to industrialization and population rise, the shortage of fresh water has become major problem. Due to large demand of pure water, the United Nation declared the years 1981-1990 the decade of sanitation and water supply. The majority of world desalination project is based on distillation process and it requires heat upto 120 C approximately which can be easily available from solar energy, while in vapour compression, reverse osmosis and elctrodialysis processes mechanical or electrical energy is needed. In nature water from oceans, ponds, rivers, reservoirs and lakes are heated up by means of solar energy. Vapours are generated from this heated water and vapour is transported by means of wind. This vapours gets condensed in cooler regions and collected as rain water. That is what exactly done by man in the same manner to obtain fresh water from saline water in solar still. As solar still is simple in design, and thermal energy is available at free of cost research work is in progress in the field of solar distillation for more than hundred years. But main difficulty is that in solar still fresh water obtained is in small quantities. To overcome this difficulty experiments were performed in faculty of Technology and Engineering M.S. University of Baroda, Gujarat on simulated solar still. In the experiment water was passed on the top glass cover of simulated solar still and their effect on output was measured. The experiment was also performed for different heat input and their effect on output was also measured. It is seen that, top glass cover of still act as a condenser. By flowing water on the top glass cover, the temperature of top glass cover is decreases. Therefore, temperature difference between the water & inner glass of still increases, and hence, the overall yield.
1.
Introduction
Fresh water is necessity for the existence of life and also the key to mans prosperity. It is generally observed that in some costal, semi arid and arid areas which are thinly populated and scattered, one or more family members are always busy in searching, collecting and bringing fresh water from a long distance. In these areas, solar energy is helpful to convert saline water into fresh water which is useful for drinking and for doing other routine life work. The pure water can be obtained by distillation in the solar still. Supply of drinking water is a major problem in developed, developing and undeveloped countries. Water is one of the basic requirements along with air and food for man to live. Rivers, lakes are the main sources through which drinking water is available to man. Pollution of rivers and lakes because of industrial effluent and sewage has caused scarcity of fresh water in many countries. Surveys shows that about 79% of water available on the earth is salty, only 1 % is fresh and rest 20 % is brackish. 2. Experimental Set Up
The experimental still consist of container of 1m x 1m area and raw water to be purified is
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kept in this container. The container is covered with air tight enclosure of glass. An electric heater of 4 KW capacity is placed in the container for the evaporation of water. The evaporated water condenses on the top glass cover of still. For collection of condensate a continuous channel is provided at the inner three sides of the still. The diagram of an experimental still is shown in figure-2
Figure 1. Water film cooling of top glass cover of simulated solar still
Figure 2. Diagram of an experimental still List of instruments and equipments used along with their general specifications are given in table-1 Table 1. Details of Instruments and Equipments Used In an Experimental Set-Up. S. N. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Instruments / Equipments Thermocouples of J type for 800 C maximum Thermometer : - 100 C to + 1100 C Alchoholic Electric heater : 4 KW Thermostat : Coil type 00 C to 2700 C Connector Variac : 0 270 volt Multimeter : Auto range, Six digit multimeter Make : Howlett Packard Selecting Switch board Beaker : 5 litre Thermos : 2 Litre Plastic water Tank and Rubber Pipe Qty. 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
For measuring the temperatures of different surfaces ten thermocouples are used as shown in figure 3. A glass (3mm thick) of same size of still is covered and is fixed by flash strip with experimental still for prevention of leakages of heat, vapour and condensate.
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(a) Side view
1o - Thermocouple for outer glass surface Temperature 2w Thermocouple for water Temperature 3i,4i,5i,6i, & 7i - Thermocouple for inner glass surface Temperature 8v, 9v & 10v - Thermocouple for vapor Temperature
(b) Top view

Figure 3. Views and locations of thermocouples in an experimental still Temperature of water in the basin is controlled by a coil type thermostat. At the low level of the water surface, sensor of thermostat is fitted. The power will be automatically cutoff when the temperature of water reaches the temperature set in the thermostat. We can measure the temperature of different surfaces in the multimeter with the help of thermocouple. 2.1 Procedure to perform experiment Step by step procedure to be adopted for performing experiments is as follows: a) Fill the basin of experimental still with its fullest capacity through inlet b) Next step is to set variac and thermostat according to chosen heat input and chosen temperature (up to which water is required to be heated) respectively. c) Prepare cold junction of thermo couple. d) Measure temperature with the help of thermocouple at different location (i.e. outer glass surface temperature, water and vapour temperature, inner glass surface temperature). This should be almost same. e) Water temperature will rise with the help of electric heater and when water temperature reaches temperature set in thermostat, the thermostat will cut of power supply to electric heater. Now, measured temperature at different locations at the stage, time required to reach this stage and mass of condensate collected in the container during this period is also measured. f) When power supply is cut-off to electric heater, temperature of water will decrease. Measure temperatures at different locations, time and mass of water collected in container. This procedure is repeated for six hours duration. For water flowing over top glass cover: When a particular temperature of water is attend that is set in thermostat, flow the water over top glass cover of experimental still. This water is collected in tray. Before performing experiment, it is necessary to find: A. Capacity of experimental still and electric power required for this capacity. Experimental still has effective volume of 94 cm x 94 cm x 6.5 cm. Therefore, capacity of 3 still is 57,434 cm (57.434 liter) so, if initial temperature of water is approximately 30C, the heat input is required to heat the water from 30C to 80C is about 3.26 KW. B. Electric heaters resistance. Electric heaters resistance was found with the help of multimeter which was 14.61 C. Sealing between glass and still surface. Sealing between glass and still surface was provided in order to avoid leakage of vapour and condensate. Sealing was provided with the help of flash strip.
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3.
Result and Discussions
3.1 Energy transfer in simulated still The Energy transfer within still are due to radiation, convection and evaporation from the water surface to inner glass surface. The variation of energy transfer with respect to water temperature under steady state condition in the range from 40 C to 60 C is given in the figure-4 It can seen that the evaporation rate increases with higher evaporative loading i.e. at higher water temperature. The radiation decreases with increasing evaporative loading due to humid atmospheric condition in the still. It is also seen that there is no much difference in convection with increasing evaporative loading.
Qci_frac Convective energy transfer fraction within still Qei_frac Evaporative energy transfer fraction within still Qri_frac Radiative energy transfer fraction within still Tw Water temperature
Figure 4. Energy transfer fraction in an experimental still for 1000 Watt 3.2 Mass transfer rate From the figure-5 of mass transfer rate Vs. (TW - TGI) it is seen that as temperature difference (TW -TgI) increases, mass transfer rate is increases. Also it is seen that actual mass transfer rate is more compared to theoretical mass transfer rate of dunkle.
(Mew)the Theoretical mass transfer rate (Mew)act Actual mass transfer rate Tw Tgi Water (Tw) and inner glass(Tgi) temperature difference
Figure 5. Mass transfer rate as a function of (Tw - Tgi) for 1000 Watt 3.3 Depth of water in basin From the figure-6 of depth of water in basin vs. mass of condensate collected it is seen that at lower basin depth, the thermal capacity will be lower and hence, the increase in water temperature will be large, resulting in higher output. 4. Conclusions (1) It is seen from figure-8 that the time required, by increasing water temperature at same heat input increases. While, from figure-7 it is seen that the time required, by increasing the heat input at the same water temperature decreases. (2) By flowing water on the top glass cover, the temperature of the top glass cover decreases. Therefore, temperature difference (TW - TgI) is increases and hence, the overall yield is increased by 29.80 % as shown in fig-8. (3) It is seen that evaporation rate increases at higher water temperature.
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Figure 6. Mass of Condensate collected Vs Depth of water in basin (when heat input Q = 1000 W and Tw = 40 C)
Figure 7. Heat input Vs Time for constant Tw = 40 C
Figure 8. Water Temperature Vs Time for constant heat input 1000 Watt
Figure 9. Comparison of actual mass transfer (when heat input Q = 1000 Watt and Tw = 40 C)
References [1] [2] Dunkle, R.V. Solar water distillation, the roof type still and a multiple effect diffusion still, International Development in Heat Transfer, International Heat Transfer Conference, University of Colarado U.S.A, 1961, part5, 895902. Tiwari, G.N. Recent advances in solar desalination in solar energy and Energy conservation, Wiley Eastern Ltd. New Delhi. 1992 Ed. Raj Kamal, M.P. Maheshwari and R.L. Sawhnery. Garg, H.P. Effect of climatic parameters on the performance of single sloped solar still. Proc. Sixth Meeting of All India Solar Energy Working Group and Conference Allahabad. India, 1974, 30 34. Tanaka K., Yamashilu A. and Watanable K. Experimental and analytical study of the tilted wick type solar still, Solar World Forum, Proc. ISES Congress August 1981, (Ed. D.O.Hull and J. Morton) Pergamon Press, 1087 1091, 1987. Howe, E.D. Desalination of Sea-water. Solar Energy Technology Handbook Part B (Edited W.C. Dickinson and P.N. Cheremisinoff), Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York 1980.
[3]
[4]
[5]
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3 - 5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
Design and Development Gas Carburettor for operation of Motor cycle S. I. Engine by using Up-graded Bio-gas Fuel
S. D. Yadav , Bimlesh Kumar , S. S. Thipse
1 2 1 2 3
R. I. T., Sakharale 415 414, Maharashtra, India. J.T. Mahajan College of Engg., Faizpur 415 414, Maharashtra, India. 3 A.R.A.I., Pune 413 304, Maharashtra, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: yadav_sanjivand@rediffmail.com)
Alternative fuels for spark ignition engines have become very important with reference to increased environmental protection concern, the need to reduce dependency on petroleum fuels. The use of renewable energies sources requires the development of new the modification of current engine designs. The technologies for utilization of biogas by supply of upgraded biogas can be used as fuel for vehicular engines. The overall goal of this paper is to design and develop gas carburettor to operate the motor cycle spark ignition engine with upgraded biogas. 1. Introduction
In a bi-fuel motorcycle, the carburettor is the most important part of the fuel system of a motorcycle. The main challenge focuses on designing a mixing device which mixes the supplied gas with the incoming air at an optimum ratio [1]. Spark ignition (SI) engines are the easiest engines to convert to biogas due to the wide availability of natural-gas-fired units and the relative similarity of biogas to natural gas.[2] Biogas collected from waste treatment facilities can be purified and used as CNG. This means that natural gas vehicles can also be run on a fuel, which originates from renewable sources [3]. Normally the fuel is brought in gaseous form up to the mixing or metering unit. There are two basic ways to arrange the gas supply system, i.e. mechanical or electrical fuel control. In a fully mechanical fuel system, the actual value will always vary with running conditions and environmental conditions, i.e. engine speed and load, tank pressure, temperature, etc. [4]. The fuel-supply arrangement is a mixer type in which fuel is drawn into the cylinders by the intake vacuum in a venturi section. [5]. The Hino K-13CTI engine being studied for biogas fuel adaptation, a biogas carburettor was designed, manufactured, and installed [6]. In the present work, an attempt is made to design and fabricate the gas carburettor as a gas mixer for Hero Honda Splendor motorcycle to replace the existing the petrol carburettor is the main objective of the development of Bio methane gas motorcycle fuel system 2. Design of Venturi:
The gas carburettor is based on the venturi principle. The venturi diameter and gas admission holes are designed and tuned for optimum depression and performance from Bernoullis principal. The basic function of carburettor is to provide required air fuel ratios at all loads and speeds. To achieve this function, throat diameter and the jet diameter must be calculated with most care [7]. Assuming steady, one dimensional, incompressible, isentropic flow, the Bernoulli's theorem may be applied on air stream at section 1 and 2.
P V 2 P V 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 a a
P 2 P 1
a 2
V 1 2
2 2
--------- (1)
Consider a schematic of gas carburettor as shown in figure 1.
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Applying Bernoulli's equation on gas stream at section 1G and 2
Figure: 1. Mathematical model of Gas Carburettor
Taking initial velocity of gas as zero,

P V 2 V 2 P 1g 1g 2 2g g 2 g 2
2 g P 1g 2
2g
----
(2)
This is theoretical gas velocity at the throat. Considering frictional and other losses as well as compressibility effect the actual gas velocity is expressed as,
Actual V 2g K v 2 P P 2 1g g
-------- (3)
Where KV is velocity a coefficient. For capillaries small holes and small jets this value may be taken 0.8. Once gas velocity is known, the diameter of holes may be calculated form the flow rate requirements. Splender motor cycle engine Specifications: 1. Name of the manufacturer : Hero Honda 3. Type of engine : 100 cc, single cylinder, 4. Bore: 50 mm 3. Design Procedure: 2. Power : 7.5 ps at 8000 rpm 4. Stroke engine Petrol 5. Stroke : 49.5 mm
To arrive at the actual dimensions of the gas carburettor we suggest the following design procedure. Step - 1 Calculate the air flow rate requirement of the engine as:
N D2 *L* * V 4 60
m /s
As we are designing the Gas carburettor for Two-wheeler, the volumetric and thermal efficiency are taken as 70% & 30% respectively due to various reasons like wear of system components, leakage through the systems etc. N= 8000 (Max. power = 7.5 Hp at 8000 rpm), D= 0.050 mm, L= 0.049 mm &
Vol 0.7
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The basic function of carburettor is to provide required air fuel ratios at all loads and speeds. To achieve this function, the throat diameter and jet diameter must be calculated with almost care [5].
8000 3 = 00.0090 m /s (0.050)2 (0.049) 0.7 4 60
Step 2 This quantity of air has to pass through a gas carburettor. Assuming the inlet dimensions of carburettor same as the suction dimensions, calculate the inlet velocity as: Q 0.0090 V1 25 . 98 m/s 2 2 D1 (0.021) 1 4 4 Step 3 Similarly the same velocity of air has to pass through the throat of the carburettor. As this is a venturi assuming the discharge co-efficient of venturi as 0.9 (considering compressibility effect), calculate the velocity at the throat assuming suitable throat diameter as;
Q 0 . 0090 39 . 29 m / s C D22 0 . 9 0 . 018 2 d 4 4
The throat diameter D2 should be selected from the graph-1. This graph is directly embedded from the Dellorto carburettor operation and maintenance manual [8].
40
35
30
Venturi diameter (mm)
25
20
15
10
05 10 20 30 40 50
H P d i v i d e d b y n u m b e r o f c y l i n d e r s s u p p l ie d b y t h e c a r b u r e t t o r
Graph 1 : from the Dellorto carburettor operation and maintenance manual for Venturi Size Selection
And also the throat diameter D2 numerically can be computed using formulae.
mass of air flow 0 . 0090 1 . 2629 a A V D 2 0 . 018 mm
D 2 2 25 . 98 4 Step - 4 Calculate the pressure at the throat from equation 1

P P 2 1 a (V 2 V 2 ) (10132.5) 1 2 2
1.2629 (25.98 2 39 . 29 2 ) 9583.93 2
kg/m 2
Density of air = 1.2629kg/m 3
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Step - 5 The gas is to be supplied at throat. We can calculate the gas velocity at the throat form equation - 2.
V 2g 2 P1g P 2 g 2 10132.5 9583.93 1.16
3
30 . 75 m/s
Density of upgraded Bio-Gas = 1.16 Kg/m
(CH4 (Methane), [Vol%] = 55-70 [9]
Step - 6 Calculate the actual gas velocities assuming Kv= 0.8 Form Equation 3
2 P P 2 0.8 30.75 24.60m/s 1g g
ActualV
2g
Step - 7 Calculate the maximum gas flow requirement as :
mg
B.P. 5 . 51 th X C .V . 0 . 3 X 22700
0 . 00080 kg / s
From the gas flow requirements and actual gas velocities, calculate the total jet area requirement as;
Aj
mg
g X (V 2 g ) act
0 . 0008 0 . 0000280 1 . 6 X 24 . 60
2
m2
The total calculated area is 28.03 mm for gas admission. For provision of uniform and homogeneous mixing of gas, we need to admit the gas from various holes, which should be drilled on the venturi throat area. If we decide no of holes as 8, to calculate hole diameter
2 J d 2 28.03 d d 2 .11mm g 8 4 g 8 4 g For safe operation diameter of holes is rounded to 3.0 mm of gas admission In the process of designing a venturi type of Bio gas mixer was designed and fabricated for a 100 cc four strokes S. I. Engine application. A
Figure. 2. Experimental test set up with gas Bio gas carburettor
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Gas carburettor is capable for providing a stoichoiometric air fuel ratio for over all operating conditions of the engine to operate smoothly. This was done by proper mounting and sealing of the mixer to the engine(Fig.1). 4. Conclusions: In this work, an attempt has been made to convert existing spark ignition engine was converted to operation with minor modifications, hence reduce the production cost. Gas carburettor design has been sufficiently proved stable operation during starting; idling and no load acceleration amply establish the success of conversion of engine to operate on upgraded biogas mode. Better engine performance was observed with bio gas mode compared to spark ignition engine. 5. Scope of Future Work:
Actual test of gas carburettor would be the ultimate test that should be done in order to validate the mixer further by operating engine at all loads and speeds with optimum performance. The air flow and fuel flow to the engine must be observed directly during engine performance test. References: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Hi, Y.B., Mustafa, A. and Yaacob, Z. Computational Investigation of air-fuel mixing system for Natural Gas powered motorcycle, Gas Technology Center (Gasteg), Universiti Technologi Malaysia, 813100 Skudai, Johor, Azeman Mustafa 2001. Walsh, J.L., Ross, C.C., Smith, M.S. and Harper, S.R. Utilization of Biogas, Georgia Tech Research Institute, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, Biomass ,20 (1989) 277-290. Nils-Olof Nylund, Alex Lawson, Exhaust Emissions from Natural gas Vehicles, IANGV Emission Report,2000P.P.1-19. Nils-Olof Nylund, Alex Lawson, Exhaust Emissions from Natural gas Vehicles, IANGV Emission Report,2000P.P.31-40. Shoji TANAKA, Masato YOSHIDA, Toshihiro KOKUBUN, Tetsuhisa UESUGI, Toshiyuki KODAMA, Development of 6M61CNG Engine for Medium-Duty Trucks New technologies, Engine Design Dept., Research & Dev. Office, MFTBC Technical Review 2003 Nob.15 P.P.64-67 Sittiboon Siripornakarachai, Thawan Sucharitakul, Modification and tuning of diesel bus engine for biogas electricity production, Maejo International Journal of Science and Technology, Mj. Int. J. Sci. Tech. 2007, 01(2), 194-207 S.A.Channiwala, D.C.Talati, K.P.Desai, Performance characteristics of an LPG fuelled two stroke S.I. Engine. S.V.R.C.E.T., Mechanical Engineering Department, Surat. Dellorto carburettor operation and maintenance manual. Jan k. Jensen, Anker B. Jensen, Biogas and Natural gas- fuel mixture for the future. Danish gas technology centre1st world conference and exhibition on biomass for energy and industry, sevilla, 2000.
[6] [7] [8] [9]
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Studies on Power Generation Potentials of Woody Biomass Species

M. Kumar, S. K. Patel* National Institute of Technology, Rourkela-769 008, Orissa, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: skpatel@nitrkl.ac.in) In view of energy and environmental problems associated with the use of fossil fuels, increased electricity demand, socio-economic development of rural people, etc., the power generation on decentralized basis from biomass has become of greater significance for developing nations including India. This paper presents the results of proximate analysis and energy value of different components of Acacia and Eucalyptus woody biomass species and their impact on decentralized power generation structure. The components of these biomass species were found to have a negligible difference in their fixed carbon contents and energy values. The results indicated lowest ash contents and highest energy values for their woods, followed by leaf, nascent branch and bark respectively. The calculation results have shown the requirements of approximately 72 and 79 hectares of land for energy plantations with Acacia and Eucalyptus plant species 5 in order to meet the electricity needs ( around 73 10 kWh/year for domestic, irrigation and small industries) for a group of 10 to 15 villages consisting of around 3000 families. Altogether, the authors recommend the exploitation of Acacia and Eucalyptus biomass species for energy plantations in wastelands and their subsequent utilization in power generation either individually or in co-firing with locally available high ash coals. 1. Introduction
In view of limited fossil fuel reserves and environmental problems associated with their use, it appears that the industrial utilization of biomass as a source of energy should be promoted to the utmost extent, particularly in context of its renewability and non-polluting nature. The thermal power plants are the major consumer of fossil coal and emit a large quantity of pollutants into the atmosphere. Any effort to substitute (at least partially) by some renewable sources of energy for power industries would be a timely and positive step towards energy and environmental crises facing the world. As per Renewable Energy Statistics [1], the estimated global electricity generation capacity of biomass (about 11000 TWh) is greater than other renewable energy sources. This amount of electricity is expected to fulfill the worlds energy demands in future. According to the preliminary estimates, India has a potential to generate more than 19,500 MW of electricity annually by using biomass materials [2]. Sustainable production and utilization of biomass in power generation on decentralized basis can solve the vital issues of atmospheric pollution, energy crisis, wasteland development, rural employment generation, and power transmission losses. Thus, the development of biomass-based power generation systems is thought to be favourable for majority of the developing nations including India. Unlike other renewables, biomass materials can be stored for a considerable period of time without any difficulty. The utilization of biomass in power generation requires information of its various properties like chemical composition, combustion reactivity, energy value, ash fusion temperatures, etc. The present paper deals with the studies on proximate analysis and energy values of different components of Acacia and Eucalyptus plant species (prime candidates for energy plantation under Indian conditions) and their impact on electricity generation. These plants grow rapidly and are capable of re-growth from harvested stumps in a short time period. 2. Planning of power generation structure
In planning the electricity generation from biomass on a decentralized basis, the points need to be taken into consideration are: (i) type, quality, quantity, feasibility of
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transportation and storage, sustainability and cost of biomass, (ii) level of customer demand, (iii) method and cost of biomass drying, (iv) method of electricity generation and its economic viability, and (v) costs and qualities of locally available fossil fuels. 3. Experimental
In this study, Acacia and Eucalyptus biomass species were collected from the local area (Rourkela, Orissa) and their components were removed and dried in air for about a month. The powdered (72 mesh size) biomass samples were analyzed for their moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon contents by standard methods [3]. The calorific values of these ground samples were measured by using Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter [4]. 4. 4.1 Results and discussion Chemical properties of studied plant components
Freshly felled plant components contain a large amount of free moisture, which must be removed to decrease the transportation cost and increase the calorific value. In the plant species selected for the present study, the time required to bring their moisture contents into equilibrium with that of the atmosphere was found to be in the range 22.5 weeks during the 0 summer season ( temperature : 3742 C and humidity : 1025%). The chemical compositions and calorific values of different components of Acacia and Eucalyptus plant species have been summarized in Table 1. It is evident from this table that the wood and nascent branch of these studied plant species have approximately the same chemical compositions and calorific values, while these properties of their leaves and barks differed appreciably. The barks of both the plant species were found to have the lowest calorific values. Table 1. Chemical compositions and calorific values of different components of three years old Acacia and Eucalyptus trees Component Moisture Proximate analysis (wt.%, air-dried basis) Volatile Ash Fixed matter carbon Acacia 74.80 0.92 13.28 68.12 65.86 59.55 74.20 71.50 68.60 64.40 1.50 18.58 Ultimate analysis (wt.%, dry basis) Total Hydrogen carbon 50.22 57.20 5.90 5.25 Calorific value ( kcal/kg, dry basis) 4845 4138 4472 3528 5050 4129 4398 2400
Wood Nascent Branch Leaf Bark Wood Nascent Branch Leaf Bark 4.2
11.00 11.80 9.20 10.30 10.00 9.80 9.00 10.20
3.25 21.69 4.35 25.80 Eucalyptus 1.06 14.74 0.92 3.13 7.90 17.78 19.27 17.50
Decentralized power generation and energy plantation structures
For the estimation of power generation to meet the electricity requirements in rural areas, a group of 1015 villages consisting of 3000 families may be considered, for which one power station could be planned. As outlined in our previous paper [5], the power requirement for domestic work, irrigation and small-scale industries in these villages may be around 20,000 kWh/day ( 73105 kWh/year ). Therefore, a power plant, capable of generating 20,000 kWh/day of electricity, needs to be constructed for the above group of villages.
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Table 2. Total energy contents and power generation structures from three years old (approx.) Acacia and Eucalyptus trees Calorific value Biomass production Energy value * (kcal/t, dry basis) (t/ha, dry basis) (kcal/ha) Acacia 3 4 Wood 4845 10 38.00 18411.0 10 3 4 Nascent branch 4138 10 27.00 11172.6 10 3 4 Leaf 4472 10 3.00 1341.6 10 3 4 Bark 3528 10 9.00 3175.2 10 4 Total energy from one hectare of land = (18411.0 + 11172.6 + 1341.6 + 3175.2)10 = 4 34099.8 10 kcal Eucalyptus 3 4 Wood 5050 10 34.00 17170.0 10 3 4 Nascent branch 4129 10 20.80 8588.3 10 3 4 Leaf 4398 10 7.50 3298.5 10 3 4 Bark 2400 10 9.40 2256.0 10 4 Total energy from one hectare of land = (17170.0 + 8588.3 + 3298.5 + 2256.0)10 = 4 31312.8 10 kcal * Data from field studies Assumptions used in the calculations for this study are as follows : (i) (ii) Conversion efficiency of biomass fueled thermal power plants = 30% Overall efficiency of power plants = 85% Component
Total energy from 1 hectare of land at 30% efficiency of power plant : (i) (ii) For Acacia biomass = 34099.810 0.30 kcal = 10229.9410 kcal = 4 11.9010 kWh For Eucalyptus biomass = 31312.81040.30 kcal = 9393.84 104kcal = 10.93104kWh
4 4
Power generation at 85% overall efficiency : (i) (ii) From Acacia = 11.90 10 0.85 = 10.1210 kWh/ha 4 4 From Eucalyptus = 10.93 10 0.85 = 9.29 10 kWh/ha
4 4
Land required to supply electricity for the whole year : (i) (ii)
73 10 5 72 ha 10.12 10 4 73 10 5 For Eucalyptus = 79 ha 9.29 10 4

For Acacia =
Table 2 presents the design of energy plantations of Acacia and Eucalyptus biomass species for a power plant of above capacity. As evident from this table, about 72 and 79 hectares of land, covered with Acacia and Eucalyptus biomass species, should always be ready for harvesting to meet the annual electricity requirement of 73105 kWh. In order to maintain continuity in power generation, the entire energy plantation area may be divided into three blocks, each comprising an area of about 72 and 79 hectares for Acacia and Eucalyptus biomass species. In the first year, the first block should be planted followed by second block in the successive years. When plantations will end in the third block, the first block plants will be of three years old (fully matured) and ready for harvesting. In addition to the above, approximately 50 hectares of land may be required for making roads, residential quarters and power plants. Thus, the net requirement of land is likely to reach up to the level of 266
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and 287 hectares for Acacia and Eucalyptus plant species. The requirement of higher land areas in case of use of Eucalyptus is due to their relatively lower biomass yield and calorific values. 5. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) Suggestions Important knowledge and new technical information related to sustainable biomass production and its efficient utilization need to be synthesized and transferred to the shareholders. The economic, social and environmental aspects of biomass production and utilization systems must be examined. Interdisciplinary research works on production, conversion and utilization of biomass need to be encouraged. Energy cultivation in wasteland, and a system for successful collection and transportation of biomass materials to the power plants need to be developed. Village energy committees may be set-up to look after and ensure the sustainability of biomass-based power plants in rural areas. Awareness among the people about the various aspects of biomass-based power plants, need for energy plantations, etc. should be created. Financial assistance from the government need to be provided to encourage the development of such projects. Conclusions The main findings derived from the present study are as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) Both the Acacia and Eucalyptus plant species showed nearly the same chemical properties for their woods and branches, the ash contents being more in their barks and leaves. Both the plant species showed highest energy values for their woods and lowest for their barks. Calculation results have demonstrated that nearly 266 and 287 hectares of land would be required for continuous generation of 20,000 kWh electricity per day from Acacia and Eucalyptus plant species. The present study could be useful in the exploitation of non-woody biomass species for power generation.
6.
(iv)
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Akshay Urja. Renewable Energy Statistics: Renewable energy at a glance in the world. 2, 2006, 48. Akshay Urja. Renewable Energy Statistics: Renewable energy at a glance in India. 1, 2005, 48. Bureau of Indian Standards.. IS: 1350, Part I. Methods of tests for coal and coke. New Delhi, 1969, 3. rd Agrawal, B.C. and Jain, S.P. A Text-Book of Metallurgical Analysis. 3 Ed., Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1980. Kumar, M. and Patel, S.K. Energy values and estimation of power generation potentials of some non-woody biomass species. Energy Sources, 30, 2008, 765773.
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Robust Control of Variable Compression Ratio Engines

S. M. Besarati 1*, K. Atashkari2, A. Hajiloo3, N. Nariman-zadeh4 Takestan Islamic Azad University, Takestan, Iran 2 University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran * Corresponding author (e-mail: s.besarati@gmail.com) An innovative mechanical design approach to achieve higher fuel economy in automobiles has been the development of variable compression ratio (VCR) engines. A challenge with this new engine design is that the compression ratio has a direct influence on the output torque. This is a problem because the engine driver can feel it as a jerk in the movement. Therefore, in order to fully take the advantage of benefits of this engine design it is necessary to have some sort of torque control that can keep a constant torque regardless of changes in compression ratio. In this work an engine model is developed to represent a variable compression ratio engine. The model is validated with some available experimental data. Based on the model, a robust PID controller is optimally designed to control the output torque for the step changes of compression ratio in the presence of parametric uncertainties. 1. Introduction
1, 3, 4
Most of the time gasoline engines operate at relatively low power levels or part loads. If the compression ratio were increased at low-power operation, gasoline engines could achieve higher thermal efficiency and lower fuel consumption [1]. The concept of variable compression ratio (VCR) promises improved engine performance, efficiency and reduced emissions. The main feature of the VCR engine is to operate at different compression ratios, depending on the vehicle performance requirements. However, in VCR engine the output torque is directly related to the compression ratio. This may cause undesirable effects on the drivability of the car. Moreover, such a change in the output torque is sensitive to uncertainties involved in some parameters of the engine torque model. For example, the engine speed and ambient temperature are those which affect the value of the output torque. In fact, the output torque of a VCR engine is probabilistically varied due to the deterministic change of the compression ratio and probabilistic uncertainties involved in the model parameters. Therefore, it is necessary to use a robust control system to maintain the output torque constant in the presence of changes in compression ratio and uncertainties in model parameters. The development of high-performance controllers for various complex problems has been a major research activity among the control engineering practitioners in recent years. In this way, synthesis of control policies have been presented as optimization problems of certain performance measures of the controlled systems. A very effective means of solving such optimum controller design problems is genetic algorithm (GA). Some early applications of GAs in optimum design of controllers are reported in [2]. In addition to the most applications of GAs in the design of controllers for certain systems, there are also much research efforts in robust design of controllers for uncertain systems in which both structured or unstructured uncertainties may exist. To account more for the most likely plants with respect to uncertainties, the probabilistic uncertainty, as a weighting factor, must be considered. In fact, probabilistic uncertainty specifies set of plants as the actual dynamic system to each of which a probability density function (PDF) is assigned. Therefore, such additional information regarding the likelihood of each plant allows a reliability-based design in which probability is incorporated in the robust design. Recently, multi-objective Pareto genetic algorithms is used in conjunction with Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) in the design of robust PI controllers for an uncertain system subjected to probabilistic variations of model parameters[3]. In this paper, a torque model of a VCR engine is first derived. The model is then compared with the results of an experimental study. The probabilistic behaviour of the output torque is next shown according to the uncertain parameters, namely engine speed and ambient temperature, using
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MCS approach. Based on such model, a robust PID controller is optimally designed to control the output torque for step changes of the compression ratio in the presence of parametric uncertainties. 2. Engine Model The model is based on mean value engine model (MVEM). The coefficients used in the model are experimentally evaluated from several tests on a VCR engine [4]. By applying a balance equation expressing the conservation of mass in the manifold and using the ideal gas law, the intake manifold pressure is given as:
(1) where are the pressure and volume of intake manifold. Moreover, , represent the air flow past the throttle and the air flow into the cylinder respectively. The net torque can be expressed as: (2) where is the torque delivered from combustion process, and are the torque losses due to friction and pumping respectively. By taking the fuel conversion efficiency ( into consideration, could be determined as:
(3) where and N are heating value of the fuel and engine speed respectively. By approximating the combustion process as Otto cycle, the can be calculated as:
(4) The value of has been determined by some experimental measurements to 0.74. Applying simple mathematical manipulation, the torque loss due to pumping can be determined as: (5) where and represent the pressures in intake and exhaust manifolds. Friction losses are largely dependent on engine speed and can be modelled as: (6) The constants A, B, C along with other constants assumed in this section are given in Table1. Table 1. Model Parameters Value Unit 1.454e-06 -3.599e-03 1.6262e01 1e05 Pa 44.3e06 J/kg 300 K 0.4 0.0016 0.002 The differential equation for modelling the variations of the compression ratio is given by: (7) where are time constant and reference compression ratio respectively. Symbol A B C
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3.
Optimum robust design of PID controller A control mechanism which is widely used in industrial control systems is PID
controller. Its transfer function is defined as where and are proportional, integral and derivative coefficients. Therefore, it is now important to present a design methodology to optimally obtain those feedback gains so that the output torque is kept constant in the presence of step changes of compression ratio in an uncertain environment. 3.1 Stochastic robust analysis
In conventional optimum control system design, uncertainties are not addressed and the optimization process is accomplished deterministically. Optimization without considering uncertainty generally leads to non-optimal and potentially high risk solution. Therefore, it is very desirable to find robust design whose performance variation in the presence of uncertainties is not high. With the aid of ever increasing computational power, there have been a great amount of research activities in the field of robust analysis and design devoted to the use of Monte Carlo simulation [5]. In this method, random samples are generated assuming pre-defined probabilistic distributions for uncertain parameters. The system is then simulated with each of these randomly generated samples and the percentage of cases produced in failure region defined by a limit state function approximately reflects the probability of failure. Let X be a random variable, then the prevailing model for uncertainties in stochastic randomness is the probability density function (PDF), or equivalently by the cumulative distribution function (CDF), , where the subscript X refers to the random variable. This can be given by
(8) where is the probability that an event will occur. Some statistical moments such as the first and the second moment, generally known as mean value denoted by E(X) and variance denoted by , respectively, are of the most important ones. In the case of discrete sampling, they can be readily represented as
E(X) and
(9)
(10) where xi is the i th sample and N is the total number of samples. In this paper, it is desired to minimize both mean and variance of Integral Absolute Error (IAE) of the responses, subjected to assumed probability distribution of uncertain parameters. IAE can be defined as:
(11)
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where is the error between the measured and desired response. However, the trade-offs among the objectives are not revealed unless a Pareto approach of the multi-objective optimization is applied. 4. Performance of an uncertain VCR engine
In order to evaluate the obtained model some tests are accomplished and the results are compared with those of experimental study given in [4]. In this study, the engine speed is 2000 rpm and other time-varying parameters such as compression ratio and air mass flow are given in Table 2. The computed values and those obtained experimentally are shown which reflect the good agreement of the simulated results with actual ones. Table 2. Comparison of the results of simulation and measured values Inputs Measurement M (kpa) (N.m) 39.7 14.5 60.2 41.9 Simulation M (kpa) (N.m) 38.19 14.73 57.29 40.7
0.0072 0.0126
10 8
Engine speed and ambient temperature are supposed to remain constant at 2000 rpm and 300 K during the engine simulation. In the next step, normal distributions are considered for engine speed and ambient temperature at which engine speed and ambient temperature are assumed to vary between 1900-2100 rpm and 290-310 K, respectively. Hammersley sequence sampling (HSS) is employed to generate 100 random samples from the pre-defined probabilistic distributions for uncertain parameters. The system is then simulated with each of these randomly generated samples. The compression ratio is varied from 8 to 14 and then 14 to 8 during each simulation and the output torque variations is now studied. The corresponding 1, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 99 percentiles of the output torque is shown in figure (1).
Figure 1. The percentiles of the output torque Evidently, engine speed and ambient temperature variations as well as compression ratio step changes have a direct effect on the output torque of the car. In the following section, a robust controller is designed in a multi-objective Pareto sense using genetic algorithms to keep the output torque of the VCR engine constant due to step changes of the compression ratio using an engine model having probabilistic uncertainties. 4.1 Pareto Multi-objective design of robust PID controller for an uncertain VCR engine A simple structure PID controller which is widely used for many industrial processes ( is adopted to control the output torque of the VCR engine. The design vector of such PID controller is which has to be optimally determined based on the robust multi-objective Pareto approach for that uncertain model of
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the VCR engine using some stochastic evaluation metrics. Two performance metrics are used in this work, based on IAE of the developed torque given by the below equation (12) Where and are the reference and actual output torque respectively. These two stochastic measures of performance are the mean and the variance of the stochastic IAE evaluated by MCS approach. The evolutionary process of optimum selection of the design vector K to obtain the Pareto front of those objective functions is accomplished with a population size of 70 with crossover probability , Pc , and mutation probability , Pm , of 0.85 and 0.1 respectively. The stochastic measures of both mean and variance of the IAE are computed using 100 Monte Carlo evolution using HSS distribution for each controller during the evolutionary process. Consequently, a total number of 68 non-dominated optimum design points have been obtained and shown in figure (2).
Figure 2. The Pareto Front obtained by multi-objective optimization According to the Figure 2, optimum point design A demonstrates a trade-off design point in terms of these two objective functions. The value assigned to this point is K= [9.99, 0.21, and 0.12]. The performance of this controller for the uncertain VCR engine is depicted in figure (3) which shows all the percentiles of the stochastic behaviour of the output torque. It is very evident that the designed controller can successfully control the torque in the presence of the step changes of the compression ratio and uncertainties in the engine model.
Figure 3. Percentiles of the output torque using design point A References [1] Kultar,O. Arslan, H. Calik, A. Methods to Improve Efficiency of Four Stroke Spark Ignition Engines at Part load. Energy Conversion & Management, 46, 2005, 3202-3220. [2] Herreros, A. Baeyens, E. Persan, J.R. A genetic algorithm for multi objective robust control design. Engineering Application of Artificial Intelligence, 15, 2002, 285-301. [3] Hajiloo, A. Nariman-zadeh, N. Jamali, A. Bagheri, A. Alasti, A. Pareto Optimum Design of Robust PI Controllers for Systems with Parametric Uncertainty. International Review of Mechanical Engineerig (I.R.M.E), 1(6), 2008. [4] Bergstrm, A. Torque Modeling and Control of a Variable Compression Ratio Engine. Master thesis, Linkpings University, Linkping, 2003. [5] Ray,L . Stengel,R. F. A Monte Carlo Approach to the Analysis of Control System Robustness. Automatica, 29(1), 1993, 229-236.
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Experimental Analysis of Lower Blend Concentration of Esterified cottonseed oil for CI Engine
Dr. J G Suryawanshi*, Prof. P. T. Nitnaware**, Prof. S S Hatwalane** * VNIT, Nagpur,India ** D.Y.Patil College of Engg. , Akurdi, Pune-44, India Corresponding E-mail: Address: - nitnaware_pt@yahoo.co.in The worlds rapidly dwindling fossil fuels supplies, their raising cost and growing danger of environment pollution led to an intensive search for alternative fuels. This paper investigates performance of 10 HP computerized single cylinder diesel engine performance for B5 & B10 blends of esterified cotton seed oil as engine fuel. Blends of Bio-diesel up to 10% did not affect the engine power while blends with higher proportion of Bio-diesel showed tendency to decrease the engine power. Best fuel economy was observed for B10 blended fuel. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) emissions, increased under different operating conditions while smoke was reduced at all speed ranges. Other test data generated revealed that engine oil temperature tend to be less with Bio-diesel operation and exhaust gas contains more O2 which is beneficial for the vehicles equipped with diesel oxidation catalyst. In following work an attempt has been made to test the single cylinder diesel engine by using B10 blends. Aiming at 10% blend of Bio-diesel to diesel may be promising in near future. During the study it was identified that, by the time Bio-diesel is available for public, almost all diesel application will have Common Rail Diesel Engines. Performance and emission test was conducted on 10 HP computerized single cylinder diesel engine to know the behavior of Biodiesel with future engines. 1. Introduction
All countries in the world are extremely dependent on fossil fuels, which use are related to many environmental problems and have contributed significantly to the global warming. The transport sector is responsible for 27% of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emission in the world. Diesel engines are the preferred prime mover used for transport vehicles, especially for HCV and LCV applications, due to their unmatched fuel economy benefits. However, the NOx - PM trade-off phenomenon of diesel combustion makes simultaneous reduction of NOx and PM very difficult. Due to this fact diesel engines become one of the major sources of NOx and PM emissions in urban areas. The global energy matrix is mainly dependent on fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum and fossil gas. About 80% of energy consumed in the world comes from these sources and represents strong reliance on just few suppliers in the world. However this non-sustainable situation, once the reserves are exhausted they will lead to negative impacts in the environment, like them the global warming (IPCC, 2007; IEA, 2008). Euro IV limits are lowered by 80% and 30% for NOx and PM respectively, with respect to the Euro III emission norms. This drastic reduction necessitates use of advanced technologies in the diesel combustion system to meet the stricter Euro IV and beyond norms. Moreover, proper selection and matching of these technologies is very important for effective emission reduction. Scientists around the world have explored several alternative energy resources, which have the potential to quench the ever increasing energy thirst of todays population. Various biofuel energy resources explored include biomass, biogas, primary alcohols, vegetable oils, biodiesel, etc. These alternative energy resources are largely environmentfriendly but they need to be evaluated on case-to-case basis for their advantages, disadvantages and specific applications. The vegetable oils and Biodiesels are very good diesel engine fuels due to their reasonably high cetane number. Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be produced through transesterification from a variety of vegetable oils including cottonseed oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and jatropha. Their major problem is
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associated with their highly increased viscosity, 10-20 times greater than that of normal diesel fuel. The advantages of Biodiesels as Diesel fuel, apart from their renew ability, are their minimal sulfur and aromatic content, higher flash point, higher lubricity, higher cetane number and higher biodegradability and non-toxicity. On the other hand, their disadvantages include their higher viscosity, higher pour point, lower calorific value and lower volatility. Furthermore, their oxidation stability is lower, they are hygroscopic, and as solvents, they may cause corrosion of components, attacking some plastic materials used for seals, hoses, paints and coatings. They show increased dilution and polymerization of engine sump oil, thus requiring more frequent oil changes. For all the above reasons, it is generally accepted that blends of standard Diesel fuel with 5% or up to 10% (by volume) Biodiesels can be used in existing Diesel engines without any modifications, but there are concerns about the use of higher percentage blends that can limit the durability of various components, leading to engine malfunctioning. Thus, it is essential to study the higher blends of Biodiesel with standard diesel or 100 % Biodiesel as a fuel for CI engine to get the advantage of renew ability and emitted CO2 reduction. The specification of the engine are given in Table. Table 1. Test Engine Specifications Make Set up Cubic capacity Compression ratio Rated Power Bore X stroke (mm) Aspiration Rated speed (rpm) Rated Torque(Kg-m) Dynamometer Kirloskar 4-S, 1-Cyl, air cooled, self start Diesel Engine Computerized test rig 562 cc 17.5:1 7.5 KW 80X110 mm Naturally Aspirated 1500 4.6 Eddy current Dynamometer (Dyno Drive)
2. Experimental setup The base engine was first coupled to a eddy current dynamometer and tests were done. Subsequent modifications were done and with each of them the performance tests were measured. 2.1 Dynamometer The dynamometer used for this experimental work is of the eddy current dynamometer. 2.2 Temperature Sensors Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) type temperature sensors were used to measure the intake air, engine oil and fuel temperature. Thermistors were used to measure the engine coolant temperature. A thermocouple was used to measure the exhaust gas temperature. 2.3 2.3.1 Biodiesel Properties Viscosity To measure the viscosity Redwood viscometer is used. The viscosity test of Cotton seed oil and soybean oil were conducted. It is observed that with increase in temperature viscosity of Bio diesel reduced and at 64 OC the viscosity of bio diesel was approximately same as diesel. 2.3.2 Cloud Point and Pour Point It consists of test jar, which is cylindrical in shape and with a flat bottom it is made of clear glass and is about 3 cm in diameter and 12 cm high. It is enclosed in a glass or copper jacket which is firmly fixed in a cooling bath. The cooling bath used is as ice +salt. With O performing the test it was observed that Cloud point for soya bean based Bio Diesel is 16 C O and cotton seed based Bio-Diesel is 15 C.
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2.3.3
Flash Point To measure flash point Pesky-Martens closed-cup apparatus is used. It is most commonly used apparatus for determination of flash points of oils having flash point between O 50 to 370 degree Celcis. The flash point for soybean based biodiesel is 165 C and flash O point of cottonseed based biodiesel is 141 C 3. ENGINE TEST RESULTS: 3.1 Performance Characteristics The tests were carried out with reference diesel and different blends of Biodiesel. The blends used for the test were B5 and B10.Parameters like Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC), cylinder pressure, Break thermal efficiency, break mean effective pressure and Heat release were measured for different operating conditions. All the graphs presented below represent mode by mode variation of various parameters for diesel as well as for different blends of biodiesel. 3.2 SOFTWARE Engine Analysis Soft is engine performance monitoring system available for Window 98 and above platforms. This can serve most of the engine testing application needs including monitoring including data lodging .The Software evaluates performance and combustion analysis. Various graph and reports are obtained at different operating conditions. During test run start mode necessary signal are scanned, stored and presented in graph. During test run file mode, stored data is presented in graph. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A comparative study is done on the performance of the engine oil using both diesel and bio diesel blend (B5) as a fuel on the basis of the results obtained in the tests. Various parameters such as BSFC, exhaust gas temperature, Brake mean effective pressure, Brake Power are discussed. Exhaust Gas Temperature: It is seen that with increase LOAD Vs EXHAUST TEMP in load the exhaust gas temperature increases for 440 neat diesel, B5 and B10 390 340 blend. 290 It is observed that with 240 blending the exhaust gas 190 temperature reduces by 14 140 %. 90 At lower load the exhaust 1 2 8 8 68 72 82 .1 .22 4.6 .03 9.62 .05 .53 .2 .9 5. 6. 8. temperature of blend is close 10 12 1 17 1 24 27 30 33 LOAD to diesel but with increase in load the difference increases DIESEL B5 B10 more. Mechanical Efficiency: It is less at lower load and increases with increase in load. It is due to more heat losses due to rich mixture at LOAD Vs ME lower load. 80.5 Mechanical efficiency is 70.5 less for biodiesel and 60.5 increases with increase in 50.5 load. 40.5 For B 5 & B 10 blend the 30.5 mechanical efficiency at 20.5 optimum load is 29 % less 10.5 than neat diesel. It is due to 0.5 8 3 2 3 2 8 5 68 72 82 .11 .22 .9 .5 .6 .0 .6 .2 .0 high latent heat of 5. 6. 8. 10 12 14 17 19 24 27 30 33 LOAD vaporization and low heat DIESEL B5 B10 contain.
EX A S T P H U T EM
M E
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Brake Mean Effective Pressure:LOAD Vs BMEP

5.5 5 4.5
B E MP
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

8 5.6 2 6.7 2 8.8 1 .1 10 2 .2 12 2 .6 14 3 2 .0 .6 17 19 LOAD 8 .2 24 5 .0 27 8 .9 30 3 .5 33
With increase in load the BMEP increases and is maximum at higher load. Further it decreases with increase in load. For B 5 & B 10 blend the BMEP is 16.9 % less than that of diesel.
DIESEL
B5
B10
Brake Specific Energy Consumption: Initially at lower load the BSEC is more due to rich mixture during idling and lower load but it decreases with increase in load. At the middle range of load the BSEC is less due to complete combustion of fuel and sufficient time for burning of fuel. At higher load the BSEC increases due to incomplete combustion and insufficient time for burning of fuel.
LOAD Vs BSFC
1.1
0.9
B F SC
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
68 5. 72 6. 1 3 2 8 5 8 3 82 .1 .22 4.62 7.0 .6 .2 .0 .9 .5 8. 10 12 1 1 19 24 27 30 33
LOAD DIESEL
B5
B10
Heat carried away by exhaust gases:

LOAD Vs HGAS
40 35 30
H A G S
25 20 15 10 5 0
68 5. 72 6. 1 2 2 2 3 5 8 8 3 82 .1 .2 .6 .6 .2 .9 .5 .0 .0 8. 10 12 14 17 19 24 27 30 33 LOAD
It was observed that with increase in load the heat carried away by exhaust gas reduces. For Bio diesel blend B20 at middle range heat carried away by exhaust gases were reduced by 66.6 %. It was due lower heat content.
DIESEL
B5
B10
5.
Conclusions Performance studies under different operating conditions on different blends of biodiesel, derived from Cottonseed Seeds, with diesel, on diesel engine were performed. No significant change in power. Improvement in steady speed fuel economy with use of blends of bio diesel up to 10% blend ratio. The best fuel economy was observed with B5 and B 10 fuel when compared with neat diesel.
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The fuel economy of vehicles is remaining unchanged for 10% bio-diesel blend. Exhaust gas temperature and engine oil temperature decreased with use of biodiesel blends. Based on the above results it is concluded that biodiesel blends can be used as a fuel in diesel engine. An optimized blending ratio of biodiesel blend, i.e. B10 showed that the performance of vehicle exceeded the performance of neat petro-diesel. No clogging of fuel filters when 10% bio-diesel used. Results showed that thermal efficiency was comparable to that of diesel with small amounts of power loss while using vegetable oils.
Referances [1] Pramanik, Department of Chemical Engineering, Regional Engineering College, Warangal 506004, India , Properties and use of jatropha curcas oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition engine. Received 1 October 2001 accepted 5 February 2002. [2] Rickeard, D. J and Thompson, N. D. A Review of the Potential for Bio-Fuels as Transportation Fuels. SAE Paper No. 932778, 1993-2. [3] Hansen, A. C., Zhang, Q and Lyne, P. W. L. Ethanol-Diesel Fuel Blends-A Review. Bioresource Technol, 96, 2005, 277-85. [4] Agarwal, A. K and Das, L. M. Biodiesel Development and Characterization for Use as a Fuel in Compression Ignition Engine. J Eng Gas Turbine Power, 123, 2001, 400-7. [5] Kumar Senthil, M., Ramesh, A and Naglingam, B.,An Experimental Comparison of Methods to Use Methanol and Jatropha Oil in a Compression Ignition Engine. Biomass Bioenergy, 25, 2003,309-18.
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Discharge Measurement in Penstock of Small Hydropower Stations using Clamp-on Type Ultrasonic Transit Time Flowmeters (UTTF)
S. S. Rao, R. P. Saini*, B. K. Gandhi
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: rajsafah@iitr.ernet.in) Discharge measurement is the most important and tedious exercise in the evaluation of the efficiency of hydr-electric power generating units, even in small hydropower (SHP) stations. For an accurate estimation of discharge in closed ducts and open channels, it is generally recommended to measure the flow velocity at a number of points in the measuring section. One good method of velocity measurement in a closed duct is applying a Clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeter (UTTF). The UTTF can be installed on penstock before MIV of the turbine, after forebay and as near as possible by MIV i.e., depending on flow and penstock conditions, and on the convenience of mounting and using the UTTF. The paper reports the measurement of average velocity in penstock and there by actual discharge which is entering into the turbine to evaluate the performance of the hydro turbine. Discharge measurements carried out in 14 SHP stations using UTTF are reported here. For one typical situation of Multi Jet Pelton Turbine is the generating unit of SHP plant where flow through the penstock, the mounting arrangements, procedure of evaluation of discharge by UTTF has been discussed. This paper reports the experience of the scientists, faculty and student of the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee (IITR), an Institution of global repute and academic and professional excellence in India, on the use of clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeters (UTTFs) for measurement of discharge in closed ducts with high accuracy i.e., small measurement uncertainty. 1. INTRODUCTION
Clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeter (UTTF) is being used as a convenient portable non-intrusive device to measure the liquid flow through the circular pipe. The clamp-on type flowmeter uses a pair of transducers which can be installed in a single, double and multipath arrangements depending upon the pipe size and the availability of space. The two transducers of clamp-on type UTTF simultaneously act as a transmitter and receiver when ultrasonic sound wave pulses are transmitted through a moving liquid. The travelling time of sound wave from upstream transducer to downstream transducer is less than that of downstream transducer to upstream transducer due to flow velocities. Both the travelling times are determined to calculate the average flow velocity. The flow rate in the pipe is obtained by multiplying the available crosssectional area with the average velocity. The whole programme of calculations of flowrate is integrated in the flowmeter itself. For measurement of flow within the specified accuracy of the meter, Sanderson and Yeung [1] have suggested to perform the measurement in flow velocity between two perpendicular planes and specified the requirement of straight pipe length of 10 times of pipe diameter upstream of the plane and pipe length of 5 times of pipe diameter downstream of the plane. Sanderson and Torley [4] identified that an errors derived from the reclamping of the meter may occur due to misalignment of the transducers or poor acoustic coupling between the transducers and the pipe. Voser et.al. [5] reported that for an error more than 1% in roundness of the pipe of hydroelectric power plants needs estimation of the
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uncertainties in discharge measurement by ultrasonic flowmeter. Brumer [2] has tested the removal and reinstallation of ultrasonic transducers on the pipe to isolate the act of reapplying a clamp as a source of uncertainty. He also found that this could give an estimated uncertainty of 5%. Cairney WD [3] has been investigated that the clamp-on meters are sensitive to pipe quality, diameter and thickness. If the ratio between the pipe diameter (D) and the wall thickness (t) becomes too small, a relatively large part of the ultrasonic pulses will travel around the pipe wall instead of passing through the fluid and also it may cause non-linearity and zero drift. He found that the errors increased markedly when D/t was around 10:1 and increased to nearly 10% when D/t ratio decreased down to five. It is also very important to know the inner diameter of the pipe. A small error in measuring the pipe diameter can result in rather large errors Svensson and Delsing [10] investigated that below a Reynolds number of approximately 5000, % error of deviation is large with respect to the billing meters and it is not recommended to use clamp-on type meters for comparison measurements in the low flow region. And also indicates that not all brands of clamp-on meters are useful for in-situ testing. Kenichi Tezuka et.al [6] have obtained velocity profiles in the steel penstock at actual power plants with an ultrasonic-Doppler flow velocity profile flow meter at different flowrates and different measuring positions. In 2004, the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee has taken the responsibility of performance testing of small hydropower (SHP) stations in India. By, now its testing team has an experience of carrying out unit efficiency test in more than 30 stations of different types and different capacities. Discharge measurement in penstock of SHP stations has been carried out in 14 SHP stations using clamp-on type ultrasonic transit time flowmeters (UTTF). This paper gives some details of these stations and the measurement with UTTF. One representative case study is given to explain the procedure followed for estimation of uncertainties in discharge measurement by UTTF. 2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF UTTF Fig.1 shows the principle of operation of the clamp-on UTTF measuring the flow rate of a liquid whose speed of sound is cl in a pipe of internal diameter D. The flowrate is measured by using the transit time difference between ultrasound travelling from transducer T1 to transducer T2 and when the ultrasound is travelling from transducer T2 to transducer T1. If the ultrasonic beam in the fluid is at an angle to the pipe axis then the volumetric flowrate Qv is related to the time difference T= T12-T21 by (1) where k, the correction factor, is given by Eq. (1). If the wedge on which the transducers are mounted is made of a material for which the speed of sound is c w and having an angle to the pipe axis, then Eq. (1) can be re-written as
(2) In order to obtain an accurate measurement it is necessary to obtain an accurate measurement of the required separation of the transducer T1 and T2. From simple geometric considerations this separation, s, in the case of a two path meter is (3) where sw is the separation through the wedge, sp is the separation through the pipe and sl is the separation through the liquid in equation no (4).The correct separation of the transducers can be obtained by providing the flowmeter with the pipe wall thickness, t, and internal diameter, D, and the speed of sound in the pipe wall, cp, material and the speed of sound in the liquid, cl. This can be used with internally stored values to indicate to the user the required separation. UTTFs generally provide outputs indicative of volumetric flowrate or totalised volume flow.
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(4)
3.
S. N.
Fig.1 Working Principle of Clamp-on Type UTTF DETAILS OF UTTF APPLICATION Table 1. Details of Discharge Measurement by UTTF in 14 SHP Stations
Penstock Dia, Thick, Material 800 mm,6 mm to 14 mm,IS 2062 1 m,8mm to 12 m SAILMA350HI 600 mm, 8 mm, MS 2.4 m,10 to 16 mm, Steel (IS 2062) 2 m, 10 mm - 12 mm, MS IS 2062. 0.90 m,10 mm to 40 mm,MS Pipe, Average Discharge Measured By UTTF in cumecs 100 % L 0.6289 2.5900 80 % L 0.5064 2.0970 60 % L 0.3855 1.5880 110 % L 0.7010 3.1480 No. of UTTFs used 1 2 Design Uncertainty in Discharge Discharge (cumecs) Measurement 1.350 2.520 1.28 % 2.236%
Name of SHP Station and Capacity 1 2 ALEO SHP (2x1500 kW) BRAHMAGANGA SHP (2x2.5 MW) CHING SHP 2x500 kW) CHUNCHI DODDI SHP (3x3.5 MW) DEBAL SHP (2X2.5 MW) KHAULI SHP (2X6 MW)
3 4
0.3612 3.9220
0.2915 3.2320
0.2234 2.5450
0.4010 4.3370
1 1
0.900 15.000
1.414 % 2.236%
4.4130
3.7460
3.2130
5.2250
14.000
1.803 %
1.1250
0.8280
0.5870
1.3740
3.050
1.803%
7 8
LOHARKHET SHP (3 x 1.2m,10-2 mm, MS 1.5 MW) MANAL SHP (2x1500 kW) MARHI SHP (2X2.5 MW) 780 mm,8-12 mm, IS 2002/ASTM A285Gr.C 875 mm,20 mm, ASTM-516 Gr. 70
0.9310 0.8981
0.7520 0.7077
0.5730 0.5362
1.0310 0.9966
1 1
3.420 0.888
2.236% 1.414 %
9 10 11 12
0.5080 2.7480 0.3111 1.3460
0.4100 2.1970 0.2490 1.0890
0.3120 1.6500
0.5540 3.0370
1 1 1
1.060 5.830 2.700 3.600
1.803% 2.236% 2.266 % 2.236%
13 14
PATIKARI SHP (2x8 1.3 m,14 to 32 mm, MW) IS 2002 Gr.2 SALAG SHP (1x150 300 mm,7 mm, ISI kW) SARBARI SHP 1.25m,12 to 20 mm, (2x2.25 MW) MS IS 2002, Grade-2 TARAILA SHP 1.2m,14mm, (2x2.5 MW) MS-IS-2006 UPPER AWA SHP (2x2.5 MW) 700 mm,10 to 22 mm, Steel IS 2002 Gr 2B
0.8240
1.6600
1.6580 0.5800
1.3740 0.5030
1.0880 0.4100
1.8120 0.6680
2 2
3.200 1.500
2.236% 2.693%
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The name of the SHP station, details of the penstock, the discharge measured by ultrasonic transit time flowmeter, number of UTTFs used, design discharge of power station and uncertainty in discharge measurement for each of the 14 SHP stations referred above are given in table.1. 4. UTTF MOUNTING ARRANGEMENT AND MEASURING PROCEDURE The mounting arrangement of the transducers have been carried out in two path method, the two transducers are mounted on the same side of the pipe and the sound pulse crosses the pipe flow twice. The transducers of the ultrasonic flow meter have been clamped with magnetic clamping fixtures after applying the couplant and pipe preparation for removing coatings and rust. The purpose of the couplant is to provide reliable transmission of ultrasound between the transducer and pipe wall. The spacing between the transducers obtained by providing penstock wall thickness, diameter, transducers model and configuration, fluid type and process temperature etc., to the flowneter by user interface.The transducers of the flow meter have been placed on penstock at 3 O clock or 9 O clock position to minimize the effects due to air bubbles and solids on meter performance. In order to consider the effects of upstream and downstream side of pipe work the flowmeter placed at 10D of straight pipe length upstream of the plane and 5D straight pipe length downstream of the plane, where D is the diameter of the pipe. The discharge measurement at power stations has been carried out to evaluate the overall efficiency of the SHP for different plant load operations i.e., 100%, 80%, 60% and 110 %. At each load of plant operation during testing the discharge measurement has been carried out for 15 readings and each reading at one minute interval time. The detailed measurement of discharge at one SHP station is illustrated in the following section. 4.1 Discharge measurement during performance testing of Loharkhet SHP station (3 x 1.5 MW) Loharkhet, District Bageshwar (Uttarakhand) Discharge Measurement The penstock size being small (1200 mm internal diameter), a portable ultrasonic transittime flowmeter (UTTF) with clamp-on transducers (PT878, GE Sensing make) was used. A pair of transducers was fixed in reflection mode on the common penstock. Readings of the UTTF averaged over 60 second periods by the instrument were taken every minute during the 15minute duration of efficiency test at each discharge. Average flow over this 15-minute duration was used for calculating the unit efficiency. Uncertainty in Discharge Measurement Uncertainty in average velocity measurement by flowmeter = 1 % Uncertainty in cross-sectional shape and dimensions of penstock = 2.0 % Therefore, total uncertainty in discharge measurement is = 2.236% (5) Make and Type of UTTF: GE Sensing make, Model 878 Location of UTTF : Common Penstock At this site there were two number of ultrasonic transit time flow meters installed side by side to measure the discharge in the penstock. The average discharge obtained by both the flow meters is taken for performance calculations at each plant load operation. 5. CONCLUSIONS Based on the discharge measurement in 14 SHP stations using clamp-on type UTTF, the following conclusions can be drawn. The clamp-on type UTTF can be conveniently installed on closed conduit and to determine the average flow velocities and thereby obtained the discharge in the section. Further, it can be installed anywhere on the penstock depending on the conditions of the penstock and flow rate. Discharge in the steel penstocks at actual power plants was obtained with a clamp-on type UTTF at different flow rates. Ultrasonic couplant and the binding of the
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transducers are also important factors in obtaining good ultrasonic transmission through Plexiglass to the pipe wall. Moreover, two line measurements were conducted simultaneously and satisfactory results were obtained. The application of this method to flow rate measurement at power stations is expected to provide uncertainty range. In order to enhance the applicability of this method, further investigation is necessary with respect to ultrasonic parameters. REFERENCES [1] M.L. Sanderson and H. Yeung. Guidelines for the use of ultrasonic non-invasive metering techniques. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, July 2002. [2] R.F. Brummer. Theoretical and experimental assessment of uncertainties in non-intrusive flow measurement. Proc. Symp. On flow in open channels and closed conduits. NBS SPECIAL Publication 84, 1977, 277291. [3] Cairney WD. Typical flow measurement problems and their solution in the electricity supply industry. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation. October 1991. [4] Sanderson ML, Torley B. Error assessment for an intelligent clamp-on transit time ultrasonic flowmeter. International Conference Flow Measurement. Glasgow. UK. 11.1. 1986. [5] A. Voser et al., Improving acoustic flow measurement. Water Power & Dam Construction. April 1996. [6] Kenichi Tezuka et al,. Ultrasonic pulse-Doppler flow meter application for hydraulic power plants. Thermal-Hydraulics and Fluid-Structure Dynamics Research Group, R&D Center, Tokyo Electric Power Company, 4-1, Egasaki-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Japan, 2308510. [7] J.E. Heritage. The performance of transit time ultrasonic flowmeters under good and disturbed flow conditions. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, 1989, 2430. [8] K. Zanker. Installation effects on single and multi-path ultrasonic meters. Proc.FLOMEKO2000, Salvador, Brazil, 2000. [9] S.R. Smith, Z.F. Cui. Analysis of developing laminar pipe flowan application to gas slug enhanced hollowfibre ultrafiltration. University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK.2004. [10] Bernt Svensson , Jerker Delsing. Application of ultrasonic clamp-on flow meters for in situ tests of billing meters in district heating systems. Lule University of Technology, Industrial Electronics, S-971 87 Lule, Sweden.1998.
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Finite Element Analysis and Experimental Study of Convective Heat Transfer Augmentation from Horizontal Rectangular Fin by Triangular Perforations
Kumbhar D.G.1*, Dr. N.K.. Sane2 ,Chavan S.T.1 B.V.U.C.O.E., Pune, India JSPM C.O.E., Pune, India *Corresponding author (E-mail:dg07kumbhar@gmail.com)
2 1
This paper examines the study of heat transfer augmentation from a horizontal rectangular fin by triangular perforations whose bases parallel & towards the fin base under natural convection has been studied using ANSYS Version 9. The parameters considered are geometrical dimensions & thermal properties of the fin .The perforated fin heat dissipation rate is compared to that of solid fin .Also the experimentation of rectangular fin with triangular perforations and without perforations has been done. The study shows that the heat dissipation from the perforated fin results in improved heat transfer over the equivalent solid fin. The heat transfer augmentation of perforated fin increases as fin thermal conductivity increases. 1. Introduction
Fins are used to enhance convective heat transfer in a wide range of engineering applications, and offer a practical means for achieving a large total heat transfer surface area without the use of an excessive amount of primary surface area. Fins are commonly applied for heat management in electrical appliances such as computer power supplies or substation transformers. Other applications include engine cooling, condensers in refrigeration and air conditioning. It is important to predict the temperature distribution within the fin in order to choose the configuration that offers maximum effectiveness. The removal of excessive heat from system components is essential to avoid the damaging effects of burning or overheating. Therefore, the enhancement of heat transfer is an important subject in thermal engineering. The heat transfer from surfaces \in general be enhanced by increasing the heat transfer coefficient between a surface and its surroundings, or by increasing the heat transfer area of the surface. In most cases, the area of heat transfer is increased by utilizing the extended surfaces in the form of fins attached to walls and surfaces. Nomenclature A Ac H K L W N T B cross sectional area of the fin cross sectional area of the perforation heat transfer coefficient thermal conductivity of fin material fin length fin width number of perforations fin thickness fin base S T Tsf Tpf x y z perforation spacing temperature temperature of solid fin temperature of perforated fin longitudinal direction or coordinate transverse (lateral) direction with the fin width or coordinate transverse (lateral) direction with the fin thickness or coordinate ambient
376
Literature review Due to the high demand for lightweight, compact, and economical fins, the optimization of the fin size is of great importance. Therefore, fins must be designed to achieve maximum heat removal with minimum material expenditure, taken into account, and also, with the ease of manufacturing the fin shape [2, 4].Other studies have introduced shape modifications by cutting some materials from fins to make cavities, holes, slots, grooves or channels through the fin body to increase the heat transfer area and/or the heat transfer coefficient [3]. One popular heat transfer augmentation technique involves the use of rough interrupted surfaces of different configurations. The surface roughness or interruption aims at promoting surface turbulence that is mainly intended to increase the heat transfer coefficient rather than the surface area [1,5].In Ref. [6],another experimental study on the forced heat transfer enhancement over a flat surface equipped with square cross-sectional perforated pin fins in a rectangular channel was conducted. The experimental results showed that the use of the square pin fins with the circular perforations lead to the heat transfer enhancement. In Ref.[7], an experimental study was conducted to investigate the heat transfer and friction loss characteristics of a horizontal rectangular channel with hollow rectangular profile fins attached over one of its heated surfaces. The study showed a significant enhancement of the heat transfer due to the hollow fins. The present study involves studying the effect of triangular perforations on rectangular fin. The study investigates the comparison of perforated fin with solid fin for temperature distribution along the fin and heat transfer rate. The analysis is done using ANSYS 9.0 version & also by experimentation 2. Analysis by Ansys 2.1 Introduction Fins are used to enhance convective heat transfer in a wide range of engineering applications, and offer a practical means for achieving a large total heat transfer surface area without the use of an excessive amount of primary surface area. Fins are commonly applied for heat management in electrical appliances such as computer power supplies or substation transformers. Other applications include IC engine cooling, such as fins in a car radiator. It is important to predict the temperature distribution within the fin in order to choose the configuration that offers maximum effectiveness. This exercise serves as a visualization tool for evaluating the effect of shape on fin effectiveness, efficiency, and temperature distribution 2.2 Modeling details The computational domain is represented in two dimensions. The procedure for solving the problem is (1) Create the geometry (2) Set the material properties and boundary conditions. (3) Mesh the domain Geometry We take the rectangular shape shown in the figure.1 It is assumed that both fins have the same dimensions (the fin length is L = 50 mm and its width is W = 100 mm, no of perforations n=12, t=1.85mm, thickness of fin), same thermal conductivities, and same base and ambient temperatures. The analysis is done for three different materials such as MS, SS, and AL.
Fig.1 rectangular solid fin
Fig.2 rectangular perforated fin
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Boundary conditions The following thermal boundary conditions may be specified at the base of the fin: Base temperature ,Tb=100C and Ambient temperature ,T=28C Either fully insulated or convective type boundary conditions may be applied at the tip of the fin. A convective type boundary condition is applied at all other walls. Contour plots Figure presents temperature contours for the rectangular fin.
Fig. 3 Contours of temperature 2.3 Solution
Fig. 4: Thermal Flux for Aluminum rectangular fin without perforations
Fig. 5: Thermal Flux for Aluminum fin with 5.0mm perforations
Fig. 8: Thermal Flux for Aluminum with 7.0 mm perforations
Fig. 6: Thermal Flux for Aluminum with 6.0mm perforations
Fig. 7: Thermal Flux for Aluminum with 6.5 mm perforations
2.4 Results and discussion from ANSYS The fig.4 shows the thermal flux analysis for solid Aluminum fin. It is compared with other perforated fins of increasing perforation dimensions as shown in figs. 5, 6, 7&8. The analysis by Ansys shows that thermal flux is more for the fins with perforations as compared to fin without perforations. Thus we can say that the heat transfer improves with the addition of perforations. It is also observed that the thermal flux increases with increase in perforation dimension increases unto certain dimension, then again it decreases. The analysis is also done for different materials of varying thermal conductivities, such as Mild steel & stainless steel. Results shown are similar to that of Aluminum fin. They show that as thermal conductivity increases thermal flux increases. As the thermal flux is more the rate of heat transfer would be more for the fins. From this analysis we found the optimum perforation dimension for a perforated fin ie, 6.5mm.To have a validity of above results we have done experimentation using optimum perforation dimension and also less & more dimension than optimum perforation dimension.
378
3. Experimentation 3.1 General description A description of the experimental set up for augmentation of natural convection heat transfer from a fin is presented. The experimental set up consists of setup box, heater, temperature indicator, voltage regulator, fin as shown in fig.9
Fig. 9. Experimental set-up 3.2 Experimental results and discussion The temperature distribution along the perforated fin is examined in terms of perforation Parameters, where the perforation dimensions are different. The temperature distribution along the fin length with and without perforations for different materials is plotted in Figs. 10, 11&12. From the fin analysis we knew that the high fin temperatures mean high fin efficiency and effectiveness. Higher fin temperatures exist as long as low fin thermal conduction resistance exists. As indicated in Figs.10, 11&12itis obvious that the temperature distributions show nonuniform curves caused by perforations. The perforations create a variation in the sectional area along the fin length and then lead to a variation in the fin thermal resistance. The variation effect of the perforated area on its thermal resistance decreases as the thermal conductivity increases. So the curves become more uniform. Figs.13. shows seen that temperature is at tip is maximum for the fin without perforations as compared to fins with perforations. It is seen that the temperature drop increases with the addition of perforations. It is also seen that temperature decrease along the length of the solid fins and perforated fins varies with respect to thermal conductivity of materials. To compare the temperature distribution of the perforated fin with that of the solid one, the temperature difference distribution of the solid fin and the perforated fin (Tsf Tpf) is plotted in Fig. 14. As shown in the figure it is obvious that the temperatures along the solid fin are always higher than those of the perforated one in all cases. This is because the thermal conduction resistance of the perforated fin is always higher than that of the corresponding nonperforate done. As the thermal conductivity increases, the difference (Tsf Tpf) decreases and approaches zero as the thermal conductivity approaches infinity.
10 0 90 80 70 60 50 Base 1st T r i Base 1st T r i 2 n d T r i 2 n d T r i 3 r d T r i 3 r d T r i ti p base L e n g t h of ti p f i n Base ti p T i of p fi n
50 B ase 1s t Tr i B as e 1st T r i ti p 2nd Tr i bas e L e ng t h o f f i n 2nd T r i ti p 3r d Tr i B as e 3r d T r i ti p T i p of f in 100
90
80
70
60
Al Pl i an Al 6 . 5 mm Per f .
Al 6 . 0 mm per f . Al . 0 mm Per f 7
M S P l ai n M S 6. 5mm P er f M S 6. 0mm P er f M S 7. 0mm P er f
Fig.10: Temperature v/s distance graph for Aluminum fins with and without perforations
Fig.11: Temperature v/s distance graph for Mild Steel fins with and without perforations
379
1 00 90 80
10 0 90 80 70
70 60 50 B ase 1st Tr i B ase 1 Tr i st t ip 2nd Tr i base 2nd Tr i t ip 3r d Tr i Base 3r d Tr i t ip Ti p of f in
60 50 B ase 1st Tr i 1st T r i t i p 2 nd Tr i base e l n gt h of f i n 2 nd T r it i p 3r d Tri B ase 3r d T r it i p T i of p f i n
B ase
Lengt h of f i n
A lP l i f i an n MS Pl i f i an n A L6 . 5 mm er f . f i P n S S 6 . 5 mm P er f . f i n
SS plain SS 6.5mm P er f
S S 6.0mm Per f S S7.0mm Per f
S S Pl i f i an n M S 6 . 5 mm er f . f i P n
Fig.12. Temperature v/s distance graph for Stainless Steel fins with and without perforations
20
Fig.13. Comparison graph of different material with 6.5mm perforations and without perforations
20
20
15
15 10
15
10
5 0
10
Base
1st Tr i Base
1st Tr i ti p
2nd Tr i base
2nd Tr i tip
f i n
3r d Tr i Base
3r d Tr i ti p
Ti p of f in
0 B ase 1s t T r i B as e 1 st T r i tip 2n d T r i bas e L e ng t h o f 2 nd T r i tip f i n 3r d T r i B as e 3r d T r i tip T i p of f in
L e n gt h o f
B ase
1st T r i B ase
1st T r it i p
2 n d Tri base
2 n d Tri t i p f i n
3 r d Tri B ase
3 rd Tr i t i p
T i of f i p n
Le n gt h of
AL f i 6 . 5 mm P er f . n
A l Fi n M S Fi n SS Fi n
M S f i 6 . 5 mm Per f . n
AL f i n MS f i n SS f i n
SS f i 6 . 5 mm P er f . n
Fig.14-a
Fig.14-b
Fig.14-c
Fig. 14. Temperature difference and distribution along the length of solid perforated fins It is obvious that this thermal resistance increases in the regions adjacent to the perforation. Also, this resistance increases as the solid sectional area of the perforated fin decreases. The variation in this thermal resistance leads to a variable slope of the temperature distribution curves. 4. Conclusion It is observed that heat transfer rate increases with perforations as compared to fins of similar dimensions without perforations. It is noted that in case of triangular perforations optimum heat transfer is achieved. It is also concluded that heat transfer rate is different for different materials or heat transfer rate changes with change in thermal conductivity. The perforation of fins enhances the heat dissipation rates and at the same time decreases the expenditure for fin materials also. Results obtained by ansys and experimentation support each other. References [1] Bergles A E. Technique to augment heat transfer [M]. 2nd Ed. In: Werren M Rohsenow, James PHartnett, Ejup N Ganic (eds). Handbook of Heat Transfer Applications, Ch.3, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985. [2] Prasad B V S S S, Gupta A V S S K S. Note on the performance of an optimal straight rectangular fin with a semicircular cut at the tip[J]. Heat Transfer Engineering, 14(1), 1998, 5357. [3] Kutscher C F. Heat exchange effectiveness and pressure drop for air flow through perforated plates with and without crosswind [J]. Journal of Heat Transfer, 116, 1994, 391399. [4] Chung B T F, Iyer J R. Optimum design of longitudinal rectangular fins and cylindrical spines with variable heat transfer coefficient [J]. Heat Transfer Engineering, 14(1), 1993, 3142. [5] Kakac S, Bergles A E, Mayinger F. Heat exchangers, thermal-hydraulic fundamentals and design [M]. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1981. [6] Bayram Sahin, Alparslan Demir. Performance analysis of a heat exchanger having perforated square fins[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering, 28(5/6), 2008, 621623. [7] Ugur Akyol, Kadir Bilen. Heat transfer and thermal performance analysis of a surface with hollow rectangular fins[J]. Applied Thermal Engineering, 26, 2006, 209216.
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Design of Water Conductor System for Ultra Low Head Hydropower Project A Case Study
S.V. Jain1*, S.K. Singal2
1
Nirma University of Science and Technology, Ahmedabad 382481, Gujarat, India 2 Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: svjain5@yahoo.com) Many Indian villages suffer from poor and unreliable power supply. On the other hand, a huge amount of energy is wasted throughout the country in natural streams and flowing canals with ultra low head (less than 3 meters) because there is currently no cost-effective way to convert it into a usable form. In such areas, small hydropower schemes can be undertaken on canals flowing through nearby areas which can satisfy their energy needs up to larger extent. Along the canals there exist various falls depending on the topography of the region to cater the country slope. On such falls due to low-head relatively low specific energy is available. This requires large volumetric flow rates and consequently large and expensive machines to recover the energy. As returns on small hydro schemes are marginal, it is very crucial to lower the cost of the project by optimizing the design of water conductor system. In this paper, the cost-effective design of water conductor system of Nadiad mini hydropower project has been presented.
1.
Introduction
Energy is the prime need for the growth of any countrys economy. It is the measure of prosperity of the nation. Energy crisis is mainly due to two reasons; firstly that the population of the world has increased rapidly and secondly the standard of living of human beings has increased in recent years. The conventional sources of energy like coal, oil and natural gas suffer from various disadvantages like limited reserves, pollution issues, increased fuel prices etc. Hence, in recent years the focus of harnessing energy has been shifted towards nonconventional energy sources like solar, small hydro, biomass, wind etc. In recent years, the conventional large hydropower plants became unfavourable as they suffer from problems like submergence of valuable land, long gestation period, resettlements and rehabilitation of the affected people as well as political issues associated with them. On the other hand, small hydropower (SHP) projects are free from these problems and Government of India is promoting such schemes by providing financial assistance and administrative supports. At present, SHP is the second most used renewable energy source in the world, just behind solid biomass [1]. In many Indian villages the power cut may vary from 2 to 20 hours in a day. Conversely, large amount of energy is wasted in flowing water through canals and rivers. Small/mini/micro hydropower schemes can be undertaken in these regions for the sustainable development of the villages. The head available for power generation is relatively less in canal based schemes but the discharge is generally high. Thus the size of electro-mechanical equipments, power house etc is comparatively high. Hence it is very crucial to design the water conductor system in cost effective manner. In the present study, the design of water conductor system of Nadiad mini hydropower project is presented. It is located at a chainage of 33,800 m on the Nadiad branch canal in Kheda District of Gujarat State. The discharge data of the canal were analyzed and 800 kW capacity mini hydro project has been proposed. The design of various components of water conductor system such as cross regulator, power channel, upstream & downstream transitions and tail race channel has been presented. 2. Small hydropower
There is a general tendency all over the world to define small hydropower by the power output. Different countries follow different norms, the upper limit ranges between 5 to 50 MW.
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In India the project having total power capacity less than 25 MW is referred as small hydropower. The current status of SHP in India is given in Table 1 and the classification of hydropower stations is given in Table 2. Table 1. Small hydropower scenario in India [2] Overall potential below 25 MW Identified potential Installed capacity Under construction Capacity addition during 2002-2007 Target capacity addition 11th Plan (2007-2012) Policy announced for private sector development Over 15,000 MW 14,294 MW (5,403 sites) 2141 MW (645 projects) 1,233 MW (349 projects) Over 500 MW 1400 MW 18 states
Table 2. Classification based on head [3] Type Range of Head Ultra Low Head Below 3 m Low Head 3 to 40 m Medium/ High Head Above 40 m In Gujarat, there exists a SHP potential of around 187 MW in 287 projects in different parts of the state, of which 129 MW through 264 potential sites are from canal based schemes. At present, only 7 MW through 2 SHP projects have been tapped so far. It is very important to explore the balance potential by installing various small hydropower projects. Small hydropower can be broadly categorized according to layout in three categories as: Run-off river type, Dam-toe based and Canal based project. Canal based small hydropower scheme is intended to generate power by utilizing the fall in the canal. These schemes may be planned in the canal itself or in the bye pass channel. These are low head and high discharge schemes. These schemes are associated with advantages such as low gestation period, simple layout, no submergence and rehabilitation problems and practically no environmental problems. In SHP, the various components can be categorized in two parts: (i) Water conductor system (civil works components) and (ii) Electro- mechanical equipments. The purpose of water conductor system is to divert the water from the canal and convey towards power house. In canal based schemes, the water conductor system comprises of cross regulator, power channel, upstream & downstream transitions and tail race channel. The ElectroMechanical equipments mainly include hydro turbine, generator, governor, gates, valves and other auxiliaries. 3. Design of water conductor system for ultra low head hydropower project a case study
In Gujarat state, there exist more than 180 major and medium irrigation canals [4]. Huge amount of energy is being wasted in the flowing water of canals which can be utilized for electricity generation at the falls of the canals and thus the existing irrigation system can serve the purpose of irrigation as well as energy need of the nearby areas. Nadiad Branch Canal takes off from Mahi Main Canal at a chainage of 40,850 m near Khakhanpur village. It is around 36 km long and there exists a fall of 2.47 m near Piplag village on this canal which has been considered for the present study. The details of the Nadiad branch canal are as under: Design discharge Bed width Water Depth Top width Depth of fall : : : : : 85 cumecs 21.34 m 3.35 m 36.58 m up to the fall, 28.35 then onwards 2.47 m
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The discharge data of Nadiad branch canal for the period of 1997 to 2007 were collected from Mahi Irrigation Circle, Nadiad. The data were analyzed, flow-duration curve was drawn, the power potential and energy generation were worked out and 800 kW capacity mini hydro project has been proposed from techno-economic considerations. The design of various components of water conductor system has been presented in this section. 3.1 Cross regulator
To regulate the water and then divert it towards the power house via power channel, gated cross regulator has been proposed. Considering the low capacity of the project, the cross regulator has been proposed on the existing fall with some modifications to take advantage of existing fall structure, which is already having protection work of around 8 m on upstream side and around 20 m on downstream side, and hence to achieve saving in cost. At the cross regulator the proposed work are: (i) The bed width at the fall is to be increased from present bed width of 21.34 m to 27 m, to pass the design discharge of Nadiad branch canal i.e. 85 cumecs. For this on upstream side the bed width is to be expanded and then on downstream side again the bed width is to be contracted. (ii) 3 no.s of manually operated vertical fixed wheel steel gates of size 8 m 2.2 m (width height) were proposed for controlling the FSL of water supplied in power channel. (iii) 2 no.s of R.C.C. piers having width of 1.5 m and length of around 6 m were proposed. The salient features of Cross regulator are given below and the plan view of cross regulator is shown in Fig. 1. Discharge capacity Total width No. and size of bays No. and size of piers Size of gates : : : : : 85 cumecs 27 m 38 m 21.5 m 82.2 m (width height)
Figure 1. Plan view of cross regulator 3.2 Power channel The rated discharge for the power generation is 45.12 cumecs. But when more water is available, the turbines can be over loaded by 10%. Hence, the capacity of the power channel was proposed to be 10% more than that of rated discharge i.e. 1.145.12 = 49.63 cumecs, say 50 cumecs. It was proposed that the power channel should be concrete lined to minimize the loss of seepage and also for the safety point of view as the water had to negotiate the sharp bends. The design criteria of power channel are: (i) The design discharge is 50 m3/s. The flow velocity and bed slope has been taken as 1.1 m/s and 1 in 6000 respectively. (ii) The radius of curve has been taken as 100 m to minimize the head losses and limit the land requirement. 0 The off take angle of channel has been kept as 45 . (iv) Considering the low capacity of the project, the desilting arrangement to remove the silt from the water has not been provided.
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The salient features of the power channel are given below and the cross sectional view of power channel is shown in Fig. 2. Location Cross section of channel Type of channel Design discharge Bed width Water Depth
1000 500
500
1:1 1:1 1.5 1
: : : : : :
1000
On the left bank of Nadiad branch canal Trapezoidal P.C.C. lined 50 cumecs 8.6 m 3.35 m (same as Nadiad branch canal)
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40.90 FSL 39.99 FREE BOARD
500
1.5
4500
1 SERVICE ROAD 1.5 1
500
600
1000
500
1.5
1000
1 1:1
DRAIN
600
600
500
1:1
500
1.5 1
500
500
1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1.5 GL 37.95
37.95
36.64
150 MM P.C.C
8600
Figure 2. Cross sectional view of power channel 3.3 Upstream and downstream transitions At the end of power channel, to lead the water into the power house, an upstream transition (forebay pool) in 23.0 m length, having R.C.C. floor, has been proposed. The vertical wing walls should be expanded from 8.6 m to 17.8 m in plan, with splay of 1:5 in 23.0 m length, and the bed should be depressed from 36.64 m to 34.00 m in the same length. The inner faces of the side walls of the transition should be flared from a slope of 1.5: 1 (H:V), at upstream end of transition, to vertical, at the junction with intake structure. At the end of power house, to lead the water into the tail race channel downstream transition in 13.5 m length, having R.C.C. floor, has been proposed. The vertical walls should be contracted from 17.6 m to 8.6 m in plan, with splay of 1:3 in 13.5 m length, and the bed should be raised from 31.15 m to 34.17 m in the same length. The inner faces of the side walls of the transition should be flared from vertical, at the draft tube outlet, to a slope of 1.5: 1 (H:V), at the junction with tail race channel. The upstream and downstream transitions can be seen in the plan view of power house as shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 3. Plan view of power house 3.4 Tail race channel About 172 m long tail race channel has been proposed to carry water released from the power house to back to the Nadiad branch canal at about 166 m downstream of existing fall. The section and bed slope of tail race channel were kept same as of the power channel. Bed level at the starting of tail race channel was 34.17 m and at the confluence of tail race channel with Nadiad branch canal was 34.14 m. The salient features of the tail race channel are given below and the cross sectional view of tail race channel is shown in Fig. 2.
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Bed level at the starting point Cross section of channel Type of channel Design discharge Bed width Water Depth Service road Confluence point Bed level at the confluence
1000 500
500
: : : : : : : : :
34.17 m Trapezoidal P.C.C. lined 50 cumecs 8.6 m 3.35 m 4.5 m wide, on the left bank 166.0 m downstream of existing fall at an angle of 45 w.r.t Nadiad branch canal 34.14 m
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38.43 FSL 37.52 FREE BOARD
500
1.5
4500
1 SERVICE ROAD 1.5 1
500
600
1000
1000
500
1.5
1000
1 1:1
DRAIN
600
GL
37.95
500
1.5
1:1
1:1
1.5
600
500
1:1 1 1.5
GL
37.95
500
1 1.5 34.17 1.5 1
500
150 MM P.C.C
8600
Figure 4. Tailrace channel 4. Conclusions The canal based layouts are advantageous in terms of hydrology and geology of the site. As they are in plain regions they are easily approachable and do not suffer from problem of power evacuation. Also they have low gestation period and do not suffer from problems of submergence and rehabilitation. The design of water conductor system of Nadiad mini hydropower project has been carried out from techno-economic considerations. The cross regulator has been proposed on the existing fall to take the advantage of the existing structure. Considering the availability of discharge and cost of the project 2 units of 400 kW capacity Semi Kaplan turbine with siphon intake considered to be most appropriate as it helps in elimination of intake & draft tube gates as well as reduction in size and cost of power house. The findings of the present study may be useful for the cost-effective design of water conductor system under similar conditions. References [1] Singal, S.K. and Varun. Small hydro power technology. Proceedings of International Conference Energy And Environment ,19-21 MARCH, 2070-3740. [2] Kumar, A. Small hydro projects. Workshop Sustainable energy technologies at works, February 2008, New Delhi, India,. [3] International Course Small Hydropower Development, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, IIT, Roorkee, February 2004. [4] Website of Water Resource Department, Government of Gujarat, http://gujnwrws.gujarat.gov.in/english/gwrdc.htm. [5] Jain, S. and Singal, S.K. Planning of canal based small hydropower scheme. IEEMA Journal, November 2008, 90-96. [6] Jain, S. and Singal, S.K. Preparation of detailed project report for a SHP project in Gujarat. M Tech Project report, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, IIT, Roorkee, 2007.
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Analysis of Rib Roughened Surface of Solar Air Heater by Using CFD Software
S. V. Kadam1*, S. R. Patil2, Dr S. V. Karmare3, D. S. Chavan 4 R.I.T. Sakharale, India P.V.P.I.T. Budhgaon, India 3 G.C.E. Karad, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: san_va@rediffmail.com)
2 1,4
The conventional solar air heater is extensively used for space heating, crop drying and industrial applications at low and moderate temperature. It has low thermal efficiency due to low heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and air, which causes high absorber plate temperature and greater heat loss. The absorber plate temperature mainly depends on thermal resistance to convective heat transfer caused due to a boundary layer flow over the plate. Heat transfer coefficient depends on flow rate and nature of the surface. Use of artificial roughness surface plate can enhance it as it disturbs the boundary layer near the wall. This surface plate creates turbulence of the fluid near the wall, which breaks the boundary layer but it may increases the pumping power. Also there is a need to give serious consideration to friction factor enhancement in case of solar air heater. In the present paper CFD analysis of air heater is carried out to design and optimize rib roughened surface to enhance friction factor and heat transfer in rectangular duct. Different roughened surface were analyzed. It is found that the absorber plate with rib inclination 58 (angle of attack) to the flow direction gave the best results. Artificial roughness on the underside of the absorber plate of the solar air heater enhances the rate of heat transfer from the absorber plate to the flowing air and enhances the thermal efficiency of such solar air heater. The percentage increase in the heat transfer is found to be approx. 30%. Also Reynolds number and Nusselt number are found to be maximum. 1. Introduction The conventional solar air heater is extensively used for space heating, crop drying and industrial applications at low and moderate temperature. The main thermal resistance to the convective heat transfer is due to the formation of laminar sub-layer on the heat-transferring surface. Artificial roughness on the air flow side of the absorber plate in the form of wires of various arrangements have been shown to create turbulence near the wall, to break the laminar sub-layer for single phase flow in rectangular ducts. Extensive experimental studies have been carried out on the effect of roughness provided on absorber plate on the thermal performance (thermal efficiency) of solar air heaters. However the friction factor, and hence the pumping power required to propel the air through such solar air heaters also increase substantially. It has been pointed out that there is a need to give serious consideration to friction factor enhancement in case of solar air heater, and use only those geometries that does not increase the friction losses to great extent and provide substantial heat transfer enhancement. 2. Modeling in GAMBIT
It was quite impossible to construct and analyze the whole geometry of flow domain th because of tremendous computational efforts required therefore only 1/10 of the geometry is modeled. In order to suggest the orientation of the ribs on the absorber plate we created different geometries with different rib angles, also we gave the inlet conditions near about similar to that of the experimental setup. Whatever the results obtained through this analysis
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are compared within themselves and not with the experimental results. The version of GAMBIT that we had used was 2.2.30. The procedure for modeling the flow domain with 60 rib angle is as follows: The flow domain is created having the dimensions as Length equal to 14 cm, Height equal to 2.5cm, width equal to 25cm in positive XYZ plane. Cylindrical rib is created with length 3 cm, radius 1mm. Then rib is rotated through 60 to the flow direction. With the same rib 4 rows are created having 5 ribs in each row according to the geometry of the absorber plate. For designing the flow domain, ribs are subtracted from the flow domain created earlier in order to get a single volume. These flow domains are shown in figure 1 and figure 2. After completing the whole geometry it is exported as *.msh file, so that it can be accessible in FLUENT. In a similar way different flow domains were created with different rib angles such as 54, 56, 58, 62, 64.
Figure 1. Flow domain showing 60 orientation of circular section rib and meshing
Figure 2. Flow domain showing 60 orientation of square section rib and meshing 3. Analysis in FLUENT-the post processor Fluent is basically a post processor for analyzing the CFD problems. The version of the Fluent we used is 6.2.16. Fluent basically solves the three principle equations which govern the fluid flow are: - Continuity Equation (conservation of mass), Momentum Equation (Nevier Stokes Equation) Energy Equation (Conservation of Energy)
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As the flow is turbulent, K-epsilon is selected as turbulent model for further analysis of the problem. Energy equation is also kept on as a heat transfer model. Air is selected as fluid material. Now the different boundary conditions are velocity inlet with air velocity equal to 2.07256m/s, Pressure outlet with zero gauge pressure.
Figure 3. Velocity vectors colored by velocity mignitude
Figure 4. Velocity vectors colored by static temperature The absorber plate having uniform temperature 346.77 K is given and all the other walls are considered to be completely insulated with zero heat flux. No slip condition is applied to all the walls. This problem was set to iterate for 325 iterations within which the problem was well converged according to the set convergence criteria. The analysis carried out in Fluent as discussed earlier gave different results for different orientation and cross section of rib. From figure 3 and figure 4 it is clear that near the rib portion turbulence is created which enhances the heat transfer from plate to fluid. This enhancement in heat transfer will vary with different orientation of rib.
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4.
The analysis carried out in Fluent as discussed earlier gave the results as shown in the table Table 6.2. Heat transfer rates for different rib angles Rib Angle In degrees Without ribs 54 56 58 60 62 64 Heat transfer obtained In J/s 49.8034 64.3923 64.6208 64.8327 64.3273 63.6488 63.2953
From the results shown above it is clear that the results obtained for the 58 rib angle is maximum. About 30 % heat transfers is increased for 58 angle of attack to the flow direction. As the heat transfer is maximum for 58 angle of attack. Therefore the rib is optimized to 58 orientation. So different geometries were checked for the 58 orientation of the rib. The different geometries used for the rib were circular, square & triangular. These geometries were used because they are easy to manufacture than other complicated geometries. The results are tabulated as follows. Table 6.3. Heat transfer obtained for different geometries Geometry cross section and orientation 58 Circular Triangular Square Heat transfer obtained In J/s 64.8327 64.2079 65.0224
From above table the heat transfer obtained is maximum for square cross section of the rib. So orientation 58 and square cross section for metal grit rib was optimized to get maximum heat transfer. Table 6.4. Reynolds number and Nusselt number for different orientation and cross section of metal grit. Geometries Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical Triangular Square Angle (degrees) 54 56 58 60 62 64 58 58 Reynolds Number (Re) 7408.44 7453.27 7554.568 7515.45 7478.95 7426.16 7395.29 7596.97 Nusselt Number (Nu) 25.48 25.60 25.88 25.77 25.67 25.53 25.44 25.99
Following table gives the values of Reynolds number and Nusselt number for different geometries and angles of ribs. Reynolds number is a measure of the turbulence of flow and as turbulence increases Reynolds number increases, it is maximum at 58. Nusselt number
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compares the heat transfer by convection and heat transfer by conduction. It is maximum for square cross section. Dittus Boelter Equation : Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr
0.4
When fluid is being heated.
By using this equation Nusselt number is calculated from the respective Reynolds number numbers. 5. Conclusions The results have been discussed earlier. The main conclusions drawn from this result is presented here, 1. Artificial roughness on the underside of the absorber plate of the solar air heater enhances the rate of heat transfer from the absorber plate to the flowing air & enhances the thermal efficiency of such solar air heater. 2. Amongst the different orientations analyzed in CFD, the absorber plate with rib inclination 58 to the flow direction gave the best results. 3. Again amongst the different geometries of the rib analyzed for the absorber plate with rib inclination 58 to the flow direction, the square cross section of the rib was found to be giving maximum heat transfer. 4. As per CFD analysis the percentage increase in the heat transfer for 58 rib inclination plate over smooth plate is found to be 30% approximately. 5. Reynolds number and Nusselt number are found to be maximum for square cross-section with 58 rib angle. Refrences [1] S.V. Karmare, Dr. A.T. Pise, Dr. A.N. Tikekar. Experimental study of solar air heater with metal grit ribs. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2007. [2] John D. Anderson. Computational Fluid Dynamics. Jr. McGraw Hill International Editions. [3] Giovanni Tanda. Heat transfer in rectangular channels with transverse and V-shaped broken ribs. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2006 [4] Kazuya Tatsumi, Hiroshi Iwai, Kyoji Inaoka, Kenjiro Suzuki. Numerical Analysis for Heat Transfer Characteristics of an oblique discrete rib mounted in a square duct. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2006.
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Investigation of Natural Convection Heat Transfer from an Array of Heat Sources in a Rectangular Enclosure
S.Venkatachalapathy *, M.Udayakumar , P.K. Nomesh
1 2 3
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli 620 015, Tamilnadu, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: svc@nitt.edu) Air cooling is widely used for the cooling of electronic equipment and many other devices. Though heat transfer rates are high in forced convection, natural convection is preferred when the rate of heat removal is low. In this work, an experimental study of natural convection heat transfer from an array of heat sources simulating electronic component is conducted. The experimental results are compared with the results of numerical analysis using the CFD software, FLUENT. The heat sources with a constant heat flux source at the bottom are of square cross-section and arranged in an in-line manner. The 54 array of heat sources are embedded in the bottom wall of an adiabatic rectangular enclosure. The experiment is carried out by varying the air inlet and outlet opening areas and heat fluxes. The steady state temperatures of heat sources are measured at fixed time intervals by thermocouples which are connected to a 60-channel data acquisition system and a computer. The rate of heat transfer, heat transfer coefficient, Nusselt number and Grashof number are obtained. Results show that the temperatures of heat sources in the inner rows are higher. The heat transfer coefficient increases almost linearly with heat source surface temperatures. The Nusselt number is found to be a strong function of Grashof number and inlet and outlet opening areas. There is a good agreement between the experimental results and the results obtained by numerical analysis. 1. Introduction
The performance of electronic components depends on their operating temperature. An efficient cooling is required to maintain the temperatures within the specified range. Higher heat transfer rates can be achieved in forced convection but it requires additional components like fan or pump and the associated problems of noise, vibration and increased cost. Natural convection is preferred when the rate of heat removal is low because of its simplicity and lower cost. A two-dimensional numerical study on natural convection in enclosure with flush mounted heat sources was performed by Bazylak et al. [1], Bilgen and Balkaya [2]. The effect of heat source length and spacing on heat transfer was investigated. Baskaya et al. [3] investigated experimentally the heat transfer from heat sources array in a rectangular channel. Surface temperatures were measured and the effect of Reynolds number on Grashof number was studied. Edmilson et al [4] performed a 2-D, numerical study on natural convection in enclosures with square and circular rods. Isothermal and adiabatic conditions on the walls were imposed and the effect of number of rods on heat transfer was investigated. Madhavan and Sastri [5] studied numerically the heat transfer from protruding heat sources in an enclosure using the FLUENT software. Effect of Rayleigh number on Nusselt number was obtained and a correlation was proposed. Tso et al [6] presented the experimental and numerical results of flow patterns and temperature contours for natural convection from multiple heat sources in a rectangular cavity. The heat sources were flush mounted and water was used as fluid instead of air and the heat transfer was increased significantly. Forced convection cooling of protruding heat sources was studied experimentally by Huzayyin et al. [7]. The surface temperatures of heat sources were measured and the effect of Reynolds number on heat transfer coefficient was investigated. Heat transfer from heat sources in a rectangular channel was investigated experimentally and numerically by Bhowmik et al. [8] with 4 in-line chips. The effect of heat
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flux, fluid velocity and chip numbers on heat transfer parameters were presented for natural, mixed and forced convection conditions. Tou et al [9] numerically investigated the effect of enclosure aspect ratio and Prandtl number on the heat transfer characteristics of a heater array in rectangular enclosure. The Prandtl number was varied by using different fluids. Not much work has been done on the effect of inlet and outlet opening areas on heat transfer and comparison of the parameters like surface temperatures, heat transfer coefficients and Nusselt number for various heat fluxes based on experimental and numerical studies. Nomenclature 2 A heat source surface area, m Cp specific heat at constant pressure, J/kg.K g acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 4 2 GrH Grashof number based on heat source height = gqH /k 4 2 GrL Grashof number based on heat source length = gqL /k H heat source height, m h heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K L heat source length, m NuH Nusselt number based on heat source height = QH/kATlm NuL Nusselt number based on heat source length = QL/kATlm Pr Prandtl number Q heat transfer rate, W 2 q heat flux, W/m Tlm log mean temperature difference, C T temperature, C u, v & w velocity components in the x, y and z directions respectively Subscript avg average Greek symbols -1 thermal expansion coefficient, K 2 kinematic viscosity, m /s 2. Experimental setup
In the present work, an experimental study of natural convection heat transfer from an array of heat sources is conducted. The 54 array of in-line heat sources protrudes 9 mm into the enclosure. Each heat source has a cross-section of 20 mm 20 mm. The heat sources are fixed at the bottom wall of the enclosure having dimensions 350 mm 340 mm 96 mm. The enclosure has all adiabatic walls. Inlet is provided at the bottom of one side wall and outlet at the diametrically opposite on top wall. The inlet and outlet areas are varied viz. 2 2 31015 mm (full open) and 3107.5 mm (half open). A heater with back insulation attached at the bottom of the heat sources supplies uniform heat flux. Each heat source is attached with one K-type thermocouple which is fixed 2 mm under its surface. Thus there are 20 thermocouples attached to the heat sources and 2 thermocouples to monitor the air inlet and outlet temperatures. The thermocouples are connected to a 60-channel Agilent Data Acquisition System and a computer. Power input to the heater is calculated by measuring the voltage and current. The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. Uniform heat flux is applied to all the heat sources and steady state conditions are maintained. Radiation effects are neglected in this study since the temperatures encountered are relatively low and emissivity of the heat source surfaces is small. The experiment is carried out by varying the air inlet and outlet opening areas (case 1 full open inlet and outlet; case 2 half open inlet and outlet) and heat fluxes. The inlet, outlet and heat source temperatures and heater power input are measured at fixed time intervals.
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1 20 : Heat Sources
Figure 1. Experimental setup Numerical procedure The commercial CFD software, FLUENT version 6.1 is used for numerical analysis, which uses the finite volume technique. The geometry is created in GAMBIT and a fine mesh is used near the heat sources. The fluid used is air and Boussinesq approximation is used which treats the density as constant in all the equations, except for the buoyancy term in the momentum equation. Boundary conditions at the enclosure walls are u = 0, v=0 and w = 0. T/x = 0, T/y = 0 and T/z = 0 The governing equations of mass, momentum and energy and the boundary conditions are discretized with QUICK scheme and segregated solver is used. PRESTO is used for pressure discretization and SIMPLE algorithm is used for pressure-velocity coupling. 3.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 Heat Source No.
50 W/m^2 110 W/m^2 195 W/m^2 290 W/m^2 380 W/m^2
100 90
Temperature (C)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 Heat Source No.

30 W/ m^2 60 W/ m^2 115 W/ m^2 160 W/m^2 225 W/ m^2
Figure 2. Surface temperature variations for full open inlet and outlet (310 15 mm2) 2 mm ) 4. Results and discussion
Tem perature (C)
Figure 3. Surface temperature variations for half open inlet and outlet (310 7.5
The steady state temperatures are plotted for full open inlet & outlet areas in Figure 2 and half open inlet & outlet areas in Figure 3 for different heat fluxes. For maintaining the surfaces at the same temperature, the heat flux required for half open is considerably less compared with full open and the rate of heat transfer in half open is much reduced. The heat
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sources in the inner rows are at higher temperatures than the one in the outer rows and heat sources in the first row are relatively cooler since, they are exposed to room air.
70 65
T em p eratu re (C)
T em peratu re (C)
70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20
Numerical (30 W/m^2) Expt (30 W/m^2) Numerical (60 W/m^2) Expt (60 W/m^2)
60 55 50 45 40 35 30 0 4 8 12 16 20 Heat Source No.

Numerical (50 W/m^2) Expt (50 W/m^2) Numerical (110 W/m^2) Expt (1 W/m^2) 10
12
16
20
Heat Source No.
Figure 4. Surface temperatures for full open inlet and outlet - experimental and numerical
Figure 5. Surface temperatures for half open inlet and outlet - experimental and numerical
Figure 6. Effect of avg. surface temperature on heat transfer coefficient - experimental

7 6 5
Nu L
Figure 7. Heat transfer coefficient for full open - experimental and numerical
3 2.5 2
Nu H
4 3 2 1 0 0.0E+00 5.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.5E+05

Full Open Half Open
1.5 1 0.5 0
Full Open Half Open
2.0E+05
2.5E+05
2000
4000 GrH
6000
8000
10000
GrL
Figure 8. Influence of Grashof number on Nusselt number (along heat source length)
Figure 9. Effect of Grashof number on Nusselt number (along heat source height)
The surface temperature variations for full open and half open are plotted and the experimental and FLUENT results are compared in Figures 4 & 5. There is a good agreement between the two and the maximum temperature difference is around 4C. Since perfect insulation of the heater is not possible, there will be heat losses to the surroundings and measured values are less than the numerical results. The heat transfer coefficient increases with both temperature and area as shown in Figure 6. When the area is halved, the heat transfer coefficient is also reduced by almost half for the given temperature range.
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Figure 7 compares the experimental and numerical values of heat transfer coefficients. Figures 8 & 9 show the variation of Nusselt number with Grashof number along the length and height of the heat source. Since the heat source height is very low, the associated Nusselt number is also small. 5. Conclusions
An experimental and numerical investigation has been carried out to find the natural convection heat transfer from an array of heat sources inside an enclosure with uniform heat flux applied at the heat source bottom surface. The steady state temperatures are measured and the rate of heat transfer, heat transfer coefficient, Nusselt number and Grashof number are obtained. The experimental results are compared with the results of numerical analysis using FLUENT software. It is found that heat sources in the first row are cooler and those in the third row are the hottest. The heat transfer coefficient increases almost linearly with surface temperature and the variation of Nusselt number with Grashof number shows the same trend along the heat source length and height. Hence, while arranging the electronic components, lower heat generating components can be placed in the inner rows and the components generating higher heat may be placed in the outer rows, close to the air inlet. References [1] Bazylak, A., Djilali, N., and Sinton, D. Natural convection in an enclosure with distributed heat sources. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A, 49, 2006, 655667. [2] Bilgen, E. and Balkaya, A. Natural convection on discrete heaters in a square enclosure with ventilation ports. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 29, 2008, 1182 1189. [3] Baskaya, S., Erturhan, U. and Sivrioglu, M. An experimental study on convection heat transfer from an array of discrete heat sources. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 32, 2005, 248257. [4] Edimilson, B., Braga, J. and Marcelo J.S. de Lemos. Laminar natural convection in cavities filled with circular and square rods. International Communications in heat and Mass Transfer, 32, 2005, 1289 1297. [5] Madhavan, P.N. and Sastri, V.M.K. Conjugate natural convection cooling of protruding heat sources mounted on a substrate placed inside an enclosure: a parametric study. Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering, 188, 2000, 187 202. [6] Tso, C.P., Jin, L.F., Tou, S.K.W. and Zhang, X.F. Flow pattern evolution in natural convection cooling from an array of discrete heat sources in a rectangular cavity at various orientations. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 47, 2004, 4061 4073. [7] Huzayyin, A.S., Nada, S.A., Rady, M.A. and Faris. A. Cooling an array of heat sources by a row of slot air jets. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 49, 2006, 2597 2609. [8] Bhowmik, H., Tso, C.P. and Tou, K.W. Analyses of Convection Heat Transfer from Discrete Heat Sources in a Vertical Rectangular Channel. Journal of Electronic Packaging, 2005, Vol. 127 / 215. [9] Tou, S.K., Tso, C.P. and Zhang, X. 3-D numerical analysis of natural convective liquid cooling of a 33 heater array in rectangular enclosures. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 1999, 42, 3231-3244. [10] Incropera, F.P. and Dewitt, D.P. Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. John Wiiley & Sons, 1996.
395
A Mathematical Approach for Paraboloid Dish Collector Designing

Subhash Y. Kamdi*, Rajesh E. Thombre, Subroto Dutt Rajiv Gandhi College of Engineering, Research and Technology, Chandrapur 442 403, Maharashtra, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: kamdi_5618@rediffmail.com ) Performance of paraboloid is sensitive with respect to design parameters and operational conditions. Moreover the testing of solar concentrating collector of various size has been carried out at various places around the world but a universal standard testing procedure is not available, because of geographical variation of locations[1]. Performance analysis of concentrator normally carried out with flowing mass to extract heat generated. At the same time computation of aperture area of such devices conventionally have done with the help of trigonometry [8]. In this paper a new but analytical method has suggested, as in comparison; analytical method is more software friendly as well as suits the designer for selecting limits for system designing. Use of renewable energy technology based devices may reduce the burden on electricity requirement of rural part and be a strong supplement to Rural Electrification Programme at the same time is a tool for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). This paper proposed a new mathematical approach to design the paraboloid dish to determine aperture area as the useful energy output depends on the parameter and is helpful in the optimum design. Extensive experiments have been carried out and using an efficiency equation the performance and useful energy output of paraboloid has been evaluated. 1. Introduction
Indian Power Sector Reform is still in transition phase, uninterrupted reliable quality proper tariff are few unresolved issues[3]. The energy needs of rural people are of two fold electrical and other forms of energy supply. Use of renewable energy technology based devices may reduce the burden on electricity requirement at the same time is a tool for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Illiteracy and economic problems are the main constraints observed in developing & under developed countries for the use of renewable technologies. But their traditional knowledge based approach makes them familiar with the new technologies, if and only if such knowledge revised in a manner sociable to them. One can design the paraboloid using locally available materials, so that the device will be cheaper. Rural people may upgrade the system design for their cottage industry applications in turn will generate employment to strengthen village economy & social life. Money saved can be used for food, education, health care, etc [10] as sustainable rural development. Solar dish concentrator [1,6] at Latur (Maharashtra) installed for milk pasteurization. 2 is a Fresnel paraboloid reflector with 160m aperture area having cavity receiver at its focus. Ministry of Non Conventional Energy Source (MNES) with the collaboration of IIT Delhi have published a test procedure report. In that a detailed method about how to test a Solar Concentrator alongwith the material specifications are mentioned[18]. Installation and Performance Evaluation of Paraboloid type Community and Domestic Solar Cooker, University of Pune, Test Report Number 12/5/97/ST, 2000 [12], the same line of work is carried in that. In all the above referred work test procedure in detail is discussed and the material specifications either mentioned or referred. How to compute energy out put, evaluation of performance and requisite mathematical approach have not discussed. State of art of paraboloid designing is also not mentioned. The present paper has dealt all the above
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mentioned aspects in detail, with a view to provide a common format to perform laboratory studies for presentation and interpretation of test results in academic institutions. 2. Theory
A paraboloid is a surface produced by rotating a parabola about its optical axis. Paraboloid is a three dimensional parabola. One can imagine it as a cut section of a sphere very similar to a Satellite Dish or inverted Umbrella. Owing to circular symmetry of the design, it produces a point image of a parallel beam of light. Paraboloids in principle can be manufactured in a similar manner as cylindrical parabolic troughs. Parabolic trough was linear extension of parabola and gives a linear focus, while paraboloid is a 3-d extension and gives theoretically a point focus. Fig.(1) shows the unique reflecting properties of the parabola. Fig (2) attempts to give an intuitive understanding of deep focus vs. shallow focus parabolas. Each curve represents a different arch length of the same parabola, at varying magnifications. The curve on the far left is an enlargement of the vertex region of the curve of the far right. Each curve has the same focal point.
Fig. 1. Reflecting Properties of Paraboloid Fig. 2. Aperture Area Vs. Focal Point The aperture area of the dish can be determined with the help of mathematical equation of parabola and an attempt is made to give an understanding of the design concept shown in Fig(3).
Fig. 3. Geometry of PDC A parabola is expressed as :
x2 4 a y
differentiation of this universal equation gives
(1)
x'
a y
(2) Parabola is a two dimensional geometrical figure, to convert it into a three dimensional figure,limits (Parabola is a two dimensional geometry which on revolution between y=0 & y=H about y axis generates paraboloid of height H, fig. 3) have been set to get a paraboloid. Area of paraboloid can be expressed as:
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Aa 2 x 1 x '
0
y
dy
2
substituting equation 1 & 2 in it generates
a 2 2 a y 1 dy y 0
Aperture area of paraboloid is
3/ 2 8 a D 2 Aa a a3/ 2 . 3 16a
(3)
The above equation, reveals that, if the diameter and height of the dish are known as well as varied, then one can get the aperture area . Selection of proper aperture area helps in optimum design. Computation of energy out put of paraboloid can be expressed as follows [2]: qu = o Ib Aa - UL (Tabs Tamb) Aabs (4) C = Aa / Aabs = o - [ UL ( Tabs Tamb ) / C Ib ]. (5) The optical efficiency depends on reflectivity, absorptivity and emissivity of the collector material. It is easily seen that the useful energy output from the dish depends on aperture area. To maximize the collector efficiency one can decrease the total heat losses from the absorber aperture by decreasing the absorber area. 3. Result and Discussions Graph 1. Experimental results
TIME Vs. UL,Eff,Tabs & Tamb On 15/01/2008
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 10 11
U l (W/m 2-K)
12
1 TIME
(%)
5
Tam b(0C)
Tabs (Avg) (0C)
Table 1. Experimental Results Time -> Ib(w/m ) U (m/s) qu (w)

2
10.00
11.0 0 519 6.9 574. 4
12.0 0 603 7.3 681. 4
01.00
02.0 0 518 6.6 571. 3
03.00
04.00
05.00
Avg.
342 6.8 362.4 7
596 7.0 665.5 3
398 6.3 436.3
247 6.0 229.5
132 5.4 84.08
419.37 6.537 450.64
398
ql (w) UL(w/m k (%)

2
164.1 4 30.45
224. 7 30.2 6 54.7 2
247. 1 31.7 2 55.8 6
252.1 8 30.77
226. 2 29.3 4 54.5 3
176.5
150.8
119.1 6 26.23
195.11
28.91
27.75
29.42
52.41
55.2
54.20
45.99
31.63
50.56
Equation 3 relates focal point and aperture area of paraboloid dish collector that helps in optimum designing, also to get higher energy output from any dish, selection of proper aperture area & higher concentration ratio are the decisive parameters. Equation 4 & 5 shows that the efficiency and the useful heat gain depend on the concentration ratio too. The higher the concentration ratio, higher is the efficiency and useful heat gain at the same time lower is the heat loss coefficient. The experimental results ( table 1 & Graph 1) shows that useful thermal energy delivered by the dish collector during the day was obtained 450.64 Watt and 2 the overall heat loss coefficient was 29.42 W/m -k while the efficiency of the system was found 50.56 % over the period of 8 hours. The results obtained by the above equations and the experiments exactly match with the results of [1]. It depicts that at the region with higher solar insolation compromise with the material selection doesn't affect the efficiency of the device very much [2]. 4. Conclusions
Renewable energy use is an emerging strategy among developing & underdeveloped countries. Governments are taking initiatives but due to many constraints, there uses are very much restricted. Lack of academic know-how, partial technical information, illiteracy & finance problem at rural level are few of them . At the same time it will be helpful for laboratory purpose for the students of developing & underdeveloped countries. To evaluate and compute energy out put from paraboloid is more easier using proposed analytical approach than trigonometrical one. This analytical approach to compute aperture area suits to designer to develop a software for optimum designing of dish. This approach also provides paraboloid designing state of art. It is observed that the efficiency of the collector depends on the concentration ratio which is directly related to aperture and absorber area. Higher concentration ratio gives higher temperature, hence efficiency. At rural level one can design the paraboloid using locally available materials, so that the device shall be cheaper. Rural people may upgrade the system design for their cottage industry applications in turn will generate employment to strengthen village economy & social life. Lack of information regarding designing of such devices is the main constraint for the end user for repair, maintenance as well as innovative upgradation of the same. This work can be further extend in optimum designing of paraboloid using locally available material that can be easily assembled whenever required and perform tests accordingly. This paper wishes to develop: rural people as a traditional designer cum maker cum user of paraboloid, by eliminating academic complications. Such an approach may be supplement to Rural Electrification Programme of Government of India. Nomenclature o = Optical efficiency of the collector 2 Aa = Aperture area, m 2 Aabs = Absorber Area, m Tabs = Absorber surface Temperature Tamb = Ambient Temperature 2 Ib = Radiation receive normally (Intensity of beam radiation), w/m 2 UL = Collector heat loss coefficient , W/m -k C = Concentration Ratio a = focal length of parabola, m
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D = Diameter of paraboloid dish, m2 y or H = Height of dish, m References [1] [2] V.Rakesh Sharma,S.J.Bhosale, S.B.Kedare, J.H.Nayak. Field test of the performance of paraboloid solar concentrator. Advance Energy Research (AER-2006) 182-187. Subhash Kamdi, Rajesh Thombre, Subroto Dutt. Performance evaluation of paraboloid dish collector. National Conference on non Conventional Energy Sources, Institution Of Engineers (Nagpur Chapter), Nagpur, 9-10 Feb.2008, 8-10. Subhash Kamdi, Amit Akkewar, Subroto Dutt. Industrial and Agriculture Energy Consumption Scenario and Power Sector Reform. National Conference on non Conventional Energy Sources, Institution Of Engineers (Nagpur Chapter), Nagpur, 910 Feb.2008, pp 190 195. N.M.Nahar. Potential and prospects of solar thermal power plants in India, Advances in Renewable Energy Technologies. Narosa Publishing house, New Delhi, India, 2003, 24-34. M.Eck,W.D.Steinmann. Modelling and design of direct solar steam generating collector fields. Journal of Solar Energy, 127, August 2005, 371-380. Dr. Shireesh B. Kedare, Ashok D. Paranjape, Rajkumar Porwal. ARUN: Solar Concentrator for Industrial Process Heat Applications,http://www.ircc.iitb.ac.in/update/. S.P.Sukhatme. Solar Energy. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company,New Delhi. H.P.Garg, J.Prakash.Solar Energy.Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company,New Delhi. N.R.Kaswan. Energy Resources And Economic Development. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1992, 5-6. Pradeep Chaturvedi. Rural Energy For Sustainable Development. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1998, 4-6. Sakal Daily News Paper. A Story of Recent Status of Biogas Plant, Brahmapuri Taluka, Nagpur Edition 19.12.2007. School of Energy Studies (SES).Installation and Performance Evaluation of Paraboloid type Community and Domestic Solar Cooke. University of Pune, Test Report Number 12/5/97/ST, 2000. http://www.ircc.iitb.ac.in/update/ . info@solarcookers.org . http://europa.eu.int/com/research/rtdinfo_en.html . http://www.techfast.org/competitions/life2.0/solex/SolEx_Tutorial.pdf http://www.humboldt.edu/~ccat/solarcooking/parabolic/parabolic_solar_cooker_pg_3_ht ml.htm . http://mnes.nic.in/pdf/test_proc_dish_cooker.pdf .
[3]
[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]
400
DESIGN MODIFICATION IN CROSS-FLOW TURBINE

Md Asif Saghir and R.P. Saini Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 247667, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: asifahec@gmail.com) The cross-flow turbine, also known as Michell-Banki turbine in honour of two of its inventors and early developers, is a hydraulic turbine that may be classified as an impulse turbomachine with partial admission suitable for micro hydro power. However the rectangular water jet issuing from the nozzle crosses the blade region twice. It is claimed that the entry side contributes about 75% of the power extracted from the water and the exit side contributes the remainder. The designer of the locally manufacturer claims about 60% efficiency. The main advantage of the crossflow turbine is easy and inexpensive construction. The efficiency of such cross-flow turbines can further be improved by providing the guide tube. In this paper, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of flow using guide tube has been carried out in order to improve the efficiency of cross-flow turbine. Numerical simulation of 10 kW cross-flow turbine using commercial Navier-Stokes code called FLUENT has been carried out. In first step the creations of 2-dimensional and 3dimensional computational model of cross-flow turbine in GAMBIT and then numerical simulation is carried out by using FLUENT. The simulation is carried for different types of guide tubes in 2 and 3-dimensions. It is found that, the maximum efficiency of the cross-flow turbine is 72.58% with 3D model. 1. Introduction Cross flow turbine is considered the most appropriate turbine for micro hydro plants. Lot of work has been reported for performance improvement of cross flow turbine. The turbine is a two stage energy transfer type; the flow from stage I to stage II remains unguided [1]. There is a scope to improve the efficiency of cross flow turbine by providing a guide tube between stages I to stage II. In order to analyze the efficiency of cross flow turbine by providing a guide tube CFD based design modification in cross flow turbine has been carried out. Effect of interior guide tubes in cross flow turbine runner on turbine performance was studied by, Hayati Olgun. The guide tubes used in the experiment did not improve the turbine efficiency due to chocking effect. The maximum efficiency thus obtained was 64 percent. Using the interior guide tubes, the maximum efficiency obtained was decreased from 75 to 65 percent, because of increasing friction and choke losses in the runner [2]. The development of the high speed computer and the evolution of the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) have a great influence on the engineering design and analysis of the turbo machinery. In the past decades, permitted by the increase in the capability of coming with complex geometry and complex flows and reduction in computational time and costs, the CFD methodology has emerged to become an efficient approach for collecting information to improve engineering design of turbo machinery [3].
*
401
2.
Cross flow turbine considered for the presented study A 10 kW cross flow turbine under rated head of 15 m has been taken for the present study. The other related parameters of the turbine have been computed by using design expressions of the cross flow turbine. Salient features of the cross flow turbine considered are given in Table-1.
Table 1. Salient features of cross flow turbine considered for present study. Rated Head Rated Discharge Rated Turbine Output Rated Speed No. of Runner blades Outer diameter of runner Inner to outer diameter ratio Runner width 15 m 0.094 m /s 10 kW 375 rpm 24 170 mm 0.54 114 mm
3
3.
The numerically simulated flow field for 2-D and 3-D of the cross flow turbine is analyzed to investigate the turbine performance. Comparison of results obtained with different turbulence models namely standard k-, k-, and k- SST have been carried out [4]. 3.1 Runner with guide tube in 2D
Figure.1 shows the velocity contours of the flow in the turbine. The velocities with different magnitudes are shown by the different colors and are depicted in the legend shown on the left hand side of the figure.1 The top curve of the figure is the nozzle which is the velocity inlet o of the flow. The nozzle covers 90 and the total numbers of the blades considered are 24. So the o angle between the center of the shaft and any two blades is 15 . Figure 1 shows the variation in velocity from entry of the nozzle to the exit of the turbine. It varies from 17.44 m/s to 25.90 m/s inside the nozzle. This is due to constricted passage of the nozzle at exit. At the center of runner velocity has been observed as 15 m/s, this velocity it strikes the lower portion of the blade. Further it is seen from the Figure.1 that water is striking the inlet of the blade at II stage with the velocity of 15 m/s. At the exit of runner the magnitude becomes 7.5 m/s which is shown by reddish yellow portion on the left and right hand side contour of the velocity in the Figure.1.
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Figure 1. Velocity Contours in 2D Table-2 shows the comparison of efficiency with different models namely, k-, k- standard and k- SST model are available with FLUENT [5]. A comparison of results obtained with each of them has been carried out. The comparison is carried for the flow rate 0.094 m3/s at rotational speed 375 rpm and is shown in Table-2. From Table-2 it is also clear that the cross flow turbine with guide tube in 2-dimensional has maximum efficiency 72.58 obtained using K- SST model.
Table 2. Comparison of CFD results with different models with guide tube in 2D Model k- k- k- SST H (m) 15 15 15 Q (m3/s) 0.094 0.094 0.094 (%) 69.28 71.36 72.28
(where, Q is discharge, H is head, and is turbine efficiency) 3.2 Runner with guide tube in 2D
The next case under consideration is the flow analysis of 3-dimensional runner of cross flow turbine with guide tube. The Figure.2 shows the velocity contours for this case. As in previous case the velocity profiles are similar for the first set of blades. The region of variation of velocities is further narrowed down in the guide tube portion. The values of velocities are varying from 17.44 m/s at the inlet of the nozzle to 14.5 m/s in the guide tube and the II stage of the runner it reaches to 13.9 m/s to 2.9 m/s on the exit side of the turbine.
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Figure.2: Velocity Contours in 3D
Table-3 shows the comparison of the results with different models which is used in the analysis of cross flow turbine with guide tube in 3-dimensional model. From Table-3 it is clear that the efficiency of 3-dimensional model is better than the 2-dimensional model of the turbine. From Table-3 it is also clear that the cross flow turbine with guide tube in 3-dimensional has maximum efficiency 74.58 obtained using K- SST model. Table 3. Comparison of CFD results with different models with guide tube in 3D Model k- k- k- SST H (m) 15 15 15 Q (m /s) 0.094 0.094 0.094
3
(%) 69.36 73.49 74.58
(where, Q is discharge, H is head, and is turbine efficiency)
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4.
Conclusions Different turbulence models namely, standard k-, k-, and k- SST are available with FLUENT. A comparison of results obtained with each of the turbulence model for 2D and 3D cases. The comparison is carried out for the rated head 15 m, flow rate 0.094 m 3/s at rotational speed 375 rpm and is shown in Table-2, and Table-3. The following conclusions have been made:
i.
ii.
iii.
The CFD analysis with all turbulent models is done on same computer system. The standard k- model requires the lowest computational time compared to the other models. The CFD analysis with all turbulent models is carried out and it is observed that results obtained with k- SST turbulence models are maximum in all cases. It is also found that three-dimensional model provides better results in comparison to two-dimensional model, i.e. 72.28% for 2-D and 74.58% respectively.
References [1] www.ossberger.de [2] Hayati Olgun. Effect of interior guide tubes in cross-flow turbine runner on turbine performance. International journal of energy research,24 , 2000, 953-964. [3] Shijin Huang. Analysis and design of a new updraft free -exit flow low head hydropower turbine System. 2002, unit no 3016762, Lowa. [4] Manual. FLUENT 6.3.26 Software and GAMBIT 6.3 Software. [5] Website- www.cfdonline.com.
405
Convective Heat Transfer Studies of a Cylindrical Heater using Digital Interferometry

Willi Bastin and V.Sajith
*
National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kerala, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: sajith@nitc.ac.in) . The experimental studies on free convection heat transfer from cylindrical surfaces has tremendous application in many industrial equipments such as condenser coils of refrigerators, fire tube boilers, heat exchangers etc. Convective heat transfer studies involve the measurement of temperature and optical methods are preferred in such situations, as intrusive methods affect the flow field ad brings measurement errors. The objective of the present work is to demonstrate the strength of digital interferometric techniques for the free convection studies of a cylindrical heater. Interferometric methods, which utilize the interference of coherent light beams, depend on additional phase difference introduced when coherent light beams pass through regions of different refractive indices produced by the temperature field. The parallel wedge fringe mode, which can be obtained easily by the alignment of optical components, is used as the initial setting of the interferometric configuration. Digital image processing techniques has been used for the subtraction of the undeformed fringes from the deformed fringes to obtain the isotherms around the cylindrical heater.The temperature distribution in radial directions around the cylindrical heater is obtained and hence the heat transfer parameters. Digital interferometric technique has been demonstrated as an excellent tool for heat transfer studies. 1. Introduction
Thermal management is one of the serious issues faced in the diversified fields of engineering and there are various cooling technologies available which can be basically classified as either passive or active. The passive techniques, such as free convection, which do not require external power, are simple and also more reliable, even though their performance is limited by the high heat flux applications. The experimental studies on free convection heat transfer from cylindrical surfaces has tremendous application in many industrial equipments such as condenser coils of refrigerators, fire tube boilers, heat exchangers etc. Hence convective heat studies of cylindrical surfaces holds lot of significance in the current scenario. Convective heat transfer studies essentially involve the measurement of temperature of the medium and test specimen under consideration. Conventional measurement techniques such as probe technique when used for the measurement of temperature distribution in the medium affect the flow field leading to measurement errors. Hence a non-intrusive method is always preferred in such situations. There are a variety of methods used for the measurement of temperature fields and among these optical methods are widely used due to their non intrusive nature. Most of the optical methods for the measurement of temperature fall under the category of Index of Refraction Method. In this method density and temperature associated with the flow field are calculated by the measurement of the refractive index in the medium as there is direct relationship between temperature, density and the refractive index. Interferometry has been used as a measuring tool in many engineering areas such as in heat transfer studies, stress analysis, acoustics, vibrations etc. Goldstein et al. [1] measured the heat transfer coefficients of a uniformly heated vertical plate using Mach- Zehnder Interferometry[MZI]. Sobhan et al. [2] used differential interferometric measurements to study the transient and steady state behaviour of heat dissipation from fin arrays in natural convection. Holographic interferometry was used by Herraez et al. [3] to study natural convection in air around horizontal cylinders of different diameters and equal length, involving different surface temperatures, with the aim of obtaining the corresponding temperature fields. Peterka and
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Richardson [4], and Anderson and Sounders [5] proposed the use of polynomial function for obtaining the temperature distribution. An approximate beam averaging approach for obtaining heat transfer rates in three dimensional fields was discussed by Naylor in his review [6]. Chhanival et al. [7] reported an interferometric investigation to determine the diffusion coefficient of transparent liquid solutions using the Michelson interferometer configuration. Ashjaee et al. [8] studied steady two-dimensional heat transfer from a horizontal, isothermal cylinder located underneath an adiabatic ceiling using MZI. Straatman et al. [9] measured temperature field between inclined isothermal plates using MZI, obtaining experimental results that were in excellent agreement with numerical results. Kwak et al.[10] used interferometric technique to visualize the temperature distribution around horizontal downward facing plates with rectangular grooves. Wright et.al [11] visualized the temperature field in a tall, air filled vertical cavity using MZI. The present work mainly aims at free convection heat transfer studies of a cylindrical heater in water. As non intrusive technique is essentially needed for such a study, Mach-Zehnder interferometric technique is proposed for the measurement of temperature distribution and hence heat transfer parameters. 2. Mach Zehnder Interferometry Interferometric methods utilize the interference of coherent light beams. The interference of coherent light beams results in a fringe pattern and when one of the beam passes through a refractive index field caused by heating, an additional phase lag is introduced between the beams. This additional phase shift results in the distortion of the fringe pattern, proportional to the temperature and hence the refractive index distribution in the medium adjacent to the heat dissipating surface. The amount of deformation of fringes is proportional to the temperature of the medium. The deformed fringe pattern is used for obtaining the temperature distribution in the medium and hence the local heat flux by performing numerical differentiation.The arrangement of the interferometric set up essentially consists of a He - Ne laser source, two beam splitters and two front coated plane mirrors, and the optics for collimating the beams and focusing the image. The expanded laser beam is split into two coherent beams by the first beam splitter. One of the beams passes through the test section and the other through the reference section, an unheated flow field identical in all other respects to the test section. The two beams are joined together by means of second partial mirror to form the fringe pattern, which contains information about the temperature distribution and is further digitally analyzed to obtain the temperature field. The method of obtaining temperature distribution in a liquid medium and hence heat transfer parameters, from the fringe pattern obtained by experimentation is described briefly below. The LorenzLorentz relation gives the relationship between the density of a homogenous medium and its refractive index for light, n2 1 C n 2 2 where, C is the Gladstone Dale constant, which is a characteristic of the medium. For water as the medium, Equation 1 modifies to n2 1 2 n 2 2 C 0.0032T 1.6415T 795.54 The above relation has been obtained by fitting a quadratic polynomial between density and temperature of water. The ideal interferometric equation can be written as nr - n = S
L
from which one gets

0.0032Tr2 1.6415Tr 795.94 = 1 , 0.0032T 2 1.6415T 795.4 (1 aS )
a= n 1
2
1 0.0032T 2 1.6415T 795.4 n 2 CL r r
where S is the fringe number, is the wave length of laser, L is the length of travel of laser beam Thus, Equation 5 gives a procedure suitable for obtaining the temperature on any fringe, by stepping from the known temperature at a reference fringe in the field, in the water
407
medium. Temperature gradient at the wall is obtained by the numerical differentiation of the temperature profile and hence the heat transfer parameters such as heat flux and heat transfer coefficient as follows
'' Local heat flux, q o x = -K T
= h (T - T ) x w y w
3.
Experimental setup The cylindrical heater used for the experimentation is enclosed in a tubular ceramic tile and is inserted into a stainless steel pipe, with insulated ends for preventing axial conduction. The heater is supplied with ac input through a dimmerstat. T type thermocouples, connected to Agilent Data logging system, were used for the measurement of reference and surface temperature. The optical components were properly aligned to obtain parallel fringes initially, and were captured by means of the CCD camera, which was used as the reference fringe. Two identical glass tanks containing equal quantity of distilled water were kept in the paths of the two beams of the Interferometer, ie test and reference beams. The cylindrical heater was fully immersed in the water contained in glass tank and was kept in the path of the test beam, in such way that laser passes along the length of the cylinder. Using digital image processing techniques isotherms were obtained around the cylindrical heater. 4. Digital image processing Digital image processing technique has been used for analyzing the fringe patterns obtained from the experiments and is demonstrated with the help of experimentation using vertical heater plate in ambient air. The optical components were aligned to obtain parallel fringes initially, which is due to the optical path length difference between the two interfering beams. The vertical heater plate was kept in the path of test beam and the parallel fringes thus obtained were captured by means of a CCD camera and digitally stored in a matrix, which was used as the reference fringe (fig.1a). As the heater plate dissipates heat, the initial parallel fringes deforms due to the change in refractive index caused due to the temperature variation in the medium. The deformed fringe (fig 1.b) contains the information about the temperature variation as well as the path length difference between the two beams. In order to obtain the temperature variation alone, the initial parallel fringes are digitally subtracted from the deformed fringes using Matlab software, developed for this purpose and the resulting Moir fringe pattern gives the isotherms around the heater plate, as shown in fig 1(c).
(a) Unheated condition
(b) Heated condition Figure 1. Fringe patterns
(c) Moire fringes (Isotherms)
The temperature of the outermost isotherm (reference) was measured using a T type thermocouple and by means of the interferometric relations, the temperature corresponding to the individual isotherms were obtained and hence the temperature distribution in the vicinity of the heater plate. Basically there are two methods of alignment of optical components used to obtain MZI set up namely, Infinite fringe mode and Wedge fringe mode. In infinite fringe mode the isotherms can be directly obtained, even though the alignment of the optical components is time consuming and requires high quality optics. In the wedge fringe mode, alignment is very easy which is the main advantage and isotherms can be obtained instantaneously by the online digital subtraction of the fringes obtained.
408
5.
Experiments were conducted by keeping the cylindrical heater in the path of the test beam and the deformed fringes formed due to heating were captured at different intervals of time. The initial parallel fringes are digitally subtracted as explained earlier to obtain the isotherms around the heater. Fig.2 shows the isotherms obtained at different instants of time obtained using the digital image processing techniques. As the isotherms can be obtained at each instant, digital interferometric technique is an excellent tool for the transient as well as the steady state heat transfer studies.
(a) 2 minutes
(b) 15 minutes
(c) 25 minutes
Figure 2. Isotherms obtained at different interval of time

309.45
Temperture (K)
309.4 309.35 309.3 309.25 309.2 309.15
0 30 60 90
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 Radial distance measured from the heater surface (mm)
Figure 3. Temperature distribution along the radial direction

25
Heat transfer coefficient
20
(W/m2K)
15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 Angle measured in degrees 80 100
Figure 4. Variation of Heat transfer coefficient along the surface of the cylinder The number of Moire fringes or isotherms around the cylindrical heater depends on the temperature of the heater surface. The isotherms were observed to be very closer near the bottom surface of the heater. Fig.3 shows the variation of temperature in the medium with the radial distance from cylindrical heater surface, at different angles in the range of 0 to
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90 , ie lower quarter portion of the heater. The temperature distribution was plotted linearly, as linear interpolation suits well in the region closer to the surface [3].The temperature was observed to be increasing from bottom to the middle part of the heater. Measuring the temperature of the reference fringe or isotherm, the temperature corresponding to all fringes was estimated. Fig.4 shows the variation of heat transfer coefficient along the surface of cylinder. The heat transfer coefficient was found to be decreasing from bottom of the cylindrical heater to top surface due to the thickening of the boundary layer. Heat transfer coefficient depends on the temperature gradient at the surface which can be estimated from the isotherms. 6. Conclusions The experimental investigation on the natural convection heat transfer from cylindrical surface has been conducted with the help of digital interferometric technique. A special configuration of the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer, based on the parallel wedge fringe mode, was used for the experimentation. Digital image processing techniques was used for obtaining the isotherms, by the digital subtraction of initial parallel fringes from the deformed fringes. The temperature distribution around the cylindrical heater has been obtained using the interferometric technique and hence the heat transfer parameters. The heat transfer coefficient was observed to be decreasing from bottom to the top surface of the cylinder due to the thickening of the boundary layer. Mach Zehnder Interferometric techniques coupled with the digital image processing techniques has been demonstrated as an excellent tool for the convective heat transfer studies under steady state as well as transient conditions. References [1] Goldstein,R.J and Eckert, E.R.G. The steady and transient free convection boundary layer on a uniformly heated vertical plate. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,1,1960,208-218. [2] Sobhan, C. B., Venkateshan, S. P. and Seetharamu, K. N. Experimental studies on steady free convection heat transfer from fins and fin arrays. Warme und Stoffubertrayun, 25, 1990, 345 - 352. [3] Herraez, J. V. and Belda, R. A study of free convection in air around horizontal cylinders of different diameters based on holographic interferometry. International Journal of Thermal Science, 41, 2002, 261 - 267. [4] Peterka.J.A and Richardson,P.D. Natural convection from a horizontal cylinder at moderate Grashof numbers. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,12, 1969, 749 - 752. [5] Anderson, J.T and Saunders,O.A. Convection from an isolated heated horizontal cylinder rotating about its axis. Proceedings of Royal Society of London, A 217, 1953, 16 22. [6] Naylor, D. Recent developments in the measurement of convective heat transfer rates by laser Interferometry. Int. Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 24, 2003, 345 - 355. [7] Chhaniwal, V. K, Arun Anand, A. and Narayanamurthy, C. S. Measurement of diffusion coefficient of transparent liquid solutions using Michelson interferometer. Jounal of Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 42, 2004, 9 - 20. [8] Ashjaee, M., Eshtiaghi, A.H, Yaghoubi, M and Yousefi, T. Experimental investigation on free convection from a horizontal cylinder beneath an adiabatic ceiling. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 2007, Accepted for publication. [9] Straatman, A. G,Naylor. D, Floryan, J. M. and Tarasuk, J. D. Study of Natural Convection Between Inclined Isothermal Plates. ASME Journal of Heat transfer, 116, 1994, 243 - 245. [10]Kwak, C. E. and Song, T. H.Natural convection around horizontal downward-facing plate with rectangular grooves: experiments and numerical Simulations. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 43, 2000, 825 - 838. [11]Wright, J.L, Jin, H, Hollands, K.G.T. and Naylor, D. Flow visualization of natural convection in a tall, air-filled vertical cavity, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 49, 2006, 889 - 904.
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SOLAR ENERGY AND ITS APPLICATION

B. Sampath Kumar1*, B.S.Samaga2
1
St. Joseph Engineering College, Vamanjoor, Mangalore 575028, India 2 NMAMIT, Nitte 574110, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: sampathkumar1701@yahoo.co.in)
Energy is an essential requirement for the development of a country. Mankind has been depending on many conventional energy sources all these days. But, now a stage has reached in the world to search for new resources of energy since all the conventional sources are depleting in the nature. This is mainly because of the increase in industrial development, population and per capita energy consumption. Solar energy is a very important renewable source of energy which is finding numerous applications in the present state of energy crisis. The application of solar energy are water heating, space heating, power generation, space cooling and refrigeration, distillation, drying and cooking. Solar water heater is one such application. In the present work a study of some important performance characteristics of a modern evacuated solar water heater has been made with an economic analysis. 1. Introduction
Man has needed energy to do the work. In the olden days the man used biomass to supply the energy needs for cooking as well as for keeping himself warm. After the years the population is increased and in the same way the demand for energy increases. Technical advances in solar water heating have been very rapid in the last 40 years. The obvious benefits to the house holder can no longer be over looked, where the climate is ideally suited for the application of solar energy for water heating. In the present situation of acute energy shortage, solar water heaters find wide applications not only in large establishments but also for domestic applications. They offer number of advantages such as simplicity in construction, negligible maintenance and zero running cost, etc [1, 2]. Basic principle on which solar water heaters work is thermosyphon behaviour of water. The principle states that the cold water settles at the bottom of a tank by pushing the hot water up. The sketch given below (Figure 1) schematically shows how solar energy is utilized to heat the water by using this principle.
Figure 1. Principle of solar water heating [3]
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The simple solar heater consists of a system of concentric tubes. It is known as Evacuated Tubular Type (ETT). The outer tube is made of a transparent material like glass while the inner one is also a glass tube but with Al-Ni coating. This coated tube is known as absorber tube since the falling radiations are absorbed by this tube. This system of concentric tubes is connected to a cylinder that stores water. The assembly is kept in an inclined manner with storage tank at the upper most level. The purpose of providing inclination is to ensure the absorption of maximum quantity of solar radiation. The system is charged with sufficient water. The solar radiation passing through the outer transparent tube gets absorbed by the inner tube. This heats up the water stored in the inner tube. Due to difference in densities of hot and cold water natural flow of water begins. Cold water starts coming down and hot water moves up. Over a period of time, whole of water stored in the tank becomes hot. In the present study the performance of ETT solar water heater is investigated. Also an attempt is made to carry out an energy cost analysis to compare the solar water heater with heaters employing other sources of energy. 2. Experimental The photograph of the ETT solar heater is given in the Figure 2.
Figure 2. Photograph of ETT solar water heater The specification of the ETT solar water heater used in the present investigation is given below: Capacity of the heater : 200 L Number of tubes : 30 Diameter of the outer transparent tube : 47 mm Diameter of inner absorber tube : 37 mm Length of the tubes : 1500 mm Tube materials : Borosilicate Absorber materials : Al- Ni/Al coating Reflector : Aluminum sheet Tank material : SS 304 Tank insulation : PUF The ETT solar heater was set on the ground in appropriate position facing south in order to receive maximum solar radiation. Thermocouples were installed at the inlet and outlet water pipes. Water flow rate was estimated by measuring the time required for the flow of one liter of water. Thermocouple readings were recorded at every one hour interval during test period.
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3. 3.1
Results and Discussion Performance Evaluation The solar radiation was calculated by using the relation [4]: Ig = Ibn cosz + Id (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
where, Ibn =A exp(- B/ cosz) Ib = Ibn cosz Id = C * Ibn cosz = sinsin + coscoscos Qu = Ac. FR.[S - Ul (t f,I - ta )] Watts where, FR = (m Cp )/( Ac. Ul ){ 1- eUl = 1.1366 W/m F = Uo/ Ul Uo = {(1/ Ul) + (Do/hiDi) + (Do ln [Do/Di]/2K)} c % = (Total heat gain )/( Collector area * Total solar radiation) = (Qu)/( Ac * Ig ) % S = Ig *( * ) F = FR/ F
" ' ' 2 [F'. U / (m Cp / Ac)] } l
(0.20 * 5.6830 = 1.1366 From Ref 1) (8) (9)
(10) (11) (12)
Figure 3 shows the variation of solar insolation with time. It is observed that the solar insolation increases with time and reaches maximum at12-13 hours and then decreases. This trend is observed every day. From Figure 4 it is observed that the total heat gain is directly proportional to absorbed solar radiation on the collector. It is maximum during 12-13 hours.
1100 1000 Solar insolation ( W/m 2) 900 800 700 600 500 400 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Duration in hrs
Figure 3. Variation of solar insulation with time
413
1600 Total heat gain in Watts 1400 1200 1000 800 600 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Duration in hrs
Figure 4. Variation of Total heat gain with time From Figure 5 it is observed that the heat removal factor depends upon the mass flow rate. As the mass flow rate increases the heat removal factor also increases. From Figure 6 it is observed that the collector efficiency depends upon the collector area and total solar insolation i.e. Ig. As the solar insolation increases the collector efficiency also increases and vice versa.
0.80 Heat removal factor 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.0011
0.0013
0.0015
0.0017
0.0019
Mass flow rate in Kg/s
Figure 5. Variation of heat removal factor with mass flow rate

55 Collector efficiency in %
54
53
52
51 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Duration in hrs
Figure 6. Variation of collector efficiency with time
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3.2
Economic Analysis ETT of 100 to 300 LPD capacities are suited for domestic application.
According to persons in the family, 200 LPD system is suited for 1 to 6 people (one family). The ETT available in India gives a hot water at 60 to 80 C. Considering the above data, the electrical energy consumption per year to heat the 200 Litre is calculated as follows [5]. Water/day using electrical heater is as follows. Out put energy (Energy received by water) Out put energy (Energy received by water) = Mass * Specific heat * Rise in temp. = 7000 k cal. = 8.14 kWh (since, 1 kWh = 860 kcal) Assuming 80% efficiency of electrical water heater, The energy consumption = 8.14/0.8 = 10.18 kWh The electrical consumption per year = 365 * 10.18 = 3,716 kWh. Yearly saving in Rs. For domestic consumer = Rs. 4.10 * 3,716 kWh = Rs. 15,236.00 Cost for 200 LPD ETT is Rs. 25,000.00. Interest @ 10.75% per year on the compound interest. Installment made for 65 months. Total interest for 65 months = Rs. 7927.00. Installation charges = Rs. 500.00. Total charges = Rs 33,427.00 Pay Back Period = Net investment or capital cost/Net annual Savings. = Rs 33,427.00/ Rs. 15,236.00. = 2.19 years = 26 months. After this period the savings obtained becomes profit.
4.
Conclusion
From the Experiments conducted on an ETT water heating system the following conclusions are drawn. 1. Heat removal factor depends upon the mass flow rate. It is directly proportional to the mass flow rate and is in the range of 70 to 85%, which is acceptable. 2. The collector efficiency for a given mass flow rate is a function of total heat gain by the system, which in turn depends on the solar insolation. 3. The maximum efficiency is found to be 54.05%, which occurs during 12-14 hrs of the day. 4. An economic analysis shows that ETT solar heating system is a wide choice to replace electrical heating system with a pay - back period of 26 months for the investment made. References [1] H.P. Garg and J. Prakash. Solar energy fundamental and applications. Tata McGraw-Hill st Publishers, New Delhi, 1 Revised Edition, 2000. th [2] G. D.Rai. Non-conventional energy sources. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi 4 Edition,1996. [3] http://www.solar1,mech, u.com nd [4] Sukhatme S.P. Solar energy. Tata McGraw-Hill Publicashers, New Delhi. 2 Edition, 1999. [5] http://www.vpmthane.org/publication- energy source/Alternate Energy/ebook PDF.
415
Preparation and Characterization of Bio Diesel from Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs)
Saroj K.Padhi*, R. K. Singh National Institute of Technology,Rourkela-769008, Orissa , India * Corresponding author (Email: sarojpadhi@yahoo.com) Bio-diesel attracted considerable attention during past decade as it is a renewable,
biodegradable and nontoxic fuel. In the present study non edible Tree borne oil seeds (TBOs) like Mahua, Karanja and jatropha were undergone through esterfication followed by transesterifiation with methanol in the presence of sodium methoxide as catalyst. The 0 transesterification reaction was carried out at 70 C for 2 hours keeping the molar ratio of methanol to oil at 6:1 and sodium methoxide concentration of 0.5 weight percentage of oil. Experimental investigation has been done to find out the different properties of Mahua oil, karanja oil and Jatropha oil. A comparison between theoretical and experimental value of important properties are made for Mahua, karanja and jatropha oil . Studies were
carried out on transesterfication of non-edible oil with methanol for the production of Mahua Oil Methyl Ester (MOME), Karanja Oil Methyl Ester (KOME) and Jatropha Oil Methyl Ester (JOME). Under optimal condition the yield of Mahua oil methyl ester from Mahua oil is about 95%,Karanja oil methyl ester from Karanja is 97.8
% and Jatropha oil methyl ester from jatropha oil is 98.4 %. The comparison of fuel properties are made between Mahua, Karanja, jatropha oil methyl ester and Diesel. Then, the same was compared with ASTM and DIN standard. The various properties of methyl esters are found to be comparable with that of diesel fuel.
1.
Introduction In the last few years interest and activity in bio diesels has grown dramatically across the globe. The use of edible oil to produce bio diesel in India is not feasible in view of big gap in demand and supply of such oil. In India, as edible oils are in short supply, non-edible tree borne oilseeds (TBOs) of karanja, Jatropha , Mahua, are being considered as the source of SVO and biodiesel. India has more than 300 different species of trees, which produce oilbearing seeds [1]. Around 75 plant species, which have 30% or more fixed oil in their seeds or kernel, have been identified [2]. The current utilization of non-edible oilseeds is very low .Short term tests using neat vegetable oil showed promising results, longer tests led to injector coking, more engine deposits, ring sticking and thickening of the engine lubricant [3]. These experiences led to the use of modified vegetable oil as a fuel. Although there are many ways and procedures to convert vegetable oil into a Diesel like fuel, the trans-esterification process was found to be the most viable process [4]. Biodiesel, in application as an extender for combustion in Diesel engine , has demonstrated a number of promising characteristics, including reduction of exhaust emissions [5]. Transesterified oils have proven to be a viable alternative Diesel engine fuel with characteristics similar to those of Diesel fuel. Its physical and chemical properties required for operation of diesel engine are similar to petroleum based diesel fuel. [6] Transesterification is a chemical reaction that aims at substituting the glycerol of the glycerides with three molecules of monoalcohols such as methanol thus leading to three molecules of methyl ester of vegetable oil. [7]. The molecular weight of ester molecule is rd 1/3 of oil and low viscosity. However, higher ratio of alcohol to oil is generally employed to obtain biodiesel of low viscosity and high conversion [8]. Alkali-catalyzed transesterification is very fast compared to acid catalyzed [9-10]. Methanol and ethanol is widely used in the transesterification because of low cost [11]. The alkali hydrolysis of the oil must have acid value <1 and moisture content of <0.5%. The acid catalyst is the choice for transesterification when low-grade vegetable oil used as raw material because it contains high free fatty acid (FFA) and moisture. Acid catalyst as sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used for esterification process. In this study, Mahua oil methyl ester (MOME), Jatropha oil methyl ester (JOME) and (KOME) are prepared by using alkali catalyst as sodium methoxide (NaMeOH) by transesterification process.Bio diesel from mahua [12-16] ,Karanja and jatropha[17] seed is important because
416
most of the states of India are tribal where it is found abundantly and contain in the range of 25-45 percent fatty oil 2. Characterization The characterization of oil is physical, chemical and thermal properties. Physical properties include Viscosity, Density, Cloud Point, Pour Point, Flash Point (FP) and Chemical properties comprise chemical structure, Iodine Value (IV), Acid Value (AV), Saponification Number (SN), hydroxyl value, acetyl value, overall heating value, ash and sulphur contents, water and sediment residues, oxidation resistance, ignitability and chemical degradation products. The thermal properties are distillation temperature, thermal degradation point, carbon residue, specific heating value and thermal conductivity. Physical and chemical properties are determined by using standard test methods [18]. These standard values are calculated and compared with USA (ASTM D6751), Germany (DIN 51606), India (BIS) and European Organization (EN 14214). Flash point, Fire point, Viscosity, cloud points, Pour point (PP), Cetane number, Carbon residue, Acid value, Iodine value, Saponification number (SN) etc are determined [19-22]. 3. Oil processing technology of tree borne oil seeds (TBO s) Although oil extraction can be done with or without seed coat, for jatropha, utilization of a mechanical de hulling system (to remove the seed coat) can increase oil yield by 10%.Choosing efficient extraction methods can increase the yield by more than 5%. While in cold pressing (<60C), around 86 88% efficiency is achieved, hot pressing (110 120C) can increase it to around 90%. On the other hand, the solvent extraction method enhances the efficiency up to 99%. A disadvantage with the solvent extraction is that the quantity of phospholipids in solvent extracted oil is twice as high as compared to pressed oil. This necessitates a further step of oil de gumming before trans-esterification. Oil extraction methods are also being developed based on fermentation hydrolysis. In this process, cell walls of the oil plant seeds are destroyed followed by the release of the oil present within the cells [23]. This new method not only produces higher quality of oil and cake but also requires much less energy and results in lower levels of environmental pollution. The efficiency so far obtained is 86% and more research is needed to develop an effective enzyme system.After extraction of oil from seed the detoxification of the seed cake is necessary so that the seed cake can be used as cattle feed. From Several investigations it is found that de-acidification and bleaching could reduce the content of toxic phorbol esters to 55% [24]. Efficiency of the treatment also depends upon the type of toxic component present in the seedcake and the effective detoxification techniques. 4. Experimental Biodiesel can be produced by a variety of esterification technologies. The oils and fats are filtered and preprocessed to remove water and contaminants. If free fatty acids are present, they can be removed or transformed into biodiesel using special pretreatment technologies. The pretreated oils and fats are then mixed with an alcohol (usually methanol) and a catalyst (usually sodium methoxide). The oil molecules (triglycerides) are broken apart and reformed into esters and glycerol, which are then separated from each other and purified. 4.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTION The reactor used for experiments was a 1000 ml three-necked round-bottomed flask. The flask was placed on a mantel heater of 300 watts capacity, whose temperature could be o controlled within + 2 C. One of the three necks was equipped with a condenser and the other two were used for thermo well and for sample collection respectively. A thermometer was placed in the thermo well containing little glycerol for temperature measurement inside the reactor. The central neck was adapted to a paddle blade impeller with a glass stirrer. The stirrer rod was passing through the neck using Teflon cap. The motor was connected to a speed regulator for adjusting and controlling the stirrer speed. 4.1.1. Esterification A known amount of non edible tree borne Oil (Karanja, jatropha, Mahua) was taken in the above-mentioned setup. Heat was supplied to the setup using a heating mantle. A known amount of sulphuric acid in Methanol was added to the oil and stirred continuously 0 maintaining a steady temperature of 64 C. Reaction time was conducted for two hours. Intermittently samples were collected at regular intervals (30min) and acid value was determined. After the confirmation of complete reduction of acid valve to 0.1-0.5, the heating
417
was stopped and the products were cooled. The remaining product was analyzed for acid value and it was found that the acid value varied from 0.1 to 0.5. This oil sample was further treated for transesterification step to obtain methyl esters. 4.1.2. Transesterification In a typical experiment a known amount of oil was charged to a three necked round bottom flask. Solution of known amount of catalyst sodium methoxide was prepared in methanol. The solution and the rest required amount of methanol was added to the oil sample. After proper closing of the flask it was put on mantle heater. The system was maintained airtight to prevent the loss of alcohol. The reaction mix was maintained at temperature just above the boiling point of the alcohol i.e. around 70C to speed up the reaction. Recommended reaction times varied from 1 to 2 hours. Excess alcohol was normally used to ensure total conversion of the oil to its esters. The formation of methyl ester was monitored by using thin layer chromatography technique. Coated silica gel glass plates were spotted with vegetable oil and the sample of ester. The spotted samples were developed in solvent system in glass chamber using solvent ratio of 80:20 hexane/ether by volume. This confirms the formation of methyl esters. This procedure was followed for all the samples collected at regular interval of time to check the formation of methyl ester. After the confirmation of completion of methyl ester formation, the heating was stopped and the products were cooled and transferred to a separating funnel. The ester layer containing mainly methyl ester and methanol and the glycerol layer containing mainly glycerol and methanol were separated. The pH level of both layers were measured and neutralized separately. For neutralization a known amount of sulfuric acid in methanol was added to both the layers separately to neutralize the sodium methoxide present in them. The traces of methanol present in ester layer were recovered in a distillation column under control vacuum. Distilled methanol was weighed and stored in sample bottle. Similar procedure was adopted to recover the traces of methanol present in glycerol layer. The methyl ester was washed and dried under vacuum to remove traces of moisture. A sample of esters was analyzed for acid value by using standard AOCS procedures for standardization. The sample of glycerol layer was analyzed for glycerol content by using AOCS procedure. The glycerol content was found from 80 to 85 %. 5. Result and Discussion Various fuel properties of Jatropha, karanja, Mahua oils and their methyl esters were determined experimentally to ascertain their suitability as diesel fuel. 5.1. Characterization 5.1.1 Characterization of Mahua, jatropha and karanja oil A comparison between theoretical and calculated value of important chemical properties like Acid value, Saponification value, and Iodine value are made for Mahua, jatropha and karanja oil. From the study it is found that like mahua, karanja and jatropha oil are very much suitable for the production of biodiesel (Table 1). A comparison of fuel properties are made between mahua oil, jatropha, karanja oil and diesel. Then, the same was compared with ASTM and DIN standard in Table 2. 5.1.2. Characterization of Mahua, jatropha and karanja oil Methyl Esters A comparison of fuel properties are made between mahua, jatropha, karanja oil methyl esters and diesel. Then, the same was compared with ASTM and DIN standard in Table 3. From the various properties, it is found that the calorific values of these methyl esters in the range of 36.0 to 41MJ/Kg, which are lower as compared to diesel fuels (42.0MJ/Kg). The methyl ester however, has higher cloud and pour points than conventional diesel fuel. This is important for engine operation in cold (or) cooler environments. Kinematic viscosities are within the range of ASTM standard.The cetane values are slightly higher than diesel, which is favorable for combustion. Flash point and Fire point are higher providing safer transport. 6. Conclusions During esterification processes the high Free Fatty acid of crude Mahua, jatropha and karanja oil reduced to less than 1 to 0.5% by using acid catalyst (4 % H2SO4). Transesterification was 0 carried out with alkali catalyst (5 % Sodium Methoxide) at 70 C for 2 hr and methanol to oil ratio is 6 : 1 . The yield of Mahua oil methyl ester from Mahua oil is about 95%,Karanja oil methyl ester from Karanja is 97.8 % and Jatropha oil methyl ester from jatropha oil is 98.4%. A comparison between theoretical and experimental value of important chemical properties
418
like Acid value, saponification value and iodine value is made for different vegetable and non edible oil. The details are available in Table: 4. the comparison of fuel properties are made between mahua, jatropha ,karanja oil and diesel. Then, the same was compared with ASTM and DIN standard in Table 5. and the comparison of fuel properties is made between mahua, jatropha, karanja oil methyl ester and diesel. Then, the same was compared with ASTM and DIN standard in Table 6. The various properties of MOME,JOME and KOME are found to be comparable with that of diesel fuel. Table 1. Comparison of theoretical and experimental value of different properties of Jatropha,Karanja and Mahua oil
Vegetable oil Calculated value of saponification value 196-200 186-196 190-195 Unit kg/m
2 3
Theoretical value of saponification value 199.24 190 191 Mahua oil 960 25 232 250 15 4 0.90 3.70 -29.0 65 191 35 --
Calculated value of Iodine value 96-105 80-90 60-65
Theoret-ical value of Iodine value 101 96 63
Calculated Acid Value
Theoretical Acid value
Jatropha Karanja Mahua Property Density at 15 C Viscosity at 40 C Flash point Fire point Pour point Water content Ash content Carbon residue Sulphur content Acid value Iodine value Saponification Calorific value Cetane number
5.31 20 18.38 Diesel 850 2.60 70 76 20 0.02 0.01 0.17 -0.35 42 46 ASTM D 6751-02 875-900 1.96.0 >130 >65 -<0.03 <0.02 0.05 <0.8 ----
8 24 27 DIN EN 14214 860900 3.55.0 >120 >70 -<0.05 <0.02 <0.3 -<0.50 ----
Table 2. Comparison of Fuel properties of Mahua,jatropha,karanja oil, & diesel

Jatropha oil 918 35.4 186 --6 5 0.7 0.3 0.02 5.31 101 199 33 23 Karanja oil 932 41.8 230 -6 5 0.014 1.51 0.007 5.91 96 190 32 --
mm /s C C C % % % % mg KOH/g --MJ/kg --
Table 3. comparison of Fuel properties of mahua ,jatropha ,karanja oil methyl Ester and and Diesel
Property Density at 15 C Viscosity at 40 C Flash point Fire point Pour point Cloud point Water content Ash content Carbon residue Acid value Iodine value Saponification Calorific value Cetane number -MJ/kg -Unit kg/m
2 3
MOME 872 5.2 208 230 6 7 0.03 0.01 0.20 0.41 60 130 41 51
JOME 880 4.84 162 -6 -3 0.05 0.014 0.025 0.24 104 190 37.2 51.6
KOME 877 4.6 205 4 7 0.05 0.01 0.24 0.31 91 187 36.00 55
Diesel 850 2.60 70 76 16 -12 0.02 0.01 0.17 0.35 --42 46
ASTM D675102 875-900 1.96.0 >130 >65 --<0.03 <0.02 -<0.8 ----
DIN EN 14214 860900 3.55.0 >120 >70 --<0.05 <0.02 <0.3 <0.50 -----
mm /s C C C C % % % Mg KOH/g
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References [1] Subramanian, K. A., Singal, S. K., Saxena, M., Singhal, S. Utilization of liquid Biofuels in automotive diesel engines: An Indian perspective. Biomass and Bioenergy, 29, 2005, 65 72. [2] Azam A. M., and Nahar N. M. Prospects and potential of fatty acid methylesters of some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2005, Article in Press. [3] Tiwari S, Saxena M, Tiwari SK. Mahua-oil-based resins for the high-temperature curing of fly ash coatings. Journal of applied polymer Science, 87(2), 2003, 110-120. [4] Ma F, Hanna MA. Biodiesel production: a review. Biores Technol, 70, 1999,115. [5] Altin R, Cetinkaya S, Yucesu HS. The potential of using vegetable oil fuels as fuel for Diesel engines. Energy Convers Manage, 42, 2001, 52938. [6] Srivastava, A and Prasad, R. Triglycerides-based diesel fuel. Renew. Sust. Oil Energy Rev.4, 2000,111-133. [7] Sihna S, Bhardwaj D, Gupta PK. Study of Different Parameters of transesterification process for the preparation of sunflower oil based biodiesel. Biomass and Bio energy, 13, 2004, 501-505. [8] Phuan S, Vedaraman N, Ram BVB, Sankarnarayanan G, Jeychandran K. Mahua oil(Madhuca Indica) methyl ester as biodiesel preparation and emission characteristics. Biomass and Bioenergy, 28, 2005, 87-93. [9] Hideki F, Akihiko K, Hideo N. Biodiesel fuel production by transesterification of oils. Journal of bioscience and bioengineering, 92(5), 2001, 405-416. [10] Ghadge SV, Reheman H. Biodiesel production from mahua (madhuca indica) oil having high free fatty acids. Biomass and bioenergy, 28, 2005, 601-605. [11]Pramanik K, Srivani K, Chandra V. Catalytic studies on transesterification of jatropha oil for use as diesel fuel. Indian chemical engineering congress, 2000 Dec,18-21. [12] Agarwal AK, Das LM. Biodiesel Development and Characterization for use as a Fuel in Compression Ignition Engines.Journal of engg for For Turbines and power,123,2001,440447. [13] Ram BVB, Ramanathan V, Phuan S, Vedaraman N. A Process for the preparation of bio diesel from mahua oil by Transesterification. Indian chemical Engg.Journal, 14(2),2004,12-15. [14] Phuan S, Vedaraman N, Sankaranarayanan G, Ram BVB. Performance and emission study of mahua oil (madhuca indica oil) ethyl ester in a 4-stroke natural aspirated direct injection diesel engine. Renewable energy, 30, 2005, 1269-1278. [15] Azam MM, Waris A, Nahar NM. Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl esters of some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass and Bioenergy, 29, 2005, 293-302. [16] Carraretto C, Macor A, Mirandola A, Stoppato A, Tonon S. Biodiesel as alternative fuel: Experimental analysis and energetic evaluations, Energy, 29, 2004, 2195-2211. [17] Katwal RPS, Soni PL. Biofuels: an opportunity for socioeconomic development and cleaner environment. Indian Forester, 129(8), 2003, 93949. [18] Knothe G, Matheaus AC, Ryan TW. Cetane numbers of branched and straight-chain fatty esters determined in an ignition quality tester. Fuel, 82, 2003, 971-975. [19] Antolin G, Tinaut FV, Briceno Y, Castano V, Perez C, Ramirez AI. Optimization of Biodiesel production by sunflower oil transesterification.Bioresource Technology, 83, 2002, 111-114. [20] Kalam MA, Masjuki HH. Biodiesel from palm oil- an analysis of its properties and potential. Biomass and Bioenergy, 23, 2002, 471-479. [21] Goud VV, Patwardhan AV, Pradhan NC. Studies on the Epoxidation of Mahua oil (Madhuca Indica) by hydrogen peroxide. BioresourceTechnology, 97, 2006, 1365-1371. [22] Chiu CW, Schumacher LG, Suppes GJ. Impact of cold flow improvers on soybean biodiesel blend. Biomass and Bioenergy, 27, 2004, 485-491. [23] Janulis,P.Reduction of energy consumption in biodiesel fuel life cycle.Renewableenergy,29, 2004, 861 871. [24]Haas, W., Mittelbach, M. Detoxification experiments with the seed oil from Jatropha Curcas. Industrial crops and products, 12 (2), 2000, 111- 118.
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Modelling and Stress Simulation of Centrifugal Compressor

Phull Gurlovleen Singh, Satish kumar , Saroj Kumar Mohapatra
* *
Thapar University Patiala-147004 Corresponding author (e-mail: satish.kumar@thapar.edu )
Centrifugal compressors are used in process industries today especially in gas service industries.Pro-E software and Ansys as a tool can be used for simulation of the flow field characteristics inside the turbo machinery. Numerical simulation makes it possible to visualize the flow condition inside a centrifugal compressor, and provides the valuable hydraulic design information of the centrifugal compressor. Present work is aimed to analyze the stress and velocity distribution inside the compressor passage using the Pro-E and Ansys software. Computer ++ program code in C has been developed to calculate the dimensions of the compressor components. 1. Introduction
In conventional design method of centrifugal compressor, efficiency is the function of specific speed, which is available in form of graph, empirical correlation in various text books and references. The design of centrifugal compressor involves a large number of inter dependent variables, so there are several possible alternative designs for same duty. But in practical, efficiency has direct influence due to change of flow pattern, Reynold number, relative eddies in the impeller blade passage .The empirical loss correlation method has been developed, which is well documented in standard references [3, 4, 7]. Recent studies using the same method have been carried out by [4, 5] and many others. Takagietal [1] formulated loss models for leakage flow and disc friction based on their measurement of centrifugal pump at three different specific speeds.Engin and Gur [5] surveyed a number of available loss correlations and found satisfactory set of models for almost the full range of operating conditions of low specific speed compressor. Present work is aimed to analyze the stress and velocity distribution inside the compressor passage using the Pro-E and Ansys soft wares. 2. Design of Centrifugal Compressor
Present work is carried out under the following assumptions, the flow comes in through the inlet without any pre-swirl, the flow in the van less space is of a free-vortex type, and the volute casing is constructed of gradually increasing circular cross-sections with a constant average velocity. For design of the centrifugal compressor input data are design specifications, geometrical and hydraulic variables, given below. Geometrical and hydraulic parameters are calculated with the help of conventional design methods. 2.1 Design Specification
Design of the compressor input data: volume flow rate, total pressure ratio, specific speed, density of air, operating air viscosity. 2.2 Geometric parameter
Vane angle, number of vanes, impeller discharge width, hub/tip ratio, inclination of the mean stream line to axial direction.
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2.3
Hydraulic parameter
Flow coefficient, head coefficient, blade velocity, relative velocity and other hydraulic parameter needed to describe the flow direction and magnitudes become direct function of geometry 3. Modeling of Centrifugal Compressor
A 3-D flow simulation is carried out on an impeller of a radial flow centrifugal compressor using ANSYS-CFX computational code. Modelling of the impeller has been generated using Pro/ENGINEER foundation module which is shown in Figure1. The material of the impeller has taken alloy steel, X5CrNi13.4. Surface constraints has selected on the inner surface of the hub with translation in all the three directions x, y, z and rotation in z axis which is shown in fig.1.1 and 1.2.
Fig 1.1 Rotational about Z-axis 3.1 Boundary Conditions
Fig 1.2 Fixed Displacement in X, Y, Z direction
The Shear-Stress-Transport (SST) turbulence model is used for the flow simulation of the rotating impeller of the centrifugal compressor and the boundary conditions used for the flow simulation are summarized in the table 1.1. Table 1.1. Boundary condition Parameters Flow simulation domain Grid Fluid Inlet Outlet Periodic Wall Turbulence model Discretization Maximum residual convergence criteria Boundary Conditions Single impeller flow channel Structured Air at standard conditions Pressure along rotation axis Imposed mass flow rate Two symmetry surfaces positioned in the middle of the blade passage No Slip SST model Second order 10-6
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4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.1.3 Stress at hub of the impeller at speed in rpm. (a) 1050 (b) 1250, (c) 1450
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig.1.4 Deformation at hub of the impeller at speed in rpm (a) 1050, (b) 1250, (c) 1450
1.8 1.6 1.4

Stress (M Pa)
2 1.8 1.6
S tress (M P a)
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Radial Distance (cm) Stress at Fixed Edge Stress at Free Edge
1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Radial Distance (cm) Stress at Fixed Edge Stress at Free Edge
(a)
(b) Fig 1.5 Stress -radial distance at (a) 1050rpm, (b) 1250 rpm
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1.80E-03 1.60E-03
D e f o r m a tio n (m m )
Deform ation (m m )
1.80E-03 1.60E-03 1.40E-03 1.20E-03 1.00E-03 8.00E-04 6.00E-04 4.00E-04 2.00E-04 0.00E+00 Deformation at Fixed Edge Deformation at Free Edge
1.40E-03 1.20E-03 1.00E-03 8.00E-04 6.00E-04 4.00E-04 2.00E-04 0.00E+00 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Deformation at Fixed Edge Deformation at Free Edge
10
12
14
16
Radial Distance (cm)
Radial Distance (cm)
(a)
(b) Fig 1.6 Deformation -radial distance at (a) 1050rpm, (b) 1250 rpm
Fig 1.3 and 1.4 show that the stress and deformation distribution on the hub of the impeller at the 1050 rpm, 1250 rpm, 1450 rpm speed. The result shows that the stress increases with speed, but are under the safe limit. Fig. 1.5-1.6 show that the side of blade which is fixed with hub is having more stress than the side which is free at all the speed. Similarly, deformation at side which is fixed is more than the side which is free at all the speed.
Fig 1.7 Pressure at the blade
Fig 1.8 Pressure at the meridional surface
Fig.1.7 and 1.8 show that pressure is minimum at the inlet of the suction side increases gradually and is maximum at the centre of the blade.
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Fig 1.9 Pressure - streamwise locations
Fig 1.10 Velocity - stream wise locations
Fig 1.9 & Fig 1.10 show that the pressure and velocity distribution along streamwise location, with increases the streamwise location pressure and velocity increases. 5. Conclusions
A numerical model of an impeller has been generated and the complex internal flow fields and stress distribution are investigated by using the Ansys-CFX computational code. The internal flow is not quite smooth in the suction and pressure side of the blade due to non tangential inflow conditions which results in the flow separation at the leading edge. Stress distribution and deformation of the impeller is depends with speed of the rotation. Pressure and velocity distribution inside impeller of the centrifugal compressor has direct influence due to change of stream wise location. Similar computational simulation models can also be used for analyzing the pressure, velocity and stress distribution of the turbines, pump, fan and blower. References [1] Takagi T., Kobayashi J. Miyashira H. Performance prediction of single suction blower of different specific speeds. ASME Journal of turbo machinery, 1980, 227-234. [2] Miner, S. M. 3-D Viscous Flow Analysis of an Axial Flow Impeller. International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 3, 1997, 153-161. [3] Majidi, K. and Siekmann H. E. Numerical calculation of secondary flow in pump volute and circular casings using 3-D viscous flow techniques. International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 6, 2000, 245-252. [4] Medvitz, R. B., Kunz, R. F., Boger, D. A., Lindau, J. W., and Yocum, A. M. Performance analysis of cavitating flow in centrifugal pumps using multiphase CFD. Proceedings of ASME Fluids Engineering Conference, May 29 - June 1, 2001, New Orleans, Louisiana. [5] Engin, T. and Gur, M. Performance characteristics of a centrifugal impeller with running tip clearance pumping solid-liquid mixtures. American Society of Mechanical Engineering, 123, 2001, 532-538. [6] Baun, D. O. and Flack, R. D. Effects of volute design and number of impeller blades on lateral impeller forces and hydraulic performance. International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 9, 2003, 145152. [7] Zhou, W., Zhao, Z., Lee, T. S., and Winoto, S. H. Investigation of flow through centrifugal pump impellers using computational fluid dynamics. International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 9, 2003, 4961. [8] Kochevsky1, A. N., Nenya, V. G. Contemporary approach for simulation and computation of fluid flows in centrifugal hydro machines. International Journal of Physics, 36, 2004, 167-186. [9] Hergt, P., Meschkat, S. and Stoffel, B. The flow and head distribution within the volute of a centrifugal pump in comparison with the characteristics of the impeller without casing. Journal of Computational and Applied Mechanics, 5, 2004, 275-285. [10] Xu, C. and Muller, M. Development and design of a centrifugal compressor volute. International Journal of Rotating Machinery, 3, 2005, 190196. [11] Gonzlez, J., and Santolaria, C. Unsteady flow structure and global variables in a centrifugal pump. Journal of Fluids Engineering, 128, 2006, 937-946. [12] Anagnostopoulos, J. S. Numerical calculation of the flow in a centrifugal pump impeller using cartesian grid. International Conference on Applied and Theoretical Mechanics, Venice, Italy, 2006, 134-154.
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Proc. Of the International conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
Three Dimensional CFD Analysis of Wind Turbine Blade for Aeroelastic Applications
R. A. Savanur1, Sharanappa V. Sajjan2, Vidyadhar Y. Mudkavi2
2
BLDEAs College of Engg. & Tech., Bijapur 586 103, Karnataka, India Computational and Theoretical Fluid Dynamics Division, N at i o n al A er o sp a ce L a b or at o ri e s ( CSI R ), B a ng al or e 5 60 0 3 7, Kar n at ak a, I n di a Corresponding author (e -mail: rasavanur@yahoo.co.in)
Unsteady three-dimensional Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes solver (IMPRANS) is used for the simulating quasi-steady flow around wind turbine blades. IMPRANS is based on an implicit finite volume nodal point scheme with Baldwin-Lomax algebraic eddy viscosity model for turbulence closure. The governing equations for the moving domain are solved using the dual time stepping procedure in an inertial frame of reference. In-house designed 500 kW Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine blade with customized aerofoils are analyzed using IMPRANS for various wind speeds and different flexed blade shapes due to aeroelastic effects. The analysis shows that the power increases for the rated wind speed of 12m/s due to flexure. While the extent of power increase is different for different wind speeds, the power actually decreases for 20 m/s case. The results are compared with those of Panel Method which is an inviscid linear code. In general, the trends agree well and the incremental effects can be used effectively for design estimates. 1 Introduction
Recent emphasis on exploiting renewable energy from natural resources like wind, water and sun has prompted development of new and efficient technologies. A particular example of this renewed effort is provided by the wind turbines that are now being used in many countries. Most of the wind turbines in use are mainly designed to operate at higher wind speeds prevailing in countries in upper latitudes like Europe and North America. They will be suboptimal if installed in India owing to lower wind conditions. Therefore, new designs are needed. Towards this end, National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) started a project to develop low speed horizontal axis wind turbine with 500 kW output at 12 m/s as design point. The turbine also features downwind, teetered and stall regulated twin-blades. New aerofoils were designed [1] to meet the performance requirements and extensive analyses of these profiles and 3D blades were carried out using in-house codes such as IMPRANS [2] and Panel Code [3]. The complex nature of three-dimensional viscous unsteady flow field around a wind turbine blade proves to be challenging. The rotating blade experiences strong radial velocity that leads to concentrated trailing vortices near the tip region. For a multi-bladed rotor, the situation is further complicated by the presence of strong blade-vortex interaction which turns out to be one of the most difficult problems from the point of view of fluid dynamics. A number of methods of varying complexity exist for design and performance analysis of wind turbines. Of these, the simpler and faster methods are essentially based on the blade element momentum theory [4] and wake method [5]. These methods are very useful during the preliminary design stage when large number of cases need to be studied. RANS methods with moving grid capability are gaining importance with availability of faster computers [6, 7]. The blades are long and slender and hence flexible. The flexed shape can be computed by coupling structural and CFD or simpler codes. Fully coupled unsteady RANS and structural codes form basis for aeroelastic response problem. However, these are presently out of reach. In this paper we present 3D viscous unsteady analysis of NALs 500kW horizontal axis wind turbine blade by using the IMPRANS code both for undeformed and deformed shapes. The undeformed shapes were computed by making use of a Panel code [3].
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2.
Computational Method
The Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations in conservative form for 3-D unsteady compressible flows in a moving grid system are given by
U E F G 0 t x y z
(1)
Here, U is the vector of conserved variables, E, F and G are flux vectors, (x, y, z) is the Cartesian coordinate system and t is the time variable. The governing equations (1) are solved by employing a dual time method with an implicit finite volume nodal point spatial discretisation [8]. Application of an implicit second order accurate backward difference formula for discretisation in real time and Eulers implicit time differencing formula for pseudo time leads to the following basic equation (2) of the implicit dual time stepping technique:
n n1 m 3t * 3U m 2U U * R m * m I t . U t R(U ) I 2t t 2t U 2t
(2)
Here Um = U (t*) = U (mt*) is the solution vector at pseudo time level m and Um=Um+1-Um is the change in Um over the time step t*, t denotes the real or physical time step that is required to resolve the physical unsteadiness of the flow. The barred quantities denote the solution vectors at the previous real time levels n and n-1 whereas R represents the spatial operators which give rise to the flux residual after a discretisation in space. In finite volume formulation, equations (2) are written in integral form and the surface integrals are evaluated by summing up the contributions due to the flux terms over the six faces of the computational cell. Applying integral conservative equations to each control volume, linearzing the changes in flux vectors using Taylors series expansion in time, assuming locally constant transport properties, and dropping the superscript m we obtain
3t * I I U ijk + 2 t E F t * 6 1 A xR U S mx B yS ijk m m
G U S my C T U S mz z m m
t * 6 = E I EV m S mx FI FV m S my G I GV m S mz ijk m 1
n 3U ijk 2U n U ijk 1 , t 2 t t 2t *
(3)
Here ijk is the control volume surrounding the nodal point (i,j,k) of the curvilinear grid; A=EI /U, B = FI / U, C = GI / U, ER = EV1 / Ux , FS = FV2 / Uy, and GT = GV3 / Uz, and are the Jacobian matrices; EI ,FI and GI are the inviscid flux vectors and Ev ,Fv and Gv are the viscous flux vectors; Smx, Smy, and Smz are the x, y and z components of the surface vector corresponding to the m-th surface of the control volume. Turbulence closure is achieved through the algebraic eddy viscosity model of Baldwin and Lomax [9]. For a moving body, the equations are solved in the inertial frame of reference by employing a grid which remains fixed to the body and moves along with it. At each real time step t+t, staring from the solution at the previous time step t, the solution is marched in pseudo time t* using local time stepping. This is the basis of in-house developed IMPRANS code that has been extensively validated [2, 8, 10, 11, 12].
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3.
Results and Discussion
Figure 1, shows the schematic of a two-bladed horizontal-axis downwind wind turbine in the yz plane and the plane of rotation zx or zx. Each blade has a radius R=22.5 m with a precone of pc. = 6. The turbine axis is tilted by an angle tilt = 7 from the horizontal plane. The oncoming horizontal wind velocity is denoted by VW, while Vdw denotes downwash velocity in the negative y or y direction. Here, (x,y,z) and (x,y,z) denote right-handed coordinate systems in the inertial and rotating frames of reference respectively. Rotation angles of the blades about the x, y and z axes are denoted by , and respectively. The blade rotates about the y or y axis with an angular velocity . Azimuthal angle =0 when time t=0.
z pc V dw V w c pc r
x x
r cos
y, y tilt
z z
Vw sin
c r
O
r R
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a wind turbine in yz and zx planes.

The blade is offset by 1.24m from axis. Blade chord decreases from 2.72 m to 0.178 m. Twist varies from -34.8 at section r = 5.19 m to zero at the tip.
(a) r = 5.32m (b) r = 22.35m
Figure 2. O-grids at sections at r = 5.32 m (inboard) and r = 22.35 m (near tip).

A body conforming O-H type grid was used. Grid is clustered near leading and trailing edges. The grid is nearly orthogonal with the first grid point at 0.0005 m. Grid size is 171 X 71 X 127 along azimuthal, normal and radial directions. Figure 2 shows typical sectional grids at r = 5.32 m and 3 22.35 m. Rotor RPM = 27. Flow conditions consist of T=27 C, c= 347.32 m/s, = 1.14kg/m , -6 2 = / =16.05 X10 m /s. Tip Mach number Mtip = 0.183, tip Reynolds number Retip = 3.96 million. All the computations are carried out with the physical time step t ~ 0.0393 which roughly corresponds to 0.1 rotation. The specific heats ratio and the Prandtl number are taken to be 1.4 and 1 respectively. Computations are carried out for four full rotations.
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3.1
Comparison of results of Panel Method and 3D IMPRANS for different wind speeds
Table 1 summarizes power while Table 2 summarizes thrust values. Panel method consistently shows increase for bent blade for thrust and power while IMPRANS shows same trend for lower wind speeds. However, the trend reverses for higher speeds. The high differences between Panel method and IMPRANS is expected since Panel method is inviscid. Further, Panel method cannot account for flow separation. From design point of view, the incremental effects are important which are also noted in the tables. Increasing tendency of power suggests that stall is not fully captured. This needs further investigation.
Table 1. Power (kW) values computed for the wind turbine for different wind speeds for straight and bent blade using Panel Method and 3D IMPRANS. * = design point
S.N. 1 2 3 Speed (m/s) 5 12* 20 Blade configuration Straight Power Bent blade Power Straight Bent blade Straight Bent Power Power Power Power Panel Method 88.466 90.12 787.785 824.01 2205.79 2337 IMPRANS 66.64 74.58 670.54 723.20 1804.56 1687.90 Difference 21.826 15.54 117.25 100.81 401.23 649.1
Table 2. Thrust (kN) values computed for the wind turbine for different wind speeds for straight and bent blade using Panel Method and 3D IMPRANS. * = design point
S.N. 1 2 3 Speed (m/s) 5 12* 20 Blade configuration Straight Bent Straight Bent Straight Bent Thrust Thrust Thrust Thrust Thrust Thrust Panel Method 41.638 44.24 82.829 87.70 132.19 137.69 IMPRANS 48.2 46.94 84.96 86.60 126.76 117.92 Difference -6.562 -2.7 -2.131 1.1 5.43 19.77
Fig. 3 Comparison of power straight blade
Fig. 4 Comparison of power - bent blade
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Fig. 5 Comparison of thrust - straight blade
Fig. 6 Comparison of thrust - bent blade
The power and thrust curves are also shown in Figs. 3-6. IMPRANS results indicate that stall beyond design speed of 12 m/s may not have been well captured. This may be due to the grid resolution issues owing to highly twisted blades. Detailed grid convergence studies are needed. 4. Concluding Remarks
Three dimensional CFD analysis of slender 500 kW turbine blades for both straight and bent (due to aeroelastic effects) indicate that power and thrust are affected differently depending on wind speed. For low speeds values increase in general. Inviscid analysis provide good incremental values which are considered useful for initial design. IMPRANS is a good tool that can provide detailed design inputs such as pressure distribution, effect of separation etc. References 1. Premalatha and Vidyadhar Y. Mudkavi, Aerofoil Design and Blade Stacking for a 500 kW Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. PD CF 0702. NAL, Bangalore, India. 2007. 2. Dutta, V., Dutta, P. K. and Sharanappa, RANS Computations of Flow Past Wind Turbine Blades. Proc. 7th ACFD Conference, November 2007, Bangalore, India. 3. Srilatha, K. R. and Narayana, C. L. Aerodynamic Analysis of Aerofoils and Blades for a 500kW Horizontal-Axis Wind turbine. PD CF 0701, NAL, Bangalore, India, 2007. 4. Jones, C. Blade Element Performance in Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine Rotors. Wind Eng., 7 (3), 1983, 129-137 5. Gould, J. and Fiddes, S. P. Computational Methods for the Performance Prediction of HAWTs. Wind Eng., 39, 1992, 61-72, 6. Iida, M., Arakawa, C. and Matsumiya, H. Three Dimensional Flow Analysis of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Blade using Overset Grid Method. Proc. 21st EWEC, 2000, Germany. 7. Sorensen, N. N., Michlesen, J. A. and Schreck, S. Detailed Aerodynamics Prediction of the NREL/NASA AMES Wind Tunnel Tests using CFD. Proc. EWEC, 2001, Copenhagen. 8. Dutta P. K., Dutta, V. and Sharanappa, Unsteady RANS Simulations Using Implicit Dual Time Stepping. Proc. 6th Annual CFD Symposium, CFD Chapter, AeSI, 2003.Bangalore. 9. Baldwin, B. S. and Lomax, H. Thin Layer Approximation and Algebraic Model for Separated Turbulent Flows. AIAA Paper No. 78-257, 1978. 10. Dutta, V. and Dutta, P. K. Computation of Unsteady Compressible Flows Past Aerofoils in rd Motion. Proc. 3 ACFD, 7-11 Dec., 1998, 354-359, Bangalore, India. 11. Dutta, V., Dutta, P. K. and Sharanappa, An Implicit RANS Solver for Unsteady Compressible Flow Computations. SP 0301, NAL, Bangalore, 2003. 12. Sharanappa, Dutta, V. and Dutta, P. K. Viscous Unsteady Flow around a Helicopter Rotor Blade in Forward Flight. Proc. 9th Annual CFD Symposium, CFD Chapter, AeSI, 2006, Bangalore, India.
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A Mathematical Model for Predicting Off-Design Performance of Cryogenic Turboexpander

Subrata K. Ghosh1*, Sanjoy K. Ghoshal2, Ranjit K. Sahoo3, Sunil Kr. Sarangi4 Indian School of Mines University, Dhanbad, India National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: subratarec@yahoo.co.in)
3,4 1,2
A study has been conducted to determine the off-design performance of the cryogenic turboexpander. A theoretical model to predict the losses in the components of the turboexpander along the fluid flow path has been developed. The model is based on a one dimensional solution of flow conditions through the turbine along the mean streamline. In this analysis, the interaction effects between the stator and rotor has been considered. Overall turbine geometry, pressure ratio, and mass flow rate are needed as input information. The output includes performance and velocity diagram parameters for any number of given speeds over a range of turbine pressure ratio. 1. Introduction
A medium or large cryogenic system needs many components: compressor, heat exchanger, expansion turbine, instrumentation, vacuum vessel etc. We need to be self reliant in this vital technology. All other components are available in India to some extent; but whole plants are being imported due to the lack of this single component. After the design it is important for the designer to be able to predict complete performance maps so that the possible alternative designs can be optimized, compared and assessed. One of the easy but successful methods of analyzing performance of a turbomachine is the mean line or one dimensional method pioneered by Whitfield and Baines [1]. The prediction of the performance of a radial flow turbomachine generally involves the analysis of the gas flow process through the separate components used in its construction. Fig.1 shows the components of the expansion turbine along the fluid flow path. 2. A b Nomenclature area blade height boundary layer blockage absolute velocity hydraulic diameter Mach number blade thickness relative velocity Z no. of blades Greek Symbols absolute velocity angle relative velocity angle density
t
Bn C
Dh
M
.
Lh hydraulic length
mass flow rate pressure gas constant r radius s vane spacing length T temperature DS design speed
m p R
x r radial clearance at exit
loss coefficient dynamic viscosity specific heat ratio axial clearance at inlet
Subscript 1 nozzle exit 2 turbine wheel inlet 3 turbine wheel exit ex diffuser exit h hub in Nozzle inlet m mean n nozzle 0 stagnation r rotor opt optimum
k x axial discharge coefficient

k r radial discharge coefficient
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in
State Points
in 1 2 3 ex ex Nozzle Inlet Nozzle Exit Turbine Inlet Turbine Exit Diffuser Exit
Vaneless Space
1 2
Turbine Wheel Nozzle Diffuser
Figure 1. Components of the expansion turbine along the fluid flow path 3. 3.1 Modeling of Components The Nozzle
The nozzle is modeled as a converging duct, operating at Mach number close to unity. For a stator, there is no external work transfer (and it is still assumed to be adiabatic), so that the total temperature is constant, but there is now an irreversible loss of total pressure. The dimensionless mass flow equation for nozzle is then given as
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 sin 1 M 1 1 M1 (1) 1 2 n M 1 A1 p 0in 2 As the fluid passes through the nozzles boundary layers grow on the blade surfaces and end walls, and although the accelerating flow generally limits this growth the blockage can amount to several percent of the geometric area, so that the actual flow area is A1 2r1bn 1 Bn (2) The losses associated with a nozzle are now to be either assessed wholly empirically, based on the limited test data available, or assumed to be some function of the mean kinetic energy of the fluid, or approximated by means of flat plate and pipe flow friction relations [2]. Rodgers (1987) [1] gave the following expression for nozzle loss: 0.05 3 cot 1 s sin 1 n 0 .2 (3) bn Re b s c
m RT0 in /
3.2
The Vaneless Space
The vaneless space is modelled as an unguided converging duct like vaneless diffuser of compressor and the bladeless nozzle of turbines where unguided swirling flow occurs. For a frictionless flow this leads to free vortex conditions. The losses arise due to viscous forces and dissipation of eddies. As the flow is unguided the angular momentum equation must be applied in order to calculate the flow angle. The loss coefficient accounts for the frictional losses in a duct having hydraulic diameter equal to the nozzle height, and length equal to the radial distance between the nozzle exit and the turbine inlet. The loss coefficient and area in vaneless space are expressed as
r r C C2 vs 4C f 1 2 1 2b 2C n 2 A2 2r2 Z R t b2
2
(4) (5)
3.3
The Turbine Wheel
Fluid friction, flow separation, impact, leakage and other dissipative phenomena occurring in the wheel contribute the maximum towards the inefficiency of a turbomachine. In the case of a rotor, the equation for conditions at a point in the flow applies as long as fluid
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properties relative to the rotating component are consistently used, so that the absolute stagnation temperature and pressure are replaced by relative stagnation values, and the Mach number calculated is then the relative one. Therefore the dimensionless mass flow equation for turbine wheel is expressed as:
2 1 1 1 2 2 1 sin 3 M 3 rel 1 M 3 rel * 1 U 22 U 32 A3 p 02 rel 2 2RT02 rel The entropy gain and outlet area of the turbine wheel are expressed as m RT02 rel /
1
(6)
1 1 1 R M 32,rel 2 A3 r32t r32h r3t r3h Z R t R cos ec 3 B R
(7) (8)
The second term in equation (8) accounts for the physical area blockage due to finite trailing edge thickness. The term BR is the blockage due to profile and end-wall boundary layers, and may be obtained from experiments or from Computational Fluid Dynamics studies. Under off-design conditions, the fluid approaches the wheel at an angle different from the optimum value, thus increasing the exergy losses and incidence loss expressed as [1]
W2 cos 2 2 ,opt I (9) W3 The passage loss should be a function of the mean kinetic energy and final formulation is expressed as [3] r3t r3 h 2 2 sin 3 W32 W 22 L h 0.681 P k p * (10) * 2 b3 m W32 r2 D h C The axial and radial clearances of a rotor have different effects on clearance loss, i.e. depends on the geometry of the wheel. The loss due to leakage flow is then given by [3] U Z Cl 2 R k x x C x k r r C r k xr x C x r C r (11) 8 By following the suggestion of Baines [3] that in practice the variations of efficiency with axial and radial clearances are not independent, but that there was some crosscoupling between them. Dambach et al. [4] suggest that the motion of the blade relative to the casing also has an influence. In order to account for this, a cross coupling coefficient k xr has been added to the loss equation. The wheel trailing edge loss has been modeled using the assumption that the drop in relative total pressure is proportional to the relative kinetic energy at the rotor exit [5] and can be expressed as p 0 rel 2 TE (12) 2 M 3rel p 03 rel The relative total pressure at the exit of the wheel is expressed as [5]
2
3W32 ZRt 2 r3t r3 h cos 3 The loss coefficient due to disc friction is then given by 3 0.50 U 2 r22 k f DF mW 32 p 0 rel p 03 rel p 02 rel
(13)
(14)
The overall rotor loss coefficient R is a composite term consisting of the loss coefficients discussed above.
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R I P Cl TE DF
3.4 The Diffuser
(15)
The diffuser is modelled as a static diverging duct. The dimensional mass flow equation for diffuser is
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 sin ex M ex 1 M ex 1 2 D M ex Aex P0 , 3 2 The absolute flow velocity angle is assumed to be pure axial in the diffuser.
m RT0 , 3 /
(16)
4.
Results
3.00E-02
Mass Flow Function
100% DS 75% DS 50% DS 125% DS 150% DS
2.50E-02 2.00E-02 1.50E-02 1.00E-02 5.00E-03 0.00E+00 1.00 3.00 5.00 7.00
Pressure Ratio
Figure 2. Variation of dimensionless mass flow rate with pressure ratio and rotational speed
0.70 0.60
Efficiency
100% DS 75% DS 50% DS 125% DS 150% DS
0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 1.00 3.00 5.00 7.00
Pressure Ratio
Figure 3. Variation of efficiency with pressure ratio and rotational speed The performance of a turbomachine can be presented in terms of some nondimensionless groups like pressure ratio, mass flow function, and efficiency. Performance maps for our designed turbine are shown in Fig. 2 to 3. The mass flow rate increases with increasing in pressure ratio but decreases with that of rotational speed and is coming almost constant after a certain pressure ratio. Similarly the efficiency increases initially with pressure ratio but decreases after a certain pressure ratio. The maximum total to static efficiency of 57.8% is attained at a pressure ratio of 2.6 for the design speed. By considering the design speed, loss coefficients in the basic units of turboexpander are shown in Fig. 4. From the figure we have seen the maximum loss occurs in turbine compared to other units and the loss in turbine increases with pressure ratio, where as the losses in nozzle, vaneless space and diffuser are almost constant with pressure ratio. Fig. 5 shows the different loss coefficients in the turbine wheel. The passage loss is highest in turbine wheel and increases with pressure ratio. The trailing edge loss and incidence loss are decreased initially with pressure ratio and but after a certain pressure ratio these losses are
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constant. The clearance loss and disk friction loss are very less compared to other losses in the turbine wheel.
100% Design Speed 2.00
Loss Coefficient
1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 2.00
Nozzle Loss Vaneless Space Loss Turbine Loss Diffuser Loss
3.00
4.00
5.00
Pressure Ratio
Figure 4. Variation of different turboexpander loss coefficient with pressure ratio

100% Design Speed 1.40E+00
Loss Coefficient
1.20E+00 1.00E+00 8.00E-01 6.00E-01 4.00E-01 2.00E-01 0.00E+00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Incidence Loss Passage Loss Clearance Loss Trailingedge Loss Disk Friction Loss
Pressure Ratio
Figure 5. Variation of different turbine wheel loss coefficient with pressure ratio 5. Conclusions
A numerical model of the cryogenic turboexpander have been developed covering all the components in the flow path to study the influence of design and operating parameters on the performance of turboexpander. Variation of mass flow and variation of efficiency with pressure ratio and speed has been determined from the design point and at the conditions away from the design point. The turboexpander losses in the flow components have been found out and some quantitative results have been obtained to get the optimum efficient turboexpander. References [1] Whitfield, A. and Baines, N. C. Design of Radial Turbomachines Longman Scientific & Technical, 1990 [2] Whitfield, A. and Baines, N. C. A general computer solution for radial and mixed flow turbomachine performance prediction. Int J Mech Sci, 18, 1976, 179-184 [3] Quack, H. Cryogenic expanders. Proc ICEC 18, Mumbai, 2000. [4] Dambach R, Hodson H P, Huntsman I. An experimental study of tip clearance flow in radial inflow turbine. ASME, 98 GT-467. [5] Glassman, A. J. Enhanced analysis and user manual for radial inflow turbine design code RTD NASA-CR-195454 NTIS, 1995.
435
Experimental and CFD Analysis of Peak Energy Estimate in a Typical Calandria Based Reactor
Bijja Sunil Deol1*, S.D.Ravi 2, and N.K.S.Rajan3* VTU, Belgaum, Karnataka, India 2,3 IISc, Bangalore, India *corresponding author (email:nksr@cgpl.iisc.ernet.in) In a Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor, fuel channel integrity depends on the coolability of the moderator as an ultimate heat sink under transient conditions such as a loss of coolant accident (LOCA) as well as normal working or operating conditions. Hence the thorough understanding of the behavior of the moderator is very important in the design aspects for safe working of the reactor. CFD investigations are carried out to study the peak energy estimate in a typical Calandria using a 3dimensional RANS code. Internal flow computations and experimental studies are carried out for a calandria embedded with a matrix of tubes working together as a reactor. Numerical investigations are carried on the Calandria reactor vessel considering 480 fuel channels, with tangential inlets (14deg), and outlets located at the bottom with 30deg angle to study the flow pattern and the associated temperature distribution. The computations are made for simulations of flow and convective heat transfer for assigned nearto working conditions with different moderator injection rates and reacting heat fluxes in the setup. The results of computation provide an estimate of the tolerance bands for safe working limits for the heat dissipation at different working conditions by virtue of prediction of the hot spots in the calandria. The isothermal CFD results are validated by a set of experiments on a specially designed scaled model conducted over a range of flows and simulation parameters. The results are shown which include comparison of the computational and experimental work in this regard. The CFD analysis with heat transfer is carried out using CFX and ICEM-CFD 11.0 version, using 0.48 million nodes for numerical analysis. The work assumes significance for the design considerations of the reactors and for detailed and critical parametric studies for optimization for the geometry considered. 1. Introduction The present world demands an environmental friendly power generation for which Nuclear power plant is a suitable alternative. The nuclear power is associated with a scare regarding its safety during operation, hence there is need to analyze flow pattern and heat transfer in Calandria or any heat exchanger used in these systems. It is reported that in a Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor, fuel channel integrity depends on the coolability of the moderator as an ultimate heat sink under transient conditions such as a loss of coolant accident (LOCA) as well as normal working or operating conditions. Configuration is selected from practical system which involves the heat dissipation and peak energy estimation.The study of thermal and fluid dynamic behaviours in industrial applications using complex geometries and configurations is considered significant to have safety in their designs and to realise optimised performances. In this work having high relevance in the industrial application are considered. Numerical simulation is a very useful tool to compute the distributions of thermal and fluid flows in the complex geometry. However, the CFD results need to be supplemented by experimental data in order to validate the different configuration model approaches in obtaining the solution. Heat transfer, fluid flow and boiling are important phenomenon in many industrial applications such as nuclear reactor system, In case of nuclear reactor complete information of the moderator flow and the temperature distribution within the calandria is significant in the safety analysis, particularly with reference to certain postulated accident scenario where the moderator is assumed to be an effective heat sink. It is considered essential to understand the dominating parameters, the flow
1
436
circulation patterns and the temperature distribution at different operating conditions that would provide vital feedback for the design studies. To validate CFD results obtained from different configuration models with experimental results, thereby choosing the right model to carry out further heat transfer study. To carryout heat transfer analysis inside a calandria of actual prototype for different mass flow rate and heat flux using CFD tool. The results of computation provide an estimate of the tolerance bands of safe working limits for the heat dissipation and peak energy estimation for different working conditions, by virtue of prediction of the hot spots in the calandria. The work assumes significance for preliminary design considerations of the reactors and for detailed and critical parametric analysis of peak energy estimation that prove to be expensive without CFD tools. 2. Geometry Modeling and Meshing To design a particular model, all dimensions of the prototype are required and also the behaviour of the prototype are required. It is also necessary to ensure Geometric, Kinematic and Dynamic similarities between the Model and Prototype before fabricating the model. So that the experiments can be conducted after fabricating the model and imposing similar boundary conditions as that of the prototype [1,3]. The geometric modeling of calandria in CFX was done on same grounds as in experimental study. To avoid solving higher number of nodes and to save computational time. The simulations were carried out using symmetry for the calandria of whole domain. Calandria model was built using industrial standard code and it is shown in Fig.1. A calandria model of diameter 305 mm with inlet and outlet ports of diameter 6 mm and 12mm respectively.Fig.1 shows the 3D- view of the geometry considered for CFD simulation,Fig.2 shows the structured mesh for corresponding model. In the core region, 69 fuel channels with 21mm of square pitch are simulated to evaluate the flow behaviors around the fuel channels. 3. Boundary and Initial Conditions A 3D-RANS code having upwind implicit scheme and approach for turbulence is used for the numerical solution. The Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations are solved for steady, compressible viscous flow. The governing equations used are the conventional standard set of equations that include: Continuity equation Momentum equation Energy equation : : :
U j x j 0
P Ui x UiU j x ij uiu j t j i xj
h U j h Q j u h j t x j x j
The boundary conditions and initial conditions used include (a) no slip, impermeable and adiabatic walls; (b) At inlet and outlet ports, mass flow rate conditions based on incoming and outgoing incompressible fluid are imposed. The mass flow rate at inlet and outlet are chosen to be equal. The Reynolds number is calculated based on mass flow rate [1]; (c) For boundary conditions, over the axis, symmetry conditions are imposed. Steady state approach with stationary domain, non-buoyant condition, low intensity turbulence and static temperature 0 of 300 K are used as criterion for solution. Water at 25 C is used as domain fluid and reference pressure is taken as 1 atmosphere. Diminishing residual criteria of the variables is used for the convergence with a limit of RMS residuals falling below 10-4. 4. Grid refinement study To study variation of flow with change in grid size, grid independence study was 7 carried out. This was done for higher Reynolds number of 8 x 10 because if flow structure remains same with increase in number of nodes for higher Reynolds number then flow at lower Reynolds number is automatically taken care. Grid refinement was done from a grid size having 1.48 lakh, 1.98 lakh, 2.78 lakh, 3.17 lakh, 4.58 lakh, 5.27 lakh, 6.21 lakh nodes. In 7 discussions, flow of 8 x 10 Reynolds number with model is considered. There is no much variation in the flow pattern between the results of 3.17 lakh nodes and 6.21 lakh nodes, initial preliminary investigations for different thermal heat dissipations are carried out with 3.17 lakh nodes. Results of preliminary investigations done with 3.17 lakh nodes are shown in the Fig3.
437
5.
Computational and Experimental Results The flow structure and temperature distribution have been captured spatially. The non isothermal analysis is made with an assumption that the fuel channel surfaces are giving out uniform heat energy. The isothermal flow distribution was used as an initial approximation to the flow field for saving the computation time. This initialization is also analogous to the typical startup procedures of the calandria reactor. It is observed that the flow pattern and the velocity profiles in the nonisothermal case are nearer to those of the isothermal case indicating that the flow is controlled dominantly by the momentum than the buoyancy. This observation turns out to be strengthened with the observation that the temperature distribution patterns remaining nearly unchanged at different heat dissipation 8 levels as shown in Fig.4. Hot-spot and induced energy mapping at Re 4 * 10 with 103MW and 1200MW thermal dissipation have been shown in the Fig.5 ,which shows the hot spots are located at the bottom and either sides of the lower portion of calandria. An important observation made during the experimental measurements was that the flow pattern remained almost unaltered over complete range of the measurements and the distribution of velocities over the entire field showed that the magnitude of velocities at any point was closely and linearly proportional to the injection velocity. Thus the distributions of velocities in the entire flow field, normalized with respect the injection velocity remained unchanged within appreciably small margins of errors. Experimentally obtained results are also shown, and the comparison shows good agreement between the CFD and experimental results. Fig.3 shows the complete assembled view of the experimental set-up used for the flow visualization study of the Calandria model. The compact light sheet generator has been placed near the model so as to obtain high intensity light beam to be focused on the model. The lamp connected to an external source of power. The light from the lamp is incident on the lens, which produces a focused beam. The beam produced from the lens is chopped at periodical intervals depending on the frequency required. The chopper is utilized for obtaining a pulsed emission of light. The pulses of light assist in obtaining the path of the seed particles (2~5 mm size). A variac is used to regulate the voltage being supplied to the motor, which in turn controls the rpm of the chopper. The range of the variac varies from 30-3000rpm.The picture taken for a light strobe is shown in Fig.4 and Fig.5 shows the schematic view of the flow visualization setup. 6. Conclusions
CFD analysis is carried out to study the mass flux and temperature distribution in the calandria using industrial standard RANS code as an analysis tool. Internal flow computations are carried out for a calandria embedded with a matrix of tubes carrying nuclear reacting media. Increase in Reynolds number as mass flow rate is increased, does not have a significant change in the structure of the flow pattern. This is an important input to heat transfer and energy estimate studies to be carried out that indicates the forced convection dominating the heat transfer. The results of computation provide an estimate of the tolerance bands of safe working limits for the heat dissipation and energy estimate for different working conditions, by virtue of locating the hot spots in the calandria. The work assumes significance for preliminary design considerations of the reactors and for detailed and critical parametric analysis that prove to be expensive without CFD tools. References [1] Rajan N. K. S. Experimental and Computational Studies of Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer in Spherical Vessels. PhD Thesis, Indian Institute of Science, 1989. [2] F. J. Doria. Thermal hydraulic Safety Characteristics of CANDU Reactors . Atomic Energy of Canada Limited , 3-22. [3] Ravindra S Tupake, PS Kulkarni and NKS Rajan. Numerical Analysis of Heat and Mass th Transfer in a Calandria Based Reactor. 5 ACFD Conference, Bussan, Korea, 2003. [4] R J Adrian. Particle-Imaging Techniques for Experimental Fluid Mechanics. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 23, January 1991, 261-304.
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Figure1 3D- view of the calandria model
Figure 2 Structured Grid Model
Compact Light Sheet Generator
Calandria Model
Figure 3 Experimental Model
Figure 4. Photograph
Figure 5 Schematic View of the Flow Visualization Experimental Setup
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Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils Using Transesterification Process

Suresh D. Mane1*, R.M. Kanasogi2
1
Basic Training Centre, S.W. Railway Workshop, Hubli-580 020 2 Malnad College of Engg., Hassan 573201 *Corresponding author( email : mane.suresh@gmail.com)
In order to facilitate use of vegetable oils as alternate fuels for CI engines their viscosity needs to be considerably reduced which can be carried out by various means. One of the most popular means of reducing the viscosity of the vegetable oils is by means of transesterification using an alcohol and a catalyst. In this work, efforts were carried out to successfully transesterify two non edible vegetable oils viz. Jatropha curcas oil and Pongemia Pinnata oils by using Methyl alcohol and Potassium Hydroxide as the catalyst. The easiest procedure to manufacture biodiesel (base catalysed process) is described which includes determining of free fatty acid content of the oils. Presently various education and research institutions are carrying out the transesterification using trial and error methods which lead to wastage of oil, alcohol and require considerable amount of time. By carrying out experiments using various combinations the correct procedure for transesterifying the vegetable oils giving the highest yield has been derived which is described in this paper. 1. Introduction
Past two decades have seen exponential increase in diesel engine population for road and rail transport, irrigation and captive power generation. Internal combustion engines particularly of the compression ignition (CI) type play a major role in transportation, industrial power generation and in the agricultural sector. There is a need to search and find ways of using alternative fuels, which are preferably renewable and also emit low levels of gaseous and particulate pollutants in internal combustion engines. To meet the ever growing domestic demand diesel is being imported at huge costs and involving outflow of precious foreign exchange. India spent Two lakh Crores of Rupees towards import of crude petroleum during the year 200607 constituting 31 % of the net import bill. The comparison Between Properties of Biodiesel (BD) and Petroleum diesel (PD) is shown in table no.1.In view of the numerous advantages offered by BD over PD considerable interest is generated on BD production and its analysis. Table 1. Comparison between Properties of Biodiesel and Petroleum diesel Property Biodiesel Petroleum Diesel Biodegradability Degrades readily Poor bio-degradability Toxicity Essentially non-toxic Highly toxic Oxygen Upto 10 % free Oxygen Very low Aromatics Nil 18 to 22% Sulphur None 0.05% o o Flash point 95 135 C 77 C Spill hazard None High Material compatibility Degrades natural, butyl No affect on natural/butyl rubber rubber Combustion of a liter of petroleum diesel results in 2.6 Kg of CO2 being released into atmosphere, whereas biodiesel is carbon neutral as the CO2 released during combustion is negated by the CO2 absorbed by the plant yielding the seeds. CO2 emissions have risen over the last two decades, reaching an atmospheric content of 360 ppm, estimating the world CO2 emissions at about 26 billion metric ton per year, 80 percent of which comes from the combustion of fossil combustibles such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. From Indian
440
context Jatropha Curcas and Pongemia Pinnata are the most promising non edible vegetable oils as they can be successfully grown in the vast wastelands and moreover they require very little inputs and attention for sustenance and growth. Research is focused on the use of vegetable oil as an alternative fuel since it is biodegradable and renewable source of energy. India is an importer of edible oils and hence experimenting with edible oils for biodiesel production is not relevant to this nation. In view of this the Honge and Jatropha Curcas Oils being non edible oils can be regarded as alternative fuels for an IC engine. The Honge oil is popularly known as Pongamia Pinnata or Karanja oil. The Honge oil is extracted from the seeds of the Honge tree also called Karanja tree. The higher viscosity and low calorific value of raw Honge oil and Jatropha curcas oils are the major problems of using this fuel in CI engine. Jatropha Curcas oil is high viscosity polyunsaturated character non edible oil having low volatility. Basically all vegetable oils are triglycerides. Various specifications for Biodiesel are shown in table 2. Table 2. Specification for Biodiesel as Per DIN, ASTM International and BIS IS PROPERTIES UNIT DIN 51606 (1997) ASTM (2001)6751 15607 :2005 Density Carbon Residue (100%) Ash Content Total Sulfur Cetane No. Flash Point Copper Corrosion Viscosity, 40 C Neutralization Value Free Glycerin Total Glycerin Cold Filter Plug Point Water Content Methanol Ethanol
0 2
g/cm
0.875-0.90 Max 0.05 Max 0.02 Max 0.01 Min 49 Min 110 1 3.5-5.0 Max 0.5 Max 0.02 Max 0.25 Max 0.0 Max -15
-Max 0.050 Max 0.020 Max 0.05 Min 40 Min 100 No. 3b max 1.9-6.0 Max 0.8 Max 0.02 Max 0.24 ---
0.860 0.90 0.05 max 0.02 max
% mass % mass % mass -0
Min 51 Min 120 4 2.5 - 6 Max 0.5 Max 0.02 0.25
degree mm /s (cSt) mg % mass % mass Summer ( C) 0 Winter ( C) mg/kg % mass % mass

0
Max 500 Max 0.2 Max 0.2
Ester Content % mass Min 96.5 The properties of methyl esters manufactured using Honge and Jatropha oils are compared with diesel which are shown in table 3. Table 3. Honge oil methyl ester (HOME) and Jatropha oil methyl ester (JOME) properties Fuel Used Density of Fuel G.C.V. of fuel 2. Diesel. 840 kg/ m 43000 kJ/kg
3
HOME 890 kg/ m 34500 kJ/kg

3
JOME 870 kg/ m 35800 kJ/kg

3
Methodology Adopted to Manufacture Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils The major problem associated with direct use of vegetable oils is their high viscosity and low volatility. In order to reduce viscosity, following different methods are used for the production of Biodiesel. 1. Direct use with diesel
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Micro emulsion. Pyrolysis Transesterification using alcohols. Enzymatic transesterification using lipase. 2.1 Transesterification Transesterification is most commonly used method to reduce viscosity of triglycerides. In transesterification of vegetable oils a triglyceride reacts with three molecules of alcohol in the presence of catalyst, producing a mixture of fatty acids alkyl esters and glycerol. The transesterification reaction proceeds with catalyst or without any catalyst by using primary or secondary monohydric aliphatic alcohols having 18 carbon atoms. The overall transesterification reaction is given by three consecutive and reversible equations as below: I Triglyceride + ROH Catalyst Diglyceride + R COOR II Diglyceride + ROH Catalyst Monoglyceride + R COOR III Monoglyceride + ROH Catalyst Glycerol + R COOR RI, R II, RIII Fatty acid chain . R IIICOOR Methyl Ester or Biodiesel The first step is the conversion of triglycerides to diglyceride, followed by the conversion of diglyceride to monoglycerides, and of monoglycerides to glycerol, yielding one methyl ester molecule per mole of glyceride at each step 2.2 Free Fatty acids (FFA) of Vegetable oils The methods to determine FFA of vegetable oils are 1. Near Infrared Spectroscopy. 2. Gas Chromatography and 3. Titration method. 2.3 Determination of FFA content of the oil by titration method
2. 3. 4. 5.
Take 100 ml of rectified spirit or Iso Propyl Alcohol. Neutralize it with N/10 NaOH (Four Gms NaOH in 100 ml water) using phenolphthalein indicator. As we add N/10 NaOH, the colour of rectified spirit changes to pink colour after addition of few drops of N/10 NaOH. o This indicates that the solution is now neutral. Heat it on low heat up to 55 C. Add 10 Gms of oil to the above. Stir it well and add a few drops of Phenolphthalein indicator. Now titrate against N/10 NaOH. Note down the volume of NaOH consumed. End point will be when the solution turns to pink colour. Calculation of FFA = 28.2 x Normality of NaOH (0.1) x Vol of NaOH consumed Weight of oil taken (Gms) For example, Jatropha curcas oil FFA (13 ml of NaOH consumed) = 28.2 x 0.1 x 13 % 10 2.4 Single Stage Transesterification process = 3.66
The entire batch process of converting vegetable seeds into methyl esters (Biodiesel) is shown in figure No. 1 First of all determine the FFA content of the oil by titration or any other method. If the FFA content is less than 4%, process the oil in single stage by using base catalyst. Fill up the measured quantity of well filtered vegetable oil in the reactor vessel. Heat the oil to 65oC under continuous mild stirring to maintain uniform heat. To prepare the methoxide solutions take methyl alcohol (20% of volume of oil) and NaOH or KOH (0.45 to 1.6% by weight) depending on FFA content of oil. FFA in % Gms of KOH / Ltr of Vegetable oil Upto 1 3 to 4 1 to 2 7 to 8 2 to 3 10 to 12 3 to 4 13 to 15
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Mix alcohol and catalyst thoroughly till the catalyst dissolves completely. This being an exothermic reaction takes utmost care while mixing. When the oil temperature reaches 65oC, top up the methoxide solution into the reactor vessel. Increase the stirring speed to 500 rpm o and start recalculating of oil from bottom to top. Maintain the temperature between 60 C to o 65 C by continuing heating. After 10 minutes decant the sample in a glass beaker. The reaction is proceeding in the right direction if the oil sample decanted from the reaction vessel separates into distinct layers, the lighter layer of BD on top and the denser layer of glycerin at the bottom. The reaction time is 30 minutes if NaOH is used and 45 minutes for KOH. After the reaction is complete, recover the excess alcohol used by distillation. Transfer the oil from the reaction vessel to settling tank. Allow a settling time of minimum 3 hours. Decant the thick glycerin layer through the bottom of the settling tank. The BD layer being alkaline, use demineralised water for washing BD, the quantity of which is approximately half the quantity of BD. Decant the soapy water from the settling tank after an hour. Repeat the water washing two to three times till the water settling at the bottom of tank is clear and the BD is neutral. Dry the BD for removing the moisture content. For this transfer the BD to the heating tank and o o heat it to 105 C 110 C and maintain the heat for a minimum of 30 minutes. Store the BD in a clean airtight storage tank preferably made of stainless steel.
OOO OO
Heating
3.
Before taking up the transesterification of any oil, its free fatty acids need to be determined by titration procedure and only if the free fatty acid content is below four percent then the oil is suitable to be taken up under single stage transesterification process. The success of transesterification process depends upon various factors such as purity of vegetable oils, availability of low moisture in vegetable oils, purity of methyl alcohol and catalyst. The conversion is also affected by the temperature of the oil and alcohol, the heating time. The purity of Methyl ester depends on the proper removal of soap from the crude ester, recovery of methanol and proper washing with distilled water.
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The cost of Biodiesel prepared from Honge and Jatropha oils is Rs 60 and Rs 100 respectively which is quite high when compared to Rs 35 for petroleum diesel as of today. This is mainly due to the high cost of raw vegetable oils which range from Rs 42 per kg for Honge oil to Rs 100 per kg of Jatropha curcas oil. 4. Conclusions
It is very essential to ensure that the FFA of the vegetable oils should be less than four percent to achieve successful transesterification using alkali catalyst. Higher percentage of FFA in oil leads to saponification i.e. soap formation. This paper provides necessary information to carry out further research in the propagation of vegetable oils as biofuels thereby saving money; effort and time required to transesterify the oils into esters. The cost of BD manufactured by transesterifying non edible vegetable oils is higher when compared to the price of petroleum diesel as on date. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the officials of Ministry of Railways for providing necessary assistance to the corresponding author in the form of study leave to persue PG Studies in Energy Systems Engg and also for permitting the use of laboratory and other facilities at Diesel Locomotive Shed, Hubli and Loco Works, Chennai in carrying out the project work on Biodiesel. References [1] Guidebook for National Certification Examination for Energy Managers and Energy Auditors (II Edition 2005) issued by Bureau of Energy Efficiency. Ministry of Power, Govt. of India. [2] Tewari P.G., (2004) Biodiesel - An alternate fuel for diesel engine, National level Workshop on Biodiesel The future fuel, 20 Nov 2004, G.P.R.Engg. College Kurnool AP .pp 1 to 21 [3] Senthil Kumar, Ramesh, Nagalingam, An experimental comparison of methods to use methanol and Jatropha oil in a compression ignition engine, Biomass and Bioenergy 25 (2003) 309 318 [4] K. Pramanik, 2003 Renewable Energy 28(2003)239-248 Properties and use of Jatropha curcas oil and diesel fuel blends in CI engine [5] H. Raheman, A.G. Phadatare, Diesel engine emissions and performance from blends of karanja methyl ester and diesel, Biomass and Bioenergy 27 (2004) 393 397. [6] Ayhan Demirbas (2005) Progress in Energy and Combustion Science Biodiesel production from Vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical methanol transesterification methods. [7] A.K. Babu and G. Devaradjane (2003) SAE 2003-01-0767 Vegetable oils and their derivatives as fuel for CI engines. [8] B.K. Barnwal 2005 Renewable and Sustainable energy reviews 9 (2005)363-378 Prospects of biodiesel production from vegetable oils in India IIT Roorkee [9] Yusuf Ali and M.A. Hanne (1995) Biosourse Technology 50(1994)153-163Alternate diesel fuels from vegetable oils IS 15607: 2005 Biodiesel (B100) Blend stock for diesel fuel Specification ASTM International Specification for Biodiesel ASTM 6751, 2001, [10] Hideki Fakuda et.al. (2001), Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering Vol 92, No.5, 405416, 2001, Biodiesel fuel production by transesterification of oils
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An Experimental Study of Exhaust Emissions in Passenger Vehicles Operating on E10

Shailesh Kumar Trivedi , Trinath Mahala
1 2 1 2*
Aryabhat polytechnic, New Delhi-110033, India R.K.G Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad-201003, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: trinath_mahala@yahoo.com) Increased energy demand due to rapid industrialization, concerns about long term availability of petroleum fuels coupled with issues related to environment and fuel prices have mandated large-scale utilization of renewable fuels. The internal combustion engines are being considered as a major consumer of liquid fuels and also responsible for GHG emissions. The alternative fuels for internal combustion engines are Ethanol, CNC, LPG, Hydrogen, Methanol and Vegetable oil derived fuels. An experiment was conducted on existing fleet of vehicles without any modification on Delhi roads in practically possible conditions by using 10 % ethanol blended gasoline fuel (E10) in four stroke spark ignition engines.E10 was used in four Mahindra Jeep, five Maruti Gypsy and four Ambassador Car and its performance was compared with previous measured data, it was seen that the fuel economy of the E10 running vehicles is higher than those of gasoline vehicles. This betterment of fuel economy is mainly due to the presence of alcohol in the blend. It was also observed that E10 reduces exhaust emissions like carbon monoxide (CO) from 32 to 46 percent while unburned hydrocarbon (HC) from 31 to 45 percent. Based upon this investigation, it was concluded that E10 can comfortably be used in gasoline fuelled Light Motor Vehicles without any modification for higher fuel economy and lower exhaust emissions like CO and unburned HC. 1. Introduction
Increasing stringent standards on emission from automobile engines coupled with a marked rise in fuel prices has increased the need for alternate fuels with lower exhaust emission and improved fuel economy. Exhaust gases are serious environmental concerned since they are responsible for GHG emissions and contributes to global warming, smog etc.[1]. Many studies have been made on possible alternate transportation fuels such as alcohols, CNG, LPG, hydrogen, vegetable oil derivative fuels. Two serious problems that occur with the development of modern world are air pollution and energy shortage. Emission from the road traffic is one of the main sources of air pollution and does great harm to environment and human health. The research of alternate fuels have been emphasized because the exhaust emission of alternate fueled vehicles may be reduced to an environmental friendly acceptable level.[4]. It may provide smooth transition to other fuels when there is a shortage of crude oil.[4]. The main source of crude oil is petroleum. The identified worldwide petroleum reserves are eliminated by the American petroleum Institute to be about one trillion barrel, with 0.6 trillion barrel remaining to be identified .At present the rate of consumption is estimated that petroleum reserves will last for next 60 to 95 years [10]. Since the petroleum contains carbon, its combustion produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, a green house gas linked to global warming. There are a number of initiatives underway to reduce the amount of green house gas emissions. These initiatives include increased combustion and process efficiency and increased use of alternate fuels. Alcohols are attractive alternate fuel because they can be obtained from both natural and manufactured sources. It is high octane fuel with antiknock index fuel of over 100 [11]. Engine using high octane fuel can run more efficiently by using higher compression ratios. Alcohols have higher flame speed, when alcohols are burned it farms more moles of exhaust gases which give higher pressure and more power in the expansion stroke. It has higher latent heat
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of vaporization which results in a cooler intake process. This raises the volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work input in the compression stroke [11]. Ethanol is an alcohol fuel formed from the fermentation of sugar and grain stack, primarily sugar cane and corn which are renewable energy sources [10]. Ethanol is liquid at ambient condition and non-toxic at low concentration [10]. The present cost of ethanol is high due to the high cost of manufacturing and processing required this would be reduced if larger amount of this fuel were used. Brazil is probably the leading user of this fuel. Two mixture combinations that are important are E-85 (85% ethanol) and E10(Gasohol). E-85 is basically an alcohol fuel with 15% gasoline added to eliminate some of the problems of pure alcohol (i.e cold starting etc.). E-10 reduces the use of gasoline with no modification needed to the automobile engines. Alcohol fuels which can be blended with the conventional fuels in the existing engines seem to have potential as an alternate transportation fuel. Alcohols have higher octane number, which make them readily suitable for SI engines [1]. The combustion qualities of alcohols are superior compared to gasoline [1]. The alcohols have different physical and chemical properties than gasoline and their use requires the engine and fuel system to be modified. But the alcohol gasoline blend up to 20% do not usually demand any change in fuel system or the engine itself [2]. So the attention in the present study has been focused 10% alcohol gasoline blend (E10) fuel. 2. Preliminary Study Table 1. Various properties of vehicular fuel (i.e) ethanol and gasoline [9] Parameter Gasoline Ethanol Molecular wt. ~110 46.07 Specific gravity 0.72-0.78 0.785 Heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) 305 840 Specific heat of liquid) kJ/kg 2.4 2.5 Specific heat of vapour 1.7 1.93 (kJ/kg) Higher heating value (kJ/kg) 47300 29700 Lower heating value (kJ/kg) 44.0 26.9 A:F 14.6 9.0 Fuel octane rating 92-98 107 MON 80-90 89 o Boiling point ( C) 30-225 78.3 The major characteristics of ethanol fuel which are usually considered in engineering applications are as follows: (a) High-octane number makes them suitable for SI engines and their low cetane number makes them difficult to use in CI engines [1]. (b) Ethanol is partially oxidized hydrocarbons. It requires less air when burned, and produces less energy than gasoline due to its low calorific value. (c) Higher heat of vaporization of alcohol fuels greatly increases their evaporative cooling effect. For equivalent engine power output, it takes 3.7 times as much heat to vaporize ethanol as compared to gasoline. This property tends to quench combustion [1]. (d) Low vapor pressure at moderately low temperature causes difficulty in starting. This requires the use of auxiliary devices / volatile starting aid o (gasoline) below 10 C [1]. (e) Ethanol acts as a solvent and thus may attack some of the materials used in fuel systems designed to handle gasoline. Fuel oxidation deposits may partially dissolve in ethanol, which may lead to filter and carburetor jet plugging.
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(f)
Ethanol is completely soluble in water where as gasoline is essentially insoluble in water. Thus ethanol blend may be contaminated with water.
The main interest in ethanol as fuel lies in its use as blend with gasoline. It has high octane number (i.e) very high anti knock quality and its blend permits higher compression ratio without knock. Ethanol is an effective knock suppressor like tetra ethyl lead (TEL). Thus ethanol blending raises the octane rating of fuel as well as eliminate the lead addition thereby reduces the lead poisoning in the environment. Addition of ethanol in gasoline alcohol blend enhances the cooling effect on intake charge, which persists throughout the engine cycle. Since the formation of NOx is a function of temperature, this reduction in temperature causes reduction in NOx emissions. E-10 fuel reduces CO and unburned HC emission due to leaning effect. Exhaust emission of vehicles were monitored using non dispersive infrared analyzer (NDIR). These readings were recorded during idling after engine had warmed up. 3. Experimentation
A fleet of 13 vehicles that were running on this fuel is selected. This includes four Ambassadors (A1,A2,A3,A4) cars, four Mahindra jeeps (MJ1,MJ2,MJ3,MJ4) and five Maruti. Gypsy (MG1,MG2,MG3,MG4,MG5).The test cars continued to be used for general purpose. Fuel was dispensed to these vehicles from a particular petrol pump. Previous data of the vehicle was collected to know the effect or improvement in the vehicle with gasohol. Oil filter and lubricating oil was changed before running it on gasohol. Following data were recorded. (i) (ii) Kilometer gauge reading and quantity of gasohol filled in the fuel tank. CO & HC emission level (% by volume and PPM)
Table 2. Drivers comment about the performance of vehicle while running on E-10 fuel. S.N 1 Vehicle Ambassadar Comment 1. Smooth running, Improved pick up and there is no overheating problem. Drivers realize the improvement in km/litre by his own record book. 2. Driver reports some cold starting problem and latter on reported normal running and cold starting problem automatically went off. 1. Driver reports improved pick up and smooth running. There is no noticeable increase in engine acceleration of the vehicle. 2. Driver reports for less smoke. 1. Driver reports for better pick up and smooth running and notices reduction in smoke. 2. Driver tells that initially there was some cold starting problem but now it is running properly and there is no such problem. 3. Vehicle is running properly.
Maruti Gypsy Mahindra jeep
4.
After analyzing the various datas related to carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbon emission from exhaust tail pipe of Ambassador cars, Mahindra jeep and Maruti gypsy. We found that there is considerable reduction in carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emission level of vehicles running on 10% ethanol gasoline blend. All these data are given below.
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5.
Graphs
12 9 6 3 0 Initial Km/ litre
7.5 8.35 7.5 7.84 7.5 7.63
Final Km/Litre
10.30 10.30 10.21 9 9.24 9.76 9
Km/litre
6.5 6.97
7.5 6.90
6.5 6.90
6.5 6.80
6.5 6.83
A1
A2
A3
A4
MJ MJ2 MJ MJ4 MG1 MG2 MG3 MG4 MG5 1 3 Vehicles
Figure 5.1. Improvement in mileage (Km/Litre)

4.29 2.56 4.18 2.68 4.09 2.42 3.98 2.16 4.18 2.59 4.21 2.62
C emission on gasoline O CO emission on E-10
3.54 2.16
3.59 2.4
2.51 1.54
CO Emission
2.16 1.22
4.5 3 1.5 0
A1
A2
A3
A4
MJ1 MJ2 MJ3 MJ4 MG1 MG2 MG3 MG4 MG5 Vehicles
Figure 5.2. Reduction in CO emission (% by volume)

3000 HCemission on gasoline HCemission on E-10
HC Emission
1474
1435
1174
1221
1250
2000 1000 0
1044
1144
1173
730 480
640 370
630 371
720 398
1.47 0.92
2510
1810
1680
1990
1660
2310
1990
A1
A2
A3
A4
MJ1 MJ2 MJ3 MJ4 MG1 MG2 MG3 MG4 MG5 Vehicles
Figure 5.3. Reduction in HC emission (ppm)

%age reduction inCO,HC emissions
%ge reduction in CO emission 48 0 A1 A2 A3 A4 MJ1 MJ2 MJ3 MJ4 MG1 MG2 MG3 MG4 MG5 Vehicles %ge reduction in HC emission
Figure 5.4. % age reduction in CO, HC emission 6. Conclusions
Emission and performance comparison of all three type of vehicles operated on conventional gasoline fuel and E-10 fuel were investigated in this paper and following findings can be made for these vehicles. 1. Fuel economy of gasohol (E10) running vehicles is higher in the range of 2 to 15% than that of the gasoline vehicle.. This better fuel economy is associated to the presence of ethanol in the blend, which improves the volumetric efficiency of
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1930
600 380
2.87 1.75
3.5 2.37
the engine due to increase in heat of vaporization of the blended fuel. The lowering of all round combustion cycle temperature cooler and smoother knock free operation of the engine due to higher octane number of blended fuel has added beneficial effect on the vehicle. 2. E-10 fuel reduces exhaust CO emission from vehicle and this reduction in CO emission varies from 32 to 46% as compared to previous emissions when vehicle was running on gasoline. 3. Ethanol blended (E10) fuel also reduces HC emissions from vehicle and this reduction in HC emission varies from 31 to 45%. Thus it is concluded that E-10 can comfortably be used in gasoline fueled light motor vehicles without any modification for higher fuel economy and low exhaust emissions like CO and unburned HC. References [1] Sriram S.S. Popuri and Rada M.Bata. A performance study of Isobutanol- methanol and ethanol gasoline blends using a single cylinder engine, journal of SAE, 1993, 932-953. [2] Bate R.M et al. Emission from I.C.Engine fuelled with alcohol-gasoline blends: a literature review. Engine emission journal of engineering for gas turbine and power, transactions of ASME, III, 424, 1989. [3] Eugene E. et al. State of the arts report on the use of alcohols, journal of SAE, 84-118, 1984. [4] Wang Wenguang et al., Emission comparison of 26 vehicles operated on conventional and alternate fuels, journal of SAE, 932-952, 1993. [5] Thring R.H., Alternate fuels for spark ignition engines, journal of SAE, 831-865, 1983. [6] Gibbs L.M. and Gilbert B.J., Corba costa countrys one year experience with gasohol, journal of SAE, pp no. 810440, 1981. [7] Thomas C., Austin and Gary Rubenstin, Gasohol: technical, economic or practical panacea, journal of SAE pp no.800-891, 1980. [8] Frank Black, An overview of technical implication of methanol and ethanol as highway motor vehicles fuel, journal of SAE, pp no.912-913, 1991. [9] Heywood J.B., Internal combustion engine fundamentals, Mc-Graw Hill, Newyork, 1988. [10] Colin R.Ferguson.Allan T. Kirkpatrick, Internal Combustion Engine, John Wiley and sons, NewYork, 2000. [11] Ganesan V., Internal combustion engine, Tata Mc-Graw Hill, New Delhi.
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Study and Analysis of Non-conventional Space Conditioning Systems installed at Universal Medicap, Vadodara
Vanita N. Thakkar Charotar Institute of Technology, Changa, Dist. Anand, Gujarat e-mail: vanitaa_in@yahoo.com Shelter is a basic human need. Energy is an important aspect of the design and planning in Architecture. There is increase in cooling loads because of global warming and space constraints, and higher comfort expectations owing to improved living standards. Two non-conventional Space conditioning Systems have been installed in the office building of Universal Medicap, Dashrath, Vadodara a Roof Cooling System (RCS), which prevents solar heat incident on roof from entering the building by circulating water through piping embedded in water-proofing of the roof and an Earth-Air Heat Exchanger (EAHE), which heats or cools ambient air in a pipe buried at a depth of about 12 below the ground o as per the season and ensures stable thermal conditions (around 30 3 C) within the office. This paper aims at Study and Techno-Economic Analysis of these two systems. Temperatures of the roof, ceiling and floor and ambient office room temperature under three conditions are recorded for 6 days and results are studied and analyzed without any of the two systems operating, when only EAHE is operating and when both EAHE and RCS are operating. Good comfort levels are o achieved in the office room (around 33 C when both systems run in combination). 1. Introduction
Energy is necessary for existence. All forms of life extract energy from the environment and convert it to forms which can be used. From primitive man, who had not yet discovered fire, to modern technological man, who has extensively expanded his abilities to harness and use energy for his increasing needs, the usage of energy has increased to as much as about 115 times. Shelter is a basic human need, provided by Residence and Workplaces. Energy is an important aspect of the design and planning work in Architecture as it ensures comfort. Solar Architecture involves developing an energy-aware architectural style by Passive as well as Active means. Passive Solar Architecture uses natural thermal conduction, convection and radiation to ensure climate control. Active Solar Architecture involves the use of solar collectors, which require an external source of energy. There has been increase in cooling loads because of global warming effects and space constraints, and due to higher comfort expectations owing to improvements in living standards, due to technological advancements. Hybrid Systems combine features of active and passive systems and can be very useful in ensuring comfortable, energy-efficient buildings. There have been several analytical and experimental studies to develop nonconventional space conditioning systems, which include Solar-assisted systems like Solar Collector-based systems, Cooling and Dehumidification systems, viz. Adsorption, Absorption and Desiccant systems, and systems based on jet cycle, etc. [1], Earth-Tube Heat Exchanger (ETHE) / Buried Pipe Heat Exchanger (BPHE) based Systems like Earth-Air Heat Exchanger systems [2], Ground Source Heat Pumps [3,4], Integrated Inbuilt Roof Cooling System (IIRCS) [5,6], etc. and other systems like Regenerative Heat Exchanger, Thermal Wheel, etc. There can be varieties in each type depending upon the geographic and climatic conditions for which they are developed, the specific requirements of the system like, residential building, work-place, greenhouse, auditorium, etc. as well as the principle on which they are based and the technology they make use of. Solar-assisted systems have some draw-back or the other each, such as low efficiency of collector type system, capacity, efficiency and economic limitations of cooling and dehumidification systems, and use of non-
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environment friendly ammonia and low efficiency of 2-phase, 2-component jet cycle chiller, which necessitate further research and development work. ETHE / BPHE based systems show good potential as regards simplicity of construction, easy maintenance and operation, etc., especially single-circuit EAHE and IIRCS systems [7]. Two non-conventional Active Solar Architecture Space conditioning Systems, have been installed in the office building of Universal Medicap Limited (UML), Dashrath, Vadodara. One is a Roof Cooling System (RCS) and the other is an Earth-Air Heat Exchanger (EAHE). Passive features have also been incorporated in the building construction, such as a layer of thermocol followed by plastic sheet just below the water proofing, which consists of a layer of sand in which HDPE piping has been embedded. The present study analyzes the usefulness of the systems in terms of ensuring proper comfort levels, the simplicity in installation, operation and maintenance, energy conservation and cost factors. 2. Systems Descriptions
The office room area in which space conditioning is being done in the building of UML, Vadodara as an area of 86 x 25, in which about 16 people work. There are 12 ceiling fans, 06 standing fans, 06 exhaust fans, 14 computers and 10 lights which give major contribution to the cooling load requirements. Passive features have been incorporated in the building construction, such a 25mm thick layer of thermocol followed by a 100 plastic sheet just below the water proofing, which consists of a 50mm thick layer of sand in which 16mm HDPE piping has been embedded, with a distance of 1 maintained horizontally between the pipes. The roof-top consists of simple 20mm thick mosaic tiles. There are 12 windows 4x5 each and 12 ventilators above the windows 3x2 each on the western wall. The windows and ventilators consist of 2 layers of window glass, with a gap of 3 between the glass panes. The windows and ventilators cannot be opened, hence 6 exhaust fans have installed to ensure air circulation. The ceiling height is 10. As mentioned earlier, there are two space conditioning systems, as described below : 2.1 Earth-Air Heat Exchanger (EAHE) System
The EAHE heats or cools ambient air in a 250m long 1m Hume pipe (called tunnel) buried at a depth of about 12 below the ground as per the season and ensures stable thermal conditions (30 3oC) within the office building. A 3 H.P. blower installed in a small filtered housing located at about 300m towards north-west of the office building is used to circulate the air through the system. The air from the tunnel is conveyed into the office room by 6 louvered openings 1 x 8 on the eastern wall of the room. 2.2 Roof Cooling System (RCS)
The horizontal roof of the UML office building has an area of 100 x 50. RCS prevents solar heat load incident on the roof from entering the building by circulating water through piping embedded in the water-proofing. It consists of 16mm HDPE pipes embedded in the 50mm thick layer of sand which constitutes the water proofing. Water from an underground tank enters from the far southern end of the roof through the 63mm HDPE inlet header, gets circulated in the U-loop shaped parallel pipes laid 1 apart, which run perpendicular to the header, across the length of the roof and return back to the 63mm HDPE outlet header on the same side of the roof, which carries water back to the underground tank, as shown in the figure 1. Thus, during each pass, water travels two lengths of the roof, gaining heat from incident solar radiation. Water is pumped into the RCS using a 1 H. P. mono-block pump.
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3.
Experiment and Study Procedure
For 6 days during the month of June, 2009 readings of temperatures at 20 selected points / nodes (A1 to A5, B1 to B5, C1 to C5 and D1 to D5) on the roof, ceiling and floor as shown in figure 1, as well as ambient air temperature in the office room in which the system is operated, were recorded every hour.
A1
A2 16 HDPE Pipe
A3
A4
A5
63 HDPE Pipe headers B1 B2 B3 B4 B5
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
Figure 1. The Roof Cooling System (RCS) Layout and the layout for temperature nodes
For two days each, readings were taken under three different conditions between 08:00 AM to 07:00 PM., viz. : 1. Without operating any of the systems (7 and 14 June, 2009). th th 2. With only EAHE operating (8 and 10 June, 2009). th th 3. With both EAHE and RCS operating (9 and 12 June, 2009) : Initially, water was taken from and returned to the same underground water tank, but having observed that higher outlet water temperature after 12:00 noon tends to increase tank water temperature, thereby increasing the inlet water temperature, the outlet water header was diverted to an adjoining underground water tank. The time taken by the water outlet temperature to become equal to the water inlet temperature was noted in each case. Temperature readings are taken before and after operating the RCS each time for roof, ceiling, floor and room conditions. Average values of temperature along A, B, C and D lengths of the roof are taken; Temperature Vs Time graphs are plotted and studied comparatively under the conditions considered. 4. Results and Discussion Important observations of the study are as follows: 1. A fair idea about the temperature distribution on the roof, ceiling and floor can be obtained in each case. 2. When only EAHE system operates, the maximum room temperature is around 34 o o 0.5 C and the average room temperature is 330.5 C. 3. When both EAHE and RCS operate together, the maximum as well as average o room temperature is around 33 C. There is good consistency in the temperatures
th th
452
inside the room. Before 12:00 noon, temperatures around 32 C are obtained which give good comfort conditions in hot, dry climate prevailing in Vadodara. 4. Appreciable difference in the roof temperatures is observed before and after running the RCS after 12:00 noon, as can be seen from the figure 2.
Roof Temperatures : 09-06-2009

55
50
Tem p erature (deg. C )
45
40
35
30
12.00
13.00 49.475 45.775
14.00 50.95 47.625
15.00 51.075 47.2
16.00 50.825 46.5
17.00 46.85 44.375
18.00 41.975 38.875
19.00 37.725 36.125
BEFORE 43.475 AFTER 41.3
Time (hrs)
Roof Temperatures : 12-06-2009

55
50
Temperature (deg. C)
45
40
35
30 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 BEFORE 33.05 35.88 37.15 43.43 44.5 47.68 49.85 49.43 50.8 44.1 38.78 36.58 AFTER 34.13 35.33 38.2 42.93 40.03 44.7 48.25 46.83 45.65 42.65 37.35 36.05 Time (hrs)
Figure 2. Average Roof Temperatures before and after running RCS.
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5. Between 08:00 AM to 12:00 Noon, the time duration for running the RCS is very less and the differences in the roof and ceiling temperatures before and after the running of RCS are quite less. It would be better to start operating the RCS later (may be around 10:00 AM on very hot days and 11:00 AM on normal days) or run it after longer time intervals till noon. 6. On an average, the RCS is required to be run for about 5 minutes per hour. 7. The installation, operation and maintenance of EAHE + RCS are very simple. 5. Costing and Comparison with Conventional A. C. System
The cooling load estimates for the set-up indicated that a 6 ton split A.C. will be required for the office room. The capital as well as operating costs of (EAHE + RCS) are less compared to those of a 6 ton split A.C., as can be seen from the comparative costing given in Table 1. There is a power saving of about Rs.3000/- per month if (EAHE + RCS) are used. Also, the EAHE can be used for heating the office room during winter and maintaining temperatures in the o comfortable range of 30 2 C. Table 1. Cost Comparison of EAHE + RCS and Conventional A.C. System
S. No. 1.
Comparison Factor Power Input.
6.0 TR Split A.C. Unit EAHE + RCS EAHE : 5000 W RCS : 750 W Rs.100000/EAHE : 6 hours operation / day for 6 months / year RCS : hour / day for 6 months. (5000 x 6) + (750 X 0.5)/ 1000 = 30.375 kWh 911 units. Rs.5466/- (say, Rs.5500/-) 7800 W
2. 3.
Capital Cost. Hours of operation.
Rs.150000/6 hours operation / day for 6 months.
4.
Units / day.
(7800 x 6) / 1000 = 46.8 kWh
5. 6.
Units / month. Power Cost / month. (Considering Rs.6.00 per unit for commercial building.)
1404 units. Rs.8424/- (say, Rs,8500/-)
Power saving using EAHE + RCS instead of Split A.C.
Saving in cost of power / month = Rs.3000/Saving in cost of power / year = Rs.3000/- x 6 = Rs.18000/per year.
6.
Conclusions Non-conventional space conditioning systems like those installed at UML, Dashrath, Vadodara namely, Earth-Air Heat Exchanger (EAHE) and Roof Cooling System (RCS) are simple and cheap in installation, operation and maintenance and are environment-friendly.
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The systems have been designed based on logic and thumb rules and are giving good performance. There can be some improvements in the systems such as, 1. There is some heat gain in the air coming out of the tunnel before it reaches the room. These gains can be reduced by improving the ducting and / or making some better insulation arrangements. 2. The size and length of the hume pipe (tunnel) are considerable. Installing a bunch smaller and shorter plastic pipes (HDPE) instead of large hume pipe(s) can save space and further reduce power consumption. 3. The depth at which the EAHE is buried can be around 2.5m, i.e. 8.25 [5] instead of 12. Hence installation can be further made easier and cheaper. Acknowledgement The author expresses sincere thanks to Shree Jagdishbhai Patel, MD, Univeral Medicap, Dashrath, Vadodara for allowing and providing help and information for this study. Thanks also to Kishorebhai Joshi and Arvindbhai for their help in conducting experimental work. References [1] IEA Solar Heating and Cooling. Solar-assisted air-conditioning of buildings. Technical Report Task 25, 2002. [2] Didier Thevenard. Bibliographic Search on the Potential of Earth. Numerical Logics Inc., Canada, www.numlog.ca, (06-09-2007). [3] Steven P. Rottmayer. Simulation of Ground Coupled Vertical U-Tube Heat Exchangers. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (MECHANICAL ENGINEERING) at the UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSINMADISON, 1997. [4] John W. Bartok. Feasibility Study of a Geothermal Heating System within a Commercial Greenhouse, grantreport_pioneergardens.htm (Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources) [5] Vanita N. Thakkar (2003). Thermal Design Optimization of Integrated Inbuilt Roof Cooling System. National Conference on GLOBAL TECHNOLOGIES IN MANUFACTURING & THERMAL SCIENCES (GTMTS-2004), Sethu Institute of Technology, July, 2004, Virudhunagar (Tamil Nadu), India. [6] Vanita N. Thakkar. Techno-economic Analysis of Integrated In-built Roof Cooling System, Proceedings of Renewable Energy Asia 2008 : International conference, IIT, 11-13 December, 2008, New Delhi. [7] Vanita N. Thakkar. Recent Trends in Non-conventional Space Conditioning Systems. Proceedings of National Womens Conference on Exploring Potentialities Of Women In Engineering (EPWIE), CIT-Changa, 3-4 July, 2009, Gujarat. Accepted for publication.
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Production, Optimization and Characterization of Pongamia Biodiesel (Pongamia Methyl Ester)

V. Sitaram Prasad1* , Dr S. K. Mohapatra1
1
Ambala College of Engg. and Applied Research , Ambala -133101 , India 2 Thapar University, Patiala-147004, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: vsrprasad@yahoo.com)
A study of production, optimization, characterization and economics of Pongamia bio-diesel has been presented in this paper. Experiments have been carried out on transesterification of Pongamia oil with methanol with different catalyst such as NaOH and KOH. Reaction parameters such as catalyst concentration, alcohol/oil molar ratio, temperature and rate of mixing were optimized for production of Pongamia Methyl Ester (PME). The objective of this paper is to describe the processing and production of biodiesel. 1. Introduction
Environmental concern and depletion in petroleum resources have forced researchers to concentrate finding renewable alternatives to conventional diesel fuels. Due to the increase in price of petroleum and environmental concern about pollution coming from the car gases, biodiesel is becoming a developing area of high concern. Biodiesel is a methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acid made from virgin or used vegetable oils (both edible & non-edible) and animal fats. The main commodity sources for biodiesel in India can be non-edible oils obtained from plant species such as Jatropha curcas (Ratanjyot), pongamia pinnata (Karanj), Azadircha indica (Neem) etc. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be used in its pure form . Biodiesel operates in diesel engine, which essentially requires very little or no modifications because biodiesel has properties similar to petroleum diesel fuels. The use of biodiesel in conventional diesel engines results in substantial reduction of unburned hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and particulate matters. A great deal of research and development on internal combustion engines has taken place not only in the design area but also in finding an appropriate fuel. Many researchers have concluded that biodiesel holds promise as an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Since its properties are very close to diesel fuel. The fuel properties of biodiesel such as cetane number, heat of combustion, gravity, and viscosity influence the combustion and so the engine performance and emission characteristics because it has different physical and chemical properties than petroleum-based diesel fuel. 2 Literature Review
An exhaustive literature review was carried out with the titled work to find out the current level of research and significant abstract of most relevant research work studied is as follows. M. S. Radwan [1] have presented a detail study of preparation and characterization of jojoba methyl oil. This was carried out experimentally and its chemical and physical properties were determined. Esterification method is used to produce methyl ester from raw jojoba oil. This method is optimized to produce the highest amount of fuel using a minimum amount of methyl alcohol. The new fuel is found to be suitable for compression ignition engine particularly in the indirect- injection and it also reduces engine wear. S. Puhan [2] have discussed experimental investigation of performance and emission study of mahua oil ethyl ester in a 4-stroke natural aspirated direct injection diesel engine. In present investigation, mahua oil ethyl ester was prepared by transesterification using sulphuric acid as a catalyst and tested in above engine. Tests were carried out at a constant speed of 1500 rev/min at different brake mean effective pressures. A. Demirbas [3] have reviewed the production and characterization of biodiesel via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical methanol transesterification methods. There are more than 350 oil spring crops identified, among which
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only sunflower, safflower, soyabean, cottonseed, rapeseed, and peanut oils are considered as potential alternative fuels for diesel engines. The major problem associated with the use of pure vegetable oils as a fuel, for diesel engines are caused by high fuel viscosity in compression ignition. Dilution, micro-emulsification, pyrolysis and tranesterification are the four techniques applied to the problems encountered with the high viscosity. The purpose of the transesterification of vegetable oils to their methyl esters (biodiesel) process is to lower the viscosity of the oil. 3. Material and Its Composition All chemicals are brought locally .Pongamia oil is purchased from Medors Biotech Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. The Methanol, catalyst , Benzoic Acid, copper strip , Distilled water, Ethanol, oxygen gas are provided by MERADO, Ludhiana. All other reagents were analytical grade. 4. Transesterification process It is based on the basis of methanol to oil ratio of 6:1 and prepared by transesterification process. When oil is mixed with methanol in the presence of catalyst such as NaoH and KOH to yield biodiesel and glycerol as a by-product, this process is known as transesterication process. It is represented by RCOOR + R = RCOOR+ROH Transesterification which is sometimes known as alcoholysis and displaces the alcohol within an ester by using another alcohol. This process shares similarities to hydrolysis. Transesterification produces esters of fatty acids from vegetable oils and as a by-product glycerol is also produced. This is achieved using an alcohol and an alkaline catalyst. In these tests methanol and Potassium hydroxide are used, respectively using the setup as shown in the diagram below. 5. Optimization process
Once biodiesel is being produced at estimated quantities, optimization needs to be carried out to reduce the quantity of alcohol and catalyst required to give a satisfactory yield. Firstly the quantity of catalyst should be fixed and the quantities of alcohol reduced or increase to a point where the transesterification is still converting a high yield. Then the catalyst proportion is adjusted with the fixed quantity of alcohol until the lowest possible amount can be used without over-affecting the conversion proportions. The alcohol content is again adjusted to establish the best yield. If an increase in alcohol increases the conversion but not to a justifiable amount in proportion to the amount of alcohol used this would be considered too much. Optimization is required to obtain the lowest possible cost in the transesterification stage of biodiesel, making it as economically viable as possible. Any excess methanol should be recycled as well as the catalyst. a) Single stage transesterification process using NaOH To 76.6gm of oil, a known amount of catalyst NaOH 0.54gm dissolved in 22.98gm of methanol. Temperature is to be maintained 55-600C as desired. Process is continued till 1 hr and biodiesel layer is obtained on topmost part and glycerol is obtained on lowermost part. b) Experimental Set up and Methodology :i) Manual Reactor Transesterification is the most popular process for the conversion of crude oil to biodiesel as there is no intermediate product, no exotic chemicals are required. Reaction does not require high temperatures and pressure and finally because once process is optimized high yields of up to 98% can be attained.
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ii) Manual Transesterification The manual reaction takes more time and care but can be used for smaller quantities of oil the method is the same as above, but different equipment is required: Instrumentation, Heater, Condensing tube, Water flow, Magnetic stirrer, separation flasks Once the catalyst has completely dissolved in the alcohol, the mixture should be allowed to separate under gravity for a period of time no less than 24hr. The separated layers are then separated and the ester is washed with warm water (approx 400C) this will help to remove any impurities left in the ester. Once again the mixture should be allowed to settle for no less than 24hr so gravity can separate the water and ester and then the water with the impurities drained off. To further dry the produced ester, silica gel is used by passing the ester over the gel which will absorb any residual moisture.The experiment is to be conducted at higher speeds. The picture below shows the smaller reactor which was used for the experiments to produce biodiesel. The control panel on the right of the smaller reactor allows for illumination of the reactor, speed and direction of rotation, programmable alarm, and heater. iii) Reactor vessels (3lit) The small reactor which is bought can has a 3kg minimum limit for the four internal heaters situated at the bottom and agitator to be submerged enough not to cause damage to the machine, situated on the top in the centre is the motor for the two way stirring, an inlet, pressure gauge and two condensers, one for returning the condensed liquid straight back in to the reactor and one for external collection, if required. First the premix of methanol and NaOH added and the agitator and heater started until a temperature of approximately 550C is reached, the 3 kg of oil is added as quickly as possible to stop any escaping methanol vapor. Once the oil is inside and the lid sealed the agitator and heater is reinitiated and the water flow started. The mixture is watched and the temperature monitered to be maintained 0 between 65-70 C. The rpm is maintained at about 800. After one hour if the reaction is successful the liquid inside should have changes a transparent liquid, if this has not occurred the process is maintained for up to 30 min longer to ensure the reaction will take place if it is going too. Once the reaction has finished the contents is emptied into the large standing glass cylinders attached to the stand and covered. The reactants are allowed to settle over night. If the reaction has been successful the ester should have separated to be on top with the glycerol below some saponification may have occurred and will be between the two layers, this is an indication of high FFA or water content. And the following steps are carried out the same as the manulal experimentation. iv) Oil and Ester characterization The present investigation, the Pongamia oil, a non-edible type vegetable oil is chosen as a potential alternative for producing biodiesel and use as a fuel in diesel engines. The estimated availability of POngamia seed is about 6.64.000 ton per annum. POngamia seed kernels contain 40-50% of brown coloured oil. The significant properties of PME and PO are found out during the present investigation. Viscosity is measured by using Redwood Viscometer, Density is measured by Hydrometer. Flash point and fire point is measured by open cup apparatus. Calorific value and anline point, cloud and pour point is measured by oxygen bomb calorimeter, anline point apparatus, cloud and pour point apparatus respectively. 6. Results and Discussions
a) Ester optimization process Both NaOH and KOH were used as base catalyst for the synthesis of mrthyl ester. The over all catalyst usage in the two step transesterification was 0.54gm and 0.79gm for NaOH & KOH based an oil to molar ratio of 6:1 respectively. Both catalyst gives above 90% yield. In other words both catalysts are effective for methyl ester synthesis.
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b) Single stage process Comparision of biodiesel yield with different proportion of Methanol and NaOH (For Single Stage) METHANOL(gm) NaOH(gm) Yield of PME(%) 330 9 88.5 330 8 89.2 330 7 90.0 300 9 87.0 300 8 89.0 300 7 90.5 300 7 90.3 270 9 72.5 270 8 73.5 270 7 75.0
Comparision of biodiesel yield with different proportion of Methanol and KOH (For Single Stage)
METHANOL(gm) 250 270 270 300
Catalyst (KOH) 10gm 10gm 10gm 10gm
Yield of Biodiesel (%) 90.2 93.5 94.0 95.0
c) Comparision of biodiesel yield with different of proportion Methanol and KOH (For Single Stage) IT has been reported that single stage commonly applied. 90.5% & 94% yield achieved by using catalysts like NaOH and KOH respectively. In order to get maximum yield of ester, double stage process is to be conducted that gives 96.8% & 98.7% yield obtained by using NaOH and KOH. d) Oil Characterization Pongamia oil have about 9.88% less than heating value than that of diesel oil due to oxygen content in their molecules. The kinematics viscosity of pongamia oil is, however several times higher than that of diesel oil. Due to high viscosity, it leads to problems in pumping and atomization in the injection system of a diesel engine. The combination of high viscosity and low volatility of pongamia oil causes poor cold engine start up, misfire and ignition delay. Hence it is necessary to bring their combustion-related properties closer to those of the diesel oil. The fuel modification is mainly aimed at reducing the viscosity of vegetable oils to get rid of the flow related problems. e) Properties of Pongamia oil
Density Viscosity FFA Acid Value Flash point Fire point Pour point Cloud point Calorific value Ash Content Carbon Content Moisture
0.915gm/m3 32.27Centistokes 2.84 5.68mgKOH 1250C 1500C 10 C 40 C 8550.88cal/gm 0.456gms 0.6gms 0.244%
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In order to reduce the acid value (i.e. for reducing the FFA), The oil is to be filtered first. However, the use of filtered oil for esterification will increase the overall production cost of the esters. Hence the present efforts are aimed at the production of esters from filtered pongamia oil and to analyze its suitability as fuel in diesel engines. f) Ester Characterization The viscosity is substantially got reduced from a value of 32.27 centistokes to 5.93 centistokes (approximately one eighteenth of initial value). The calorific value of PME is lower than that of diesel because of its oxygen content. Properties of Pongamia Methyl Ester (PME) is given below : Density Viscosity Pour point Cloud point Calorific value Carbon recidue Moisture Flash point Fire point 0.87gm/m 5.93 Centistokes 0 -5 C 0 -1 C 9163cal/gm 0.039gm 1.5% 0 148 C 0 165 C
3
The flash point of ester is higher than that of diesel. A small percentage of biodiesel addition with diesel can definitely improve the flash point of the resultant mixture. Hence this fuel is safer to store and transport compared to that of pure diesel. 7. Economics of Biodiesel
The economics of biodiesel varies depending on the oil chosen method of conversion, optimization, and scale of operations and sale of bi products. Used vegetable oil has the best economic viability but this if used to a high extent of production could not meet the demand required. The use of virgin vegetable oil with the increase in diesel use is becoming more viable. In different countries where different plant species are being used the economics vary considerable, in India the use of non edible oil which does not have a competitive consumption market to compete wich shows a great deal of promise in achieving a viable substitution. In India , it is estimated that cost of biodiesel produced by transesterification of oil obtained from pongamia seed shall be approximately same as that of petro-diesel. 8. Cost Analysis
The indicative cost analysis for the preparation of PME is mentioned below : 1. Raw pongamia oil Rs Rs 29.70 per kg of PME (Refer note*) 2. Cost of filtering : Rs.5 per kg 3. Cost of TRansesterification : Rs.5 per kg 4. Total cost of PME :RS.39.70per kg 5. sell of Byproducts (Glycerol) : Rs. 9 (Refer #) 6. Net cost of PME : Rs30.70 per kg * The Raw pongamia oil required for the preparation of 1 kg of PME is 1.10 kg Therefore, the cost of Raw oil required is equal to 1.10 Rs 27per kg of raw oil i.e Rs 29.70 # The glycerol obtained during the process of transesterification of 1 kg of PME is 300gm. Therefore, the recovery observed by selling 300gm of Glycerol is 0.3 Rs 30 i.e., Rs 9. The pongamia seed contains 40-50% oil and 0.905 kg of Pongamia biodiesel is obtained from 1 I kg of pongamia oil. Recovery from sale of glycerol will be at the rate of Rs 40-60 per kg. New applications are to be found creating additional demand and stabilizing its price. The use of biodiesel is economically feasible and a strategic option.
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9.
Conclusions
Regarding the transesterification process : In order to obtain, two stages in the Pongamia oil transeaterification process have been studied. These comprised reaction and purification. Transeaterification controls the yield of the process purification is fundamental in order to fulfill the characteristics of methyl ester as fuel in diesel engines. In reaction stage, the factors which presented a Greater influence were methanol and catalyst quantity which gives maximum yield of methyl ester. Based on oil-molar ratio 6:1, it has been achieved better output. Biodiesel, whose characteristics as a fuel in diesel engine are in acceptable level. Refernces [1] M.S. Radwan: M. A. Ismail; S.M.S.Elfeky: and O.S.M. Abu-Elyazeed, Jojoba methyl ester as adiesel fuel substitute: Preparation and characterization, Applied Thermal Engineering, 27, (2007), pp 314-322. [2] S.Puhan, N. Vedaraman, G. Sankaranarayan, V. Boppana, and B. Ram, Performance and emission study of Mahua oil (madhuca indica oil) ethyl ester in a 4-stroke natural aspirated direct injection diesel engine Renewable Energy, 30, (2005) pp1269-1278. [3] Demirbas, Biodiesel production from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical methanol transesterification methods, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 31, (2005), pp 466-487. [4] A.S. Ramadhas, S. Jayaraj, and C. Muraleedharan, Characterization and effect of using rubber seed oil as fuel in the compression ignition engines, Renewable Energy, 30, (2005), pp 795-803. [5] J. M. Marchetti, V. U. Miguel, A. F. Errazu, Possible methods for biodiesel production, 24 August Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. [6] www.laxmibiotech.com, www.plantculture.org.uk [7] S.K. Karmee, A. Chadha, Preparation of biodiesel from crude oil of Pongamia Pinnata, BIoresource, Technology 96(2005), 1425-1429. [8] R. Altin, S. Centinkaya, H. S. Yucesu.,Energy Conversion and Management 42(2001),529-538. [9] Demirbas, Biodiesel fuels from vegetable oils via catalytical and non-catalytic supercritical alcohol transeaterification and other methods: a Survey., Energy conversion and Management 44(2003) 2093-2109. [10] X.Lang, A. K. Dalai, M. N. Bakhshi., preparation and characterization of biodiesels from various bio-oils. Bioresource Technology 80 (2001), 53-62.
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New Biogas Plant Methane Gas As Well As Electricity Generation

Vinayak P. Walikar Kolhapur Institute of Technology College of Engg, Gokul Shirgaon, Kolhapur, India Email: - vinayak_walikar@rediffmail.com In 18 century the concept of biogas was brought to focus. In India first biogas plant was built in Bombay in 1859. The new biogas plant aims at generation of methane gas as well as electricity. This is first time that somebody has thought for generation of electricity as well as methane gas in biogas plant. The anaerobic digestion of cattle dung & other house-hold organic waste material gives production of combustible gas (methane gas) & rich organic manure in form of digested slurry. Microbial fuel cell was used for generation of electricity. Thus there is some modification required in new biogas plant for generation of methane gas as well as electricity. 1. Introduction
th
Energy is the keyword for mankind since everything is revolved around the Energy, be it human being or animals or plants, every one needs Energy in one form or the other. Non-conventional sources of energy like Bio-Gas, Solar, Wind, and Bio-mass are best source of energy. The biogas plant status worldwide is that Asia is leading with 34 percent and Europe with 26 percent, followed by others. In India More than three million family size biogas plants have so far been installed in the countryside under the National Programmed on Biogas Development. The new biogas plant aims at generation of methane gas as well as electricity. For New biogas plant there is change in construction is required in original biogas plant. The principal used in new biogas plant is very simple, the microbial fuel cell used for generation of electricity. And for generation of methane gas the principal of anaerobic digestion of bacteria is used. The new biogas plant deals with which design is suitable for good electricity generation as well as methane gas generation. It also deals with which electrode like copper, aluminum, and zinc holds well for electricity generation in new biogas plant. 2. Principle of New Biogas Plant A) Methane Gas Generation Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials in order to break down insoluble organic polymers such as carbohydrates and make them available for other bacteria. Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids. Acetogenic bacteria then convert these resulting organic acids into acetic acid, along with additional ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Methanogens, finally are able to convert these products to methane and carbon dioxide. B) Electricity Generation The principal used in new biogas plant is of microbial fuel cell (MFC) which converts chemical energy, available in a bio-convertible substrate, directly into electricity. In microbial fuel cell anodic compartment bacteria can bring about oxidative conversion while in cathode compartment chemical & microbial reductive processes can occur. The electric current flows on account of the electron obtained from bacteria. Every organism has electron system in their body in which electron transfer takes place from one metabolite to another. These
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metabolites are in turn oxidized, reduced & electron is finally given to a final electron acceptor. In other words it can be said that electron rotates in chain & we make use of this electron in our new biogas plant. In aerobic organism this electron acceptor is hydrogen this is further converted to water. In anaerobic organism the electron is transferred to carbon dioxide or metal ion. We make use of this electron for charge transfer in circuit for generation of current. The electron then flow through an electrical circuit with load or resistor to cathode. The potential difference between anode & cathode, together with flow of electrons results in generation of electrical power. 3. Design For New Biogas Plant
It is very important to decide which design is suitable for New Biogas Plant. There are different types of biogas plant on basis of its design. They are i) Floating Dome (KVIC Biogas Plant) ii) Fixed Dome (Deenbandhu Biogas Plant). The basic design of biogas plant is shown below.
The design Floating Dome (KVIC biogas plant) would suit for our New Biogas Plant for production of good amount of electricity as well as biogas, because in the design of KVIC biogas plant there is separator to separate fresh input & slurry (fig 0.2). Thus, the efficiency of production of methane gas & electricity would increase by using design of KVIC Biogas Plant. But, due to disadvantage like 1) regular care & maintenance required of floating steel gas holder. 2) Easily corrosion of floating steel gas holder. 3) Short life span. 4) Important thing is cost of KVIC plant is 45% more as compared with Deenbandhu biogas plant. For our New Biogas plant, we will be choosing design of Fixed Dome Biogas Plant (Deenbandhu Biogas plant). Deenbandhu Biogas Plant is advantages because 1) Little maintenance 2) Long life span. 3) It can be built by locally by trained mason from locally available material. 4) Cost is low as compared to other Biogas Plant.
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4.
Construction Of New Biogas Plant
The Main component of New Biogas Plant is Foundation, Dome, Gas outlet, proton exchange membrane, cathodic solution (potassium or sodium ferricynide in potassium phosphate buffer), Cathode, Anode, and copper or titanium wires for carrying electricity. The foundation of the plant is bowl shaped with a collar around the circumference. The construction of the digester dome is done on this collar. The dome of the digester is divided in 2 parts. The bottom part is called digester. The mixture of dung and water decomposes in this part and produces gas. The upper part of the digester dome is called gas storage. The Gas produced by the bacterial activity is stored in this place. In the digester there is arrangement made for proton exchange membrane (PEMS) which contain cathode & cathodic solution such as potassium or sodium ferricynide in potassium phosphate buffer in it. The anode is inserted in digester itself. This forms microbial fuel cell. Thus, the electricity is generated with help of microbial fuel cell in where, in the anode compartment, fuel is oxidized by microorganisms, generating electrons and protons. Electrons are transferred to the cathode compartment through an external electric circuit, and the protons are transferred to the cathode compartment through the membrane .Where as The Methane gas is generated with help of anaerobic digestion of micro-organism. Hence, whenever we want to use electricity the electricity is generated & whenever we dont want to use electricity the methane gas will be producing. Thus, In New Biogas Plant Methane gas as well as electricity is generated. Design of New Biogas Plant is shown in fig 0.3. It is important to look after cost of New Biogas Plant because we are using PEMs which are very costly. It is necessary to change in design. The design suggested that a separate tank for cathodic chamber can be constructed having inserted cathode in it. Anode can be inserted in digester of biogas plant itself. Finally the circuit is joined to get electricity shown in fig 0.4.
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5.
Experiment On New Biogas Plant
The experiment was carried out in Lab scale to check working of New Biogas New Biogas Plant is composed of anode and cathode compartments and separated by a Proton exchange membrane). Copper was used as anode & inserted into the digester of Biogas plant. Nacl solution was used as cathodic solution & cathode was inserted into it, which was wrapped in polythene bag. This polythene bag acts as proton exchange membrane. All side where completely closed to avoid leakage of Biogas. The complete assembly of New Biogas Plant is shown in fig 0.5. The electricity was measured with help of multimeter.
Figure 0.5 Experimental setup New Biogas Plant
6. SR NO. 1 2 3 4 7.
Observations Day First Second Third Forth Limitation voltage 0.0 volt 0.0 volt 0.29 volt 0.35 volt
On winter season the rate of production of methane gas as well as electricity would be very less.
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8.
Conclusions
The new biogas plant aims at generation of methane gas as well as electricity. The anaerobic digestion of cattle dung & other house-hold organic waste material gives production of combustible gas (methane gas) & rich organic manure in form of digested slurry. Microbial fuel cell was used for generation of electricity. Thus, on Forth day the electricity generated was 0.35 volts on lab scale. It is expected that on large scale (In New Biogas Plant) the electricity generation would be in more amount & it would help in charging of batteries, radio, bulbs etc. The production of methane gas will continue till the input (organic waste) is added. This gas generated can be used for cooking purpose, lamp etc. The New Biogas Plant is new technique in field of science of biogas. The method of generating Methane gas as well as electricity is free of cost & can be adopted mainly in rural part of India. The adoption of this method will surely help people & bring new revolution in field of biogas technology. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] people`s manual on deenbandhu biogas plant,2007 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial_fuel_cell P. R. Sarkar, scientific afforetstation page 13 biogas alternative. www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80434e/80434E0k.htm G.N. Tiwari, J.M.Usmani Determination period for biogas production 2 march 1995. Dumasa, A. Mollica , D. Feron , R. Basseguy , L. Etcheverry , A. Bergel Marine microbial fuel cell: Use of stainless steel electrodes as anode and cathode materials
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Proc. Of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
High Accuracy Numerical Approach for Mixed Convection Boundary Layer Flow Over an Inclined Plate
V Arun Visvanath, K. Venkatasubbaiah
* *
Amrita school of Engineering, Coimbatore-641 105, India Corresponding author (e-mail: k_venkatasubbaiah@ettimadai.amrita.edu)
The mixed convection boundary layer flow over a heated inclined plate is studied using high accuracy numerical method. Present analysis is valid when the buoyancy force effects are small compared to forced convection effects. The mixed convection boundary layer equations are given with the buoyancy term represented by Boussinesq approximation. The non-similar mixed convection boundary layer equations are solved directly using direct integration method without any approximation for non-similar terms. Numerical results are reported for assisting and opposing mixed convection flows for air with the angle of inclination ( ) ranging from 0 to 90 deg from the vertical. Results show that the velocity and temperature profiles in the boundary layer are exactly matches for low value of buoyancy parameter ( ) and differ for high value of ( ) compared to perturbation and local similarity methods. The velocity boundary layer thickness is increases and the thermal boundary layer thickness decreases with increasing for assisting mixed convection flows. The opposite trend is shown for opposing mixed convection flows. The velocity boundary layer thickness is decreases and the thermal boundary layer thickness increases with the angle of inclination increases for assisting flows. Results show that both the local Nusselt number and local friction factor values are increasing with increase in for assisting flows and decreases with increasing for opposing flows. The local Nusselt number and local friction factor values decreases with increase in angle of inclination for assisting flows and opposite trend for opposing flows. Present study provides an accurate numerical approach to solve non-similar mixed convection boundary layer flows. 1. Introduction Mixed convection flows, resulting from simultaneous buoyancy and forced convection effects, arises in environmental and electronic cooling process. In studying forced convective heat transfer flow over an inclined plate, it is customary to neglect the effect of buoyancy force arises when the velocity is small and the temperature difference between the surface and ambient is large. The buoyancy force induces a longitudinal pressure gradient which in turn alters the flow field and heat transfer rate from the surface. Thus the study of mixed convection flow is of practical interest. In the literature, Mucoglu and Chen [1] were studied the mixed convection flow over an inclined surface using local non-similarity method. However, one should note the critique of various local similarity and local non-similarity methods discussed in Brewster and Gebhart [2]. Recently, Venkatasubbaiah [3] have studied the mixed convection flow over a horizontal plate using direct integration method. Venkatasubbaiah [3] have reported that his results are exactly matching with experimental results by Wang [4] for mixed convection flow over a horizontal plate. For flow over above the inclined plate, the buoyancy force and forced convection flow are same direction treated as assisting mixed convection flow and opposite case treated as opposing mixed convection flow. The present study deals the assisting and opposing mixed convection flow over an inclined plate, with the angle of inclination ranging from 0 to 90 deg from the vertical using direct integration method without any approximation for non-similar terms.
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2. The Governing Equations Consider the laminar two-dimensional motion of fluid past a semi-infinite inclined flat plate with an angle ( ) from the vertical. The free stream velocity and temperature denoted by U and T . The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature (Tw) is greater than the free stream temperature. The leading edge of the plate is considered as the stagnation point. All fluid properties are assumed to be constant, except that the density variations within the fluid are considered only to the extent that they contribute to the buoyancy forces. Governing equations are obtained by invoking boundary layer approximation to the conservation equations. The steady boundary layer equations along with the Boussinesq approximation to represent buoyancy effect, for the velocity and temperature fields are as given in Gebhart et al. [5] by,
u v 0 x y u u u 1 p 2u v g t T T cos 2 x y x y 1 p g tT T sin y
(1) (2) (3) (4)
0 u
T T 2T v 2 x y y
Where u and v are the velocity components in the x and y directions; g is the gravitational force per unit mass; T is the fluid temperature; and are the thermal diffusivity and kinematic viscosity respectively; t represents the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient. Positive and negative signs on the buoyancy term in equations (2) and (3) refer to assisting (upward forced flow above the plate) and opposing (down ward forced flow above the plate) mixed convection flows. The stream wise pressure gradient induced by the buoyancy force which can be related to the temperature difference through equation (3) as
1 p g t sin T T dy x x y Substitution of equation (5) into equation (2), one gets the momentum equation as,
(5)
u u 2u v g t sin (T T ) dy g tT T cos 2 x y x y y
(6)
The boundary layer equations (1), (4) and (6) are to be solved subject to boundary conditions are
at thewall ( y 0) : u v 0, T Tw at the free stream ( y ): u u , T T
(7)
As the first step in solving the system of partial differential equations (1), (4) and (6) are transformed into ordinary differential equations using the transformation from ( x, y ) coordinates to ( ( x), ( x, y ) ) coordinates by introducing
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U x , y (8) x The coordinate ( x , y ) is a pseudo-similarity variable which reduces to a true similarity variable for boundary layers that are similar. The coordinate ( x ) depend on x and is chosen that x does not appear explicitly in the transformed conservation equations and their boundary conditions. In addition one introduces a dimensionless stream function f ( , ) and a dimensionless temperature ( , ) defined as,
f
1/ 2
, x , y /
1/ 2
, ,
/ T w
(9 )
Where x, y is the stream function that satisfy the continuity equation (1) automatically with
u / y , v / x (10) Substitution of equations (8) and (9) into equations (6), (4) and (7), one gets the system of governing equations as,
f
'''
1 2
f f '' sin
f f' d d cos f ' f '' Re x
(11)
1 Pr
''
1 2
f ' f '
'
(12)
(13) ( , ) 0 (14) Where the primes denote partial differentiation with respect to ; Pr is the Prandtl number; f '( , ) 1.0,
f ' ( , 0) f ( , 0) 0, ( , 0) 1.0
( x) is the buoyancy parameter and the expression as, Gr x2 Re x

Where Grx
g t (Tw T ) x 3
2
(15)
U x is the local Reynolds number. For assisting mixed convection flow when is positive value in equations (11) and (12). For opposing mixed convection flow when is negative value in equations (11) and (12). As is a function of x , the system of governing equations (11) and (12) are called nonsimilar mixed convection boundary layer equations. The physical quantities of interest are the local Nusselt number ( Nu x ) and the local friction factor (Cf) to know the convective heat transfer rate and skin friction respectively. These quantities are defined as, T k x y y0 hx x Nu x (Re x )0.5 '( , 0) (16) k (Tw T ) k
is the local Grashof number; Re x
Cf
u y y0 0.5 U 2
2 (Re x )0.5 f ''( , 0)
(17)
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Where hx is the local convective heat transfer coefficient; k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid; is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. 3. Numerical Methods The non-similar mixed convection boundary layer equations (11) and (12) are transformed into five first order ordinary differential equations. These ordinary differential equations are numerically integrated from the wall (y = 0) using fourth order Runge-kutta method (RK-4) with Newton-Raphson method to satisfy the conditions at the edge of the boundary layer as given in equation (14). The major differences in the numerical solution of the present problem and those encountered in conventional boundary layer problem lies in the handling of integral terms and differential terms with respect to which appear in equations (11) and (12). The integral and differential terms in equations (11) and (12) are evaluated using Simpsons 1/3 rule and backward finite difference scheme respectively. Details of Direct integration method are given in Venkatasubbaiah [3]. All numerical calculations are done here using double precision with max = 10 equally divided into 4000 points in the direction. The error criterion -8 in the shooting method converges to less than 10 . 4. Results and Discussion The non-similar mixed convection boundary layer equations (11) and (12) are solved by Direct integration method as discussed in section (3) without any approximation for nonsimilar terms. Results are reported for assisting and opposing mixed convection flows for air with the angle of inclination of the plate ( ) ranging from 0 to 90 deg from the vertical. Here, the value of Prandtl number (Pr) is 0.7 for all the cases. The positive value of refer to assisting mixed convection flow (upward forced flow above the plate) and negative value refer to opposing mixed convection flow (down ward forced flow above the plate).The velocity 2 3 profile in the boundary layer have been obtained for 0.03, 45 deg with Re x = 10 , 10 , 4 10 as shown in Fig. 1. From Fig. 1(b), one can notice that velocity profile slightly vary with increasing in Re x . Here, Results are reported with Re x = 1000 for all the cases.

(a)
Rex
100 1000 10000
1 0.8
(a)
Direct integration Perturbation
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f'
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0.85 0.84
100 1000 10000
f'
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0.86
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2.95 3
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Figure 1: Velocity profile with different Rex for (a) =0.03, =45 (b) enlarged view of case (a)
Figure 2: Velocity profile for (a) =0.0001 and (b) =0.05
Figure 3: Temperature profile for (a) =0.0001 and (b) =0.05
The velocity and temperature profiles in the boundary layer have been obtained for the cases of = 0.0001, 0.1 with = 0 deg (vertical plate) as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. From Figs. 2(a) and 3(a), one notice that the velocity and temperature profiles exactly matches compared to perturbation method. Perturbation analysis for mixed convection flow a vertical plate is given in Oosthizen and Naylor [6]. As the increase to 0.1, the velocity and temperature profiles are differ compared perturbation method as shown in Figs. 2(b) and 3(b). Similarly, the velocity and temperature profiles of mixed convection flow over a horizontal plate ( =90 deg)
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are differ for 0.05 compared to local similarity method as given in Venkatasubbaiah [3]. Reported velocity and temperature profiles are high accuracy compared to perturbation and local similarity methods because non-similar terms are evaluated without any approximation.
1
Re x = 1000
0.05 0.1 - 0.01 - 0.05
(a)
f'
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Rex = 1000
0 60 90
(a)
0.32 0.3
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NuxRex
-1/2
f'
0 30 45 60 75 90
0.28 0.26 0.24
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00 1 0.8 0.6
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00
10
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Re x = 1000
0.05 0.1 - 0.01 - 0.05
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1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
Rex = 1000
0 60 90
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1/2
0.5 0.4
(b)
0 30 45 60 75 90
0.4 0.2 00 2 4 6 8
10
00
1/2C f, Rex
0.3 0.2 0.1
10
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0.05
0.1
Figure 4: (a), (b) Velocity and Temperature profiles for different values
Figure 5: (a), (b) Velocity and Temperature profiles with different values
Figure 6: (a),(b) Nux and Cf with different and values
The velocity and temperature fields in the boundary layer have been obtained with angle of inclination of the plate at = 45 deg for different buoyancy parameter ( ) and representative velocity and temperature profiles are shown in Fig. 4. From Fig. 4(a), one can notice that for assisting flows, the velocity gradient at the wall is increases as the increases. For assisting mixed convection flows, the effect of buoyancy is to increase the velocity compared to pure forced convection case ( = 0). For opposing mixed convection flows, the effect of buoyancy is to reduce the velocity compared to pure forced convection. From Fig. 4(b), one can notices that for assisting mixed convection flows, temperature gradient at the wall is increases and the thermal boundary layer thickness is decrease as the increases. The opposite trend for opposing mixed convection flows. The velocity and temperature profiles in the boundary layer for = 0.06 with different angle of inclination of the plate are shown in Fig. 5. From Fig. 5, one can notice that for assisting flows, the velocity boundary layer thickness decreases and thermal boundary layer thickness increases with the angle of inclination of the plate increases from 0 to 90 deg. The local Nusselt number ( Nu x ) and local friction factor (Cf) values are obtained with different and are shown in Fig. 6. From Fig. 6, Nu x and Cf values are increases with increasing for assisting mixed convection flows due to buoyancy induces a favorable pressure gradient which accelerates the flow. Opposite trend for opposing mixed convection flows due to buoyancy induces an adverse pressure gradient which retards the flow. From Fig. 6, Nu x and Cf values decreases with increase in angle of inclination of the plate for assisting mixed convection flows and opposite trend for opposing mixed convection flows. ] 5. Conclusions Results of analysis have been presented here for laminar mixed convection boundary layer flow over an inclined plate using high accuracy direct integration method without any approximation for non-similar terms. Results are given for assisting (upward forced flow above the plate) and opposing (downward forced flow above the plate) mixed convection flows for air with angle of inclination of the plate ( ) ranging from 0 to 90 deg from the vertical. The velocity and temperature profiles in the boundary layer are exactly matches for low value of and differ for 0.05 compared to perturbation and local similarity methods as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The effect of buoyancy is to increase the velocity boundary layer thickness and decreases the thermal boundary layer thickness for assisting mixed convection flows as shown in Fig. 4. From Fig. 4, the effect of buoyancy is to decrease the velocity
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boundary layer thickness and increases the thermal boundary layer thickness for opposing mixed convection flows. For assisting mixed convection flows, the velocity boundary layer thickness decreases and thermal boundary layer thickness increases with angle of inclination of the plate increases from 0 to 90 deg as shown in Fig. 5. For assisting mixed convection flows, Nu x and Cf values are increases with increasing and decreases with increasing angle of inclination of the plate from the vertical as shown in Fig. 6. Reported results are high accuracy compared to perturbation and local similarity methods since non-similar terms are evaluated correctly. References [1] Mucoglu, A and Chen, T.S. Mixed convection on inclined surfaces. Journal of Heat transfer, TRANS. ASME 101, 1979, 422-426. [2] Brewster, R.A. and Gebhart, B. Instability and disturbance amplification in a mixed convection boundary layer. J. Fluid Mech., 229, 1991, 115-133. [3] Venkatasubbaiah, K. High accuracy numerical approach for non-similar mixed convectionboundary layer flow over a horizontal plate. Computational Thermal Sciences, 2009, Accepted for publication. [4] Wang, X. A. An experimental study of Mixed, forced and free convection heat transfer froma horizontal plate to air. Journal of Heat transfer, TRANS. ASME 104, 1982, 139-144. [5] Gebhart, B and Jaluria, Y and Mahajan, R.L. and Sammakia, B. Buoyancy-induced flows and transport. Hemisphere Publication, Washington DC, 1988. [6] Oosthuizen, P.H. and Naylor, D. An introduction to convective heat transfer analysis.McGraw Hill int. edn., New york, USA, 1999
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A New Method for Mechanisms Identification

Ashok Dargar1*, Dr. Ali Hasan2, Dr. R. A. Khan2
1
Maharaja Agarsain Institute of Technology, Ghaziabad-201010, India. 2 Jamia Millia Islamia University, Delhi- 110025, India. *Corresponding author: (dargarashok@rediffmail.com)
Structural synthesis of the kinematic chain and mechanisms has been the subject of a number of studies in recent years. One important aspect of structural synthesis is to develop all possible arrangements of kinematic chain and their derived mechanisms for a given number of links, joints and degree of freedom, so that the designer has the liberty to select the best or optimum mechanisms according to his requirements. In the course of development of kinematic chain and mechanisms, duplication may be possible. For this reason, many methods have been proposed by a number of researchers to check for duplication or in other words, to detect the structurally equivalent as well as distinct mechanisms derived from a given kinematic chain. In the present work, a new method has been proposed to determine the distinct mechanisms of a kinematic chain. Critical study of kinematic chain and mechanism structure has revealed that the performance of the joints is affected by the degree of links and type of joints, so considering these facts a new method is proposed to determine the distinct mechanisms of a kinematic chain and two new invariants called as absolute sum of characteristic polynomial coefficients (SCPC) and the maximum absolute value of the characteristic polynomial coefficient (MCPC) are determined using software MATLAB. These invariants are easy to compute, reliable and capable to identifying all distinct mechanisms derived from a given kinematic chain. 1. Introduction
In a mechanism design problem, systematic steps are type synthesis, structural/ number synthesis and dimensional synthesis. Structural synthesis of the kinematic chain and mechanisms has been the subject of a number of studies in recent years. One important aspect of structural synthesis is to develop all possible arrangements of kinematic chain and their derived mechanisms for a given number of links, joints and degree of freedom, so that the designer has the liberty to select the best or optimum mechanisms according to his requirements. In the course of development of kinematic chain and mechanisms, duplication may be possible. For this reason, many methods have been proposed by a number of researchers to check for duplication or in other words, to detect the structurally equivalent as well as distinct mechanisms derived from a given kinematic chain.Murthyunjaya and Raghvan [1] proposed link disposition method, Rao and Rao [2] presents flow matrix method, Ambekar and Agrwal [3,4] have proposed code approaches, Rao and Raju [5] proposed hamming number technique, Chang et al.[6] recently presented a new method based on eigenvalues and eigenvectors of adjacent matrices of chains for determing the distinct mechanisms of a kinematic chain. But in most of the methods, either there is a lack of uniqueness or consume more time.In this paper a totally new approach using the shortest path value concept, two new invariants [LSV] and [LFV] has been proposed for a given kinemticchain. These structural invariants are same for identical equivalent mechanisms and different for distinct mechanisms. 2. Definitions And Terminology
The following definitions are to be understood clearly before applying this method. Various definitions with their abbreviations are given below.
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(i)
(ii)
Degree of link : A numerical value for the link ,based on its connectivity to other links Therefore quaternary link has degree equal to four and ternary link has degree equal to three. Joint value: It is the ratio of summation of degree of all the links connected at the joint to the number of links connected at the joint (type of joint). It is denoted by Jv. Degree of all the connected links
J v = Number of links connected at the joint

For example the joint values of the joint a, b, d of the chain shown in fig.1 are 2.5, 2.5 and 3 respectively. (iii) Link Path: A link path in a chain is an alternating sequence of distinct links distinct joints starting and ending with links, such that each joint connect the links preceding and following it in the sequence. For example 1 b 2 c3 d 4 k 7 and 1 a 6 f 5 e 4 k 7 ,1 g 12 h 11 i 9 o 7 are the three possible link paths between link 1 and 7. Shortest link Path Value: It is the minimum value of link path among all possible link paths between two links under consideration. For example the possible link paths between link 1 and 4 are1 b 2 c3 d 4 and 1 a 6 f 5 e 4 and their respective link path values are 8 and 9 , so the shortest link path value between link 1 and 4 will be 9. Link Path Matrix: th For an n-link K.C. it is defined as an n x n square matrix whose any i and th j element Pij is defined as [LP] = {Pij} n x n Where Pij {= shortest link path value between link i and j. = 0 if i is equal to j Off course all the diagonal elements Pii =0 Thus the form [LP] matrix will be 0 LP] = P12 P13 P1n P2n 0
(iv)
(v)
P21 0 P23 Pn1 Pn2 Pn3 New structural invariants
3.
Polynomial coefficient values are the characteristic invariants for KC. Many investigators have reported co-spectral graph (non-isomorphic KC having same eigenvalues). But these eigen spectra (eigenvalues or polynomial coefficient values) have been determined from (0, 1) adjacency matrices. The proposed link path matrix [LP] provides a different set of characteristic polynomials of the co-spectral graph. To make this polynomial spectrum as a powerful single number characteristic index, new composite structural invariants are proposed. These indices are [SCPC] and [MCPC] of LP. The polynomial coefficient values of LP are obtained using standard MATLAB software.
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The characteristic polynomial of path matrix is given by D ().The monic polynomial of degree n of path matrix is given by: D () = PM I n n-1 n-2 = + a1 +a2 + ----------------+an-1 + an . Here; n = number of links and 1, a1, a2, ---------,an-1,an are characteristic polynomial coefficients. The two important properties of the characteristic polynomials are: (1) The absolute sum of the characteristic polynomial coefficients [SCPC] is an invariant.i.e. 1+a1+ a2 +--------------- + an-1+an = Invariant (2) The maximum absolute value of the characteristic polynomial coefficient [MCPC] is also another Invariant for a path matrix. Therefore, proposed structural invariants [SCPC] and [MCPC] are unique and used as identification number to identify the distinct mechanisms of a kinematic chain. 3.1 Proposed Test Basis
A kinematic chain is represented by [LP] matrix. When any link of a kinematic chain is fixed, a mechanism results. It means that the corresponding joints of the fixed link works as pivots. If in the [LP] matrix, the diagonal elements of the link to be fixed-1 are changed from 0 to 1 (zero to one),it will be the representation of the first mechanism with fixed link 1.Then this new matrix is represented by[LP-1] matrix. The structural invariants of this matrix are calculated by using software MATLAB. These invariants SCPC-1 and MCPC-1 are the characteristics numbers of the first mechanism. This process is repeated for second link and so on. In this way, a set of invariants equal to the number of links are obtained. Some of them may be same and others are different. The same structural invariants represent the corresponding equivalent links that constitute one distinct mechanism. 4. Application to kinematic chains
Example-1 First example concerns with 8-links, 10-joints, single degree of freedom as shown in Fig. 1 Joint Values: The joint values of the different joints are as follows: For chain 1: Ja = 3, Jb = 3, Jc =3, Jd =3, Je =2.5 , Jf =2, Jg = 2.5, Jh =2.5, Ji =2, Jj =2.5 4.1 Structural invariants of the Kinematic chain
The characteristic polynomial coefficients (CPC) are: 1.0e+004 * [-18.8102, -9.1231, -4.3961, -3.1898, -0.8769, 0.0000, 0.0000, 36.3961] [SCPC] = 72.7922 and [MCPC] = 36.3961 Link Path Matrix [LP] Link 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 0 3 6 3 5.5 7.5 4.5 2.5 2 3 0 3 6 7.5 5.5 2.5 4.5 3 6 3 0 3 4.5 2.5 5.5 7.5 4 3 6 3 0 2.5 4.5 7.5 5.5 5 5.5 7.5 4.5 2.5 0 2 10 8 6 7.5 5.5 2.5 4.5 2 0 8 10 7 4.5 2.5 5.5 7.5 10 8 0 2 8 2.5 4.5 7.5 5.5 8 10 2 0
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4.2
Structural invariants of the mechanisms
The structural invariants of the mechanisms derived from the Link Path matrix of the Kinematic chain shown in Fig.1 are
Figure 1. Eight link single degree of freedom kinematic chain 4.3 Identification of the distinct mechanisms
Table 1. structural invariants of various links Link SCPC MCPC 1 72.6123 36.4989 2 72.6123 36.4989 3 72.6123 36.4989 4 72.6123 36.4989 5 72.7088 36.5487 6 72.7088 36.5487 7 72.7088 36.5487 8 72.7088 36.5487
Observing the structural invariants for the above eight mechanisms, it is found that the structural invariants of link- 1, 2, 3, 4 are same. Hence, they are treated as equivalent links and from only one distinct mechanism. Similarly, the structural invariants of link- 5, 6, 7, 8 are same, hence from second distinct mechanism.Therefore, 2 distinct mechanisms are obtained from kinematic chain shown in Fig.1 Example-2 The second example concerns with 9-links, 11-joints, and two degree of freedom as shown in Fig. 2 Table 2.Structural invariants of various links Link SCPC MCPC 1 82.7071 40.4360 2 82.6752 40.4549 3 82.7071 40.4360 4 82.6112 40.4318 5 82.5680 40.4695 6 82.6090 40.4811 7 82.6112 40.4318 8 82.5680 40.4695 9 82.6090 40.4811
Figure 2. Nine link two degree of freedom kinematic chain 4.4 Identification of the distinct mechanisms
Observing the structural invariants for the above nine mechanisms, it is found that the structural invariants of link- 1, 3 are same. Hence, they are treated as equivalent links and from only one distinct mechanism. Similarly, the structural invariants of link- 4, 7 are same, hence from second distinct mechanism. in the similar way link 5 and8, link 6 and 9 from the third and fourth distinct mechanisms respectively. Link 2 has the distinct invariants and forms the fifth distinct mechanismsTherefore, 5 distinct mechanisms are obtained from kinematic chain shown in Fig.2
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5.
Results
Using the proposed method the number of mechanisms derived from the family of 1-F; 6-link and 8-link chains are 5 and 71 respectively. These results are in agreement those reported already in the literature. The distinct mechanisms derived from the family of 1-F; 10-link chains are 1856. 6. Conclusions
In this paper, a unique method has been developed for identifying distinct mechanisms of a kinematic chain. Two structural invariants [LSV] and [LFV] are proposed .These invariants are easy to compute, reliable and capable to identifying all distinct mechanisms derived from a given kinematic chain. Authors strongly believe that this method is unique and applicable to planar chains of any size and complexity. Unique in the sense that it has taken care of nature and all inherent properties of the mechanisms. The inherent relation between structural invariants and the mechanisms need further study. References [1] Mruthyunjaya T.S. and Raghvan M.R., Structural Analysis of Kinematic chains and Mechanisms based on Matrix representation, Transaction of the ASME, journal of Mechanical Design, 101, 1979, 488-518. [2] Rao A.C.and Rao C.N., Loop Based Pseudo Hamming Value-I, testing Isomorphism And rating Kinematic Chain., Mech. Mech. Theory, 28/1, 1993,113-127. [3] Ambekar, A.G., and Agarwal,V.P.,Canonical Numbering of Kinematic chains, mechanisms, Path generators and Function generators Using min Codes, Mech.Mech.Theory, 22, 1987, 453-461. [4] Rao, A. C., and Varda Raju, D. Application of the Hamming number technique to detect isomorphism Among Kinematic Chains and inversions, Mech. Mech. Theory, 26/1, 1991, 55-75. [5] K.Balasubramanian and K.R. Parthsarthy, Combinatroics and Graph theory, springer, New York, 1981. [6] C. S. Tang, T.Liu, The degree code- a new mechanism identifier, J. Mech.Des., ASME Trans. 115, 1993, 627-630. [7] H.S. Yan, W.M. Hwang, Linkage path code, Mech. Mech.Theory, 19, 1984, 425-429. [8] Z. Chang et al., A new method to mechanism kinematic chain isomorphism identification, Mech. Mech. Theory, 37, 2002, 411-417. [9] F.G. kong, Q.Li, W.J. Zhang, An artificial neural network approach to mechanism kinematic chain isomorphism identification, Mech. Mech. Theory, 34, 1999 ,55-75. [10] J.N. Yadav and C.R. Pratap, Computer aided detection of isomorphism among Kinematic Chains and Mechanisms using the concept of Modified distance, Mech. Mech.Theory, 31, 1996, 439-444. [11] Ali Hasan, R.A. Khan and Aas Mohd, Identification Of Multiple jointed Kinematic Chains, Journal of Analysis and Computation, 2, 2006, 408-411. [12] Ali Hasan, R.A. Khan and Aas Mohd, Anew method to Detect isomorphism in Kinematic Chains, Kathmandu University Journal of Science,Engineering and Technology, 3, 2006, 108-113.
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Stochastic Buckling Analysis of Laminated Composite Plates With Circular Cutouts

Achchhe Lal*, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SVNIT, Surat-395007, India * Corresponding author: achchhelal@med.svnit.ac.in In this paper, the stochastic buckling analysis of laminated composite plates with and without centrally located circular cutouts having random material properties is presented. The mathematical model based on higher order shear deformation theory [HSDT] is used. A C0 finite element method in conjunction with mean centered first order perturbation technique is employed to derive the second order statistics (mean and the standard deviation) of the buckling loads with random lamina material properties. Numerical results are validated with available results in literatures and independent Monte Carlo simulation. Parametric studies are carried out to predict the effect of hole size and support conditions on statistics of buckling load. 1. Introduction The composite plates with cutouts are extensively used in many engineering fields such as structural member in aircraft design to reduce structural weight like in the web member of aircraft wings. In such cases, the presence of these holes redistributes the membrane stresses in the plate and may reduce their stability significantly. Therefore accurate analysis of buckling behavior in the presence of cutouts is quite obvious in the design of structures. Composite structures have inherent dispersion in system properties due to luck of strict quality control and the characteristics of the large parameters involved with the manufacturing and fabrication process. The variation in the material properties of the composite materials necessitates the inclusion of randomness of material properties in the analysis; otherwise predicted response may differ significantly rendering the structures unsafe. Several researchers have studied buckling of the laminates with and without cutouts employing finite element approach in the presence of thermal environment based on deterministic analysis. Notably among them are Ghanndpour et al. [1] and Srivastava and Murty [2]. The researcher based on deterministic analysis, not sufficient to predict system behavior due to various system uncertainties as they gives only mean response and misses the deviation caused by the system parameters. Therefore, probabilistic analysis is needed to quantify the uncertainties in these systems and obtain rational and safe design Lal et al., [3]. To the best of authors knowledge, the bucking behavior of laminated composite plates with cut outs having random material properties has not been addressed adequately. 2. Mathematical Formulation Consider a rectangular laminated composite plate of length a, width b, and total thickness h, defined in (X, Y, Z) system with X- and -Y axes located in the middle plane and its origin placed at the corner of the plate as shown in Fig. 1. Let u , v , w be the displacement parallel to the (X, Y, Z) respectively. The thickness coordinate Z of the top and bottom surfaces of any kth layer are denoted by Z(k-1) and Z(k) respectively. The fiber of the kth layer is oriented with angle k to the Xaxes. 2.1 Displacement Field Model 0 In the present study the higher order shear deformation theory with C continuity (modified of 1 C continuity with extra degree of freedom) has been employed [4],
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u f (z) f (z)x
1 x 2
v f (z) f (z)y w w;
1 y 2
(1)
where u, v, and w are corresponding displacements of a point on the mid plane. x and y are the rotations of normal to the mid plane about the y-axis and x-axis respectively, with x w,x and y w, x and f1 z C1 z C 2 z 3 ; f2 z C 4 z 3 with C1 1, C2 C 4 4h2 3 . The displacement vector for the modified models is
v w y
(2)
2.2 Strain Displacement Relations The linear stain-displacement relations are obtained by higher order shear deformation theory (HSDT) are expressed as [3] 0 0 0 0 xx 1 u,x 10 z(k10 z2 k12 ); yy 2 v,x 2 z(k2 z2 k22 ); xy 6 u, y v,x 6 z(k6 z2 k62 ) (3) 0 2 0 yz 4 v,z w, y 4 z2 k4 ; xz 5 u,z w,x 5 z2 k52 2.3 StressStrain Relation The constitutive relationship between stress resultants and corresponding strains of laminated composite plate accounting for thermal effect can be written as [6] (4) k Q k
k
where, Q and k are reduced elastic matrix and linear strain vector respectively. k 2.4 Strain Energy of the Plate The linear mid plane strain vector as given in Eq. (3) can be expressed in terms of mid plane displacement field and then the energy is computed for each element and then summed over all the elements to get the total ponetial energy of the systems. Following this, using finite element method [3] and summing over the entire element the strain energy of the plate can be written as NE NE T e 1 T 1 e e e U U K * q K q (5) e 1 e 1 2 2
2.5 Potential Energy due to Thermal Stresses The in-plane pre-buckling stress resultants are the reason for buckling. The potential energy (V) due to applied in-plane stress resultant in producing out of plane displacement w is written as
1 w,x Nx Nxy w,x (6) V dA 2 A w,y Nxy Ny w,y where, Nx, Ny and Nxy are in plane applied in-plane compressive stresses resultants per unit length. Using finite element model [3], Eq. (6) after summing over the entire element can be written as NE e 1 NE T e 1 T e e V V K g dA q K g q (7) 2 e 1 2 e 1
T
where, and K g are defined as the buckling load parameters and the global geometric stiffness matrix, respectively. 3. Governing Equation The governing equation for the buckling analysis can be derived using Variational principle, which requires
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U V 0 (8) Following this conditions, ones obtains as standard eigenvalue problem by using Eqs. (5) and (7) and (8) (9) K q K g q
where, anf [Kg] are the critical buckling load parameters and geometric stiffness matrix respectively.. The stiffness matrix of the structures has random elements because of uncertain system material properties. Therefore the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of Eq. (9) are also random. It is not possible to solve this equation using deterministic approach. To solve this equation a probabilistic analysis is required. 3.1 Solution Approach: Perturbation approach In the present analysis, the lamina material properties are treated as independent random variables (RVs). In general, without any loss of generality any arbitrary random variable can be represented as the sum of its mean and zero mean random part, denoted by superscripts d and r, respectively [3,4]
K K d K r , i i d i r , qi qi d qi r
(10)
By substituting Eq. (10) in Eq. (9) and expanding the random parts in Taylors series keeping the first order terms and neglecting the second and higher order terms, collecting same order of the magnitude term, one obtains as Zeroth order: K d qi d i d qi d (11) First order: K d qi r K r qi d i d qi r i r qi d (12) Equation (11) is the deterministics equation relating to the mean values, the mean eigenvalues and corresponding mean eigen vectors can be determined by conventional eigen solution procedures. For solving the first order equation (12), the first order perturbation approach is employed. The eigenvectors, which meet orthogonality, conditions after being properly, normalized form a complete orthonormal set and any vector in the space can be expressed as their linear combination of these eigenvectors and making use of orthogonality, the ith random part of the eigenvectors can be expressed as
i,d j qi d
K d ,j
qi d
(13)
The variance of the eigenvalues can now be expressed as because, the first order is sufficient to yield results with desired accuracy for problems with low variability [3, 4],
Var i d, j d,k Cov b j r , bk r i i

j 1 k 1
(14)
4. Results and discussion In present work a program in MATLAB has been developed to find out Second-order statistics of the buckling load for laminated composite plates subjected uni-axial in-plane loading with random material properties. A nine noded Lagrange isoparamatric element with 63 DOFs per element for the present HSDT model has been used for discretizing the laminate and (5 5) mesh has been used throughout the study. The results are only presented taking SD/mean of the system property equal to 0.10 [4] as the nature of the SD (Standard deviation) variation is linear and passing through the origin. Hence, the presented results would be sufficient to extrapolate the results for other SD/mean value keeping in mind the limitation of FOPT. The following dimensionless buckling load parameter has been used in this study. cr Ncr b 2 E 22 h3 ; where Ncr, is the dimensionalized mean buckling load.
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The following relative numerical values and relationship between the mean valves of the material
d d d E 11 4 0 . 0 E 22 , G 1d2 G 1d3 0 . 6 E 2 2 , G 2d3 0 . 5 E 2d2 , 1d2 0 . 2 5 , E 2d2 1 * 1 0 5 . properties and support conditions for plate are used. All edges simply supported (SSSS): v w y y 0, at x 0, a; u w x x 0 at y 0, b
All edges clamped (CCCC): u v w x y x y 0, at x 0, a and y 0, b; Comparison is made between the dimensionless buckling load for cross-ply laminated plate with the cutout diameter to the laminate width ratio (b/d) varying from 0.0 to 0.8 and compared with FSDT [1]. A close agreement is achieved between the two methods. The present results are compared with MCS for [00/900]2S laminated composite square plate with circular cutout (d/b=0.2) foe simply supported boundary condition (SSSS). Only one material property, E11 has been modeled as random, keeping other as deterministic. For the MCS approach, the samples of value are generated using MATLAB to fit their desired mean and SD. These input sample values are used one by one, in the system equation and the response is calculated numerically to obtain the sample of the response. These samples are processed to obtain mean and standard deviation of buckling load. The acceptable sample size for simulation based on convergence is 10,000. For the range of SD considered in the E11, the present results are come very close to MCS results which indicate the accuracy of the present analysis for the range of variation. The mean response values in the two methods are almost same. Table 1 Shows the effect of support conditions (CCCC, SSSS) on the dimensionless mean and dispersion of the buckling load for cross-ply [00/900] laminated composite plates subjected to uniaxial compression loading having various circular cutouts (d/b=0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8) with individual random material properties changing at a time, keeping other as deterministic to their mean values and SD/mean=0.1. From the table it can be seen that dispersion in the buckling load is stronger in the plate with simply supported boundary condition. In contrast, the mean dimensionless buckling load values of plate with SSSS and CCCC support conditions show the opposite effect. The buckling load is the most affected by the random change in the standard deviation of E11 and least affected by v12 in both of the plate with CCCC and SSSS plate. From the table it can also be seen that the circular cutouts decreases the buckling load and increases the dispersion at same geometric parameters because it brings in a in-plane pre-stress state that leads to degradation of the plate stiffness. 5. Conclusions A C0 finite element method in conjunction with the FOPT has been outlined to compute the mean and standard deviation of buckling load of laminated composite plates having various circular cutouts with randomness in lamina material properties subjected to uni-axial compression in the frame work of higher order shear deformation theory. The following conclusions are noted from the limited study. [1] The effect of the randomness in material properties, E11 is more dominant on the dispersion of buckling load as compared to other material properties. [2] The effect of randomness in the presence of cutout on the plate increases, while mean values show opposite effect. [3] The simply supported plate is more sensitive as compared to clamped plate for various random changes in material properties. [4] For reliable analysis the randomness in the material properties should be incorporated in the analysis. Other wise the structures may not be safe as well as economical. References [1] Ghannadpour, S.A.M., Najafi, A. and Mohammadi, B. On the buckling behavior of crossply laminated composite plates due to circular cutouts. Composite Structures, 75, 2006, 3-6. [2] Srivastava, K.S. and Murty, A.V.K. Stability of laminated composite plates with cutouts, Computer and Structures, 43(2), 1991, 273-9.
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[3] Lal, Achchhe, Singh, B.N. and Kumar, R. Effect of random system properties on the initial buckling of laminated composite plate resting on an elastic foundation. Intentional Journal of Structural stability and Dynamics, 8(1), 2008, 1-28. [4] Lal, Achchhe and Singh, B.N. Effect of random system properties on the thermal buckling of response of laminated composite plate. Computer and Structures, DOI: 10.1016/j.compstruc.2009.06.004, Corrected Proof 2009. Table 1. Effect of support conditions with various circular cutouts on dimensionless mane and dispersion (SD to mean) of the buckling load for a particular SD to mean ratio of random variables for a laminated plates [00/900], b/h=10, a/b=1, SD to mean ratio=0.1 with uni-axial compression BCs (d/b) cr SD/mean, Ncr E11 E22 G12 G13 G23 v12 0.0 11.5581 0.0570 0.0105 0.0132 0.0062 0.0052 0.00243 0.2 8.3207 0.0588 0.0102 0.0137 0.0046 0.0038 0.00253 Simply 0.4 6.2558 0.0599 0.0100 0.0140 0.0036 0.0030 0.00260 Supported 0.6 4.8663 0.0606 0.0099 0.0142 0.0029 0.0024 0.00264 0.8 3.8898 0.0611 0.0098 0.0143 0.0025 0.0021 0.00267 0.0 28.1544 0.0424 0.0103 0.0030 0.0231 0.0193 0.00371 0.2 22.4323 0.0487 0.0110 0.0035 0.0182 0.0151 0.00376 Clamped 0.4 18.0812 0.0531 0.0112 0.0038 0.0148 0.0123 0.00381 0.6 14.7918 0.0561 0.0113 0.0041 0.0124 0.0103 0.00384 0.8 12.2837 0.0582 0.0113 0.0043 0.0107 0.0089 0.3878
Figure 1. Geometry of laminates
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Determination of Safe Load for Thin Plates with Random Geometrical Imperfections Subjected to Uniform Axial Compression
Raviprakash AV, Adhithya Plato Sidharth A , Prabu B and Alagumurthi N Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry. *Corresponding author(e-mail: adi.plato@yahoo.co.in) It is generally known that the load carrying capacity of thin plate structures under axial compression are mainly depends on the initial geometric imperfections present in them. Since these initial geometric imperfections are random in nature, the strength distribution will also be random. Hence a probabilistic approach is required for a reliable design of these thin plate structures. In this paper, by keeping the variance of imperfections of all the models at assumed manufacturing tolerance of 1.71 mm and maintaining the maximum amplitude of imperfections within 8 mm, 1024 random geometrical imperfect plate models are generated by the linear combination of first 10 eigen affine mode shapes k using 2 factorial design. These imperfect models are analyzed using ANSYS non-linear FE buckling analysis including both geometrical and material nonlinearities. From these FE analysis results, the strength distribution of the plate is obtained and using Mean Value First Order Second Moment (MVFOSM) reliability analysis is carried out. 1. Introduction
*
Thin plate structures are widely used in many fields like mechanical, marine, aerospace and in civil engineering structures. The manufacturing process involved in making perfect thin plate is difficult, because there will be some geometrical imperfections like local indentations, swelling, non-uniform thickness etc., and material imperfections like inhomogenetics, cracks, vacancies, impurities etc., and also other imperfections like residual stresses and strains induced during manufacturing. Out of all these imperfections, geometrical imperfections are more dominant in determining the load carrying capacity of thin shell structures. Reliable prediction of buckling strength of these structures are important, because buckling failure is catastrophic in nature and also geometrical imperfections present in these structures are highly random in nature requires probabilistic approach to determine the safe load for the structure. In this paper the level-2 reliability method namely First Order Second Moment method (FOSM) is adopted to determine the safe critical load of the structure. 2. Literature review
The modeling of imperfections can be classified into deterministic and random geometrical imperfection modeling. In case of the deterministic approach, imperfections are either obtained from actual measurement as done by Athiannan and Palaninathan [1] or from assumed imperfection pattern. The assumed imperfection pattern may be axisymmetric which was applied by Pircher et al [2] or first eigen mode shape pattern as done by Featherston [3], or a combination of axisymmetric and asymmetric mode shape pattern that was followed by Arbocz and Sechler [4]. There are two ways by which random modeling of imperfections can be achieved. The first method is by varying the nodal locations of the structural model randomly as done by Arbocz and Hol [5] and the second method is the stochastic FE approach which was done by Nprstek [6]. But in this work, random geometrical imperfections are generated using first 10 eigen affine mode shapes of perfect plate taken for study as k suggested by Arbocz and Hol [5] and combine linearly, following 2 fractional factorial design of Design of Experiments (DoE) and the variance of the models were maintained within the tolerance of manufacturing as suggested by Warren [7]. From the deterministic FE analysis,
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strength distribution is obtained and from which the reliability of structure is determined using MVFOSM. 3.1. Thin plate shell model
The thin structural steel plate model [8] taken for study is having the following dimensions of Length (L) = 1m, Width (W) = 1m, Thickness (t) = 8mm. And it has material properties of Poissons ratio () = 0.3, Youngs modulus (E) = 205.8 GPa, Yield stress (y) = 313.6 MPa 3 Density () = 7800kg/m .Zero strain hardening effect is assumed. 3.2 Model validation and determination of eigen affine mode shapes
An eight noded quadrilateral shell element, SHELL93 of ANSYS is used for modeling the thin plates. And simply supported boundary conditions as shown in figure 1(a) are applied [9]. Table1. Comparison of analytical solution with FE eigen buckling analysis result.
Mode No. 1 2 3 4 5 m n Analytical Solution (N) 380936 595213 1058160 1523750 1720170 FE solution (N) 378115 591919 1053573 1510774 1712254 Error (%) 0.74 0.541 0.433 0.852 0.46 Mode No. 6 7 8 9 10 m n Analytical Solution (N) 1788280 2385590 2385590 2580260 3210060 FE solution (N) 1773286 2361591 2367999 2560567 3176441 Error (%) 0.838 1.01 0.737 0.763 1.047
1 2 3 2 4
1 1 1 2 1
3 4 1 5 5
2 2 2 1 2
where, m- Number of Transverse half lobe and n- Number of longitudinal half lobe. 3.3 Modeling of imperfect plates
Using the steps given by Warren [7], 512 pairs of mirror image random imperfect plate models can be generated. Here, in this work, 1024 random geometrical imperfect plate models are generated keeping RMS value of imperfections = 1.711 mm and the maximum amplitude of imperfection is maintained within 8mm.A sample of a pair of thin plate models with mirror image random imperfections are shown in figure 1 (b) and (c).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1(a), (b) and (c). Boundary conditions for plate model and a pair of mirror image random imperfections plate models (amplitude enlarged by 50 times) 4. Results and discussion Using non-linear FE analysis, buckling strength of first 512 models is determined including both material and geometrical nonlinearities. Determining the buckling strength of the next 512 models is nothing but inverting the first 512 models and obtaining the buckling strength. For reliability calculation buckling strength of 1024 models or first 512 models can be
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considered because it will not affect the reliability calculations. By considering 1024 models only the frequency of buckling strength values occurrence will be doubled. But here for reliability calculation, buckling strength values (BSR) of first 512 models are considered, where BSR can be defined as ratio between buckling strength of imperfect plate to that of the first eigen buckling strength of perfect plate. Since thin plates are having positive post buckling behavior, its BSR values are greater than 1[3]. Figure 2(a) and (b)shows the stiffness curve of model 1 and the von Mises stress contour of model 1 at its limit load condition.
Figure 2(a) & (b). Stiffness curve and von Mises stress contour for model number 1 at its limit load condition To obtain the strength distribution for reliability analysis, the BSRs of 512 random models are considered and is shown in figure 3 (a). From the figure, it can be seen that, the distribution does not follow normal distribution exactly but it is a skew normal distribution. Since the normal distribution shape is the simplest, best developed, most known and expedient [10], the skewed strength distribution is converted into an equivalent normal distribution using the method suggested by Verderaime [10]. Thus, the equivalent normal distribution of strength is obtained and it is shown in figure 3(b).
Mean of distribution = 2.4393 Mode of distribution = 2.4285 S.D of distribution =0.0808
Mean of distribution = 2.4285 Mode of distribution = 2.4285 S.D of distribution = 0.0769
Figure 3(a) & (b). Actual and equivalent strength distribution obtained using BSR values According to the Mean Value First Order Second Moment (MVFOSM) method, the reliability index is defined as,
S L 2S 2 L
(1)
S = Mean of strength distribution L = Mean of load distribution S= S.D. of strength distribution L = S.D. of load distribution
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The probability of failure is given by, Pf = (-). (2) where, = cumulative normal distribution function. Then, reliability of the structure is given as, R= 1 - Pf. (3) In this case, the load applied is assumed as a deterministic single value. Hence, L = 0 and now is defined as,
(4) By varying the load applied, the reliability of the structure at each load is obtained. And the probability of failure is shown in figure 4(a) and (b).
(a)
(b)
Figure 4 (a) & (b). Failure at different loads when Load applied is 2.552 and 2.332 times more than the first eigen mode buckling strength respectively The variation of reliability with respect to the BSR is shown in figure 5.
Figure 5. Buckling strength ratio Vs Reliability 5. Conclusions
The following conclusions are derived from the analysis carried out on the thin plate: The slope of stiffness curve decreases gradually as the load applied increases and becomes zero at limit load condition and thereby imperfect thin plate shell structures collapse.
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To increase reliable prediction of safe load of the structure further, more number of eigen affine mode shapes can be considered. Buckling strength of imperfect thin plate is more than two times that of perfect thin plate Using the adopted MVFOSM method of reliability, it is found that the reliability of thin plate taken for study under axial compression is 100% up to 2.25 times of the strength of perfect plate. And the reliability becomes zero when the load applied is more than 2.65 times of the strength of perfect plate. References [1] Athiannan, K. and Palaninathan, R. Experimental investigations of buckling of cylindrical shells under axial compression and transverse shear, Sadhana, 29, 2004, 93-115. [2] Pircher, M., Berry, P.A., Ding, X. and Bridge, R.Q. The shape of circumferential weldinduced imperfections in thin-walled steel silos and tanks, Thin-Walled Structures, 39(12), 2001, 999-1014. [3] Featherston, C.A. Imperfection sensitivity of curved panels under combined compression and shear, International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics, 38, 2003, 225-238. [4] Arbocz, J. and Sechler, E.E. On the buckling of stiffened imperfect cylindrical shells under axial compression, AIAA J., 9, 1976, 1611-1617. [5] Arbocz, J. and Hol, J.M.A.M. Collapse of Axially Compressed Cylindrical Shells with Random Imperfections,AIAAJ.,29(12), 1991, 2247-2256. [6] Nprstek J. Strongly non-linear stochastic response of a system with random initial imperfections, Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics, 14 (1-2), 1999, 141-148. [7] Warren, J.E. Jr. Nonlinear stability analysis of frame-type structures with random geometric imperfections using a total-lagrangian finite element formulation, Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1997. [8] Harada Minoru and Fujikudo Masahiko. Proc. of 12th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference Estimation of Buckling and Ultimate Strength of Rectangular plate with Cutout, 2002, Kitakyushu, Japan. [9] Suneel Kumar, M., Alagusundaramoorthy, P., and Sundaravadivelu, R., Ultimate strength of square plate with rectangular opening under axial compression, Journal of naval architecture, 4(1), 15-26, 2007. [10] Verderaime, V. Illustrated structural application of universal first order reliability method, NASA technical PAPER 3501, 1994.
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Structural Optimization of Front Pedestal of Cement Mixer Truck

Akash Jani 1*, Nilesh D. Ghetiya1, Arshi Riaz Siddiqi2, Sridharababu Inala2
1
Nirma Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad- Gujarat 2 FEA Department, L&T e-ES, Chani, Vadodara- Gujarat *Corresponding author (e-mail: akash784@gmail.com)
This paper describes roll of structural optimization in design process. Optimization can give idea of better design which can be helpful to reduce process time and cost of component. Optistruct a FEA based software can be used to optimize design for constraints like mass, volume, stress, strain, displacement. And optimization like Topology, Topography, Free Shape & Size can be performed. In this paper one optimization problem of front pedestal of cement mixer truck is discussed. New design of casting part is developed for the fabricated old part using the structural optimization concept. How to prepare new geometry from the result of optimization is shown. Further analysis of new design is done. Result comparison shows that how new concept is better than old design considering strength, manufacturing and cost of the component. 1. Introduction
New competitive products must meet the growing demands of the market. They must be light-weighted, resource-efficient, durable, stable, and have a low noise emission. At the same time, the product must be introduced quickly into the market. These demands can only be met if structural optimization tools are used in addition to established CAE, CAD, DMU, and PDM systems. Variation calculations and improvements can be carried out on the digital prototype at a very early project stage. Accordingly, the number of required prototypes can be reduced which results in possible time and cost savings. So far, the structural optimization tools have not been completely integrated in the design process. The new optimization tools will then speed up the product development process and improve its efficiency. Lightweighted, stiff and durable structures will offer end users a decisive edge over their competitors in the automotive and supplier industry, the aerospace and machine manufacturing industry as well as in the engineering service. [1] 2. Structural Optimization
Structural optimization techniques comprise various aspects. For example, the structural optimization may depend on the application fields, it will be used for. Then it is divided into size, shape and topology optimization. Topology optimization gives basic idea of topology after material removal process. Size optimization is used to optimize size by changing dimensions like thickness, radius of hole, length etc. shape optimization is used to get optimized shape. It changes shape of curve or fillet by either shrink or grow method. [2] 3. Homogenization Method
This method has been adopted in many papers. The original paper from Bendsoe and Kikushi a so-called Microstructure or homogenization based approach presented. According to Kaminski homogenization method is still the most efficient way for computational modeling of composite systems. Usually it is assumed that there exists some scale relation between composite components and the entire system. Essential disadvantage of all these techniques is impossibility of sensitivity analysis of composite homogenized characteristics with respect to geometrical scales relations. According to Sigmund, this method has the disadvantage that the determination and evaluation of optimal microstructures and their orientations is cumbersome if not unresolved. Furthermore, the resulting structures cannot be
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built since no definite length-scale is associated with the microstructures. However, it is still important in the sense that is can provide bounds on the theoretical performance of structures. [3, 4] 4. Hard/Soft Kill Method One of the more commonly used methods is the hard-kill method and was introduced by Xie and Steven in 1993. This method relies on the idea of changing material properties (i.e. Youngs Modulus) of the elements with less stress in the FEM to zero, essentially removing the material from the model. This method relies on two distinct parameters; the evolutionary rate and the removal rate. The removal rate (RR) determines the level of stress under which elements, if any, should be removed. This process is repeated for each convergence and the RR is increased by an increment called the evolutionary rate (ER). Once the stress level in all the design regions are below the objective stress level, the process is complete. Similar to the hard-kill method, the soft-kill method, first developed by Walther and Matteck, uses a comparable approach aside from the concept of turning the elements on and off. Instead the method uses a simple relationship on the stress levels in each element to vary its modulus. [5, 6] 5. Case Study of Front Pedestal. Front pedestal is a component of cement mixer truck. It is made of material GR 50 Steel. It is used to support the gear box which rotates cement mixer. So load of cement mixer is distributed on front and rear pedestal. Company was using fabricated part initially. Using optimization tool new design for casting is to be generated. This can help to reduce cost and manufacturing time.
Figure 1. Fabricated part with Bolt load Type of Loads Here three different load cases are acting on front Pedestal. 1) Load of 20755 N on six bolt position in Z direction (as shown in Figure 1) 2) Moment of 7.2E6 N-mm in X direction at the height of 875 mm. 3) Braking force of 93412 N in X direction at the height of 1500 mm and Load of 20755 N on six bolt position in Z direction. 5.2 Type of Constraints 1) All four bolt positions on back side are fully constrained. 2) Four bolt positions on front side is given spring element. 5.3 Pre Process in Hyper mesh For optimization design space is given. The material of casting part is SAE J434 D700 alloy steel. The design space is meshed using software Hypermesh (as shown in Fig.2). Element size is 1. Type of element is solid Tetrahedral. 5.1 5.4 Post Process in Optistruct After the meshing of component is completed post processing is done in optistruct. For topology optimization it is necessary to define design variable, response, objective, and constraint. Here total mass of design space is selected as a response. Objective is to minimize mass. And constraint is maximum stress that is 450 MPa. Software gives result in H3D file format which we can see in Hyperview (as shown in Fig.3). This gives the new shape
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which is optimized. It distribute the mass properly and remove the unnecessary mass. From the result new geometry is made using CAD software Unigrphics (as shown in Fig.4). This new geometry again meshed and its analysis was carried out for different load case. And results are compared with the result of fabricated part. [7]
Figure 2. Result of Topology Optimization 5.5 Material Property SAEJ434 D700 E= 1.6 E5 Mpa =0.25 = 7.06 E-6 kg/mm3 6.
Figure 3. New Optimized Geometry
GR 50 Steel E= 2.06 E5 MPa =0.256 3 = 7.79 E-6 kg/mm
Analysis of Component Analysis was carried out in Abaqus. After the meshing of component loads and constraints are given. Run is given in Abaqus. Software gives the result in the ODB file format. Result shows that maximum stress comes near rigid elements. This we can avoid. Result comparison of fabricated part and casted part is given in table below. Load Case 1 2 3 Table 1. Result of Casted Part Maximum Stress Displacement (MPa) (mm) 266.8 1.18 38.07 0.2036 1090 2.36 Table 2. Result of Fabricated Part Load Maximum Displacement Case Stress (mm) (MPa) 1 737.65 1.77 2 53.77 0.09 3 3239.49 16.56
From the both result table we can see that maximum stress is higher in fabricated part for all the three load cases. For combined loading stress is exceeding yield strength in both parts. But the region is same as highlighted in the below figures. Stress is coming near holes. Here rigid elements are made, so we can consider it as a stress concentration and we can neglect such higher value of stress. 7. Conclusion & Future Scope Optimization is very useful tool to reduce the weight of component and can greatly reduce the cost of vehicle development. Benefits of new design over old design are given below. 1) After optimization there is 22% weight reduction in component. The weight of fabricated part is 227 Kg, while weight of casted part is 177 kg. So about 50 kg weight reduced.
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Figure 4. Stress Plot in fabricated part
Figure 5. Stress Plot in Casting Part
2) New part can be easily designed with sand casting. This is comparatively easy process than fabrication. 3) Strength of new part is better than fabricated part. 4) Considering all factors like material cost and manufacturing cost, if company produce 1500 units/year then it can save 60000$ per year. This is very good from economic point of view. Further we can do shape optimization for the same component. From the shape optimization we can have better idea of shape and we can improve our design. Here material was given by customer, so we can select better material to decrease stress and cost. Also one can work to optimize deferent manufacturing aspects to make process fast and more accurate. Acknowledgement I am thankful to my Head of Department Prof. V. R. Iyer, my course Coordinator Dr. D.S.Sharma, my guide Prof. N. D. Ghetiya. I am also very thankful to my industry guide Mr. Arshi Riaz Siddiqi and Mr.Sridharababu Inala. Finally I am thankful to management of L&T eES, Vadodara for giving me permission to carry out my project work. References [1] D. Spath, Integration of Topology and Shape Optimization in the Design Process International CIRP Design seminar/6-8, Stockholm, June 2001. [2] Nima Bakhtiary A new approach for sizing, shape and topology optimization SAE International Congress and Exposition Detroit, USA, February 26-29, 1996. [3] O Miller Topology optimization of Large real world structure MSC UsersConferences, Paris and Birmingham, June 16-18, 1998. [4] N. Bendse, M.P.; Kikuchi. Generating optimal topologies in optimal design using A Homogenization methods Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engg. 197 224, 1988. [5] G. Allaire, The homogenization method for topology and shape optimization dans "Topology optimization in structural mechanics", G. Rozvany ed., pp.101-134, CISM Courses and Lectures 374, Springer, Wien 1997. [6] K. Suzuki, N. Kikuchi, A homogenization method for shape and topology optimization Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 93 (1991) 291-318. [7] Optistruct 8 Users Guide. 325-332.
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Finite Element Analysis of Ring Type Compressor Valve Seat

S. P. Chavan, A. K. Jadhav
*
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli-416415, Maharashtra, India *Corresponding author (e-mail:akj.jadhav@yahoo.com) A compressor valve is a device that controls the flow of higher pressure gas from a reciprocating compressor cylinder. Normally these valves open and close automatically, solely governed by the pressure differential. The reliability of reciprocating gas compressors depends upon the function of certain critical components. Among these components, compressor valves have become the focus for considerable development, both in design and analysis. In particular the ring type valve is capable at operating in wide range parameters reaching temperatures up to 200C and pressures in excess of 400 bar. Nowadays Finite Element Method is often used for analysis of valve components for optimum pressure differential. This paper highlights finite element analysis of valve seat with the objective to predict the stresses induced in the valve seat at given operating pressure, further the analysis is carried to determine the natural frequencies and respective mode shapes and also to determine whether the valve seat can operate safely for maximum pressure under consideration. Results obtained through modal analysis shows first mode shape in the form twisting and second mode shape in bending. Stress analysis shows the highest stress near the hub of the valve seat. 1. Introduction
The reciprocating compressor has long been acknowledged as the most efficient and flexible form of gas compression, covering virtually all type of gases, with working condition either lubricated or oil free . Past concerns over the operating life of the critical components such as valves, packing and rings had provoked a surge of interest in other forms of compression like screw, centrifugal and turbo. However, strenuous efforts invested over recent years by product specialists have addressed most of these concerns, with the result that the reciprocating compressor is once again restored to its favored status, and can stand scrutiny by users who rightly insist on consistent reliability and performance. Compressor valve is a device that controls the flow of higher pressure gas from a reciprocating compressor cylinder. In contrast to engine technology, compressor valves work on pressure difference, because the timing of opening and closing depends on the pressure ratio. If the pressure below the valve is greater than the pressure above the valve plus the spring force, it opens. Compressor valves have been acknowledged by most operators as the most frequent cause of unplanned compressor stoppages. Since the traditional compressors work up to 1000 RPM and valves fitted to these compressors have to open and close up to half a billion times each year. Now with the advent of the higher-speed compact compressors being increasingly selected, speed ranges have increased up to 1800 RPM, which means nearly one billion valve cycles per year. Thus there is a need for improved valve designs and materials. In order to avoid catastrophic failure of the valve and to make the compressor more reliable for use without stopping for valve changes at intervals of less than one year, valve designers have to focus on ways to make their valves including seats, guards, sealing elements such as plates, rings or poppets, and the associated springs sufficiently robust and resilient to be able to withstand the massively increased effect of impact loadings and fatigue stresses.
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Valves used in reciprocating compressors Following are the types of valves used in reciprocating compressors defined by shape of moving elements and damping used; the following paragraphs give brief description of each type. 2.1 Channel valve The channel element valve uses rectangular shaped sealing elements. These valves are the feather valve, channel valve, and the reed valve. These valves are applied to the industrial air machines for the most part. 2.2 Ported Plate valve The ported plate valve is similar to the concentric ring valve except that the rings are joined into a single element. The advantage is that the valve has a single element making flow control somewhat easier. Because of the single element, the number of edges available for imact is reduced. 2.3 Poppet valve The large seat and guard porting result in a valve that can be used effectively in applications in which debris or liquid is present. The poppet itself is designed to withstand high pressure differentials and high impact velocities, while providing a smooth, aerodynamic flow surface. Along with the large porting in the seat and guard, the poppets contribute to a low valve pressure drop. 2.4 Ring Valve The valve assembly includes a ring valve having a fluid seal surface for a selectively closing a fluid passage of a cylinder head and bias means for the ring valve for urging the ring valve in a first direction. The bias means includes the outer peripheral edge region of the ring valve being secured between opposing upper and lower annular surfaces with a predetermined smaller clearance. The upper annular surface includes an outer edge and the lower annular surface includes an inner edge which defines a fulcrum radially inward of the outer edge. This type compressor valves are recognized as outstandingly reliable in the oil, gas, petrochemical and air separation industries worldwide. The ring type valve is capable of operating across a wide range parameters reaching temperatures of up to 200C/390F and pressures in excess of 400 bar/6000psi, and are suitable for sour gas applications. It is having streamlined flow enabling free passage of entrained solids and liquids reducing risk of damage, thereby greatly improving reliability. Ring type valve has a wide range of operating conditions having durable thermoplastic discs with no seat damage or wear. As compared to other valves it simple in internal design - easy to service with suitable for both lubricated and non lubricated applications. Also it is having increased efficiency and savings on power consumption with less back-flow and often lower process gas temperatures. The major disadvantage with this type is difficult to maintain uniform flow control with the independent rings.
2.
(a) Figure 1. Ring type compressor valve
(b)
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3.
Finite element analysis of valve seat
To determine the stresses induced in ring valve, analysis is done by using Finite Element Method (FEM) tool. As an initial step with the given dimensions the model is developed by using the modeling software CATIA V5R16. After doing the modeling of seat it is imported in analysis software ANSYS 10.0 and then the FEM modeling is done as shown in figure.2, meshing with three dimensional ten node tetrahedron elements.
Figure 2. FEM model of valve seat 3.1 Modal analysis
With the FEM modeling free-free modal analysis is carried out to know the natural frequencies of valve seat and respective mode shapes. With this analysis first six modes are extracted. Figure 3 (a) and (b) illustrates the first twisting and second bending mode shapes with first and second natural frequencies 87.57 Hz and 96.85 Hz respectively.
(a) Figure 3. Mode shapes
(b)
Table 1. Different mode shapes at respective natural frequencies Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Type of Mode Shape Twisting Bending Axial distortion Axial distortion Distortion of slots near hub Distortion of slots near hub Max. Displacement 3.0 2.9 3.8 3.7 1.88 2.96 Natural Frequency 87.57 96.85 206 206.63 238 253
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3.2
Stress Analysis
In order to determine the stresses induced in the valve seat static stress analysis is carried out with imposing the boundary conditions. Since valve seat is held with valve stop, the nodes on inner cylindrical area at hub are constrained with all degrees of freedom with zero displacement. Another boundary condition is imposed by means of constraining the edge where valve seat is fastened to the cylinder head with displacement in all degrees of freedom zero. The valve seat is analyzed for maximum pressure developed by piston in operation, for this compressor under consideration it is 16.89 bar. Following figure 4 (a) illustrates the pressure loading on valve seat.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Stress analysis: (a) pressure loading, (b) deflection result With these boundary conditions and pressure loading the solution is carried out, the results are shown in following figures. Figure 4 (b) shows the maximum deflection 0.0060 mm which is developed in valve seat under given operating condition. Result of stress analysis is depicted in Figure 5 which shows the maximum stresses developed near the hub area and at the portion of the resting for the concentric rings.
(a) Figure 5. Stress analysis result 3.3 Determination of the optimum pressure
(b)
To predict the maximum pressure which valve seat can sustain stress analysis is carried out by increasing the pressure loading by means of 5 bar. This procedure is repeated till the maximum stress induced in the valve seat exceeds the one third of the ultimate stress value of the material. The material used for is AISI 410, the ultimate stress for which it is 485
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N/mm2. The following table illustrates the values of stress analysis at different pressure loadings. The result clearly shows that this valve seat can sustain maximum pressure up to 47 bar. Table 2: Deflection and stress results at different pressure loading conditions Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 4. Pressure (bar) 16.89 (working) 25 30 35 40 45 47 50 Max. Deflection (mm) 0.0060 0.0088 0.0106 0.0124 0.0142 0.0160 0.0167 0.0170 Maximum Stress(N/mm ) 56.96 84.24 101.08 117.93 134.78 151.63 158.37 168.42
2
Conclusions
In order to avoid catastrophic failure of the valve and to make the compressor more reliable for use, valve designers have to focus on ways to make their valves including seats, guards, sealing elements and the associated springs sufficiently robust and resilient. Finite element analysis is very much useful to design the components such as valve seat with complicated geometries. References [1] Paul C. Hanlon. Compressor handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001. [2] Heinz P. Bloch, John J. Hoefner. Reciprocating compressors. Gulf Professional Publishing, 1996. [3] Royce N. Brown. Compressors: selection and sizing. Gulf Professional Publishing, 1997. [4] Robin S Wilson, CPI Compressor Products International. Reciprocating Compressors: Reliability improvements focusing on compressor valves, piston and rod sealing technology. Proceedings of Conference CO 2007. Organizer: ESD Simulation. Aberdeen 30-31 January 2007. [5] Enzo Giacomelli, Fabio Falciani, GE Oil & Gas. Simulation of Cylinder Valves for Reciprocating Compressors. Proceedings of ESDA 2006 8th Biennial ASME Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis July 4-7, 2006, Torino, Italy.
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Extraction of Non Stationary Characteristics of Rolling Element Bearings for Fault Diagnosis Using Wavelet Analysis
Deputy Commandant Angello Innocent and Prof. Animesh Chatterjee. Department of Mechanical Engg, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur Every time the rolling element hits a defect in the raceway an impulse of short duration is generated which is of non stationary nature. These impulses occurs at bearing characteristics (defect) frequency. These defects are generally difficult to detect by conventional FFT analysis which assumes that signal to be analyzed must be strictly stationary. An attempt has been made in this paper to detect these non stationary characteristics using a time-frequency analysis technique known as wavelet analysis. To make defect characteristics features of these signal more prominent, the signal was digitally filtered using inverse chebyshev filter of order 3 and subsequently denoised using wavalet thresholding techniques. The experiments were carried out using different mother wavelets, however best results were obtained using Complex Gaussian Wavelet of order 8. 1. Introduction Most of the machineries in todays industrial sector are fitted with rolling element bearings. Failure in these bearings amounts to production loss resulting in huge financial loss. Hence early fault detection of these bearing plays a crucial role towards minimizing of machinery downtime. The components which often fail in a rolling element bearing are the outer-race, the inner-race and the rollers. Such failures generate a series of impact vibrations in short time intervals, which occur at Bearing Characteristic Frequencies (BCF). The bearing characteristic frequency generally contains very little energy and is usually overwhelmed by noise and higher level of structural vibration. Hence in actual practice its very difficult to detect bearing defects by conventional FFT analysis where the signal to be analyzed must be strictly periodic. Prior carrying out the experimentation work, a review on various research work carried out has been done. The objective of the present study is to update these reviews by incorporating recent works and the advanced techniques adopted in bearing defect detection. Mc Fadden and smith has modeled the generation of vibration by a point defect and multiple point defect in a rolling element bearing based on the first principles as a function of the rotation of the bearings, the distribution of load in the bearing, the transfer function between the bearing and the transducer, and the exponential decay of the resonances excited[1,2]. N Tandon and A. Choudhury has also proposed an analytical model for predicting the vibration frequencies of rolling bearings and the amplitudes of significant frequency components due to a localized defect in the bearing viz in outer race, inner race and ball[3]. Z.K. Peng and F.L. Chu has done a through study above the usage of wavelet analysis in machinery condition monitoring and fault diagnosis. He has also brought out the fact that wavelet analysis plays vital role towards machinery fault diagnosis and usage of wavelet denoising techniques is very effective and helps in extraction of weak signals from noise[4]. Dohono has proposed a simple way of removing noise from the signal, he stated that generally bearing vibration noise is in the form of white Gaussian noise and same can be efficiently removed using wavelet thresholding technique[5]. Prior information on probability density function of the impulses has been used by Lin, J. Zuo, M. J. and Fyfe, K.R, for likely estimation of thresholding with Morlet wavelet in order to get better denoising [6]. Orthogonal wavelet de-noising was performed using the function wden in MATLAB [7]. Techniques like envelop detection alongwith wavelet analysis has been used to detect fault at the bearing characteristics frequency [8]. Jing Lin and Qu has used Morlet wavelet for important feature extraction from mechanical vibration signal[9]. In the present study, the raw signal of bearings from Machinery fault simulator were at the first stage digitally filtered using
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inverse chebyshev filter of order 3 and later on denoised using wavelet thresholding techniques. Wavelet analysis of the processed signal was carried out using various mother wavelets, however best results were obtained using complex Gaussian wavelet of order 8 2. Experimental set up and defect frequencies The experimentation work was carried out on SpectraQuests Machinery Fault Simulator (MFS) as shown in fig 1. Healthy bearings as well as artificially fault simulated bearings were used for experimentation work. Four types of bearing viz bearing with outer race fault, inner race fault, ball fault and healthy bearing were used. The MFS consists of an AC variable speed drive motor, which is connected to the shaft through a flexible coupling. The shaft is supported on two nos. bearing housings. Bearings of the housings can be changed as per requirement. Vibration signal of bearings can be obtained by mounting accelerometer on the housings. The vibration meter connected to the accelerometer acts as charge amplifier. Data is acquired using NI- DAC data acquisition card. The acquired data is further processed using Labview and wavelet toolbox of MATLAB software. In a ball bearing generally there are three main components that typically experience damage, the inner race, the outer race and the ball. To investigate ball bearing fault defect, vibration signals for a bearing with an inner race defect, outer race defect, ball defect and healthy bearing were taken. Around 400 sets of data were collected from bearings fitted on 1 shaft of MFS. The data were collected based on different frequencies, load conditions, filtered/without filter and at different sampling rates. Whenever the rolling element of a bearing hits a defect in the raceway an impulse of short duration is generated. These impulses occurs at bearing characteristics (defect) frequency which is determined by the shaft speed, location of defect and the bearing geometry. Bearing defect characteristics frequency is given by the following formulae Defect on Outer Race (Ball pass outer race ) = Defect on Inner Race(Ball Pass Inner Race) = Ball defect (Ball Spin Frequency) = (1
where Pd= Pitch Diameter, n=Number of balls, Bd= Ball Diameter, = Contact. The bearing used for experimentation purpose was ER-16K. It comprised of nine rolling elements, with each element of 0.3125 inch dia. and pitch dia. of 1.548 inch
Table 1. Fault frequencies details

Notation Fault Frequency Multiplier 3.592 5.408 2.376 Fault Frequency for shaft speed of 30 Hz 108 Hz 162 Hz 71 Hz
BPFO BPFI BSF
Figure 1. Machinery Fault Simulator(MFS) 3. Continuous Wavelet Transform Wavelet transform is capable of providing the time and frequency information simultaneously, hence giving a time-frequency representation of the signal. This property makes
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wavelets an ideal tool for analyzing signals of a transient or non-stationary nature. The continuous wavelet transform (CWT) of f(t) is a time-scale method of signal processing that can be defined as the sum over all time of the signal multiplied by scaled, shifted versions of the wavelet function . Mathematically, CWT(a,b) =1/|a| (1) Where denotes the mother wavelet. The parameter a represents the scale index which is a reciprocal of frequency. The parameter b indicates the time shifting(or translation). 4. Results and Discussions Figure 2. shows the time domain signal of defective as well as healthy bearing
2.5
1. 5
1.5
1
A p d ml e itu
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A ptu e mli d
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-0. 5
-1
-1.5
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-1 0
500
1000 T ime
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0.8 1.5 0.6 1
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(c) (d) Figure 2. Time domain signal of bearing running at 30 hz and sampling rate of 2.048 ksample/sec with (a) outer race fault (b) Inner race fault (c) Ball fault (d) Healthy bearing Continuous wavelet transform(CWT) of bearing signal in raw form were taken using different mother wavelets. However the wavelet spectrum obtained were not distinct. The spectrum was also indicating few continuous bands as shown in fig 3. On conversion of scales associated with these bands to respective frequencies, it was indicating fundamental frequency alongwith harmonics and line frequency. The fundamental frequency and line frequency are stationary in nature and the bands generated by them are of large size. These bands in turn were subduing/overwhelming important information pertaining to non stationary characteristics of the signal corresponding to bearing defect frequencies. In order to make the non stationary characteristics of the signal more prominent, the stationary portion of the signal viz, fundamental frequency alongwith harmonics and line frequency were removed using digital bandstop filters. Of all the filters used Inverse Chebyshev Filter of order three were giving the best results. The signal was also subsequently denoised using wavelet thresholding technique in order to remove unwanted noise from the signal and to make the spectrum more distinct. The basic idea behind wavelet thresholding is that the energy of the signal to be identified will concentrate on a few wavelet coefficients while the energy of noise will spread throughout all wavelet coefficients. Wavelet analysis of the filtered signal was carried out using complex gaussain wavelet of order 8(cgau8). The wavelet spectrum obtained post filtering and thresholding were more distinct and were clearly exhibiting non stationary characteristics pertaining to bearing defects. Analysis of this non- stationary part of the signal was giving a clear indication of the nature of fault existing in the bearing. The encircled portion shows
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the non stationary characteristic of the signal and on conversion of scales associated with it to the respective frequencies, it was indicating bearing defect frequencies as shown in fig 4. The wavelet scale corresponding to defect frequencies for complex Gaussian Wavelet of order 8 and sampling rate of 2.048 Ksamples/sec at 30 Hz speed are 13 for BPFO, 09 for BPFI and 20 for BSP.
(a)
(b)
(c) (d) Figure 3. Continuous Wavelet Transform of raw vibration data of bearing running at 30 hz and sampling rate of 2.048 ksample/sec with (a) Outer race fault (b) Inner race fault (c) Ball fault (d) Healthy bearing
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(a)
(b)
(c) (d) Figure 4. Wavelet analysis of filtered bearing signal running at 30 hz and sampling rate is 2.048 ksample/sec using complex Gaussian wavelet of order 8 with (a) Outer race fault (b) Inner race fault (c) Ball fault (d) Healthy bearing References [1] Mc Fadden, P.D. and Smith, J. D. Model for the vibration produced by a single point defect in a rolling element bearing. J. Sound and Vib, 96(1), 1984, 69-82. [2] Mc Fadden, P.D. and Smith, J. D. The vibration produced by multiple point defects in a rolling element bearing. J. Sound and Vib, 98(2), 1985, 263-73. [3] Tandon, N. and Choudhury, A. An analytical model for the prediction of the vibration response of rolling element bearings due to a localized defect. J. Sound and Vib, 205(3),1997, 275292. [4] Peng, Z. K. and Chu, F.L. Application of the wavelet transform in machine condition monitoring and fault diagnostics: a review with bibliography. Mechanical systems and signal processing,18,2004,199-221. [5] Donoho, D. L. De-noising by Soft-Thresholding. IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory, 41(3), 1995, 613 627. [6] Lin, J. Z. and Fyfe, K.R. Mechanical Fault Detection Based on the wavelet De-Noising Technique. J. Sound acoustics., Vol. 126 , 2004, 9-16. [7] The Mathworks Inc. Wavelet Toolbox Users Guide-for Use with Matlab, 1999. [8] Shi, D.F. Wang, W.J. and Qu, L.S. Defect Detection for Bearings Using Envelope Spectra of Wavelet Transform. J. Vib and acoustics, Vol 126, 2004, 567-573. [9] Lin, J. and Qu, L. Feature extraction based on Morlet wavelet and its application for mechanical fault diagnosis. J. Sound and Vib , 234(1), 2000, 135-148. [10] Angello, I. and Chatterjee, A. Fault Diagnosis of rolling element bearing using digital filters and wavelet thresholding techniques. Proceedings of International Conference on Emerging trends in Rotor Dynamics. IIT-Delhi, 23-26 Mar 2009, Paper-17.
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Simulation of PRA Friction Force for Single Cylinder Four Stroke SI Engine under Motorized Condition
Atul S. Chaudhari*, B. M. Sutaria, Dr. D. V. Bhatt S.V .National Institute of Technology, Surat *Corresponding author (e-mail: Chaudhari.atuls@gmail.com)
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Development of Hybrid Aluminium Matrix Composite for Brake Disc

Balasubramanya H.S , Dr.Shivalingappa D , Dr.M. Prasanna Kumar , Srinivas J. Setty B.I.E.T, Davangere, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, KIT, Tiptur. *Corresponding author (email: balumtech@rediffmail.com)
4 1,2,3 1* 2 3 4
In recent years Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) are used in verity of engineering applications. In this paper systematic investigations are carried out in order to develop the hybrid composite material suited for brake disc. The engagement surfaces of a brake rotor have typically been made of an iron bearing metal, such as cast iron, steel or stainless steel. Many patents have been related to specific rotor designs, geared toward elimination of galling and build up of material in the engagement surfaces. AMCs refer to the class of light weight high performance aluminium centric material systems. The present investigation relates to a brake rotor. Particularly, it relates to a brake rotor having an enhanced heat transfer. More particularly, it relates to a brake rotor comprising a composite of a low density metal and particles of a non-metal which is adapted to minimize adverse effects of galling on the engagement or braking surfaces of the rotor and to increase the heat flow away from the brake pad. The composition also greatly enhances the heat dissipation propensity of the rotor. The goal is to get the optimum material distribution to satisfy the objective functions: Minimum Weight and best Temperature distribution. 1. Introduction
Aluminium (grade 356) is used as the base matrix along with the non-metallic reinforcements SiC and Gr to form the Hybrid composite, Silicon carbide and Graphite, is used in the composite, to enhance the required mechanical properties and Tribological properties, to serve the purpose in brake discs. Properties of AMCs can be tailored by varying the nature of constituents and their volume fraction. The disc brake rotor completes two main functions: the transmission of a considerable Mechanical force and the dissipation of the heat produced during braking [1]. All of the studies in this field are based on a homogeneous material distribution. Designing multiple material disc brake rotors with lighter weight is difficult including an understanding of the factors influencing the thermal behaviour during braking [2]. With help of a Finite Element meshing technology to model the Al-SiC-Gr brake disc rotor. This problem concerned transient heat transfer and coupled finite element analysis. 2. A356-SiC-Gr Hybrid composite
The brake material requires high mechanical strength to withstand the dynamic loading during the application of braking, good tribological properties to enhance the service life of its own and brake pads, high thermal conductivity corrosion resistant and light weight to improve the overall efficiency [3]. Aluminium, light weight in nature and with good thermal properties, along with silicon carbide, which enhances the mechanical and tribological properties. Table.1 provides the material properties of conventional and rotor made of hybrid composite. 3. Problem statement
High temperature at brake components may cause undesirable effects, leading to brake failure. Examples of thermal effects: viz. Brake fade phenomenon, Local scoring,
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Premature wear, Bearing failure, Thermal cracks, Brake fluid vaporization, Thermally excited vibration, Thermo elastic instability. Table 1. Material properties of the rotor. Properties Density (Kg/m3) Conductivity K, (W/mK) Youngs modulus E (GPa) Poisons ratio 0.3 -5 -1 Expansion coefficient, 10 K Specific heat, C (Nm/KgK) Friction Coefficient, Rotor material GG-250 A356-SiC-Gr 7228 2800 48.5 186 210 75 0.3 0.3 1.1 2.6 419 578 0.42 0.302
The problems associated with the brake rotor is as shown in the Fig.2 and fig.3. These problems can lead to premature failure of the disc [4]. In order to improve their service lives by proper heat treatment or by replacing the present material by another material possess the better thermal properties that produces same braking effect. Hence by using the Hybrid AMC with SiC and Graphite as reinforcements we can minimize the temperature generated at the contact surface and deflections. The problem with using the brake disc made of A356-gr is its mechanical strength is two low, or with only SiC as reinforcement, which is very hard, that ploughs out the soft pad resulting in severe wear. Hence by incorporating both the reinforcements better tribological and mechanical properties can be obtained.
Figure 1. Hot spots due to Thermo Elastic Instability 4. Material testing on composite material.
Figure 2. Thermal crack
Following tests were conducted on the composite material for its characterization. a. Wear test Experiments have been conducted in the Pin-on- type Friction and Wear monitor (DUCOM; TL-20) with data acquisition system. The experiment is carried out by considering the following conditions. By varying the load at constant speed of 300 rpm and constant sliding distance of 1000m. By varying the speed by maintaining load as 30N and a mean sliding distance of 1000. 5. Results and discussions
It is observed from the fig.3 that as the load increases, the wear also increases, as the normal force acting on the disc is high, the frictional force is also high, as a result it is concluded that the heat generated at the contact is high, hence the adhesive wear predominates, by incorporating the graphite particle, which acts as solid lubricant, the rate of wear reduces to greater extent and it is minimum for adding 6 weight % SiC to the A356-3Gr phase.
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As the speed increases the wear rate reduces to some extent for most of the cases. As the speed increases excluding the starting friction, the frictional force will gradually reduce. From the fig.4 it is observed that minimum wear loss obtained for the composite containing 6 weight % SiC.
10
0%
wear loss in mg
8 6 4 2 0 200 250 300
0% 3% 6% 9%
wear loss in mg
10
8 6 4 2 0
3% 6% 9%
350
400
20
25
speed in rpm
30 35 40 load in N
Figure 3. Effect of speed on wear b. Tensile test:
Figure 4. Effect of load on wear
Tensile test has been conducted on the specimen that is showing best wear characteristics i.e., the specimen with 6%SiC Aluminium composite. The dimension of specimen was kept as per IS: 1608-2005. Table 2: Tensile test results Dia 8.58mm 2 Are 57.81mm Gauge length 40mm Final length 42.98mm Ultimate tensile load 6.65KN Youngs Modulus 175GPa Poisons ratio 0.3 Ultimate tensile strength 115.03 %elongation 2.45 c. Hardness Test
Hardness values
200 150 100 50 0 0 3
Rockwell brinell
6
% of SIC
Figure 5. Effect of reinforcement on hardness. It is observed from the Figure 5 that as percentage of reinforcement increases, the hardness as well as its brittleness increases. 5. Couple field analysis on brake
A coupled-field analysis is a combination of analyses from different engineering fields that interact to solve a global engineering problem. In the thermal stress problem, the temperature field introduces thermal strains in the structural field. The coupling between the fields can be accomplished by either direct coupling. Load transfer can take place across surfaces or volumes.
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Figure 6. Finite element model of brake
Figure 7. Boundary conditions
The meshed finite element model of the rotor is as shown in the fig.6. The contact element CONTA174, a higher order element is selected for the material and Target element TARGE170 is selected for the pad material. The element details for the rotor and disc is tabulated in Table 3. Friction coefficient value is applied at the contact region by using contact manager menu. The Disc is constrained at the inner ring with six degrees of freedom. Side faces of the pad are also constrained. The brake line pressure is applied at the contact area of rotor in contact with the pad. The angular velocity is applied with respect to Y axis from Figure 7. The following are the loading conditions applied to the rotor. Angular speed, = 111.12 rad/s Brake line pressure, P = 1.83 MPa Friction coefficient, = 0.42 for CI = 0.302 for Aluminium MMC 6. Temperature distribution and deformation of hybrid composite rotor
Figure 8. Temperature distribution of of composite rotor
Figure 9. Thermal deformation composite rotor
Table 3. Comparison of results Component C.I Disc Brake Assembly AMC Brake Max. temp C 422.768 325.593 Max. displacement mm 0.254 0.189 Weight Kg 143.41 59.49
The couple field analysis is carried out for the disc. The temperature and deflections obtained is tabulated in Table.3. It is difficult to arrive single equation for this type of loading. These results can only be compared with the experimental values.
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7.
Conclusions The brake rotor is designed mainly by considering the uniform wear criterion. From the results obtained from the wear it is concluded that A356-6%SiC-3%Gr is good wear resistant material. From the analysis results it is concluded that the maximum temperature and Thermal deformation obtained for aluminum composite brake disc is less as compared to the cast iron brake from the Table.3. Appreciable weight reduction for aluminum composite material brake, over cast iron brake is about 60%. Aluminum composite material yields better utilization construction of brake material compared to the cast iron material. Hence it is proved that A356 with SiC and Gr is the best candidate material for Brake Disc.
References [1] X.G.Zou, H. Miyahara, K.Yamamoto, K. Ogi, Sliding wear behavior of Al-Si-Cu composite Brake rotor reinforced with SiC particles, Mater.Sci.Tecnol. 19(2003)1519-1526 [2] K.M. Shorowordi, A.S.M.A. Haseeb, J.P.Ceils,Velocity Effect on Wear, Friction and Tribochemistry of Light weight Aluminum MMC sliding against Phenolic Brake Pad . Journal of wear, 2003. [3] I.M Hutchings, Tribology friction and wear studies on metal matrix composites, Edward Arnold, London, 1992, pp, 77-122 [4] R. Holm, The frictional force over the real area of Contact, Wiss. Vereoff. Siemens Werken, Vol. 17 (4), 1938, pp. 38-42.
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Analysis of slip damping in layered and jointed welded structures using finite element approach
Bhagat Singh , B. K. Nanda National Institute of Technology, Rourkela-769008, Orissa, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: bhagatmech@gmail.com)
The characterization and modeling of the dynamic behavior of many built-up structures under vibration conditions is still a subject of current research. The present study emphasizes the theoretical investigation of slip damping in layered and jointed welded cantilever structures using finite element approach. To validate the finite element model developed, experiments have been conducted on a number of mild steel specimens under different initial conditions of vibration. Finite element model developed affirms that the damping capacity of such structures is influenced by the parameters such as; interface pressure distribution characteristics, kinematic coefficient of friction and microslip, amplitude and frequency of vibration, length and thickness of the specimen. Finite element model developed can be utilized effectively in the design of machine tools, automobiles, aerodynamic and space structures, frames and machine members.
*
1.
Introduction
Over the years, the researchers have emphasized their studies on the development of mathematical models for the mechanism of damping and techniques adopted to improve the damping capacity of laminated structures in order to control the adverse effects of vibrations. Welded joints are used to fabricate many assembled structures and a little amount of work has been reported till date on the damping capacity of such structures. Belgaumkar and Murty [1], Masuko et al. [2], and Nishiwaki et al. [3] have reported on the techniques of improving the damping capacity of welded structures.However, these analytical techniques are only applicable to simple structures such as beams or plates with classical boundary conditions. In practice it is often necessary to design damped structures with complicated geometry, so it is natural to look to the finite element method (FEM) for a solution. However, its application in slip damping analysis is relatively recent and has not received enough attention. Shastry and Rao [4] by finite element method obtained critical frequencies and the stability boundaries for a cantilever column under an intermediate periodic concentrated load for various load positions. Bauchau and Hong [5] studied the nonlinear response and stability of beams using finite element technique. Briseghella et al. [6] studied the dynamic stability problems of beams and frames by using finite element method. 2. Formulation using the finite element method
Layered and jointed continuous and tack welded cantilever beam models with uniform pressure distribution at the interfaces is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Two layered continuously and tack welded cantilever beam models
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2.1
The displacement description
The finite element model of the damped two-layered jointed beam element is shown in Figure 2. It is assumed that every layer has the same transverse displacement. At each node n, two displacements are introduced, these being the transverse displacement vn , the rotation n of the layers. E, I, A, (1) V1 1 (2) E, I A, 2 V2 2h
2
2h
Figure 2. Finite element model for the damped layered and jointed welded beams The total set of nodal displacements for the element is given by;
v N qe
, where, q v
e
1 v2 2
N3 N4
(1)
N =shape function , N N1
2.2 Element stiffness matrix
N2
The element strain energy is given by; 1 u E qT k e q 2 Where the element stiffness matrix is given by; 6le 12 6le 12 2 2 EI 6le 4le 6le 2le e k 3 , which is symmetric. le 12 6l e 12 6le 2 2 6l 6le 4le e 2le
(2)
(3)
2.3 Element mass matrix For the beam element taken using the shape function described above the element mass matrix is given by;
le
N A N dx
0
(4)
On integrating, we get 54 13le 156 22le 2 2 4le 13le 3le Ae le 22le e m 13le 156 22le 420 54 2 2 13le 3le 22le 4le Ae =cross-sectional area and = mass density 2.4 Evaluation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
(5)
Eigenvalue given by;
with the corresponding eigenvector U indicating the mode shape is
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K M U 0
2.5 Evaluation of energy stored Energy stored in the layered and jointed beam is given by 1 En QT KQ 2 where, Q and K are the globalised displacement and stiffness matrix 2.6 Evaluation of energy dissipated
(6)
(7)
Energy is dissipated due to the relative dynamic slip at the interfaces. For flat bodies, jointed with welded joint the pressure distribution remains constant and is found out by Johnson [8] and is given as: P p( x ) , (8) 2a The actual relative dynamic slip at the interfaces in the presence of friction during the vibration is given by; u 2 h N q (9)
r
where, is the dynamic slip ratio. For the above cantilever beams shown in Figure 1., with uniform pressure distribution at the interfaces, p, the energy loss due to the frictional force at the interfaces of an element is given by;
le
eloss b xy ur dx
0
(10)
le
eloss 2 pbh
N q
0
dx
(11) (12)
eloss 2 pbhd e , where d(e) is given by d e 1 0 1 0 qT
Hence the total energy loss is evaluated by summing the energy loss for the whole beam and is written as;
Eloss 2 pbhD
n
(13)
d e , n is the number of nodes taken.

2
Therefore Eloss 4 pbhD (14) En QT KQ Logarithmic damping decrement is used as a measure of damping capacity of a structure. 12 ln(an an 1 ) ln En En 1 ln 1 1 2 (15)
Eloss Eloss En 1 1 En Eloss . (16) Since the accurate determination of dynamic slip ratio, , and kinematic coefficient of friction, , are difficult, the product of these two parameters, i.e., x is assumed to be constant and has been found out from the experimental results for logarithmic damping decrement of 3 mm thickness cantilever beam with continuous welding by modifying expressions (14), (15) and (16) as; 1 e2 QT KQ (17) 4 pbhDe 2
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The variations of (x) with natural frequency of vibration at the first mode of transverse vibration have been determined under different initial amplitudes of excitation and plotted as shown in Figure 6. 3. Experimental set-up, experiments and results
An experimental set-up as shown in Figure 3.has been fabricated to conduct the experiments for verifying the authenticity of the finite element model developed.
Figure 3. Experimental set-up The specimens are prepared from mild steel flats by welding two layers of various thickness and cantilever length with continuous and tack welding of tack length 10 mm and varying the number of tack joints and the consecutive distance between the tacks along the cantilever length The cantilever specimens are given excitation in steps of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 mm at their free ends with the help of a spring arrangement. The logarithmic damping decrement is found out numerically from expression (15) using the values from the graph as shown in Figure 6 at different natural frequencies of vibration. These numerical results as well as the corresponding experimental ones are plotted as solid and dotted lines respectively for comparison as shown in Figures 7 to 8. It is observed that both the curves are in good agreement with a maximum variation of 3.6% which shows the authenticity of the finite element model developed.
Figure 4. First Mode

coefficient of friction x slip ratio (x)
0.0095 0.009 0.0085 0.008 0.0075 0.007 15 20 25 30 Frequency (Hz) 35 40 y= amplitude in mm y=0.1 y=0.2 y=0.3 y=0.4 y=0.5
Figure 5. Second Mode

Logarithmic decrement()
0.0016 0.0014 0.0012 0.001 0.0008 0.0006 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 Length (mm)
Figure 6.Variation of with frequency
Figure 7.Variation of with length
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0.0035
0.0035
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0.003 0.0025 0.002 0.0015 0.001 0.0005 0 10
Logarithmic decrement
y=0.1 y=0.2 y=0.3 y=0.4 y=0.5
y=amplitude in mm
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t=3 t=4 t=6
20
30 40 50 No. of tack welded joint
con tinuously 60 weld ed
10
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50 continuously 60 welded
Figure 8.Variation of with no. of tack welded joints, amplitude and thickness 4. Discussion and conclusions
In this paper, a new method of analyzing layered and jointed beams with slip damping at the interface has been proposed, utilizing the advantages of the finite element method. Existing numerical methods to analyze jointed and layered structures with slip damping use displacement models defined over the whole structure. Usually the finite element method is preferred because of its ability to easily model a wide range of complex structures and boundary conditions. From both the finite element analysis and experimental strategy, it is concluded that the damping capacity of structures jointed with welding is influenced by the parameters such as; intensity of pressure distribution and micro-slip at the interfaces, techniques of welding, relative spacing between tack welds, number of tack joints, amplitude and frequency of vibration, length and thickness of the beam specimens. Finally, it is established that the damping capacity of the layered and jointed welded structures can be improved largely by fabricating the same with tack welds instead of continuously welded structures. Moreover, more relative spacing between the consecutive tack welds with less no. of tack joints under smaller amplitude of excitation will enhance the damping capacity substantially. Therefore, engineers can use these results associated with finite element analysis to have an estimation of natural frequencies and mode shapes of damped layered and jointed welded structures.Hence, the above concept and welding technique can be made into practice in the design of machine tools, aircrafts, spacecrafts, satellites, automobiles and missile systems effectively in order to maximize their damping capacity. Further more, the use of finite element analysis associated with experimental procedures can give the designer tools to estimate the dynamic performance of such structures, giving the designer the possibility to tailor the dynamic behavior of the structures to its requirements. References: [1] Belgaumkar B. M., and Murty, A. S. R. Effect of root fixture conditions on the damping characteristics of cantilever beam. Journal of science and Engineering research, India, 12(1), 1968, 147-154. [2] Masuko, M., Yoshimi, I., and Keizo, Y. Theoretical analysis for a damping ration of a jointed cantibeam. Bull. JSME, 16(99), 1973, 1421-1433. [3] Nishiwaki, N., Masuko, M., Ito, Y., and Okumura, I. A study on damping capacity of a jointed cantilever beam (1st report; experimental results). Bulletin of JSME, 21(153), 1978, 524-531. [4] Shastry, B.P. and Rao, G. V. Dynamic stability of a cantilever column with an intermediate concentrated periodic load. Journal of Sound and Vibration, Volume 113, 1987,194 197. [5] Bauchau, O.A. and Hong, C.H. Nonlinear response and stability analysis of beams using finite elements in time. AIAA J., Volume 26, 1998, 11351141. [6] Briseghella, G., Majorana, C.E., and Pellegrino, C. Dynamic stability of elastic structures: a finite element approach. Computer and structures, Volume 69, 1998, 11-25. [7] Johnson, K.L. Contact mechanics, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1985.
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Evaluation of Digging Force and Pump Capacity Using Principle of Soil Mechanics for Mini Hydraulic Excavator
B.P. Patel , C.P. Patel , P.M. Pate
*
UVPCE, Kherva, Gujarat, India. Corresponding author (email: bppmech@yahoo.co.in)
The automation of the land excavation machines can find applications in the excavation of soil in both terrestrial and planetary mining and construction. In the process of automating an earthmoving machine, we have developed a model of soil-tool interaction that predicts resistive forces experienced at the tool during digging. Accurately predicting the excavation force that will be encountered by digging tools on the Soil surface is a crucial part of designing of mini hydroelectric excavator. Based on principles of soil mechanics, this paper develops an analytical model that is relatively simple and easy to determine required digging force. Here, soil parameters like soil cohesions, soil density and soil surcharge etc. that can be determined by traditional soil strength tests and taken as reference. The excavation force is investigated and it helpful in finding out pump capacity for mini hydroelectric excavator. This paper emphasize on graphical representation of the relations between excavation/digging force and different parameters like soil density, soil blade friction angle, soil cohesion, internal friction angle and depth of tool. This paper evaluates the digging force based on fixed bucket size and the maximum digging depth up to 1.5 m especially designed for construction applications. Nomenclatures
W Lt Lf
R F c d g q w
= Weight of the moving soil wedge(m), = Length of the tool(m), = Length of the failure surface(m), = Angle of soil-soil friction(deg), = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Friction between the metal and the blade(deg), Force resisting movement of the wedge(N) The total resistive force(N). 2 Soil Cohesion (N/m ) Depth of Excavation (m) Gravitational Acceleration (m/s2), Surface Surcharge (N/m2), Width of Excavation Blade (m), Inclination Angle of The Blade (deg), Inclination Angle of The Side Friction (deg), Unit Weight of Soil (N/m3), Friction Angle Between Soil And Blade (deg) Internal Friction Angle(deg), 3 Swept Volume(m ),
VS 1.
Introduction
One of the crucial operation in designing hydraulic backhoe excavator is to find out the digging force that will require to excavate the soil surface. Hydraulic excavators, also called diggers, are used in applications ranging from the construction of roads and pipelines to mining and the excavation of soil surface & rocks containing diamonds and gold.
517
The work equipment portion of a hydraulic excavator consists of hydraulic cylinders, a boom, an arm, and a bucket. Singh H predicts resistive forces experienced at the tool during digging. The predicted forces can be used to model the closed loop behavior of a controller that servos the joints of the excavator [3]. Willkison allen find out important parameters on the excavation force on lunar surface investigated. The results are compared with that predicted by other available theories. Results of preliminary soil tests on lunar stimulant are also reported [5]. Hydraulic Backhoe Excavator are Used Primarily to Excavate below the natural surface of the ground on which the machine rests. In the selection of backhoe for the digging operation mainly factors are to be considered as what maximum excavation depth required? What maximum Dumping height And Radius required fro digging? Excavation depth specify the capacity of backhoe excavator as considering desired application correlates the calculation of digging force. 2. Soil Tool Model
The classical soil-tool model called the Fundamental Earthmoving Equation along with a reformulated version that accounts for other phenomena. 2.1 The Fundamental Earthmoving Equation
The well known Fundamental Earthmoving Equation (FEE), described by Reece [1] as:
F gd 2 N Y cdN C qdN q w
Where ,
(1)
N , N C , and N q are factors which depend not only on the soil frictional strength,
but also on the tool geometry and soil-tool strength properties [2]. If we assume a static equilibrium and that the shape of the failure surface can be approximated by a plane (of unit width), as shown in Fig.1.
Figure.1 Static Equilibrium Analysis.
Figure.2 Inclination of Soil Tool Model.
Static equilibrium analysis using an approximation of the failure surface [2]. The components of the resistive force can be written as:
Fx F sin c a Lt cos R sin c L f cos 0 (2)

Fz F cos c a L sin c L f sin R cos W Q 0 (3)
Solving the equation for F,
W q c d 1 cot cot c a d 1 cot cot (4) cos sin cot
The FEE assumes that the soil profile is horizontal and the assumption for this to dimensional model are 1) Sidewall of the bucket do not allow shearing in direction transverse to bucket motion and surcharge is uniformly distributed.2) Inertial forces are Negligible.3) Initial acceleration of bucket is negligible.4) Two forces acting on soil tool interaction for flat soil
518
surface, one shear force due to cutting and second gravitational force. After some manipulation, the force equation can be written as Reeces equation. we obtain factor,
cot cot 2cos p sin cot 1 cot cot cos sin cot
(5)
Nc
(6)
Nq
2.2
cot cot cos sin cot
(7)
Physical Interpretation of Reeces Equation
The values for above equation are as under. Tool Width (w) : 0.3 m Tool Depth (d) : 0.3 m 2 Earth Gravity (g) : 9.8 m/s 2 Soil Surcharge(q) : 10 n/m [5] 3 Soil Density (y) : 28000 n/m [6] 2 Soil Cohesion(c) : 25000 n/m [4] Inclination Angle of Blade ( ) : 45 deg. Internal Friction Angle () : 44 deg.[4] Solid blade Friction Angle () : 20 deg.[5] Inclination Angle of Soil Friction : 10 deg.[5] 3 Swept Volume(VS) : 0.0206 m Putting variable value in above Equation we get Total Resistive Force Experienced at a Blade is 39203.5 N. With variable input value we get different Total Resistive force i.e. shown in graph as below.
Force vs. Solid Blade Friction Angle
60000 50000
FORCE (N)
FORCE (N)
F o r ce vs. R ack A ng le
140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0

26 48 14 20 32 38 44 54 60
40000 30000 20000 10000 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
SOLID BLADE FRICTION ANGLE
RACK ANGLE
Figure.3 Force vs. Solid blade friction angle.
Figure.4 Force vs. Rack angle.
The total force acting on the bucket has been decomposed into three main forces. They are the shear or cutting-force (Fs), the gravity force (Fg), and the remolding force (Fr,). The shear force is the force required to shear the soil away from itself. This force is encompassed within a modified Reece equation. For the case of earthmoving in flat ground the FEE is just the sum of Fs and Fg. As can be seen from Fig. 1, the FEE assumes that the soil profile is horizontal. Since this assumption is not always valid (in fact only rarely the case in our application), a modification was made in which the terrain profile angle is included within the rake angle as shown in Fig.2 [3]. In addition, the volume of material swept by the bucket, Vs, is assumed to result in surcharge and the material shown in the shaded region above.
519
66
Assuming that the surcharge is uniformly distributed above the shaded region, the FEE can be rewritten as follows:
Fs d 2 w g N w c w N c Vs g N q 1
F or c e v s. S i d e Fr i c t i on I nc l i n a t i o n A ng l e
(8)
Force vs. Soil Friction Angle

120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 44 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
SOIL FRICTION ANGLE
150000
FORCE (N)
FORCE (N)
100000 50000 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
SIDE FRICT ION INCLINATION ANGLE
Figure.5 Force vs. Soil friction angle.

Force vs. Soil Density
Figure.6 Force vs. Side friction Angle.

Force vs. Soil Cohesion
50000
50000
FORCE (N)
FORCE (N)
40000 30000 20000 10000 0
40000 30000 20000 10000 0
1000
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
28000
30000
1000
5000
10000
15000 20000
25000
30000
35000
SOIL DENSITY
SOIL COHESION
Figure.7 Force vs. Soil Density. Rewrite the factor as below:
Figure.8 Force vs. Soil Cohesion.
Nw Nc
cot tan cos sin cot 2cos sin cot 1 cot cot cos sin cot
cot cot cos sin cot
(9) (10) (11)
Nq
At any moment, the swept volume or the of soil displaced into the bucket, is assumed to account for the entire gravitational force acting on the bucket. Therefore: Fg V s g (12) Note that the gravitational force has been subtracted from the cutting force equation so that it is not accounted for twice. The gravitational force is represented separately so that it can be applied when the cutting force equation is not relevant, such as when the bucket comes up out of the ground. The remolding force is the force required to remold the soil in the bucket. As the bucket begins to fill up, additional force is needed to form the soil within the bucket, and then to compress the soil. We write this force as follows: Fr V s g d (13) Putting variable value in above Equation we get Excavation forces with variable additional angle when the soil surface is continuous change mode and variable swept volume handle by that additional angle which is shown by graph as below.
520
Force vs. Swept volume
Force vs. Additional Rack Angle
120000 100000
FORCE (N)
88500 88000 87500 87000 86500 86000 85500 85000 84500
80000 60000 40000 20000 0

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0
FORCE (N)
18
22
26
30
12
15
34
SWEPT VOLUME
ADDITIONAL RACK ANGLE
Figure.10 Force vs. Additional Rack Angle. 3.
Figure.11 Force vs. Swept Volume
Conclusion of physical interpretation of Total Resistive Force
As Solid blade Friction angle (Fig.3), Soil Friction angle (Fig.5), Soil Density (Fig.7) & Soil Cohesion (Fig.8) increases, the total resistive force experienced at the blade is also increases and As the side Friction angle (Fig.6) increases , the total resistive force experienced sat the blade gets decreased. As Rack Angle gets minimum (i.e.44 to 45), the total resistive force exerted at the blade is minimum & changes as it increase or decreases. For finding out the pump capacity it depends only on excavation force and calculated as follows. Total Excavation Force = 3920 Kg. 2 Pressure = (Force)/(Area)= (3920)/ / 4 x 6.3 x 6.3 = 12.57 Kg/cm = 1789 psi. Availability of Motor is 10 HP, HP = Pressure x gpm x 0.0007, 10 = 1789 x gpm x 0.0007, Gpm= 7.9, Lpm = 35.91 = 36, Cc/Sec = 598, Assuming Motor RPM=1440, So, Pump Capacity (Cc/rev) = (598 x 60)/ 1440= 25 Cc/Rev. References [1] Reece, A.R The Fundamental Equation of Earthmoving Mechanics, Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1964. [2] Mckeyes, E. Soil Cutting and Tillage. Elsevier, 1985. [3] Singh H., Canon H., Proceeding Of the 1998 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robotics And System Modeling and Identification of Soil Tool Interaction in Automated Excavation , Volume-3, Issue-13-17, Oct-1998, 1900-1907. [4] Oza H.P., Soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Charotar book stall, Anand, First edition, 1969. [5] Willkison allen,Agui Juan H., Burnoski Louis and Zeng david, Calculation of Excavation force for ISRU on lunar surface, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. [6] http://www.cwsindustries.com/technicaldata/weights and measure/pdf
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38
Study of wall shear stress through asymmetric double stenosed coronary artery
1
S. Chakrabarti1 and D. K. Mandal2 Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah-711 103, W. B., India 2 College of Engg. & Management, Kolaghat, Midnapore (E) 721 171, W.B., India * Corresponding author (email: dipkuma@yahoo.com)
In this paper, an attempt has been made to study the impact of different shaped asymmetric double stenoses on the variation of wall shear stresses of blood near the zone of stenosis in a part of coronary artery. The results have been compared with single restriction also. The shape of first restriction changes asymmetrically keeping same shape of the second restriction. The two-dimensional steady differential equations for conservation of mass and momentum are solved by finite volume method for Reynolds number 100 only. From the study, it is revealed that the chance of damaging in arterial wall at the first restriction increases due to peak wall shear stress. This quantum of impact is more compared to the magnitude of peak wall shear stress in case of single restriction for the models of AS1, AS2 and AS3. The chance of damage in arterial wall at second restriction decreases, and finally the impact of low wall shear stress appears. Nomenclature A Area at any section, [m2] D Dia of the artery, [m] hf Depth of the restriction, [m] Li Inlet length (i.e., length between inlet section and restriction-1), [m ] Lex Exit length (i.e., length between restriction-2 and exit section), [m] Ls Stricture length or length of stenosis, [m] P or p Static pressure, [Nm-2] PR Percentage of restriction or Percent stenosis = R Re S 1. Velocity in r-direction, [ms-1]. Velocity in z-direction, [ms-1] Average velocity in z-direction at inlet, [ms-1] r, z Cylindrical co-ordinates Density, [kg m-3] Dynamic viscosity, [kg m-1s-1] w Wall shear stress, [Nm-2] wp Peak Wall shear stress, [Nm-2] Subscripts * Dimensionless terms 1 Restriction-1 2 Restriction-2 1-1 Inlet 2-2 Exit ur uz U
2h f D
100%
Restriction Reynolds Number Restriction spacing, [m]
Introduction The study of the stress distributions of the arterial wall in the vicinity of a stenosis is important as it might help us to explain the cause of post-stenotic dilatation, and investigate the development and progression of arterial stenosis. It is well known that high wall shear stress is considered to be a possible initiating factor in atherosclerosis. This damages the vessel wall and causes intimal thickening. Side by side, low wall shear stress in the separation region causes mass transportation across the arterial wall. Quite a good number of theoretical as well as experimental studies related to blood flow through constricted arteries have been continually pursued by the researchers for single as well as multiple restrictions. For multiple restrictions, Solzbach et al. [1] have investigated experimentally the influence of stenosis geometry on the fluid dynamics of the post stenosis flow considering rectangular shaped restriction. Dreumel and
522
kuiken [2] have studied numerically and experimentally the flow through trapezoidal shaped double constrictions. Liepsch et al. [3] have studied experimentally the influence of stenotic geometry in four cylindrical stenotic models with rectangular cross section. Tandom et al. [4] have made an attempt to analyze the characteristics of the blood flow through an artery suffering with axisymmetric double stenoses in series. The effects of overlapping stenosis on arterial flow problem have been carried out analytically by Chakravarty and Mandal [5], and Layek et al. [6]. The steady laminar flow fields in the neighborhoods of two consecutive Gaussian shaped restrictions have been studied by Lee [7, 8, 9]. The effects of multiple constrictions on central line velocity, pressure distribution, wall shear stress, and stream lines at different Reynolds numbers are investigated by Layek et al. [10]. From this brief review, it has been noted that no one has considered such type of multiple stenoses, where first restrictions PR changes and PR of second restriction is fixed. In the present study, we have considered that the shape of first restriction changes along its stricture length and percentage of restriction both keeping no change in the shape of second restriction. The effect of different shaped double stenoses on peak wall shear stress has been investigated, and comparisons with single restriction (S= ) have been presented for a fixed Reynolds number of 100 only. 2. 2.1. Mathematical Formulation
Governing Equations A schematic diagram of the computational domain is illustrated in Fig.1. It shows the computational domain with Gaussian shaped restrictions. This bell-shaped stenosis geometry is
4m 2 z 2 modeled mathematically as r 0.5 h f exp 2 Ls
, [11]. Where, m is a parametric
constant. The flow under consideration has been assumed to be steady, two-dimensional, laminar and axisymmetric. The following dimensionless variables are defined to obtain the governing conservation equations in the non-dimensional form; Lengths: r r / D , z z D , Li Li D , Lex Lex D , L S 1 L s1 / D , L S 2 L s 2 / D ,
*
* * *
h * h f / D , S * S / D . Velocities: u r u r U , u z u z U . Pressure: p * p U 2 . f
With the help of these variables, the mass and momentum conservation equations are written as follows, * * * (r u r ) (u z ) 0 (1) * * * r r z
* * * * * * (r *u r u r ) (u z u r ) p * 1 ( r *u r ) 2 u r * * * Re r * r r z * 2 r *r * z * r * * * * * * ( r * u r u z ) (u z u z ) p * 1 * u z 2 u z r * Re r * r * r * z * 2 r * r * z * z Where, the flow Reynolds number, Re UD .
(2)
(3)
2.2. Boundary Conditions Four different types of boundary conditions have been applied to the present problem. They are as follows, At the walls: u r 0 , u z 0 ,
* * * *
At the inlet: u r 0 . u z 2.0 1 2r

* *
,
* 2
At the exit:
u z x * 0 , u r 0. , At the line of symmetry: u r z * 0 , u r 0 .
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Artery wall
1
Restriction-1 LS1 S LS2
Restriction-2 Lex
2
Li hf r
D/2 z Exit
Inlet
Centre line
Figure 1. Computational domain Numerical Procedure The governing equations (1), (2) and (3) have been solved numerically by an in-house CFD code developed using integral approach of the finite volume method on a non-uniform staggered grid following SIMPLER algorithm [12]. The third-order upwind scheme has been used for advective part. The discretized equations have been solved using Tri-diagonal Matrix Algorithm (TDMA) with Alternate Direction Implicit (ADI) scheme. The convergence of the iterative scheme has been achieved when the normalized residuals for mass and momentum equations summed over the entire calculation domain falls below 10-7. In the computation, the non-dimensional total length of computational domain has been chosen to be 100 and the inlet length has been chosen to be 50. After grid independence test, finally the numerical mesh comprised of 449 65 grid nodes in z and r direction has been considered in the present work. 2.3. 2.4. Problem formulation The formulations of different shapes are shown in Fig. 2. Initially we have considered a double stenoses like the model:M1, where both restrictions are similar symmetrical (about the centre of restriction) having same stricture length of 0.2 and PR of 30% each. If the aggravation of stenosis takes place mainly at the throat and downstream zones of first restriction of model:M1, then the shape of first restriction of multi-stenoses changes from M1 to AS1, AS1 to AS2, and AS2 to AS3. Here, the shape of second restriction remains same as model:M1.
0.4 0.3 0.2 0. 1
PR1=50% PR1=30% PR1=70%
0. 1 PR2=30 Model:AS3 % Model:AS2 Model:AS1 Model:M1
0. 1
0. 1
PR1=90%
Figure 2. Different shapes 3. Results and discussion During numerical investigation; the effect of different shaped double stenoses on wall shear stress has been investigated and comparisons have been made with single restriction for Reynolds number 100 only. For all considered double stenoses, the shape of restriction-2 remains fixed. The restriction spacing between two restrictions has been considered as 4.0 for Model:M1.
524
14 10
Model:M1, S*=4.0
14 10 6 2 -2
Model:M1, S*=
w *
2 -2 48
50 40 30
50
Z* 52
*
w *
54
56
48
50
Z* 52
*
54
56
50
Model:AS1, S =3.9
Model:AS1, S =
40 30
w *
20 10 0
-10 48
180
50
Z*
w *
20 10 0
-10
52 54 56
180
48
50
Z* 52
54
56
Model:AS2, S =3.8
130
130 80 30 -20
Model:AS2, S*=
w *
30 -20 48
2500
10
w *
80
50
Z* 52
54
56
48
50
Z*
52
54
56
2500
0 -10
2000
*
Model:AS3, S =
-30
1000 500 0 -500 48 50
-40
Model:AS3, S*=3.7
52
53
54
55
Z*
w *
1500
-20
1500
500
-500
52 54 56
48
50
Z*
52
54
56
Figure 3. Variations of wall shear stress for Re=100.

The non-dimensional wall shear stress at any position is computed with the help of the expression:
525
w*
w w ref
, Where,
w is wall shear stress and wref is the reference wall shear stress,
which is considered as the wall shear stress far away from the stenosis. The general trend of the curves of wall shear stress (Figure 3) shows that rise of wall shear stress occurs at the restriction zone due to high velocity gradient and then it attains negative wall shear stress at the downstream of restriction due to adverse pressure gradient for all restrictions. * It is evident from the figure that the magnitude of wp 1 increases with increase in PR1. This magnitude in each case is more compared to the value of peak wall shear stress in case of single restriction for the corresponding models of AS1, AS2 and AS3. It may be due to higher PR of R1 in comparison to PR of second restriction. The magnitude of wp*2 decreases and finally attains negative value for AS2 and AS3. This happens due to merging of recirculation eddy of the first restriction with the eddy formed behind the second restriction of said two models. Inset figure, for model:AS3, shows the variation of wall shear stress at the second restriction (R2), which could * not be shown in the main figure due to higher magnitude of scale for wp . Therefore, the phenomenon of arterial wall damage due to peak wall shear stress at R1 increases. This impact of peak wall shear stress on the phenomenon for second restriction decreases with the increase in percentage of restriction of first stenosis. Finally at higher PR1, the impact of low wall shear stress appears and chance of aggravation of the disease may take place accordingly. 4. Conclusions In the present numerical study, the effect of different shaped double stenoses on wall shear stress has been investigated and comparisons have been made with single restriction for Reynolds number 100 only. From the study, it is revealed that the chance of damaging in arterial wall at the first restriction increases due to peak wall shear stress. This quantum of impact is more compared to the magnitude of peak wall shear stress in case of single restriction for the models of AS1, AS2 and AS3. The chance of damage in arterial wall at second restriction decreases, and finally the impact of low wall shear stress appears. References [1] Solzbach, U., Wollschlager, H., Zeiher, A. and Just, H., Effect of Stenotic Geometry on Flow Behaviour Across Stenotic Models, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, 25, 1987, 543-550. [2] Dreumel, S. C. and Kuiken, G. D. C., Steady Flow through a Double Converging-Diverging Tube Model for Mild Coronary Stenosis, Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, 111, 1989, 212-21. [3] Liepsch, D., Singh, M. and Lee, M., Experimental Analysis of the Influence of Stenotic Geometry on Steady flow, Biorheology, 29(4), 1992, 419-31. [4] Tandom, P. N., Rana, U. V. S., Kawahara, M. and Katiyar, V. K., A Model for Blood Flow Through a Stenotic Tube, Int. J. Biomed. Comput., 32, 1993, 61-78. [5] Chakravarty, S. and Mandal. P. K., Mathematical Modelling of Blood Flow Through an Overlapping Arterial Stenosis, Mathl. Comput. Modelling, 19(1), 1994, 59-70. [6] Layek, G.C., Mukhopadhyay, S. and, Gorla Rama Subba Reddy, Unsteady Viscous Flow with Variable Viscosity in a Vascular Tube with an Overlapping Constriction, International Journal of Engineering Science 47, 2009, 649659. [7] Lee, T. S., Steady laminar Fluid flow through Variable Constrictions in vascular tube, Journal of fluid Engineering, 116, 1994, 258-289. [8] Lee, T. S., Numerical Study of Fluid Flow through Double Bell-Shaped Constrictions in a Tube, International Journal of Numerical Methods for Heat and Fluid Flow, 12(3), 2002, 258-289. [9] Lee, T. S., Numerical studies of fluid flow through tubes with double constrictions, International Journal of Numerical Methods in Fluids, 11 (8), 2005, 1113-1126. [10] Layek, G.C., Mukhopadhyay, S. and Samad, Sk.A. Oscillatory flow in a Tube with Multiple Constrictions, Int. J. Fluid Mech. Res., 32, 2005, 402419. [11]Misra, J. C. and Shit, G. C., Blood Flow Through arteries in a Pathological State: A Theoretical study, International Journal of Engineering Science,44, 2006, 662-671.
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Design Considerations for Chassis Frame Design Cycle and Modifications

Chirag Patel , Piyush Gohil
* *
Charotar Institute of Technology-Changa, Gujarat, India. Corresponding author (e-mail: chiragpatel.me@ecchanga.com)
Chassis frame is the structure on which all the components of vehicle are mounted. It will resist all kind of forces without affecting the other components. This paper is mainly on design/modification consideration regarding chassis frame of HMV. This paper mainly gives basic introduction of chassis frame and importance in automobile, show the different types of frame of commercial vehicle, introduction the basic parts of chassis frame, explains the design cycle for chassis frame, elaborates the design/modification consideration in existing chassis frame. The modeling of the chassis components is also done using CATIA software. A modification to the chassis frame should only be attempted after consultation with the vehicle manufacturer or engineer experienced in commercial vehicle chassis modifications to ensure that the proposed modification will not be detrimental to the vehicle safety or performance. Joints are concern with the flexibility. Bolted joints are use instead of welded joints even they are lighter in weight and taking lesser time then the bolted joints. Because flexibility the main point in the chassis. Welding makes chassis very rigid. It is more sensitive for the failures because of unpredicted performance of the welding and its effect on structure. 1. Introduction
Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle; it is now extensively used to denote the complete vehicle except the body for the heavy vehicle having a separate body [1]. As the chassis frame forms the backbone of a heavy vehicle, its principal function is to safely carry the maximum load for all designed operating conditions. It must also absorb engine and driveline torque, endure shock loading and accommodate twisting on uneven road surfaces. To achieve a satisfactory performance, the construction of a heavy vehicle chassis is the result of careful design and rigorous testing. It should be noted that this ladder type of frame construction is designed to offer good downward support for the body and payload and at the same time provide tensional flexibility. This chassis flexing is necessary because a rigid frame is more likely to fail than a flexible one that can weave when the vehicle is exposed to arduous conditions. A torsionally flexible frame also has the advantage of decreasing the suspension loading when the vehicle is on uneven surfaces.
(a) (b) Figure 1. HMV frame assembly (a) ASHOK LEYLAND 2516 [2], (b) EICHER 3325 [2] 2. Basic parts of the chassis frame
Parts design of the chassis frame is basically different from the company to company depends upon the mounting accessories. The cross members are used to provide the strength to the chassis frame. Parts are as under (Fig 2):
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Figure 2. Frame components [2] I II III IV V VI
VII
VIII
IX
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
Figure 3. (I - III) Different design of front end cross members [2] Figure 4. (IV - VII) Different design of spring cross member [2] Figure 5.(VIII - X) Different design of engine mounting cross member [2] Figure 6.(XI - XIII) Different design of back end cross member [2] Figure 7.(XIV - XVIII) Different design of internal cross member [2] 3. Basic design of chassis Frame [3, 4]
Various manufacturers have individual design concepts and different methods of achieving the desired performance standards for the complete chassis, not all chassis components are interchangeable between various makes and models of vehicles. So, there is no standard design for chassis frame. Chassis frame design start with selection of the section for side rails and cross members.
Figure 8. Cross sections of typical reinforcement methods [3] This section could be circular tube, rectangular tube, I-section, C-channel, etc. But mainly Cchannel type side rail are used because of some more flexible to the assembly point of view. To increase the strength or payload capacity reinforcement plate is used as shown in Fig 8.The preferred method of making joins in the frame rail for heavy duty and highly stressed applications is at 45 degrees +/-15 degrees [3]. 4. Welding Heat Treated Frame Rails
Welding of heat treated frame rails is not recommended but should it be necessary to weld this type of frame rail then the proper choice of welding rod, weld preparation and allowance for the reduction in the allowable tensile yield strength must be made. Note: Commonly used heat treated alloy steel used
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for frame rails has a normal tensile yield strength of 760MPa.When welding any of these alloys where preheat treatment cannot be accomplished, the allowable stress adjacent to the weld will probably not exceed 250 MPa [4]. Improper choice of welding rod may result in even lower values. Do not plug holes in
Figure 9. Welding area of side rail [3]
Figure 10. Machining area of side rail [3]
a heat treated frame rail (Fig 9) unless absolutely necessary for fitting of chassis components because the reduction in strength due to the loss of heat treatment greatly exceeds any advantage which may be gained by plugging the holes. The highly stressed regions are the upper and lower flanges together with 40mm of the web adjacent to the flange (Fig 10). To prevent the crack from travelling any further and then the crack should be rewelded in accordance with this Section. An additional reinforcement must be fitted. This reinforcement should extend forward of the rearmost front spring hanger bracket by a distance equal to twice the frame rail height (2H), accommodate the engine and cab mounting brackets and extend rearward past the start of the body sub-frame by at least 3H [3]. 5. Calculation of Chassis Strength [3, 5, 7]
Detail example of calculating bending stress in chassis frame rail and required reinforcement. Unless otherwise stated by the manufacturer of the vehicle, the minimum factor of safety for chassis frame rails of highway vehicles is three (3) and for off-highway vehicles and tippers is five (5); i.e. the maximum stress in the frame rail, when under maximum static load conditions, must be less than one third of the yield stress of the frame rail material. To enable the calculations to be performed, the value of certain parameters must be known. These parameters are indicated in Table 1. Table 1. Values required for the calculation of chassis strength Wheelbase of vehicle, WB (m) Rear overhang, measured from the centre line of the rear axle or bogie to the rear end of frame, ROH (m) Tare mass over rear axle(s), TR (kg). Maximum allowable mass over rear axle(s), MR (kg) Allowable yield stress of the chassis rail material, YS (MPa) Tare mass over front axle, TF (kg) Rear overhang, measured from the centre line of the rear axle or bogie to the rear end of frame, ROH (m) Gross Vehicle Mass, GVM (kg) Maximum allowable mass over front axle(s), MF (kg). Chassis rail section modulus, Z (m3)
EXAMPLE [3] Standard Vehicle: Cab-over 4 x 2 body truck or tray back, Tare mass over rear axle (TR): 1,870kg Maximum allowable mass over front axle (MF): 6,000kg, Yield strength (YS) = 250MPa Maximum allowable mass over rear axle (MR): 10,500kg, Section modulus (Z) = 213.03 x 10-6 m3 Chassis rail material: Single channel 254 x 75 x 8mm, Tare mass over front axle, TF: 2,650kg GVM: 15,000kg, Wheelbase: 4.200m, Factor of safety (FOS) = 3 The existing rear axle and suspension assemblies will be removed. The chassis will be cut at 5.200m behind the centre line of the front axle. The section of chassis cut off will be replaced with a section 3.810m in length. A tandem rear axle and suspension assembly will be installed with the wheelbase at 6.200m. The rear axle and suspension assembly have a ground rating of 16,500kg. Rear overhang will be 2.810m.
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Figure 11. Cab-over 4 x 2 body truck modifications
Figure 12. Modified multi axel truck
Tray length = 7.910 m; GVM = 22500 kg; TF =2950 kg ; TR = 3000 kg Required to add other real axel because the GVM goes beyond the 17 ton. The vehicle will be loaded to the maximum allowable load, i.e. 6,000kg over the front axle and 16,500kg over the bogie. From the bending moment diagram, assuming equal bending moment for each chassis rail. Bending moment per rail = 58398/2, = 29199Nm; so, maximum stress, max = 29,199/213.03x10-6 m3 =137.1Mpa Given YS = 250 MPa and using a FOS is 3, the maximum allowable stress is: 250/3 = 83.3 Mpa Therefore, without reinforcement, the maximum allowable stress would be exceeded. To achieve a maximum level of stress below the maximum allowable stress, the chassis rail section modulus, Z, must be increased. The minimum value of section modulus will be: (maximum -6 3 banding moment of single rail/maximum allowable stress) Z = 351.79 X 10 m so, Recommended -6 3 -6 3 section modulus are Z1 = 433.44 x 10 m , Z2 = 421.97 x 10 m , Z3 = 379.36 x 10-6 m3) [3]. Maximum value of the section modulus will be selected as Z1.Therefore a full internal channel reinforcement section of these dimensions will provide the chassis with sufficient resistance to the bending moment.
Shear force diagram (S.F.) UDL 20506 N/m 14955 N Spring Hanger Bracket 64195 N
58398 Nm X=7.3m Bending moment diagram (B.M.)
-54479 Nm X=3.158m
Figure 13. Force distribution diagram
Figure 14. S.F. and B.M. diagram
If reinforce is not considered then final section modulus for the single rail is calculated by
The Final Yield Strength (YSF) will always take the value of 250 MPa. Find the required Final Section Modulus for a vehicle that has had a wheelbase extension from 4.500m to 5.500m. The original chassis rail section modulus is 154.6 x 1 0-6 m3 for each rail, and the chassis material yield strength is 750 MPa. Therefore, required section modulus for a single rail is: ZF = 566.9 X 10-6 m3 After the modification of the chassis frame analysis is must required. Chassis frame is subjected with different types of forces like static, vibration, dynamic, torsion. For the satisfactory performance all the stresses must come below the maximum allowable stresses. It means there should be no failure under the maximum loading condition (with 3g principle). Compare those CAD analysis data with the physical analysis data. If they are not matching then, do the necessary modifications in the frame design. Different types of loading condition for the chassis frame as shown in Fig 15.
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Figure 15. Different types loads on chassis frame [2]

6. Conclusions
As far as concern with selection of C- cross section, is used instead of I-section because it got some advantages over the I-section. Definitely I-section having more load capacity then the C-section but as far as the assembly facility is concern C-section is more preflable because having the flat face on outer and inner side. In the case of heavy loaded vehicles on chassis so many accessories require to be mount with the side rail. While doing modification from the single axle to multi axle section modulus is increased, better option for increasing the section modulus is to provide the reinforcement rather then increasing the thickness of the side rail. A main criterion for frame strength is type of joint. These joints are riveted and/or bolted. Consequently, a modification to the chassis frame should only be attempted after consultation with the vehicle manufacturer or engineer experienced in commercial vehicle chassis modifications to ensure that the proposed modification will not be detrimental to the vehicles safety or performance. Joints are concern with the flexibility. Bolted joints are use instead of welded joints even they are lighter in weight and taking lesser time then the bolted joints. Because flexibility is the main point in the chassis. Welding makes chassis very rigid. It is more sensitive for the failures because of unpredictable performance of the welding and its effect on structure. Acknowledgement We are very much thankful to Prof. Vijay P. Chaudhary, Head of Mechanical Dept. and Dr. Y.P. Kosta Principal of CIT-Changa for the constant encouragement and valuable support. We are also very much thankful to Mahindra Navistar Automobile Limited, pune for giving the technical support. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] R.B. Gupta (2006), Automobile Engineering. Satya Prakashan, New Delhi. Mahindra International Limited, pune technical presentation of company. National Code of Practice, HEAVY VEHICLE MODIFICATIONS, Section H. National Code of Practice, HEAVY VEHICLE MODIFICATIONS, Section Q. T300 Body Builder Manual, KENWORTH, KW4130 was CAT. NO. 7540 (6/99). Jimmy Dorrian Beng, Ceng MIMechE, Design Verification Calculations, DORRIAN ENGINEERING LTD. [7] Bodywork manual, Calculations and theory, Scania CV AB 2004, Sweden.
531
Wave Propagation in Rotating Elastic Media with Voids

D. Grover* and J. N. Sharma National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur-177005 (India) * Corresponding author (email: groverd2009@gmail.com) The present paper deals with the propagation of body waves in homogenous, isotropic, rotating elastic solid with voids. The secular equation being complex cubic equation provides us three roots that can be associated with three attenuating and dispersive waves namely, quasi-longitudinal(QL), quasitransverse(QT) and volume fractional ( . -mode) which are found to exist in such media. The complex cubic secular equation has been solved by perturbation method to obtain phase velocities, attenuations and specific loss factors of three attenuating and dispersive waves, which are possible to exist in such media. These wave characteristics have also been computed numerically for magnesium crystal and are presented graphically. This work may find applications in geophysics and gyroscopic sensors. 1. Introduction
The theory of elastic materials with voids is concerned with the elastic materials consisting of a distribution of small pores (voids) which contains nothing of mechanical or energetic significance and is one of the most recent generalizations of the classical theory of elasticity. The nonlinear theory of elastic materials with voids was proposed by Nunziato and Cowin [1] and the linearized version was deduced by Cowin and Nunziato [2] where voids have been included as an additional kinematics variable. Puri and Cowin [3] presented a complete analysis of the frequency equation for plane waves in a linear elastic material with voids and observed that there are two dispersive and attenuated dilatational waves in this theory, one is predominantly the dilatational wave of classical linear elasticity and other is predominantly a wave carrying a change in void volume fraction. Later, Iesan [4] presented some basic theorems concerning the existence and uniqueness of solutions, the reciprocity relations and the variational characterization of the solution by considering the linear theory of elastic materials with voids. Chandrasekharaiah [5] established the uniqueness of solution of an initial boundary value problem formulated completely in terms of stress and volume fraction fields for homogenous and isotropic materials with voids. Chandrasekharaiah [6] studied the propagation of plane waves in a homogenous and isotropic unbounded elastic solid with voids rotating with a uniform angular velocity. Dey et al. [7] studied the propagation of Love waves in a poroelastic layer resting over a poroelastic half-space and observed that Love waves propagate in elastic media with voids in two wave fronts. Auriault [8] studied the body wave propagation in an infinite homogenous isotropic elastic media rotating with uniform angular velocity. The perturbation (series approximation) method has been widely used (Nayfeh and Nasser [9]; Singh and Sharma [10]; Sharma and Grover [11]) to study the wave propagation problems. In the present paper, wave propagation in the considered medium, governed with the complex cubic secular equation and has been solved by perturbation method to obtain the roots which can be associated with three dispersive and attenuating waves. 2. Wave equations in rotating media
We consider a homogenous isotropic, elastic solid with voids at initial volume fraction 0 . in the undisturbed state. The medium is assumed to be rotating with uniform angular velocity . about a fixed axis e 3 . The basic governing dynamical equations of linear generalized elastic interactions after including the Coriolis and centripetal forces, in absence of body forces [1] are
532
2 u .u b u ( u ) 2 u (1) 2 1 2 b.u (2) where u x1 , x 2 , x 3 , t u1 , u 2 , u 3 . is the displacement vector; , . are Lams parameters; . and C e . are respectively, the density and specific heat at constant strain ; . is change in
volume fraction, 3 2 t , t . is the linear thermal expansion. , b, 1 , 2 , m . and .
are material constants due to the presence of voids. Here superposed dot represents time
differentiation. We define the non-dimensional quantities:
xi
2 xi c 2 c 2 , u i c1u i , , 1 32 , t t , , 2 22 c1 c1 2 c1 c1 2
c1 C 2 2 2 2 where * e , c1 , c2 . K Upon using quantities (3) in equations (1)-(2), we obtain 2 2 u 1 2 .u a1 u u 2 u 2 a 2 .u a 3 2 1 Here primes have been suppressed for convenience.
a1
2 bc1 2
, a2
b
2
, a3
2 1c1 2
2 ck c , k 1 , , c 1 c1
(3)
(4) (5)
3.
Dispersive equations and perturbation solution
Let e1 , e 2 , e3 . be the rotating orthonormal basis and we take e3 . A perturbation u. that is collinear to . is not affected by Coriolis or convective accelerations. Therefore, we limit the analysis to displacements in the plane e1 , e 2 . which remain constant in the direction e3 . On applying the successive application of divergence and curl operators to equation (4) leads to a system of following two coupled differential equations for e. and w. as
2 2 2 2 2 2 e 2w3 a1 T 0 t
(6)
2 2 2 2 w3 2 e 0 (7) t 2 where e .u . , w u w3 e3 . Clearly the longitudinal, transverse and volume-fractional get coupled with each other here in contrast to wave propagation in an inertial medium. We consider waves that propagate in the direction e1 . of the form
2 1 Upon using wave solution (8) in equations (5) - (7), we obtain 1 2 1 2 A1 2 2 1 A2 a1 A3 0
e, w3 , A1 , A2 , A3 exp kx1 t ,
(8) (9) (10) (11)
2 A1 1
2
a a 2 2 A1 2 2 1 3 20 2 A3 0 1
The condition for existence of non-trivial solutions for A1 , A 2 . and A3 . of system of equations (9) - (11) yields the dispersion equation
533
(1 2 i2 ) 0
i 1
(12)
Here i2 , i 1, 2, 3. are the roots of the cubic equation
6 L 4 M 2 P 0
where L
1
(13)
2 3 12
12
2 2
a 3 0
1 1 a
2
1 M
2 2
1 a 2 3 20 1
1 2 1 2 a 3 212 2
1 2 2
1 a 3 0 2 . 2 1 a1 a 2 . , 0 1 . , v k . and . is Kibel number. where 12 a3 The secular equation (13) can also be rewritten as a f 2 3 212 g 2 0 where f 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 , g 2 2 2 0 P
2 2
(14)
(15)
(16)
2 1 2 2 0 a , 0 1 , 3 1 3 0 1 2 1 2 4 2 (17) 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 For most of the materials the parameter ( 12 . ) is very small and therefore, we develop series
2
1 , 2
expansions in terms of 12 . for the roots i2 i 1, 2 , 3. of the equation (15) in order to explore the effect of various interacting fields on the waves. Thus, we obtain 0 1 0 0 2 0 12 12 1 1 , 2 2 1 1 2 1 0 12 2 12 2 1 2 0 12 0 0 0 2 3 12 0 1 (18) 0 1 0 2 12 1 . and v 1 V j1 1Q j , j 1 , 2 , 3. in equations Upon using the representation v j j j (18), the corresponding phase velocities and attenuation coefficients are obtained as 1 Vi sec i , Qi ri sin i , i 1, 2, 3 ri 2 2 where ri Ri2 S i2 , i tan 1 S i Ri , i 1, 2, 3. 4. Numerical results and discussion (19) (20)
In this section, we perform some numerical calculations in order to illustrate the analytical results. For this purpose, we take magnesium like material whose physical data [12] 1.74 10 3 Kg m-3, 2.17 1010 N m-2, 1.639 10 10 N m-2, Ce 1040 J Kg-1deg-1
K 170
Wm deg , 2.68 10 6 N
-1
-1
m deg ,
-2
-1
4 rps,
m 2.0 10 6
m deg
-2
-1
b 1.13849 1010 N m-2, 3.688 10 5 N, 1.753 10 15 m2
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In Fig. 1, we observe that the phase velocity of QL wave slightly depends on the elastic property of the medium. An important fact is that QL-wave shows resonance at the point 1 i. e. . , where velocity tends to infinity. It increases in the Kibel number range 0 1 . , decreases sharply for 1 3. and then becomes steady and stable 3. to attain value unity in a dispersion less manner.
Also, we observe that, the phase velocity of QT-wave increases with increasing Kibel number and become steady to attain the limiting value . at large values of Kibel number. The velocity of the volume fractional wave ( . mode) increases in 0 1. and becomes steady for large value of Kibel number and attains the limiting value 0.62. Fig. 2, reveals that the attenuation coefficient profile of QL- wave increases sharply and tends to infinity in the Kibel number range 0 0.5. and then decreases in the Kibel number range 0.5 1. and vanishes at 1. and becomes steady for large value of Kibel number. The attenuation of the QT-wave has quite small magnitude as compare to QL-wave and volume fractional wave ( . mode). The attenuation coefficient of volume fractional wave ( . mode) has maximum value at 0,. and decreases monotonically to become steady and stable at extreme large Kibel number. Here, the actual values of attenuations of volume-fractional 1000 times of magnitude as actually considered in graphical interpretation. Fig. 3, shows that the specific loss factor of QL- wave observes the Gaussian like behaviour in the Kibel number
535
range 0 1. and attains value zero for entire values of Kibel number. The specific loss factor of QT-wave has small increase in the range 0 0.5. to attain its maximum value at 0.5. and it becomes steady after 0.5 . The specific loss factor of volume-fractional wave ( mode) have maximum value at 0. and decreases sharply in the Kibel number range 0 0.5. and having value approximately vanish for large value of Kibel number. Here, the actual values of specific loss factor of volume-fractional 1000 times of magnitude as actually considered in graphical interpretation and the considered values of transverse wave is 100 times of magnitude as the actual values. 5. Conclusions
It is found that free wave propagation in a homogenous isotropic rotating elastic media with voids gives rise to three waves namely, quasi- longitudinal (QL) wave, quasitransverse (QT) wave and volume fractional wave ( . mode). The QL and QT-waves approaches their classical counterparts in elastokinetics in the absence of the volumefraction. The small angular velocity shows small corrections to dilatational, transverse (shear) and volume-fractional velocities. The dimensionless phase velocity c1ph or V1 . has finite value for all value of Kibel number except at 1. where it suffers resonance. References [1] Nunziato, J.W. and Cowin, S.C. A nonlinear theory of elastic materials with voids. Arch. Rational Mech. Anal.. 72, 1979, 175-201. [2] Cowin, S.C. and Nunziato, J.W. Linear elastic materials with voids. J. Elasticity. 15, 1983, 185-191. [3] Puri, P. and Cowin, S.C. Plane waves in linear elastic materials with voids. J. Elasticity. 15, 1985, 167-183. [4] Iesan, D. Some theorems in the theory of elastic materials with voids. J. Elasticity, 15, 1985, 215-224. [5] Chandrasekharaiah, D.S. A uniqueness theorem in the theory of elastic material with voids. J. Elasticity, 18, 1987a, 173-179. [6] Chandrasekharaiah, D.S. Plane waves in a rotating elastic solid with voids. Int. J. Engg. Sci., 25, 1987b, 591-596. [7] Dey, S., Gupta, S. and Gupta, A.K. Propagation of Love waves in an elastic layer with void pores. Sadhana, 29, 2004, 355-363. [8] Auriault, J.L Body wave propagation in rotating elastic media. Mech. Res. Comm., 31, 2004, 21-27. [9] Nayfeh, A. and Nasser, S.N. Thermoelastic waves in solids with thermal relaxations. Acta Mech. 12, 1971, 53-69. [10] Singh, H. and Sharma, J.N. Generalized thermoelastic waves in transversely isotropic media. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 77, 1985, 1046-1053. [11] Sharma, J.N. and Grover, D. Body wave propagation in rotating thermoelastic media. Mech. Res. Comm., 36, 2009, 715-721. [12] Sharma, P. K., Kaur, D. and Sharma, J. N. Three-dimensional vibration analysis of a thermoelastic cylindrical panel with voids. I J SS. 45, 2008, 5049-5058.
536
Stress Distribution Around Pressurized Rectangular Hole in an Infinite Isotropic Plate Subjected to In-plane Infinity
D S Sharma , Patel Nirav Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmadabad *Corresponding author ( email: dharmendrassharma@yahoo.co.in) Different type of holes are made in engineering structures/components for different service requirements which work as stress raisers. It is an interesting field to investigate stress concentration around holes of different geometry under different type of loading conditions. Here, an attempt is made to solve elastostatic problem of infinite plate with loaded rectangular hole having different side rations subjected to different type of loading. Muskhelishvilis complex variable method is used to found general solutions determining the stress distribution for hole in infinite plate subjected to arbitrary biaxial tension/shear at infinity and internal pressure/internal shear at hole boundary. The stress functions are obtained by evaluating Cauchys integral for the given boundary conditions. The generalized formulation thus obtained is coded and numerical results are obtained using MATLAB 6.5. The effect of hole geometry, hole orientation and loading pattern on stress field is studied. For some of the cases plane stress model are prepared in ANSYS and results are compared with present method. The results obtained are in close confirmation with that of available in literature and ANSYS. 1. Introduction
*
In engineering structures different type of holes and openings are made in order to satisfy certain service requirements. These openings and cut outs results in strength degradation by virtue of stress concentration around their boundary. In order to predict the behaviour of the structure, it is essential to study the effect of hole geometry and type of loading on stress distribution around the openings. Kolosov-Muskhelishvillis [1] complex variable approach is useful and handy tool to study two dimensional stress analysis problem. Here, an attempt is made to find generalized solution for determining stress distribution around rectangular hole in an infinite plate, under different types of loading conditions. The area outside the rectangular hole in z-plane is mapped to the area outside unit circle in -plane. Gaos [2] arbitrary biaxial loading condition is employed to facilitate the solution of bi-directional loading. Ukadgaonker and Rao [3] and, Ukadgoanker and Kakhandki [4] presented general solution for infinite orthotropic plate with irregular hole in it. The Muskhelishvillis complex variable approach and Gaos arbitrarily biaxial loading condition had been adopted. 2. Boundary conditions at infinity
The boundary conditions at infinity can be represented using Gaos arbitrary biaxial loading factor and load angle , as follows: (1) x' ; ' ; xy' 0 at z y
Where, x ' ; ' ; stresses applied about x`, y` axes at infinity. =0 and =1 explains uniaxial y
and biaxial loading conditions, respectively. By applying transformation of axis, boundary conditions about XOY can be written explicitly as: (2) x [( 1) ( 1) cos 2 ] y [( 1) ( 1) cos 2 ]; xy [( 1) sin 2 ] 2 2 2
537
The basic equations of plane elasticity in complex variable form are given by KolosovMuskhellishvilli [1] as follows. x y 2 ' ( z ) ' ( z ) 4 Re[ ' ( z )] (3) y x 2i xy 2 z '' ( z ) ' ( z )
Where ( z ), ( z ) =complex potentials of the complex variable z x iy
Figure 1. Arbitrary biaxial loading In order to find stress distribution around a hole in z-plane, it is mapped to a region outside unit circle in -plane, which has origin at =0. The mapping function is given as follows[3]. m m11 R m m3 m m (4) z ( ) 1 3 5 7 9 11 2 5 7 9 Where , R is hole size constant. Table 1. Values of m k for rectangular hole having different side ratio. Side ratio (l/b) Values of mk l/b=3.2 m1=1/2;m 3=-1/8; m 5=-3/80; m 7=-3/896; m 9=5/768; m 11=57/11264; l/b=5 m1=0.643;m 3=-0.098; m 5=-0.038; m 7=-0.011; m 9=0.00056; m 11=0.004; l/b=6 m1=0.6813;m 3=-0.0893; m 5=-0.0365; m 7=-0.0126; m9=-0.00126; m11=0.00296; l/b=10 m1=0.789;m 3=-0.0627; m 5=-0.0297; m 7=-0.014; m 9=-0.000564; m11=-0.000937; The stress functions in -plane are given by ( ) 1( ) o ( )
(5) ( ) 1( ) o ( ) In absence of hole, stress functions 1( ) and 1( ) can be written as 1( ) = ( B iC ) ( ) (6) 1( ) = ( B ' iC ' ) ( ) Where the constants B, C, B, C y ; (7) B' y x ; C ' xy ; C 0 B x 4 The boundary condition in -plane is given by (t ) (8) f (t ) (t ) ' (t ) (t ) ' (t ) Substituting the functions in equation 8, we get m m m m m m11 1 f (t ) R2B t 1 33 55 77 99 11 (B'iC' ' ) m1t m3t 3 m5t 5 m7 t 7 m9 t 9 m11t 11 (9) t t t t t t t
538
When internal pressure (p) or internal shear (T) is considered boundary condition will be, m1 m3 m5 m7 m9 m11 2(B p iT ) t t t 3 t 5 t 7 t 9 t 11 R (10) f (t ) 2 1 3 5 7 9 11 (B'iC' ' ) m1t m3t m5t m7 t m9 t m11t t Where, p=internal pressure, T=internal shear. By evaluating Cauchys integral, stress function 0 ( ) and 0 ( ) can be obtained as follows.
f (t )dt ( ) 1 f (t ) dt and ( ) 1 0 ' ( ) 0 t 2i t ' ( ) 2i Substituting equation 10 in to 11 and solving equation the stress functions obtain as, m m m m m m ( B 'iC ' ) R 0 ( ) 2( B p iT ) 1 3 5 7 9 11 2 3 5 7 9 11
0 ( )
(11)
R 1 B'iC' ( ) 0 ( ) 2( B p iT ) 0 ' ( ) m m m m m m ' ( ) 2 1 3 5 7 9 11 3 5 7 9 11

Substituting equation 6 and equation 12 into equation 5 m1 m3 m5 m7 m9 m11 3 5 7 9 11 ( B p iT ) R ( ) 2 m1 m3 m5 m7 m9 m11 ( B' iC ' ) 2( B p iT ) 3 5 7 9 11
(12)
(13) m1 m3 m5 m7 m9 m11 3 5 7 9 11 ( B' iC ' ) R ( ) 2 1 B'iC ' ( ) ' ( ) 2B p iT m m m m m m ' ( ) 0 1 3 7 9 11 3 5 7 9 11 5 From the stress functions obtained above (i.e. ( ) ; ( ) ) the stresses in polar co-ordinate can be found as follows: x y 4 Re[ ' ( ) / ' ( )] (14) 2 ' ( ) 2i y x 2i xy 2 ' ( ) 3. Results and discussion
The stress functions obtained above are the generalized solutions. Using these functions stress field around rectangular hole of different side rations for different loading conditions is presented. The following cases are considered for different hole geometries. 1 Plate subjected to uni-axial tension (=0) or hydrostatic tension (=1) or shear at infinity (=-1, =450) 2 Plate with hole having internal pressure (p=1) 3 Plate with hole having internal shear (T=1) 4 Combination of the above Comparison of von-Mises stress distribution around rectangular hole using present method and finite element method (ANSYS) is shown in figure 2 and figure 3 for uniaxial (l/b=3.2) and biaxial (l/b=5) loading respectively Figure 4 shows von-Mises stress distribution
539
for rectangular hole (l/b=6) in infinite plate subjected to shear loading at infinity, while Figure 5 represents stress distribution when hole is subjected to internal pressure. The maximum von Mises stress using present method and ANSYS for different side ratio and loading type is presented in Table 2. Stress in X-direction, Y-direction, shear stress, radial stress and tengetial stress can also be found.
(a) von-Mises stress ( von /) (present method) (b) von Mises stress ( von /) (ANSYS) Figure 2. Stress distribution arround rectangular hole having side ratio 3.2 (=0)
(a) von-Mises stress ( von /) (present method) (b) von Mises stress ( von /) (ANSYS) Figure 3. Stress distribution arround rectangular hole having side ratio 5 (=1)
(a) von-Mises stress ( von /) (present method) (b) von Mises stress ( von /) (ANSYS) Figure 4. Stress distribution arround rectangular hole having side ratio 6(=-1)
(a) von-Mises stress ( von /p) (present method) (b) von Mises stress ( von /p) (ANSYS) Figure 5. Stress distribution arround rectangular hole having side ratio 10 (p=1)
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Table 2. Comparison of results for present method with ANSYS Side Ratio (l/b) 3.2 Maximum Von Mises stress (Present method) 15.7 19.78 21.76 19.3 9.48 11.17 13.19 10.7 9.689 11.1 13.02 10.63 10.17 10.93 12.64 10.46 Maximum Von Mises stress (ANSYS results) 15.622 19.202 21.416 19.938 9.122 11.62 13.656 10.714 9.897 11.413 13.636 10.156 10.293 10.785 12.935 10.054 Percentage Difference -0.4993 -3.0101 -1.60628 3.19992 -3.92458 3.872633 3.412419 0.13067 2.101647 2.742487 4.517454 -4.66719 1.194987 -1.34446 2.280634 -4.03819
Load type Uniaxial loading (=0) Biaxial loading (=1) Shear loading (=-1) Internal pressure (p=1) Uniaxial loading (=0) Biaxial loading (=1) Shear loading (=-1) Internal pressure (p=1) Uniaxial loading (=0) Biaxial loading (=1) Shear loading (=-1) Internal pressure (p=1) Uniaxial loading (=0) Biaxial loading (=1) Shear loading (=-1) Internal pressure (p=1)
10
4.
Conclusions
The generalized solution for infinite plate having rectangular hole under application of in-plane loading is obtained using Mushkhelisvilis complex variable method. The in-plane loading condition considered here facilitates implementation of any biaxial/shear loading at infinity, pressure and/or shear on hole boundary and also combination of them. The stress field around different types of hole shape is obtained for different loading conditions. The stress pattern varies with load factor and hole geometry. The formulation presented, can be a handy tool for the designer to predict stress pattern and life assessment of the mechanical components and structures. References [1] Muskhelishvili, N.I. Some basic problems of the mathematical theory of elasticity. P.Noordhooff Ltd., Groningen, The Netherlands, 1963. [2] Gao, X.L. A general solution of an infinite elastic plate with an Elliptic hole under biaxial loading, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, 67, 996, 95-104. [3] Ukadgaonker, V. G. and Rao, D.K.N. A general solution for stresses around holes in symmetric laminates under in plane loading. Journal of Composite Structures 49,2000, 339-354. [4] Ukadgaonker V.G., Vyasraj Kakhandki , Stress analysis for an orthotropic plate with an irregular shaped hole for different in-plane loading conditionsPart 1. Journal of Composite Structures, Vol.70, 2005, pp 255274.
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Topology Optimization for increasing the Modal Frequency of a Marine Drive Shaft Housing
Darshan Vaishnav1, Mitesh Mungla2, Devashish Sarkar3, Sridharababu Inala4
1,2 3,4
Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India Larsen & Toubro e-Engineering Solutions, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
The main objective of this project was to increase the frequency, using topology optimization. The shape of the drive shaft housing was optimized in such a way that the frequency of resonance prone modes was increased. Initially, static and modal analysis was performed. At the end of the stress and modal analysis the Campbell diagram was plotted and it was found that frequencies of mode 1 was intersecting the engine order lines so the first mode frequency was to be increased to a safe value. The increase in frequency was achieved by topology optimization of the component. From the density plots of optimization analysis, the original geometry was modified using CAD package. After modifying the geometry, the static and modal analysis results were compared. At the end of static and modal analysis, it was observed that the frequency was increased up to about 16% with reduction in mass of about 5% and also reduced displacement of about 38%. It was also observed that regions, in which stresses were exceeding the accepted stress levels, were also reduced. Thus it is seen that topology optimization can be used for improvement of some design features keeping other features in safe limits. 1. Introduction
Vibration and internal noise are the critical design features. The ships contain a number of components which cause vibration, such as propellers, main engines and cargo machinery. The vibrations are transmitted by the engine mount system to the vehicle. Engine is mounted by means of drive shaft housing. So it is a critical component to be considered for reducing noise and failure due to vibration. Here we have taken the drive shaft housing of a marine engine of an outoard ship. In this component generally lower mode frequencies are closer to resonance. So, they are increased to safe level. 1.1 Description of Components
The model consists of mainly five parts, which are as follows; Drive Shaft Housing (DSH): The Drive Shaft Housing is the main part of engine for the mounting purpose. It is placed below adaptor plate and propeller assembly. It also encloses the Oil Sump, Water Tank and Draft Tube. It is made of Aluminium Alloy XK360 whose ultimate strength is 360 MPa. It is placed in engine assembly as shown in Figure 1. Adaptor Plate: It is another main part of engine for mounting purpose. It is located between Power head assembly and Drive Shaft Housing. It is also made of the same material as Drive Shaft Housing. Other Parts: It includes Oil Sump, Water Tank and Draft Tube. These components are enclosed by Drive Shaft Housing. These components provide non-design part for Optimization purpose because their volume is constant due to requirement of Oil and Water in fixed quantity. But they will be considered at the time of Optimization only as they dont play any role in mounting or transmitting load. 2. Topology Optimization[1] Sizing and shape structural optimization problems are normally stated in terms of a minimum weight approach with constraints that limit the maximum allowable stresses and displacements. However, topology structural optimization problems have been traditionally stated in terms of a maximum stiffness (minimum compliance) approach. In this kind of
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formulations, the aim is to distribute a given amount of material in a certain domain, so that the stiffness of the resulting structure is maximized (the compliance, or energy of deformation, is minimized) for a given load case. Thus, the material mass is restricted to a predefined percentage of the maximum possible mass, while no stress or displacement constraints are taken into account. Altair OptiStruct is a finite element and multi-body dynamics software for the design, analysis, and optimization of structures and mechanical systems.
Figure 1. Drive Shaft Housing 2.1 Topology Optimization in Optistruct Topology optimization generates an optimized material distribution for a set of loads and constraints within a given design space. The design space can be defined using shell or solid elements, or both. The classical topology optimization set up solving the minimum compliance problem, as well as the dual formulation with multiple constraints are available. Constraints on von Mises stress and buckling factor are available with limitations. Manufacturing constraints can be imposed using a minimum member size constraint, draw direction constraints, extrusion constraints, symmetry planes, pattern grouping, and pattern repetition. A conceptual design can be imported in a CAD system using an iso-surface generated with OSSmooth, which is part of the OptiStruct package. 2.2 2.2.1 Optimization Setup Design Area The areas which can be changed are separated from the original geometry. These areas are taken as design variables in optimization. 2.2.2 Non-design Area There are the areas which will not participate in optimization, in other words, they cannot be changed due to some constraints which may be either internal volume or the assembly positions. So, they will be taken as non-design areas. 2.2.3 Loading Conditions and Constraints Here the optimization will be carried out for two responses. 1. Volume: In this response the all thrust and steering loads are applied and constraints are given on the upper surface of adapter plate where it is mounted. 2. Frequency: In this response the constraints are given at the mounting location of the housing. 2.3 2.3.1 Software Inputs Design Variables The design areas are given as design variables as those areas will only participate in optimization 2.3.2 Responses Mainly two responses are taken one is Volume and the other is Frequency.
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2.4
Objective Function The optimization is carried out for two different Objective functions. One is Volume of design parts is minimized and the other Frequency of the given load is to be maximized. Here the load cases which are to be considered are also defined. 2.5 Results At the end of optimization, the density plots are obtained which gives the idea regarding the ideal material distribution for both maximizing frequency and minimizing the volume. Now referring to these density plots the original geometry will be modified for increasing the frequency. From the density plots obtained after optimization, it was observed that material required was more in case of frequency response. So, the geometry is modified according to density contour of frequency response.
Figure 2. Density Plot obtained as result of Topology Optimization 3. 3.1 Stress and Modal Analysis of New Geometry Materials for Housing and Adaptor Plate Material for Housing and Adaptor Plate is Aluminium Alloy XK360 E = 71 GPa 3 Density = 2.63e-8 Tonnes/mm Yields Strength = 172.4 MPa Poissons Ratio = 0.33 3.2 Loads Acting on Mode Total Four Cases were analyzed for model. Here the forces are applied at the Centre of Gravity of Propeller Assembly. In addition the mass of propeller assembly is also applied at the C.G. of Propeller Assembly. 1) Forward Thrust 2) Reverse Thrust 3) Forward Thrust with side load at +30 4) Forward Thrust with side load at -30
Figure 3. Loading Conditions and Constraints
Figure 4. Steering Load Calculation
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3.3
Load Calculation
Forward thrust = 7800-N Steering loads will be calculated according to the lift equation below as, 2 Steering Load or Lift = 1/2 ( * S * V * CL ) where, = density of water = 1gm/cc = 1tonnes/m3, V = velocity of fluid = 45 mph = 20.118m/s S = projected are of component = 0.127189m2, CL= Velocity Co-efficient; Assume CL = 0.5. Therefore, Steering Load=1/2(1*20.118*20.118*0.127*0.5) =12848.76 N 3.4 Boundary Conditions and Constraints The constraints are applied at the top surface of the adapter as shown in fig. Here due to solid elements only translational degrees of freedom are fixed. 3.5 Modal Analysis 3.5.1 Loads: The only load is the mass which is considered to be applied at the Centre of Gravity of the propeller assembly. 3.5.2 Constraints For modal analysis, the constraints are applied at the holes at which the housing and adaptor plate is mounted in engine assembly. Here three translational degrees of freedom are fixed. 4. Conclusions
As shown in the table below, after the comparison of analysis results of the new geometry created, it was observed that the first mode frequency was increased up to 180 Hz, the mass was reduced by 5%, without increase in the stresses. Thus, topology optimization can also be used for increasing the modal frequency of the component keeping the stress and displacement at safe level also incorporating the mass reduction. 4.1 Comparison Summary Table 1. Comparison Summary ORIGINAL MODIFIED GEOMETRY GEOMETRY Modal Frequency Mass References [1] Blattman W.R., Generating CAD Parametric Features Based on Topology Results, Brigham Young University. [2] F. Navarrina, I. Muinos, I. Colominas & M. Casteleiro, Minimum Weight with Stress Constraints Topology Optimization, Department of mathematics, Coruna University, Spain. [3] Bendsoe, M.P. & Kikuchi, N., Generating optimal topologies in structural design using a homogenization method. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 71, pp. 197224, 1988. [4] Cook R.D., Finite Element Modeling for Stress Analysis. [5] Optistruct Users Manual. 150 Hz 11.7 Kg 180 Hz 11.1 Kg
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Design, Modeling & Analysis of Differential Gear Box of Sensor Paver Machine
Bhavik Patel, Sneh Patel, Rajesh Patel, Jinesh Patel, D.A. Patel Sankalchand Patel College of Engineering, Visnagar- Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: mech.dhaval@gmail.com) Involutes gears are widely used in the design of machines and mechanisms. Performance of the automobile transmissions strongly depends upon the accuracy of gears which the transmission is comprised. The higher the gear accuracy, the higher performance of the gear transmission observed. An increase of accuracy of the involute gears reduces vibration of the transmission and causes lower noise excitation. The differential gear box used in sensor paver machine having three pair of spur gear and one pair of helical gear experiences the problems like wear of the helical gear, shifting of the sliding gear, Disengagement of the pinion at high speed. This paper investigates the necessity of the improvement in the machining error, module and modification in the present overall dimensions of the both spur and helical gears. An analytical approach for the required alterations in the design parameters of the spur and helical gears is reported in this paper. The gears are designed as per AGMA standards and the gear box assembly is modeled and analyzed by using Pro-E Wildfire 4.0. The results are in the implementation phase on a prototype for the verification and expected to demonstrate effective results. 1. Introduction The accuracy of an involute gear is a critical consideration from the standpoint of gear noise and performance of the gear train. In the automotive industry, a large portion of the manufactured gears is hobbed. For hobbing of involute gears, new hobs as well as hobs being reground are used. The differential or main transmission or traction gear box of the hydrostatic sensor paver machine is presently experiences the major problems like wear failure of helical gear teeth, improper engagement/disengagement of the differential, shaft breakage etc. The objective of this paper is to suggest the concrete solution for the smooth operation of the hydrostatic sensor paver machine obtained after rigorous analysis with AGMA standard, modeling and analysis in Pro-E Wildfire 4.0. [1] reports the way to improve the accuracy of hobbed involute gears that requires an appropriate alteration of design parameters of the hob to be applied. 2. Design of spur gear For the required gear ratio at each stage, the two different speeds is calculated from one input motor speed. The arrangement of gears for two different speeds is shown below.
Figure 1.0 Gear arrangement for speed Figure 2.0 Gear arrangement for speed n1 95.639477 r.p.m.in I st stage, i1 28.23 n2 214.05 r.p.m.in II nd stage, i2 12.61
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2.1
Design of spur gear with factor of safety 1 and 2
The input design parameters of the spur gear are power 85 kW, speed 952.9411 r.p.m, gear ratio 2.82,material of gear AISI 8620 case harden steel with ultimate tensile strength 2 0 1143 (N/mm ), pressure angle 20 respectively. The analysis of the spur gear is done as per AGMA standard and design procedure. The summary of the spur gear is as follows. Table 1. Summary of dimensions of the spur gears with factor of safety 1 S. N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dimensions Module (m) (mm) Pressure angle ( ) (degree) Number of Teeth Pitch Circle Diameter(d)(mm) Tip circle diameter (dt) (mm) Root circle diameter(dr) (mm) Base circle diameter (db) (mm) Teeth thickness at PCD(t) (mm) Width of teeth (b) (mm) Hardness of case(BHN) Gear Pair 1 Pinion Gear 5 5 0 0 20 20 18 51 90 255 100 265 77.5 267.5 84.57 239.6 7.853 7.853 50 190 50 190 Gear Pair 2 Pinion Gear 5 5 0 0 20 20 18 51 90 255 100 265 77.5 267.5 84.57 239.6 7.853 7.853 50 190 50 190 Gear Pair 4 Pinion Gear 5 5 0 0 20 20 30 39 150 195 160 205 137.5 182.5 169.1 219.8 7.853 7.853 50 190 50 190
Table 2. Summary of dimensions of the spur gears with factor of safety 2 S. N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dimensions Module (mm) Pressure angle ( ) (degree) Number of Teeth Pitch Circle Diameter (d) (mm) Tip circle diameter (dt) (mm) Root circle diameter (dr) (mm) Base circle diameter (db) (mm) Teeth thickness at PCD (t) (mm) Width of teeth (b) (mm) Hardness of case(BHN) Gear pair 1 Pinion Gear 6 6 0 0 20 20 18 51 108 306 120 93 101.48 9.424 60 220 318 291 287.5 4 9.424 60 220 Gear Pair 2 Pinion Gear 6 6 0 0 20 20 18 51 108 306 120 93 101.48 6 9.424 60 220 318 291 287.5 4 9.424 60 220 Gear Pair 4 Pinion Gear 6 6 0 0 20 20 30 39 180 234 192 165 169.1 9.424 60 220 246 219 219.8 9.424 60 220
Table 3. Comparison of designed pinion and gear with FOS 1 and 2 S. N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Parameters Material Maximum induce stress ( ) (N/mm ) Minimum module required (m) (mm) Minimum hardness required (BHN) Maximum diameter of pinion blank (mm) Maximum diameter of gear blank (mm) Error (e) (mm)
d
2
FOS 1 AISI 8620 1143 5 190 100 265 0.0125
FOS 2 AISI 8620 571.5 6 220 120 318 0.015
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2.2
Design of helical gear with factor of safety 2 The input design parameters of the helical gear are power 85 kW, speed 336.33 r.p.m. gear ratio 3.55,material of gear AISI 8620 case harden steel with ultimate tensile strength 1143 (N/mm2),pressure angle 200 , helix angle 150 respectively. Helical gear is designed at low speed reduction because of maximum torque transmission. The analysis of the helical gear is done as per AGMA standard and design procedure and the summary of the helical gear is mentioned. Table 4. Summary of dimensions of the helical gear with factor of safety 2 S. N. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2.3 Dimensions Normal Module (mn) (mm) Pressure Angle ( ) (degree) Helix Angle ( ) (degree) Pitch circle Diameter (d) (mm) Tip circle diameter (da) (mm) Base circle diameter (db) (mm) Width of teeth (b) (mm) Minimum hardness required (BHN) Helical Gear Pair Pinion Gear 8 8 0 0 20 20 0 0 15 15 149.0797 530.0608 165.0797 546.0608 139.5045 496.0159 140 140 226 226
Design of the shafts 1, 2 and 3 The shafts are designed at low speed for high speed reduction due to maximum torque and bending. The parameters like input power 85 kW, material of shafts commercial steel having shear stress 55 MPa, tensile stress 110 MPa and factor of safety 2 is same for all the shafts. The design parameters like torque, radial load acting on gears with different nos of teeth, reactions at shaft end supports, equivalent twisting and bending moments, inner and outer diameter of shafts, nos. of spline and width of spline on each shaft are calculated. Table 5. Summary of dimensions of shafts S. N. 1 2 3 3. 3.1 Shaft no Shaft 1 Shaft 2 Shaft 3 No of spline n 8 8 10 Inner diameter of spline d (mm) 42 62 82 Outer diameter of spline D (mm) 46 68 88 Width of spline B (mm) 8 12 12 Lenth of spline L (mm) 395 395 395
Modeling and Analysis Modeling of the assembly of the shafts 1, 2, 3 and gear box Modeling consists of the parts like different sliding spur gears on shaft 1,2 and 3, helical gear ring with crown, collar, casing, shafts at stages 1,2 and 3, assemblies of shaft at various stages, assembly of gear box. The modelling of major component is illustrated.
Figure 3. Assembly of shaft 1
Figure 4. Assembly of shaft 2
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Figure 5. Assembly of shaft 3 3.2
Figure 6. Assembly of gear box
Analysis of the spur and helical gears
Analysis of the spur and helical gear and different shafts is done which has given safe results. The suggested designed gears with safe load in analysis are shown.
Figure 7. Analysis of spur gear
Figure 8. Analysis of helical gear
3.3
Analysis of the shafts 1, 2 and 3
Figure 9. Analysis of shaft 1 Figure 10. Analysis of shaft 2
Figure 11. Analysis of shaft 3
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4.
Conclusions
After recognize design according to AGMA standard we strongly recommend the change in the dimensions of the spur and helical gears which is summarised in table 1, 2 and 4 with considering the factor of safety 2. Suggested the machining error on the gears is 0.015 mm instead of actual 0.0125 mm for factor of safety 2 with the improvement in the normal module value 8 mm for the helical gear. From the analysis, for a spur gear, maximum induce 2 2 stress is 301 (N/mm )< allowable bending stress 571.5 (N/mm ) and for a helical gear, 2 2 maximum induce stress is 434 (N/mm ) < allowable bending stress 571.5 (N/mm ) hence the designed spur and helical gears are safe. For the shaft 1, maximum induced stress is 16.70 2 2 2 2 (N/mm ) < 55 (N/mm ), for the shaft 2, maximum induced stress is 17(N/mm ) < 55 (N/mm ), 2 2 for the shaft 3, maximum induced stress is 6.6 (N/mm ) < 55 (N/mm ) hence the shafts are safe. The approach is in the implementation phase on a prototype. 5. Future scope
From the cost optimization purpose the material of the construction chosen for the gear and pinion in case of spur and helical gear is AISI 8620 case harden steel. The precision grade of the material could be selected to avoid wear of the helical gear teeth. The different values of modules could be implemented to compute the size optimization of the gears and safe working without affecting overall size of the gear box due to space constraint. Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledges Mr. Himanshu Patel, Managing Director, Dhruvi Equipment Pvt Limited, G.I.D.C- II, Dediyasan, Mehsana, India for his benevolent support to facilitate the prototype of the differential gear box to perform the analysis. References [1] Radzevich, Stephen P. A way to improve the accuracy of hobbed involute gears.Transaction of ASME, Vol. 129, 2007, 1076-1085. [2] Maitra, G. M. Hand Book Of Gear Design. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, II Edition, [3] PSG College Of Technology. Design Data book Of Engineers. DPV Printers, Coimbatore. Revised Edition, 2002.
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Dynamic Modeling of 6 DOF PUMA Robot

Dr. Anurag Verma , M.M.Gor *
1 1 2
G.H Patel College of Engineering & Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India 2 Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Limda , Gujarat, India *Corresponding author (e-mail:mehulmgor@rediffmail.com) The work presented in this paper is an attempt to develop the mathematical model for the dynamic behaviour of the 6 degree of freedom PUMA robot. The mathematical equations, often referred as manipulator dynamics, are a set of equations of motion that describes the dynamic response of the manipulator to input torque/force. These equations of motion are developed using LagrangeEuler approach. For the said analysis, first of all frame is assigned, DH parameters are finalized. Lagrange-Euler formulation based on homogeneous co-ordinate transformation matrices, assuming rigid body motion, no backlash, and no friction and neglecting effects of control component dynamics is applied. To derive above mentioned model program is developed in MATLAB. Thus produced dynamic model may be used for both forward and inverse dynamic analysis and useful for design and selection of actuator for robot.
1.
Introduction
The equations of motion of a manipulator are a set of mathematical equations describing the dynamic behavior of the manipulator. The dynamic behavior of the manipulator provides relationship between joint actuator torques and motion of links for simulation and design of control algorithms. The manipulator control maintains the dynamic response of the manipulator to obtain the desired performance, which depends on the accuracy of the dynamic model and efficiency of the control algorithms. There are several ways to derive the equations of motion of a manipulator. The two well known methods are the Lagrangian Euler which is energy-based & Newton-Euler formulations based on forcebalance[4]. 2. 2.1 Methodology Problem Statement
6 DOF PUMA [3] is a serial link manipulator represents a complex dynamic system, which can be modeled by systematically using known physical law of Lagrangian mechanics or Newtonian mechanics. These equations of motion are useful for computation of torque & force required for execution of typical work cycle, which is vital information for the design of links, joints, drives and actuator. 2.2 Frame Assignment Using the link frame assignment algorithm [3,4,5] first of all the Zi-axis of the entire joint is fixed in the direction of rotation as followed by the right-handed rule for rotation. The index number for the Z-axis of joint n in each case is n-1. That means, joint 1 rotation axis is denoted as Z0. Here the rotation about the Z-axis will be the joint variable. Then Xi axis is fixed considering Zi-1 and Zi axes. And finally Yi axis is fixed to completes the right handed orthonormal coordinate frame {i}. Description of various symbols used in this paper is listed in Appendix-1 2.3 Finalization of DH Parameter From the assigned frame as shown in Fig.1, DH Parameter [3,4,5] i.e. four joint-link parameters a, , d, for each link are finalized as shown in Table 1. Also Centroidal position and gravity direction[4] is finalized as shown in Table 2.
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Figure 1. PUMA Robot
a (m) 0 431.8 -20.32 0 0 0
Table 1. DH parameter (Deg) d (m) -90 0 90 -90 90 0 0 149.09 0 433.07 0 56.25
(Deg) 90 0 90 0 0 0
Table 2. Centroidal & Gravity Direction Frame Centroidal Position Gravity Direction 1 [0 0 -74.54 1] Y 2 [-215.9 0 0 1] Y 3 [10.16 0 0 1] X 4 [0 216.53 0 1] X 5 [0 0 0 1] X 6 [0 0 28.12 1] X 2.4 Equations of Motion by Lagrange-Euler Approach The serial link manipulator represents a complex dynamic system, which can be modeled by systematically using known physical law of Lagrangian mechanics or Newtonian mechanics. Lagrangian-Euler[4] is energy based approach, where Lagrangian function or Lagrangian L is defined as the difference between the total kinetic energy K and total potential energy P of a mechanical system. L=KP (1) The Lagrange-Euler dynamic formulation is based on set of generalized coordinates to describe the system variables. In the generalized coordinates, generalized displacement q is used as a joint variable, which describes a linear displacement d for a prismatic joint
and angular displacement for rotary joint. q describes linear velocity d (= v) and angular velocity (=
) for prismatic and rotary joint respectively. Similarly generalized torque
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required at the joint to produce desired dynamics represents the force f for a prismatic joint and torque for a revolute joint. The dynamic model based on Lagrange-Euler Formulation is obtained from the Lagrangian, as a set of equations[4],
d L dt q i
L q i for i = 1,2, . . .,n i
(2)
The left-hand side of dynamic equations can be interpreted as sum of the torques/forces due to kinetic and potential energy present in the system. The right hand side i is the joint torque for joint i that is provided by the actuator. This direct formulation approach as per equation (2) becomes quite cumbersome when a manipulator with more than 2 DOF is analyzed. So, Lagrange-Euler formulation based on homogeneous co-ordinate transformation matrices is developed. Assuming rigid body motion, no backlash, and no friction and neglecting effects of control component dynamics, the resulting EOM are a set of second order, coupled, nonlinear differential equations, consisting of inertia loading and coupling reaction forces between joints. Thus the equation (1) is given by
1 n i i Tr 0Tj 1Qj j 1Ti Ii 0Tk 1Qk k 1Ti 2 i 1 j 1 k 1
n 0 i j q k mi g Ti ri i 1
(3)
By substituting L and carrying out the differentiation, the generalized torque i applied to link i of n-DOF manipulator is obtained. The final EOM (dynamic model [4]) is
n j 1 n n
i M ij q j hijk q j q k Gi for i=1,2,,n

j 1 k 1
(4)
Where
M ij
p max( i , j , k )
Tr d
n
pj
I pd T pi
(5)
hijk
(d pk ) Tr I pd T pi p max( i , j , k ) q j
(6)
Gi m p gd pi p r p
p i
0
(7) for j i for j > i (8)
dij
Tj-1 Qj 0
0
j-1
Ti
j 1
T j 1Q j
Tk 1Qk k 1Ti for i k j

j 1
d ij q k
Tk 1Qk k 1T j 1Q j
0
Ti for i j k
for i < j or i < k
(9)
Equation (4) is the dynamic model of the manipulator and gives a set of n nonlinear, coupled, second order ordinary differential equations for n-links of the n-DOF manipulator. These equations are the equations of motion or the dynamic equations of motion for the manipulator. Here the mass of the payload would also contribute to the inertia and its position is continuously changing during work cycle. This inertia is not included in the above EOM. Here indigenous program is developed in MATLAB for generation of Equations of motion. 3. Results 0 0 Dynamic model of the SCARA robot at 1=30 , 2=45 , d3=0.210, L4=0.210, 4=60 gives following results i.e equations of motion: T1=.424e4*m(3)+.518e5*m(6)*vy1*vy5+2.*(.326e-11*m(2)+.102e6*m(3)+.205e6*m(4) +.176e5*m(5)+.446e5*m(6))*vy1*vy2+.168e5*m(6)*vy2*vy5-731.*m(1) .838e4*m(6)*vy1*vy6+.168e5*m(6)*vy3*vy5+.146e4*m(2)+(.949e-11*m(4)+.133e-
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11*m(6))*vy4^2+2.*(.409e-11*m(3)+.646e5*m(4)+.646e5*m(5) +.730e5*m(6))*vy2*vy3+2.*(-.323e5*m(4)-.419e4*m(6))*vy1*vy4+2.*(.581e-27*m(4) +.814e-28*m(6))*vy2*vy4+(.533e5*m(2)+.644e5*m(3)+.129e6*m(4) +.129e6*m(5)+.137e6*m(6))*vy2^2+2.*(.102e6*m(3)+.205e6*m(4)+.176e5*m(5) +.446e5*m(6))*vy1*vy3+.163e-27*m(6)*vy2*vy6+(.409e-11*m(3)+.646e5*m(4) +.646e5*m(5) +.730e5*m(6))*vy3^2+.266e-11*m(6)*vy4*vy6+.163e27*m(6)*vy3*vy6+.104e6*m(6)*vy4*vy5+.636e4*m(4)+.848e4*m(5)+2.*(.581e-27*m(4) +.814e-28*m(6))*vy3*vy4+.931e4*m(6)+.133e-11*m(6)*vy6^2+.163e-27*m(6)*vy5*vy6+ .839e4*m(6)*vy5^2-.419e4*m(6)*aa5+(-.352e5*m(3)-.353e5*m(4)-.303e4*m(5).722e4*m(6))*aa3+(.793e-11*m(2)-.352e5*m(3)-.353e5*m(4)-.303e4*m(5).722e4*m(6))*aa2 +(.145e6*m(1) +.152e6*m(2) +.209e6*m(3)+.770e6*m(4)+ .770e6*m(5)+ .871e6*m(6))*aa1-.259e5*m(6)*aa6+ (-.187e6*m(4)-.259e5*m(6))*aa4 (10) T2 = .253e-12*m(3) +.284e-11*m(6)*vy1*vy5 +.464e5*m(6)*vy2*vy5 +.326e4*m(6)*vy1*vy6 +.464e5*m(6)*vy3*vy5-.794e-29*m(2)+.318e-11*m(6)*vy2*vy6 +.518e5*m(6)*vy4*vy6+.318e-11*m(6)*vy3*vy6+.284e-11*m(6)*vy4*vy5 + 2.*(.625e11*m(3)+.626e-11*m(4)+.537e-12*m(5)+.128e-11*m(6))*vy1*vy3 +.377e-12*m(4)+.507e12*m(5)+.558e-12*m(6) +.259e5*m(6)*vy6^2 +.317e-11*m(6)*vy5*vy6+ .232e5*m(6)*vy5^2 +2.*(.115e-10*m(4) +.159e-11*m(6))*vy2*vy4+2.*(.102e6*m(3)+ .102e6*m(4)+.877e4*m(5) +.209e5*m(6))*vy2*vy3 +2.*(.669e5*m(4) +.163e4*m(6))*vy1*vy4 +(-.326e-11*m(2)-.102e6*m(3)-.205e6*m(4)-.176e5*m(5).446e5*m(6))*vy1^2+.534e5*m(6)*aa5 +.996e-13*m(6)*aa6 +(.187e6*m(4)+.259e5*m(6))*vy4^2 +(.102e6*m(3) +.102e6*m(4)+ .877e4*m(5)+ .209e5*m(6))*vy3^2+2.*(.115e-10*m(4)+.159e-11*m(6))*vy3*vy4+(.410e-11*m(4)+.996e13*m(6))*aa4+(.713e5*m(3) +.446e6*m(4)+.375e6*m(5) +.453e6*m(6))*aa3+ (.129e6*m(2)+.258e6*m(3) +.820e6*m(4) +.748e6*m(5)+.851e6*m(6))*aa2+(.793e11*m(2)-.352e5*m(3)-.353e5*m(4) -.303e4*m(5)-.722e4*m(6))*aa1 (11) T3 = .713e5*m(3)+.259e6*m(4)+.188e6*m(5)+.242e6*m(6))*aa3+(.713e5*m(3) +.446e6*m(4)+.375e6*m(5)+.453e6*m(6))*aa2+(-.352e5*m(3)-.353e5*m(4)-.303e4*m(5).722e4*m(6))*aa1-.610e-14*m(3)+.135e-11*m(6)*vy1*vy5 +.220e5*m(6)*vy2*vy5 +.326e4*m(6)*vy1*vy6+.220e5*m(6)*vy3*vy5+.169e-11*m(6)*vy2*vy6 +.276e5*m(6)*vy4*vy6+.169e-11*m(6)*vy3*vy6+.135e-11*m(6)*vy4*vy5+.118e12*m(4)+.248e-12*m(5)+.299e-12*m(6) +.138e5*m(6)*vy6^2 +.169e-11*m(6)*vy5*vy6 +.110e5*m(6)*vy5^2 +2.*(.669e5*m(4) +.163e4*m(6))*vy1*vy4+2.*(-.625e-11*m(3).626e-11*m(4)-.537e-12*m(5)-.128e-11*m(6))*vy1*vy2 +(-.102e6*m(3)-.102e6*m(4).877e4*m(5)-.209e5*m(6))*vy2^2 +(-.102e6*m(3)-.205e6*m(4)-.176e5*m(5).446e5*m(6))*vy1^2 +2.*(-.267e-27*m(3)+.434e-27*m(4)+.702e-27*m(5)+.888e27*m(6))*vy2*vy3 +2.*(.574e-11*m(4) +.843e-12*m(6))*vy2*vy4+.292e5*m(6)*aa5 +.996e-13*m(6)*aa6 +(.938e5*m(4)+.138e5*m(6))*vy4^2+2.*(.574e-11*m(4)+.843e12*m(6))*vy3*vy4 +(.410e-11*m(4)+.996e-13*m(6))*aa4 (12) T4 = (.410e-11*m(4)+.996e-13*m(6))*aa2+(-.187e6*m(4)-.259e5*m(6))*aa1 +(.625e5*m(4) +.105e4*m(6))*aa4+(.410e-11*m(4)+.996e-13*m(6))*aa3-.210e4*m(6)*vy1*vy5 -.194e12*m(6)*vy2*vy5-.194e-12*m(6)*vy3*vy5+.318e-45*m(6)*vy2*vy6 +.318e45*m(6)*vy3*vy6-.316e4*m(6)*vy4*vy5+.317e-45*m(6)*vy5*vy6 -.969e13*m(6)*vy5^2+.646e-13*m(6)*aa5+.105e4*m(6)*aa6+(-.115e-10*m(4) -.159e11*m(6))*vy2^2+2.*(-.669e5*m(4)-.163e4*m(6))*vy1*vy2 +(.323e5*m(4) +.419e4*m(6))*vy1^2+2.*(.940e-44*m(4)+.159e-45*m(6))*vy2*vy4 +2.*(-.669e5*m(4) .163e4*m(6))*vy1*vy3+2.*(-.574e-11*m(4)-.843e-12*m(6))*vy2*vy3 + (-.574e-11*m(4).843e-12*m(6))*vy3^2+2.*(.940e-44*m(4) +.159e-45*m(6))*vy3*vy4-.796e-29*m(4) (13) T5 = -.259e5*m(6)*vy1^2-.135e-11*m(6)*vy1*vy3+.210e4*m(6)*vy1*vy4.220e5*m(6)*vy2*vy3 +.194e-12*m(6)*vy2*vy4-.284e-11*m(6)*vy1*vy2.232e5*m(6)*vy2^2 -.110e5*m(6)*vy3^2-.419e4*m(6)*aa1+.534e5*m(6)*aa2+.194e12*m(6)*vy3*vy4 +.158e4*m(6)*vy4^2+.646e-13*m(6)*aa4+.292e5*m(6)*aa3 +.158e28*m(6)*vy2*vy5 +.210e4*m(6)*vy1*vy6+.158e-28*m(6)*vy3*vy5+.194e12*m(6)*vy2*vy6 +.316e4*m(6)*vy4*vy6+.194e-12*m(6)*vy3*vy6+.119e28*m(6)*vy4*vy5 +.507e-13*m(6)+.158e4*m(6)*vy6^2+.194e-12*m(6)*vy5*vy6 +.422e4*m(6)*aa5+.646e-13*m(6)*aa6 (14)
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T6 = .419e4*m(6)*vy1^2-.326e4*m(6)*vy1*vy3-.169e-11*m(6)*vy2*vy3+.318e45*m(6)*vy2*vy4 -.325e4*m(6)*vy1*vy2-.159e-11*m(6)*vy2^2-.843e-12*m(6)*vy3^2.259e5*m(6)*aa1 +.996e-13*m(6)*aa2+.317e-45*m(6)*vy3*vy4-.210e4*m(6)*vy1*vy5 +.105e4*m(6)*aa4+.996e-13*m(6)*aa3-.194e-12*m(6)*vy2*vy5 -.194e12*m(6)*vy3*vy5+.318e-45*m(6)*vy2*vy6+.318e-45*m(6)*vy3*vy6 .316e4*m(6)*vy4*vy5+.317e-45*m(6)*vy5*vy6-.969e-13*m(6)*vy5^2 +.646e13*m(6)*aa5+.105e4*m(6)*aa6 (15) In the above mentioned equations of motion m(1) , m(2),m(6) indicates mass of link1 to 6, vy1 to vy6 indicates velocity of joint 1 to 6 and aa1 to aa6 indicates acceleration of joint 1 to 6. 4. Conclusions By inserting value of mass of each link, velocity and acceleration with respect to time in equations (10) to (15) one may get value of torque or force. Thus Equations of motion developed here are used for determination of force/torque required for specific trajectory. This may also useful for determination of velocity and acceleration for known torque/force. Thus, produced equations of motion, are used for both forward and inverse dynamic analysis. This model is also useful for design and selection of actuator for robot. During this analysis text files are generated by the program which will give complete details about the input, output and computation at various stages of the programs. Also one complete database may be prepared for the various range of selection of actuator. References [1] Ashitava Ghosal, Robotics- Fundamentals Concepts and Analysis, First Edition , Oxford University Press, New Delhi,2004 [2] Brian R.Hunt, Ronald L.Lipsman, Jonathan M.Rosenburg , A Guide to MATLAB, First Edition, Cambridge University Press, , New Delhi,1996 [3] K.S.Fu, R.C.Gonzalez & C.S.G. Lee, Robotics Control, Sensing, Vision & Intelligence, First Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New Delhi, 1987 [4] R.K.Mittal & I.J.Nagrath, Robotics & Control, First Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006 [5] Saeed B. Niku, Introduction to Robotics Analysis, Systems & Applications, First Edition, Pearson Education Pvt. Ltd. , Delhi, 2003 [6] Stephen J. Chapman , MATLAB Programming for Engineers, Third Edition, Thomson Learning, Bangalore, 1995 [7] William J. Palm III, Introduction to MATLAB for Engineers, First Edition, McGraw-Hill International Edition. Singapore, 1995 Appendix-1 ai Link length parameter for link i di Joint distance Gi Gravity loading vector hijk Velocity induced torques vector K Total Kinetic Energy L Lagrange Function or Lagrangian m(i) Mass of link i Mij Manipulator inertia matrix n Number of Links /joint/degree of freedom P Total Potential Energy q Generalised Joint displacement
Joint Velocity Ti Homogeneous link transformation matrix between frame {i-1} and {i} i Joint i torque t Time i Link twist angle for link i i Revolute joint angle (angular displacement) vy1 to vy6 Velocity of Joint 1 to 6 aa1 to aa6 Acceleration of joint 1 to 6
i-1
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Design Analysis of Two-piece 3-Rings Large Bore Piston

A.Gurusamy*, Vela murali Engineering Design Division, College of Engineering Guindy, Anna University, Chennai- 25 * Corresponding author (e-mail: gurusamy.a81@gmail.com) Along with the increase in specific output of internal combustion engines the thermal and mechanical loadings on the pistons have grown continually. This paper deals with the two-piece large bore piston designs used on diesel engines for railway traction and marine propulsion. The primary advantage of this construction is that different materials can be used for the crown and the body which better suit their separate functional requirements. In addition, a large gallery for oil cooling purposes is formed between the two parts. The two parts are bolted together using pre-loaded bolts which is required to prevent slip and gapping at the joint and to protect the bolts from loosening and from the full alternating load. This article presents a three dimensional finite element full analysis, which describes the thermo-mechanical behaviour, pre-tension effects and the fatigue life of the two-piece 3-Rings large bore piston. 1. Introduction
Two-piece piston consists of a steel or cast iron crown member bolted to either an Aluminium alloy or a cast iron body. The two-piece piston design meets the requirements in terms of increasing high specific engine outputs, i.e., thermal and mechanical loading capacity. In relative terms the weight of such pistons is marginally higher than that of a conventional piston. The primary advantage of this construction is that high strength materials can be used for the crown and a light weight material for body to suit the engine requirements. In addition, a large gallery for oil cooling is formed between the two parts. This design normally incurs some weight penalty. Two-piece pistons are used instead of monometal piston for the following reasons, i) High Break mean effective pressure. ii) The temperature limits are exceeded on the crown or in the ring belt. iii) The safety margin in the cooling gallery reaches an unacceptable level.
1. Crown 2. Body 3. Valve recess 4. Combustion bowl 5. Cooling gallery 6. Compression ring groove 2 7. Oil ring groove 8. Skirt 9. Oil drain holes 10. Pin bore 11. Set pin 12. Sleeve 13. Bolt
1
4 3 11 5 6 7 9 12 13 10 8
Figure 1. Cut section view of a Two-piece piston The cut section view of the solid model of a two-piece piston with its sub parts identified as shown in Figure 1. The crown and body are bolted together using pre-loaded bolts. The pre-load is required to prevent slip and gapping at the joint and to protect the bolts from loosening. The bolts are tightened to a prescribed torque.
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Table 1. Materaial properties Material Thermal conductivity (W/m K) Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) Coeff. of Thermal Expansion (10 / C) Poissons Ratio
-6
Al alloy 155 80.7 19.6 0.315
Steel 40 211 12.6 0.305
The design comprises of steel crown & forged aluminium alloy body, the two are joined by four bolts from bottom with an O ring seal between the two outer mating faces, extending from near the pin bore to crown and tightened to yield. The crown accommodates Two Compression rings and one oil ring. 2. Loading conditions
It is necessary to understand the loading applied to pistons during engine operation. i) Mechanical loading is due to the gas pressure in the cylinder and the reactions from the gudgeon pin and the cylinder wall. Mechanical loading considers axial loading only and refers to a maximum firing pressure of 131 bar acting over the crown as shown in the Figure 2. ii) Thermal loading requires the specification of the boundary conditions appropriate to the combustion gases on the crown (gas side), the cooling oil on the underside, surfaces of the gallery (oil-side) and the sliding lubricated surfaces in contact with the cylinder bore and the gudgeon pin. The gas side boundary conditions can be calculated by the cycle simulation program using the engine parameters. iii) The bolt pre-loading was determined by using Torque Bolt load formula T = Pb ( 0.16 h + 1.16 g Rg + a Ra ) Where, g,,g ,Rg ,Ra ,h ,T and Pb are the coefficient of friction in thread, coefficient of friction under bolt head, effective contact radius in thread, effective contact radius under bolt head, pitch, Torque and Bolt pre-load respectively. This pre-load was generated in the elements in the bolt shank by means of applied strain loading. 3. Constraints
Constraints are applied to a F.E. model when that model represents part of the structure only. In 3-D analysis of the piston, gudgeon pin and con rod assembly, there is generally sufficient symmetry to use a model of a 90 slice. The nodes on the plane symmetry are constrained to have zero movement normal to the plane. In addition for the mechanical loading, the nodes on the bottom surface of the con rod are constrained to have zero movement normal the pin bearing surface, while in the piston boss the pin is free to slide axially and circumferentially. 4. 4.1 Results & discussion Convergence test
After performing the analysis to find the optimal values for the parameters that have more influence on the behavior of piston, some mesh refinement are made to guarantee the convergence and thus the accuracy of the results. Figure 2 shows the influence of increasing the number of nodes (mesh refinement) on the maximum equivalent stress of the piston. The results tend to converge at element size is 3mm.
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Figure 2. Convergence history 4.2 Temperature distribution

Region Predicted Temperature
(% of allowable limit)
Maximum at bowl edge Crown center Lower top land Ist intermittent land Bottom of the bowl skirt Outer cooling gallery Oil drain hole
89 74 32 31 61 29 60 30
Figure 3. Temperature Distribution Contour plot The temperature distribution of the piston is shown in the Figure 3. The maximum temperature attains at the combustion bowl edge which is 89% of the allowable limit. The predicted temperatures on the various region of the piston are well below the operating range for the selected materials. 4.3 Thermal Expansion The expansion of the liner has been calculated assuming a nominal temperature of -6 100 C and co-efficient of expansion of 11.7 x 10 / C. The hot shape under the minimum clearance condition is shown in Figure 4. The minimum hot clearance on this basis is 26% of the cold clearance and occurs at the skirt datum position. The predicted hot clearance between the piston and liner is found to be satisfactory.
Figure 4. Hot clearances between piston and liner
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4.4
Pin Bore Assessment The combustion load on the piston results in the development of radial and hoop stresses in the piston pin hole. It should be noted that the radial stresses are compressive and the hoop stresses are tensile in nature.
Pin bore Normal stress 0 -20
Norm al stress (MPa)
45 Pin bore Hoop stress
20
40
60
80
Hoop Stress (MPa)
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 Pin bore length (m m) 60 80
-40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 Pin bore length (mm)
Figure 5. Pin bore stresses From the Figure 5, the normal stress at the position of maximum hoop stress is 79% of the allowable stress. The predicted maximum hoop stress at pin bore is 85% of the allowable stress so the pin bore stresses are found to be within the allowable limit. 4.5 Combustion Bowl Assessment
Bowl edge Bowl base
Pin axi s
u st Thr
s axi
Figure 6. Combustion Bowl Hoop stresses The combustion bowl is a thick cylindrical shell. So the primary reason for the combustion bowl failure is due to the hoop stresses. The predicted mechanical hoop stresses on the combustion bowl are shown in Figure 6. The Combustion bowl mechanical hoop stresses are well with in the allowable limit.
4.04 11.93 9.55 5.25 10.85 2.19 5.38 4.4
1.86
Figure 7. FOS contour plot of the piston
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4.6
Factor of Safety on Piston
Factor of safety is calculated using thermal and mechanical stresses at each node obtained from thermal and structural analysis of the piston by Goodman damage criterion. Factor of safety contour plot is shown in the Figure 7. The minimum factor of safety is obtained at pin bore region which is above the acceptable value. 5. Conclusions This work relates to the design verification of three ring large bore piston using finite element analysis. The following results were obtained i) The maximum temperature is obtained at the combustion bowl edge which is within the safe operating range for the selected material ii) The minimum hot clearance between piston & liner is 26% of the cold clearance which is found to be satisfactory iii) Pin axis Bowl edge and Bowl Base hoop stresses are within the allowable limit iv) Pin bore normal stress is within the allowable limit iv) FOS values in the critical region of the piston are satisfactory Hence the design of piston is acceptable.
References
[1] White, J. and Enderby, K. Finite element stress analysis of a multi-piece piston. Journals of strain analysis, 1969 [2] Michael Winship and William Morgan, J. Piston Design for the Nineties. SAE Paper No.932137 [3] Voit, K. et al. Design analysis of the piston system. Proceedings of the T & N Technical Symposium, 1995, 14.1 14.8
560
Aerodynamic Shape Optimization of Existing Railway Trains

Lokender Singh, B K Gandhi , K M Singh Dept. of Mech. & Ind. Engg., IIT Roorkee, INDIA 247 667 *Corresponding author (e-mail: bkgmefme@iitr.ernet.in) This paper presents aerodynamic shape optimization of a high speed passenger train of Indian Railways based on CFD analysis. Numerical simulations have been performed using FLUENT with k--SST turbulence model for zero degree yaw angel at various speeds for loco alone and with two passenger cars. Based on the analysis of the flow field around the existing Indian train with diesel locomotive WDP-4GM, an optimized shape for the same train has been proposed in order to reduce drag, reduce separation at various portions of the train and increase dynamic stability. Numerical simulations with the proposed shape show that appropriate change in the existing shape of train can result in reduction of drag force up to 45%.This optimized shape can be used in existing trains in order to increase speed and fuel efficiency. 1. Introduction
*
The train system is the most convenient means of transport in terms of cost and comfort. Recent advances have made possible to run the trains at higher speeds and the train speed in some of the countries has already reached beyond 300 km/h. Many countries are operating the high-speed trains, such as German Inter City Express (ICE), Japanese Shinkansen and French Train de Grande Vitesse (TGV). Moreover, some countries like South Korea and China are also developing high-speed railway systems. In our country also, efforts are being made to run the trains at higher speeds. The present work is part of this effort led by RDSO, Lucknow to develop high-speed train system for Indian Railways. With the speed-up of train, many engineering problems which have been reasonably neglected at low speeds, are being raised such as aerodynamic noise and vibration, impulse forces occurring when two trains passes over in close vicinity, impulse wave at the exit of tunnel, ear discomfort of passengers inside train, etc. These aerodynamic and aero-acoustic problems accompanied with high speed train system are, at present, receiving a considerable attention [1-3]. CFD has played a vital role in analysis of these aerodynamic problems, and has been used for aerodynamic design for drag reduction as well as for stability of the trains on embankments [3-7]. Resistance to forward motion of a passenger train at high speeds is dominated by aerodynamic drag. Hence, the aerodynamic design is a major issue for the system performance. Therefore, the aim of present work is to develop an aerodynamic shape for high speed diesel trains for Indian Railways using CFD. The existing model has been taken as train-set powered by the diesel locomotive WDP-4GM. Numerical simulation has been used to analyze the flow field over the existing train at various speeds. 2. Numerical simulation procedure
A numerical model of the loco with and without passenger cars has been made and the flow field around the model has been analyzed using FLUENT 6.3. The numerical model is prepared in GAMBIT and suitable boundary conditions have been applied to obtain the solution. 2.1 Geometric Modeling Solid Edge V16, 3D CAD software is used to model locomotive because it has very attractive modeling features. CAD model is prepared on the basis of the detailed drawings provided by RDSO, Lucknow. Figures 1(a) and (b) show the modeling detail of WDP-4GM loco.
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(a)Picture of WDP-4GM loco
(b) CAD model of WDP-4GM loco
Figure 1. Modeling details of WDP-4GM loco. 2.2 Meshing In finite volume method, hexahedral element is ideal because of its accuracy in property propagating characteristics. Hence, most of the domain has been discretized using hexahedral elements. However, in the vicinity of the loco and the passenger car, tetrahedral mesh is used due to limitations of hexahedral mesh and complexity of train model. A sectional view of the three-dimensional mesh used in numerical simulations is shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Finite volume mesh in the computational domain around existing train model
2.3 CFD model
The flow structure around the train was studied by finite volume method. The pressure velocity fields were coupled by the SIMPLE (semi-implicit method for pressure-linked equations) algorithm. For turbulence modeling, three-dimensional k--SST turbulence model was used. 3. Shape optimization For the bluff body train, there is larger pressure drag due to the greater pressure in the fore-body and less pressure in the after-body of the train. However, for the streamline shape of the train, pressure drag is small due to lower pressure in the fore-body. Therefore, adopting streamline shape for fore-body of the train can reduce the pressure drag significantly. Facts used to create new shape of loco are following: (1) Under the condition without cross wind, air drag of the leading car is the smallest with ellipsoid shaped head [4]. (2) The longer the streamline shape of train, the lower the pressure drags of leading car and tail car. With the increase of the length of the streamline shape, the aerodynamic drag coefficient decreases linearly. Table 1 lists the suggested length values of streamline shaped head [4]. On the basis of these facts elliptical shaped loco with streamline shape length value of 3.325 m was created for the speed of 180 Km/h and shown in figure 3.
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Table 1. suggested length values of streamline shape head at different velocities Velocity (Km/h) Length of streamline shape (m) 200 250 300 >350
>5
>6
>9
(a) Isometric view
(b) Top view
Figure 3. CAD model of the optimized (streamlined) loco 4. CFD analysis of existing and optimized train CFD analysis of WDP-4GM loco and optimized loco has been done at various wind speeds of 10, 25, 50 and 75 m/s with one and two coaches. All aerodynamic parameters like pressure field, velocity field, turbulence intensity, wake zone, drag and lift have been obtained for the single loco, for loco with one passenger car and for loco with two passenger cars. The shape of the fore-body of the train can significantly influence the aerodynamic characteristics [5-7]. To understand the pressure distribution, contours for pressure field at 25 m/s for loco alone have been presented in Figures 4(a) and (b) from which it is clear that for the existing engine the stagnation front area is more then the optimized loco. When air flows around the forebody of bluff train (existing model), the flow velocity becomes slower, and the pressure becomes larger. Whole fore-body of train, except the top portion, is almost in positive pressure region (Figure 4a).. However, for the flow around the streamlined shape of the train (optimized model), the velocity of flow becomes faster and skin pressure becomes smaller (Figure 4b).
(a) Existing loco
(b) Optimized loco
Figure 4. Pressure distribution for loco alone (Train speed = 25 m/s)

5. Results and discussion Coefficient of drag, Cd, can be calculated from
(1) where FD is the drag force, is density of air, A is the frontal area of the train and V is the velocity of the train. Variation of coefficient of drag at various combinations of speeds and number of coaches with Reynolds number has been charted in Figure 5. It can be see clearly that a significant difference in coefficient of drag has been achieved by optimization of the shape of existing Indian train. The coefficient of drag depends on the shape of the body and
Cd FD / ( AV 2 / 2)
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will be same for the prototype of the train, and hence can be used to find out the drag on the prototype from eq. (1).
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 Existing loco Optimised
1.6 1.4 1.2 1 Existing loco Optimised
Cd
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 26649.3 39973.9 53298.5 133246 266493 399739
Cd
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 26649.3 39973.9 53298.5 133246 266493 399739
Re
Re
(a) Loco alone
(b) Loco and one passenger car
1.6 1.4 1.2 1 Existing loco Optimised
Cd
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 26649.3 39973.9 53298.5 133246 266493 399739
Re
(c) Loco and two passenger cars Figure 5. Comparison of coefficient of drag for loco and passenger cars From the drag calculated for existing and optimized prototype loco, loco with one passenger car and loco with two passenger cars, the drag on a train with fifteen passenger cars can be calculated as follows. Let Drag on loco only = a Drag on Loco + 1 passenger car = b st Additional Drag for 1 passenger car with loco = c = a-b Drag on Loco + 2 passenger cars = d nd Additional drag for 2 passenger car with loco and 1 passenger car = e = d-b Then, drag on Loco + 15 passenger car = (a+c+14*e). Drag force comparison for existing and optimized train of fifteen passenger cars is given in Table 2. Table 2. Drag force comparison for existing and optimized train of fifteen passenger cars Vehicle speed km/hr (m/s) 90 100 150 180 200 270 (25) (27) (42) (50) (55) (75) Drag on existing train, N 26614.58 32376.12 59630.74 77260.34 90650.48 141747.22 Drag on optimized train, N 13847.3 16971.03 38856.3 56974.87 69882.74 127096.6 Drag Reduction N 12767.28 15405.09 20774.44 20285.47 20767.74 14650.60 Drag Reduction (%) 47.97 47.58 34.84 26.26 22.91 10.34
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6.
Conclusions
Main conclusions from the present study are: (1) More stagnation area contributes to the more drag. So in order to reduce drag we have reduced the front stagnation area. (2) It is necessary to design the flow structure of the fore-body of the train. It is an effective measure to decrease the aerodynamic drag by adopting streamline shape head. The velocity of the train is related to the length and shape of the train. (3) Appropriate change in the existing shape of the train can result in significant reduction in aerodynamic. This optimized shape can be used in existing trains in order to increase speed and fuel efficiency. References [1] Barcala, M.A. and Meseguer, J. An experimental study of the influence of parapets on the aerodynamic loads under cross wind on a two-dimensional model of a railway vehicle on a bridge. Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, 221, 2007, 487494. [2] Suzuki, M. Tanemoto, K. and Maeda, T. Aerodynamic characteristics of train/vehicles under cross winds. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 91, 2003, 209218. [3] Tiang, H.Q. Study evolvement of train aerodynamics in China. Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, 6, 2006, 19. [4] Tiang, H.Q. Train aerodynamics. China Railway Publishing House, Beijing, 2007. [5] Guilmineau, E. Computational study of flow around a simplified car body. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96, 2008, 12071217. [6] Grosche, F. R.and Meier, G. E. A. Research at DLR Gttingen on bluff body aerodynamics, drag reduction by wake ventilation and active flow control. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 89, 2001, 12011218. [7] CogottI, A. Evolution of performance of an automotive wind tunnel. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96, 2008, 667700.
565
Rupture Analysis of Spotweld under Static load using FEM and Validation by Experimental results
K.V.Mohankumar , Dr.C.Jebaraj
1 2 1* 2
Engineering Design Division, Anna University Chennai - 600 025, Tamilnadu, India AUFRG Institute for CAD/CAM, Anna University Chennai - 600 025, Tamilnadu, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: mohan.kumar@engineer.com)
In crash simulations of a vehicle, prediction of rupture of spotwelds in body-in-white is critical to evaluate deformation and energy absorption in crash zone as a function of loading. This work analyzes the rupture of spot weld, joining two sheet metal, under two simple but opposing load geometry namely Tensile Shear (TS) and Cross Tension (CT) which in global sense represent pure shear and tension on the weld respectively. In practice, for stiffer joints, the failure of material around the spot weld (Pull-out failure) is acceptable rather than the failure through weld section (Interfacial fracture). Two material grades (270 and 590 MPa), sheet thickness from 0.7 to 2 mm and nugget diameter from 4.2 to 8.1 mm are selected for case studies. The heterogeneous properties in the weld are modeled by subdividing it into three distinct homogeneous material zones. The outcome is a detailed FE solid model duplicating the in-situ rupture mode and failure load under static loading. 1. Introduction
Studies of behavior of structures under static loading always precede their dynamic study in crash simulations and tests. Static study of simple welded structures gives an insight of weld joint behavior like its load carrying capacity, change in joint stiffness, type of failure etc. Maximum energy absorbed in welded structures is also limited by the failure of these joints. Spot welded structures under various loads fail at the joints by rupture, which is nothing but physical separation of the sheets. Determination of joint stiffness involves multiple testing of simple spot welded joints under various load configurations. TS and CT are considered and on a global scale assumed to represent pure shear loading and pure tensile loading of the weld respectively. To model the initiation of fracture in detail, 3D model is used. 2. Finite Element Model
Figure 1a. TSS dimensions in mm
Figure 1b. CTS dimensions in mm
TS and CT sample sizes, shown in Figures 1a and 1b, confine to JIS Z 3139 and JIS Z3140.Two material grades of Tensile Strength 270MPa and 590 MPa, whose uniform elongation are 25% and 35% respectively, are selected. General properties used are: Elasic Modulus = 200 GPa, Poisson's ratio = 0.3.The spot weld region is divided into three sub zones and the True Stress-Strain curves of these zones, Base, HAZ and Nugget region are given in Figure 2a and 2b. 8-noded solid (BRICK) elements are used for entire domain of TSS and CTS. HAZ zone width is taken as 15% of nugget diameter and the subzone element size is about 0.2 mm. TSS model has half symmetry about the longitudinal axis and all translational DOF at one end are constrained. The opposite end is applied a unidirectional displacement along its longitudinal direction (UX). In case of CTS, non-overlap region of one sheet is constrained in all directions and that of the other sheet is applied a Uni-axial displacement along its thickness direction. Figure 3a & 3b show TSS and CTS models and their respective boundary conditions are shown in Figure 3c & 3d.
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Figure 2 True Stress (MPa) Strain curves
a) for 270 grade
b) for 590 grade
Figure 3a. TSS Model
Figure 3b. CTS Model
Figure 3c. Boundary conditions in TSS
Figure 3d. Boundary conditions in CTS
When the failure plastic strain in any of the sub-zone is reached, rupture is assumed to have initiated. Failure strain is localized in or around the spotweld where a singularity condition prevails at the periphery of any spot weld. Different rupture criterion formulation is required for FE models using non-solid elements, such as Shell-beam models, for rupture study but is computationally inexpensive. In all cases, the reaction force and the plastic strain distribution as a function of the applied displacement are the output parameters. Failure plastic strain in FE model corresponds to the initiation of crack with a surrounding plastic zone in test sample and the load bearing capacity of the sample is reached. The stiffness then declines with further load. 3. FE Simulation Results and Discussion In total, 11 cases with different combination of material, sheet thickness, and nugget diameter are selected and FE simulations are run using ANSYS/LSDyna. The Table 1 consolidates the results of simulation and tests of TSS cases in terms of failure load and mode of failure. Failure load ratio which is the ratio of FEM failure load to Test failure load gives an index of prediction level. Table 1. FEM Results of TSS Simulations
Case # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sheet Min. 't' Thickness /mm 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.6 2.0 2.0 1.2 1.0 1.4 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.3 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 0.7 1.4 0.7 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.6 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.7 0.7 1.5 D /mm 4.8 6.6 7.8 4.7 5.2 5.3 5 8.1 4.3 4.3 5 Min. UTS kN/mm2 590 590 270 590 590 590 590 270 270 270 590 TSS FEM Failure Mode Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Inter facial Fracture T SS FEM Failure Load kN 8.68 18.4 10.13 9.25 10.92 12.04 11.54 13.83 2.51 2.51 8.94 TSS Test Failure Mode Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Pull Out Inter facial Fracture
JIS Dimensions T 1.0/1.0 x W30 x (L30, A100, B90)
Material 590 590
TSS Test Failure TSS Failure Load Load Ratio 10.44 20.61 13.25 10.99 11.46 12.05 12.28 15.81 2.75 2.79 9.66 0.83 0.89 0.76 0.84 0.95 1.00 0.94 0.87 0.91 0.90 0.93
T 1.6/1.6 x W40 x (L40, A125, B100) 590 590 T 2.0/2.0 x W40 x (L40, A125, B100) 270 270 T 1.2/1.0 x W30 x (L30, A100, B90) 590 590
T 1.4/1.0 x W40 x (L40, A125, B100) 590 590 T 2.0/1.0 x W40 x (L40+E30+C55) 590 590
T 2.3/1.0 x W40 x (L40, A125, B100) 590 590 T 2.0/2.0 x W40 x (L40, A125, B100) T 1.0/0.7 x W30 x (L30, A100, B90) T 1.4/0.7 x W40 x (L40, A125, B100) T 1.5/1.5xW60 x (L45, A140, B95) 590 270 590 270 590 - 270 DP 590
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3.1
TSS Failure Load
Case # 2.0 resulted in Pull-out mode of failure and the resulting reaction force as a function of applied displacement is plotted in Figure 4.1. It shows both the linear and nonlinear stiffness of TSS. FEM failure load of 18.4 kN corresponds to the failure plastic strain at the base zone where as Test failure load is 20.61 kN and is shown as limiting line (parallel to x-axis) in the Figure 4.1.
FX_case#2 25.0 20.0
1.00 0.80 0.60
R atio
FX, kN
15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0.40 0.20 0.00 0.00
Load Ratio Plastic Strain Ratio
0.10
0.20
0.30
UX, mm
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
UX, mm
Figure 4.1 Force Vs Displacement curve of TSS in case#2
Figure 4.2 Plastic Strain and Load Ratio Displacement curve of TSS in case#2
Plastic strain ratio is defined as the ratio of max. plastic strain in the model to failure plastic strain and the Load ratio is defined as the ratio of reaction load at failure plastic strain to test failure load. Figure 4.2 plots both the plastic strain ratio and load ratio as a function of displacement. 3.1.1 TSS Failure Mode : Pull-Out (Case #2.0)
5.0
P lastic Strain ratio
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
UX, mm Node@ Base Node@ Nug get
Figure 4.3 Contour plot of Initial Plastic Strain in TSS of case#2
Figure 4.4 Plastic strain ratio Vs Displacement in TSS of case#2
The initial plastic strain appears in the base zone at the periphery of the weld and is shown in Figure 4.3. Plastic strain grows initially along the nugget plane and the base thickness. A change is noticed when the plastic strain has reached the outer sheet surfaces. The rate of change in plastic strain with load in the critical base-weld junction along the thickness is higher than through the nugget section (inner nugget has no plastic strain). Figure 4.4 compares absolute plastic strain ratio on two critical nodes, one at base and the other in the weld region. The increase in strain at base causes failure by necking which is a Pull-out failure as shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5 Plastic Strain distribution in TSS of case#2 at Pull-out failure
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3.1.2
TSS Failure Mode : Inter-facial failure (case #11)
Figure 4.6 Plastic Strain distribution in TSS of case #11 a) at initial stage b) at failure load Only case#11 resulted in initiation of a different mode of failure which is Inter facial fracture. In this, the shear strength of the weld nugget is exceeded and therefore the sheets fracture along the plane passing through the nugget cross section. From Fig. 4.6a, the initial plastic strain at the weld interface is far higher than the base zone. Further increase in load will only cause brittle fracture along the cross section of nugget. The predicted deformation that occurs during the interfacial failure is concentrated in the weld at the interface of the two sheets. There is insignificant strain outside the weld. The absolute plastic strain of three distant points from the base-HAZ junction along the nugget section is plotted in Figure 4.6b which shows increase in strain through the weld. 3.2 CTS Failure Load The applied displacement on the outer plane surfaces of one sheet with fixed, perpendicular surfaces of the other sheet causes an axial pull of the overlap region (and the weld). The out of plane load on the sheets cause a large deformation under bending. The Table 1 shows the result of simulation of CTS cases in terms of FEM rupture mode, failure load and test results. Table 2. FEM Results of CTS Simulations
Case# 1 2 Material 590 590 590 590 Sheet Thickness 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.6
FZ_cts_case#1
Min. 't' /mm 1.0 1.6
D /mm 4.8 6.6
Min. UTS kN/mm2 590 590
CTS FEM Failure Mode Pull Out Pull Out
CTS FEM Failure Load /kN 5.27 11.3
CTS Test Failure Mode Pull-Out Pull-Out
CTS Test Failure Load /kN 6.36 13.05
CTS Failure Load Ratio 0.83 0.87
9.0
FZ, kN
6.0 3.0 0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
UZ, mm
Figure 5.1 Force Vs Displacement in CTS of case#1
Figure 5.2
Plastic Strain Ratio Vs Displacement in CTS of case#1
In total, two cases (case #1 and case#2) of Solid models were simulated with CT load and both resulted in prediction of pull-out failure. Also, the predicted failure load is 5.27 kN in case#1 and 11.3 kN in case#2 whereas test failure loads were 6.36 kN and 13.05 respectively. The reaction force as a function of displacement is plotted in Figure 5.1 which shows the linear stiffness of the CTS. The test failure load is drawn parallel to x-axis and displacement at the FEM failure load is drawn parallel to Y-axis. Figure 5.2 plots plastic strain ratio at base (NLEPEQ_2) and weld nugget (NLEPEQ_3). The base zone has reached its failure strain while nugget core is still free of plastic strain. 3.3 Failure Mode : Pull-Out failure (Case #1): The initial plastic strain appears in the base zone at the periphery of the weld and increases at a higher rate in the base around the weld rather than through the weld. Two opposite base locations reaches maximum strain values and necking begins in the critical base region with
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increasing load. So, Pull-out mode of failure is assumed to have initiated in this case. Figure 5.3 shows the plastic strain at two critical locations of weld and base with respect to applied displacement. Although there is some strain increase along the weld cross section, it is insignificant and the inner core of the weld nugget is free of plastic strain. A complete Pull-out failure will result in nugget remaining with one of the sheets and separated apart through its thickness.
Figure 5.3 Contour plot of Plastic strain at Pullout in CTS (case # 1) 3.4 Validation of FEA Results Of the 11 cases, 10 cases of TSS Solid model resulted in prediction of Pull-out failure and one case in interfacial failure. This agrees 100% with that of test results. Also, the predicted failure load in TSS has a maximum deviation of ~17% from test results except for case#3 which shows ~26% of deviation. The reason could be due to the uncertainty in nugget diameter measurement by means of visual check at failure during the test. Case#3 had the largest nugget size (Dia 8.1) for which division into sub-zones becomes critical but in FE model, HAZ width was assumed constant. However, this case corresponds to 270grade material and needs more case studies for justification. In CT simulations, prediction of Pull-out failure matches the test result 100%. And predicted CT failure load is found matching to test results with ~ 17% of deviation. Overall, every predicted rupture mode agrees with that of test data where as predicted failure loads had a deviation of ~11% on average. 4. Conclusion and Future scope of work FE simulations of spotweld joints under TS and CT loading is validated for failure loads with ~11% deviation and all predicted rupture mode agrees 100% with that of tests. TS and CT load configurations were assumed to represent shear loading and tensile of the weld in global sense, but it is found that the mode of failure cannot be generalized on load type. Though solid models capture the initiation of failure mode and load, it is only at the expense of computation time and testing of heterogeneous material properties at the weld region. For complete rupture, suitable material damage models can be included. Simplified models such as Beam-Shell model are used in real time application as it is computationally inexpensive but rupture criterion formulation is critical in the outcome of their results. The FE Solid model can be used as a basis for extraction of parameters to formulate a rupture function for simplified models. References [1] Emmanuel H. J. Lamouroux, Daniel Coutellier, Norbert Doelle, Peter Kuemmerlen, (2008), Detailed model of spot-welded joints to simulate the failure of car assemblies, Int J Interact Des Manuf., Vol. 1, pp 3340. [2] Koushi Kumagai, Masakazu Shirooka, Jirou Ohachi, Toshirou Ogawa (2007), Rupture Modeling th of Spot Welds Suitable for Crash FE Analysis in Vehicle Development Process, 6 European LSDYNA Users Conference, Vol. 3.1.1, pp. 3.1 3.13. [3] D. J. Radakovic and M. Tumuluru (2008) Predicting Resistance Spotweld failure Modes in Shear Tension Tests of Advanced High-Strength Steels, Welding Journal, Vol.87, pp. 96 l05. [4] JIS Z 3136 (1999) : Specimen Dimensions and Procedure for Shear Testing of Resistance Spot and Embossed Projection Welded Joints.
570
Plasma Electrolytic Oxidised (PEO) coated Al-Si Alloy Cylinder Liner for Lightweight Engine Blocks
K. Mistry1, M. Priest2, S. Shrestha
1,2
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK 3 Keronite PLC, Cambridge, CB21 6GP, UK
For many years, the cast iron engine block was accepted due to its inherent wear resistance and low friction in boundary lubrication. With the growing trend for energy efficient road vehicles, driven first by the rising cost of fossil fuels and then by the environmental considerations, lightweight aluminum and magnesium alloy engine blocks have grown in importance. Eutectic Al-Si alloy has excellent machinability, in addition, to its strength and hardness. However, its poor tribological characteristics and incompatibility with current engine oil formulations, demands surface treatments and coatings for use as a cylinder wall surface. A number of surface treatments and coatings have been utilized with varying degrees of success, dependent upon the application. In this paper, plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) of eutectic Al-Si alloy, which transforms the surface into a complex ceramic matrix of alumina with an outer porous layer, is investigated as an alternative surface treatment.A series of tests was conducted using a Plint TE-77 reciprocating tribometer to evaluate the tribological performance of the PEO treated eutectic Al-Si alloy compared with a more conventional Nickel Ceramic (Ni-SiC) coating as a reference. The counterpart, was a gas nitrided chromium coated carbon steel top piston ring and the TM lubricant was a Group III XHVI 8.2 base oil blended with standard detergent and dispersant additives, both with and without dispersions of very fine particles of molybdnite as a friction modifier. The test conditions were set and maintained to simulate engine operating conditions. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and stylus profilometry were employed to characterise the morphology, elemental composition and surface force analysis of the tribofilm and the wear. The tribological performance of the PEO transformed surface was found to be comparable to the Ni-SiC coating in the short duration tribometer experiments undertaken, with potentially greater durability in the longer term given the properties of the transformed surface layer. 1. Introduction
For many years, grey cast iron and its alloys were used for engine blocks due to their excellent mechanical properties, low production cost and inherent wear resistance and low friction in boundary lubrication when used as the cylinder surface. With the growing trend for energy efficient road vehicles, driven first by the rising cost of fossil fuels and then by environmental considerations, lightweight aluminum and magnesium alloy engine blocks have grown in importance. Eutectic aluminium-silicon (Al-Si) alloy has excellent machinability, thermal behaviour, strength and hardness. However, its poor tribological characteristics and incompatibility with current engine oil formulations, demands surface treatments and coatings for use as a cylinder wall surface [1]. A number of surface treatments and coatings have been utilised with varying degrees of success, dependent upon the application. TM A nickel-ceramic (Ni-SiC) composite coating, for example Nikasil , on top of eutectic Al-Si alloy can enhance surface hardness to a considerable extent compared to the substrate, with a reduction in coefficient of friction due to nickel matrix [2,3]. Surface modifications of NiSiC coatings by standard cross-hatch honing at 25-350 to the horizontal plane can further improve the friction characteristics due to oil retention in the grooves when used in contact with chromium nitrided coated piston rings [4,5,6]. However, under the aggressive operating
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conditions of an engine, wear can be dominant if the counterface is hardened steel. It has been reported [7] that the coating can fail due to corrosion if the sulphur content in a fuel/lubricant exceeds a limiting value. While Ni-SiC has been successfully used in racing cars when partnered with a good quality fuel of low sulphur content, this coating has been problematic in road vehicles and commercial vehicles that use a high sulphur fuel. Plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) of the surface of aluminium alloys can offer a considerable corrosion and wear resistance due to the development of a complex ceramic layer of -Al2O3 and mullite that act as a barrier between a corrosive environment and a substrate alloy [8-13]. PEO is an electrochemical surface treatment process for generating oxide coatings on aluminium-silicon alloys. Because it is a conversion coating, rather than a deposited coating, it has excellent adhesion to the substrate metal. Furthermore, the outer layer of the ceramic is porous and provides an ideal structure to retain lubricant in a similar way to traditional plateau honing. The coating properties vary according to the exact alloy compositions with notably an increase in silicon content in the aluminium alloy being less effective in improving hardness by this process. This presentation reports an initial investigation of the friction characteristics of PEO treated eutectic Al-Si alloy (11%wt Si + 3%wt Cu) as a cylinder wall surface when run against a contemporary chromium nitrided carbon steel top piston ring, benchmarked against a more conventional Ni-SiC coating on the same cylinder substrate. As a first stage screening test, a laboratory tribometer is used with a view to motored and fired engine tests at a later stage if the results were encouraging. 2. Method
A Plint TE77 reciprocating tribometer was used for this investigation with a configuration and operating conditions as summarised in Figure 1 and Table 1. A segment of piston ring of approximately 25mm length was mounted in the reciprocating holder of the TE77 tribometer and a cut section of an 86mm bore cylinder liner was located in the resistively heated stationary shallow tray containing the lubricant with a thermocouple for temperature control. The load, speed and temperature were maintained to match with the severe mixed/boundary lubrication conditions in a gasoline engine at full load and medium speed [14]. Great care was taken to ensure good axial and circumferential conformity between the samples of liner and piston ring throughout the stroke. Friction was measured using the standard piezoelectric load cell of the TE77 which resists horizontal motion of the stationary cylinder liner sample. A model lubricant based on a Group III mineral oil was selected to be representative of a modern automotive lubricant but without the complex interactions and surface actions of many of the additives, e.g. anti-wear, at this early stage in the study. However, to obtain some quantification of the response to friction modification, nano-particles of molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) at 1%wt were optionally blended into the base oil as a simple friction modifier.
Figure. 1. TE77 tribometer configuration, after [15].
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Table 1. Operating conditions for the TE77 Lubricant Lubrication Normal Load Stroke Frequency Lubricant Temperature 3. 3.1. Shell XHVI 8.2 base oil (BO) with 2%wt dispersant and 2%wt detergent, with and without nano-particles of MoS2 at 1%wt. 10ml in oil tray 200N 5mm 33Hz (0.33m/s mean sliding velocity) 120C and 80C (1C)
TM
Results Coating Characterisation
Figure 2 shows unetched optical micrographs of the piston ring and cylinder liner surfaces used in this investigation and Table 2 provides physical data for the coatings.
Steel substrate
(c) PEO cylinder liner (a) Piston ring (b) Ni-SiC cylinder liner Figure 2. Unetched optical micrographs of the piston ring and cylinder liner specimens Table 2. Physical properties of the piston ring and cylinder liner coatings Piston ring Ni-SiC cylinder liner PEO cylinder liner 70-75 70-75 15-25 Thickness (m) Hardness, Knoop (HK0.025) 1240-1520 569-609 997-1160 0.02-0.03 0.20-0.25 0.20-0.30 Surface Roughness, Ra (m) (ground) (25-35 honed) (600-grit SiC polish) 3.2. Friction
PEO (BO) PEO (BO+FM)
Friction Coefficient
Ni-SiC (BO) Ni-SiC (BO+FM)
PEO (BO) PEO (BO+FM)
Ni-SiC (BO) Ni-SiC (BO+FM)
0.1 0.05 0 0 5 10 15 Ti me (Hours) 20 25 30
Friction Coefficient
0.15
0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 5 10 15 Tim e (Hours) 20 25 30
(b) 80C (a) 120C Figure 3. Variation of friction coefficient with time for the model lubricant without (BO) and with (BO+FM) friction modifier. The variation of friction coefficient with time at 120C under boundary lubrication regime is shown in Figure 3(a). The initial coefficient of friction of 0.13 for the PEO coating and 0.11 for the Ni-SiC coating in the presence of the model lubricant without friction modifier (BO) reduces gradually with time. After about 10 to 12 hours of running, the values of friction
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coefficient stabilise at 0.08 for the PEO and 0.07 for the Ni-SiC coatings. Further consideration of the behaviour after adding 1%wt MoS2 (BO+FM), shows significant reductions in friction coefficient which stabilises at 0.042 for the PEO coating and 0.045 for the Ni-SiC coating. After nearly 48 hours of running, beyond the data shown, the value of roughness (Ra) approaches 0.1 microns for both the coatings due to wear against the hard piston ring but the friction coefficient for the PEO coating (=0.042) was lower than for the NiSiC coating (=0.045). One of the characteristics of molybdenum disulphide in boundary lubrication is the formation of a tribofilm that lowers the coefficient of friction. Figure 3(b) shows the friction performance at 80C for the same operating conditions, which essentially shifts the lubrication conditions into the severe mixed lubrication regime from the boundary. The value of friction coefficient is considerably reduced for both the coating materials. For the model lubricant without friction modifier (BO) the initial coefficients of friction are 0.084 for the PEO treatment and 0.071 for Ni-SiC coating, falling to 0.04 for PEO and 0.035 for Ni-SiC after about 10 to 12 hours of running. The addition of 1%wt MoS2 (BO+FM) to the model lubricant shows further reduction in friction coefficients to stabilised values of 0.024 for PEO and 0.025 for Ni-SiC. The surface topography observations for PEO and Ni-SiC coatings after wear scar are shown in Fig. 4a and 4b. The primary analysis for the wear area (product of average roughness and evaluation length) by leveling on the unworn area on either side shows the -3 2 -3 value as 2.25*10 mm for the PEO surface. For the Ni-SiC coating the value is 2.7*10 2 mm . This indicates that for the same period of time the wear area is slightly lower in case of PEO surface compared to the Ni-SiC coating.
a, PEO coating b, Ni-SiC coatings Fig. 4 The surface topography after the wear scar on PEO and Ni-SiC coated liner specimen, the y-axis is measured in m. 4. Conclusions PEO surface transformation of a eutectic Al-Si alloy cylinder liner produces a hard complex ceramic surface that exhibits low friction in severe mixed/boundary lubrication with a model engine lubricant when the counterface is a hard coated chromium nitrided carbon steel piston ring. The friction performance is comparable with an equivalent proven coating of Ni-SiC both with and without molybdenum disulphide as a simple friction modifier in the model lubricant. The PEO coating potentially has greater durability than the Ni-SiC coating in the longer term given the properties of the transformed surface layer.
References [1] Tung, S.C., McMillan, M.L. Automotive tribology overview of current advances and challenges for the future. Tribology International, vol.37, Issue 7, July 2004, 517-536. [2] Wu,Y., Shen,B.,Liu,L. and Hu,W. The tribological behaviour of electroless Ni-PGr_SiC composite. Wear, Vol 261, Issue 2, July 2006, 201-207.
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[3] Zimmerman,A.F., Palumbo,G., Aust,K.T. Erb,U. Mechanical properties of nickel silicon carbide nanocomposites. Mat.Sc. & Eng. Vol328, Issue 1-2, May 2002, 137146. [4] Rahnejat,H.,Balakrishnan,S., King,P.D. and Howell-Smith,S. In-Cylinder Friction reduction using a surface finish optimization technique. Proc. Of IMechE,Part D, Jr of Automobile, Vol 220, No.9, 2006. [5] Balakrishnan, S., Howell-Smith, S., Rahnejat, H.. Investigation of Reciprocating Conformal Contact of Piston Skirt-to-Surface Modified Cylinder Liner in High Performance Engines, Proc. Of IMechE,Part C, Jr of Mech Eng, Vol.219, no.11, 2005,1235-1247. [6] Basu, A., Dutta Majumdar, J., Ghosh Chowdhury, S., Ajikumar, P. K., Shankar, P., Tyagi, A. K., Raj, B. and Manna, I. Microstructural and texture studides of gas-nitrided Cr-coated low alloy high-carbon steel. Surface and coating technology, Vol.201, issue 16-17, May 2007, 6985-6992. [7] Worby, S. The Nikasil Issue, www.bmwland.co.uk/talker/viewtopic.php?t=373, October, 2002. [8] Yerokhin, A.L., Shatrov, A., Samsonov, V., Shashkov, P., Pilkington, A., Leyland, A. and Matthews, A. Oxide Ceramic Coatings on Aluminum Alloys Produced by a Pulsed Bipolar Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation Process. Surface and Coating Technology, Vol. 199, Issue 2-3, Sept. 2005, 150-157. [9] Shihai Cui, Jianmin Han, Yongping Du and Weijing Li. Corrosion Resistance and Wear Resistance of Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation Coatings on Metal Matrix Composites. Surface and Coating Technology, Vol. 201, Issue 9-11, Feb. 2007, 5306-5309. [10] Shrestha, S., Merstallinger, A., Sickert, D. and Dunn, B.D., Some preliminary evaluations of black coating on aluminium AA2219 alloy produced by plasma th electrolytic oxidation (PEO) process for space applications, Proc. 9 Intl. Symposium on Materials in a Space Environment, 16-20 June 2003, The Netherlands, p.57-65. [11] Shrestha, S., Shashkov, P. and Dunn, B.D., Microstructural and thermo-optical properties of black Keronite PEO coating on aluminium alloy AA7075 for spacecraft th materials applications, Proc. 10 Intl. Symposium on Materials in a Space Environment, Collioure, France, 19-23 June 2006 (ESA SP-616). [12] Rama Krishna, L., Sudha Purnima, A. and Sundararajan, G., A comparative of tribological behaviour of microarc oxidation and hard anodised coatings, WEAR, WEA 97954, Article in Press. [13] Curran, J.A. and Clyne, T.W.,Porosity in plasma electrolytic oxide coatings, Acta Materialia 54 (2006) 19851993. [14] Smith, O., Priest, M., Taylor, R.I., Price, R., Cantlay, A. and Coy R.C., Simulated Fuel Dilution and Friction-Modifier Effects on Piston Ring Friction. Proc. IMechE Vol.220 Part J: J.Eng. Tribo., 2006, 181-189. [15] Tung, S. C. and Gao, H. Tribological characteristics and Surface Interaction between Piston Ring Coatings and a blend of energy conserving oils and ethanol fuels. Wear, Vol. 255, Issues 7-12, Aug-Sept 2003, pp. 1276-1285.
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Optimization of Dynamically Loaded Forged Steel Cranskshaft for Cost and Weight Reduction with Changes in Crank Geometry
K. D. Kothari , Prof R. L. Jhala , Prof. R.M. Bhoraniya , D.D. Kundaliya
1,2 3,4 1* 2 3 4
V.V. P. Engg. College, Rajkot. India C.U. Shah college of Engineering and Technology, Surendranagar, India *Corresponding Author (Email: kartik_er@yahoo.com)
The paper discusses the optimization options, their combination under a set of defined constraints and a comparison between the original forged steel crankshaft and the final optimized forged steel component. The main objective of this analysis was to optimize the weight and manufacturing cost of the forged steel crankshaft, which not only reduces the final production cost of the component, but also results in a lighter weight crankshaft which will increase the fuel efficiency of the engine. In this case of optimization process, the final optimized geometry has definitely less weight than the original crankshaft but this does not mean that the weight could not be reduced further. As the main objective of this analysis, it was attempted to reduce the weight and final cost of the component by changing the crankpin geometry, Increasing the oil hole diameter and fillet radius, Increasing the hole depth and Changing the crank web geometry. The method describes the first step in the optimization process was weight reduction of the component considering dynamic loading, which means that the stress range under dynamic loading would not exceed the stress range magnitude in the original crankshaft. The optimization process was categorized in different stages and paper concludes with the sufficient reduction in weight and ultimately cost. 1. Introduction
Since fatigue crack initiation and fracture at the fillets is one of the primary failure mechanisms of automotive crankshafts, the fillet rolling process has been used to improve the fatigue life of crankshafts for many years. The fillet rolling process induces compressive residual stresses within the fillet surface. The compressive residual stress lowers the fatigue driving forces due to operating loads near the fillet surface and consequently increases the fatigue life of the crankshaft. Kamimura (1985) [1] performed a study on the effect of fillet rolling on fatigue strength of a ductile cast iron crankshaft. Bench tests were conducted on crankshaft pin samples with a fatigue evaluation on test pieces in order to study the fatigue strength of fillet rolled crankshafts and specimens. This study showed that an optimum deep rolling method could increase the bending fatigue strength by 83% over conventional ductile iron crankshafts that were not fillet rolled. Park et al. (2001) [2] showed that without any dimensional modification, the fatigue life of a crankshaft could be improved significantly by applying various surface treatments. The specimens prepared from the crankshaft in the Park et al. study found the optimum level of rolling force was experimentally to be between 7000N and 9000N. An extensive study was performed by Nallicheri et al. on material alternatives for the automotive crankshaft based on manufacturing economics [4]. Steel forgings, nodular cast iron, microalloy steel forgings, and austempered ductile iron (ADI) casting were considered as manufacturing options to evaluate the cost effectiveness of using these alternatives for crankshafts. It was concluded that the production volume of the crankshaft and the requirements of the engine were predominant factors in a cost effective production option for this application. A study was performed by Hoffmann and Turonek to examine the cost reduction opportunities associated with forged steel, materials evaluated in their study included medium carbon steel SAE 1050 (CS) and medium carbon alloy steel SAE 4140 (AS)
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grades using a sulfur level of 0.10%, (CS-HS and AS-HS), and two micro-alloy grades (MA1 and MA2)[4]. The material selection was based on fatigue strength requirements and potential cost benefits. The micro alloy grades that were evaluated offered cost reduction opportunities over the original materials. The micro-alloy grade could reduce the finished cost by 11% to 19% compared to a quenched and tempered alloy steel (SAE 4140), and by 7% to 11% compared to a quenched and tempered carbon steel (SAE 1050). In addition, the micro-alloy grades met or exceeded the fatigue strength of the original materials for the applications studied and had better machinability characteristics. Finite element analysis was used to obtain the variation in stress magnitude at critical locations. The dynamics of the mechanism was solved using analytical techniques and the results were verified by simulation in ADAMS, which resulted in the load spectrum applied to the crank pin bearing. The load was applied to the FE model in Pro Mechanica, and the boundary conditions were defined according to the engine mount design. The optimization carried out in this work was not based on only the typical geometrical optimization techniques. This is because variables such as manufacturing and material parameters could not be organized in a mathematical function according to the set of constraints such that the maximum or minimum could be defined. Instead, each optimization step was approximated based on improving fatigue resistance while considering manufacturing feasibility and maintaining dynamic balance with an aim of reducing the weight and the final cost of the component. 2. Dynamic load and stress analysis Optimization of the crankshaft requires a determination of an accurate assessment of the loading, which consists of bending and torsion. Dynamic loading analysis of the crankshaft results in more realistic stresses whereas static analysis provides results that may not reflect operating conditions. Accurate assessment of stresses is critical to the input of fatigue analysis and optimization of the crankshaft design. Figure 1 shows the digitized model of the forged steel crankshaft created in Pro Engineer used for this study. The dynamic analysis of the engine that uses this type of crankshaft showed that as the engine speed increases the maximum bending load decreases. Therefore, the critical loading case for this engine is at the minimum operating speed of 2000 rpm [5]. This should not be misunderstood as to mean that the higher the engine rpm is the longer the service life because there are many other factors to consider in operation of the engine. The most important issue when the engine speed increases is wear and lubrication. As these issues were not considered in the dynamic load analysis study, further discussion of these issues is avoided. It was also shown that a consideration of the torsional load in the overall dynamic loading conditions has no effect on von Mises stress at the critically stressed location [5]. In addition, the effect of torsion on the stress range is also relatively small at other locations undergoing torsional load. Therefore, the crankshaft analysis could be simplified to an application of bending load only [5]. Convergence of stress at different locations was considered as the criterion for the selection of mesh size and number of elements for the finite element stress analysis. Satisfactory results were obtained using 119,337 elements for the crankshaft that corresponded to a global mesh size of 5.08 mm and a local mesh size of 0.762 mm in the model. This local mesh size resulted in five elements in the radius of the fillet areas. Figure 2 shows the maximum von Mises stress and von Mises stress range at six locations on the crankshaft fillets at the engine speed of 2000 rpm for the crankshaft.
Figure 1. The Crankshaft modeled in Pro Engineer to be Optimized
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3.
Optimization objectives and constraints In this study, reducing the weight and manufacturing cost while improving or maintaining the fatigue performance of the original component were the main objectives. In addition, the bending stiffness has to be kept within permissible limits.
Location Number Figure 2. Maximum and range of von Mises stress at an engine speed of 2000 rpm at different locations on the crankshaft. Since the original crankshaft used in the engine had acceptable fatigue performance, optimization was carried out in such a way that the equivalent local stress amplitude at any location of the optimized model did not exceed the equivalent stress amplitude at the critical location of the original model. In addition, the optimized crankshaft was expected to be interchangeable with the original crankshaft. Therefore, the following dimensions were not changed: Outer diameters of different cylinders Crank radius Location of the main bearings Geometry of the main bearings Width and geometry of the connecting rod bearing Considering the functions of the crankshaft and its constraints, the following design variables were then considered in the optimization study: Changing the crankpin geometry, Changing the oil hole diameter and fillet radius Changing the hole depth and Changing the crank web geometry 4. Geometry optimization procedure The investigation of the stress contour of the crankshaft FEA model during an engine cycle showed that some locations of the crankshaft, such as the counter weights and crank webs, are subject to low stresses. The crankshaft has to be dynamically balanced in which the counter weights serve this purpose. Therefore, although stresses applied to these sections are low, these sections cannot be removed, but can only be changed according to other modifications made to the component. Objective function, design variables, and constraints are summarized in this figure and it is shown that the optimization process consisting of geometry modifications, manufacturing process considerations, and material alternatives was performed simultaneously. Local shape optimization techniques were applied to different locations of the crankshaft to lower the weight. After each optimization step the counter weights were balanced in order to achieve an accurate estimate of the weight reduction. In a feasible design, the component stresses fall within the stress limits and bending stiffness does not change significantly, while the manufacturability is still economical. According to FE analysis, the blue locations shown in Figure 3 have low stresses during the loading cycle and have the potential for material removal and weight reduction. It should be noted that the effect of mean stress on the results was negligible. Therefore, all of the stresses under consideration and discussed here are with reference to the stress ranges.
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Figure 3. Stress distribution under critical loading condition Several cases of geometric modifications were considered. Since maintaining dynamic balance is a key concern in the optimization of this component, the first step was to remove material symmetric to the central axis without compromising the dynamic balance of the crankshaft. On the far right side of the crankshaft shown in Figure 1 there is a threaded hole. The depth of this hole does not affect the function of the crankshaft. Therefore, this hole could be drilled as far as possible in the geometry (Case 1 in Figure 4). Another optimization step which does not require any complicated changes in the geometry is increasing the diameter of the crankpin hole (Case 2 in Figure 4). In order to balance the modified crankshaft, material has to be removed from the counter weight. 5. Different optimization cases and final optimized crankshaft Case 1: Increasing the depth of the drilled hole at the back of the crankshaft: Since the dynamic balance is one of the main concerns in the optimization of this component as the first step it was tried to remove material symmetric to the central axis, which would not disturb the dynamic balance of the crankshaft. At the back of the crankshaft, there is a treaded hole. Therefore, this hole could be drilled as far as possible in the geometry. The current depth and the increased depth of this bore at the back of the crankshaft is shown in figure 4. As per the stress results for the critical location for different optimization cases, where value of mean stress is 73 MPa, stress range of 188MPa and 3.72 kg for weight. Therefore, each time a node is selected, a variation could be seen in the results. Case 2: Increasing the hole diameter of the crankpin oil hole: Another optimization step which does not require any complicated changes in the geometry is increasing the hole diameter of the crankpin hole. Increasing the inner diameter of this hole will result in decreasing the moment inertia of the cross section. Therefore, in order to not increase the stress level at the fillet area, the fillet radius has to be increased. Considering this optimization option the stress range reduces by 5%, compared to the original model can be obtained. The reason for this reduction is increasing the fillet area, which causes a lower stress concentration factor. Weight reduction in this step is about 3%. Case 3: Reducing the thickness of the web : A high weigh percentage of the crankshaft is in the crank web volume; therefore, reducing the weight of this section could result in a more efficient weight reduction of the component. Reducing the web thickness is another applied optimization case that was performed on the crankshaft web. As a result of this change in the crank web the center of gravity moves toward the crankpin bearing. This optimization case results in the maximum weight reduction of 7%. Since each optimization case was studied individually, further analysis was needed by considering a combination of these cases. Options for a redesigned crankshaft were developed such that as many optimization cases as possible could be applied. FE models of possible combinations were created and FE analysis with dynamic load was considered for each combination. The combination of Cases 1, 2, and 3 results in a 10% weight reduction in comparison with the original crankshaft. Considering the manufacturing processes, the geometry of the crankshaft could be modified further to take advantage of the results of improved fatigue strength due to fillet rolling and/or the use of micro alloyed steel.
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These modifications reduce the weight of the original crankshaft by 18%. The final optimized geometry is shown in Figure 4. It should be noted that the fatigue strength of the optimized crankshaft is significantly higher than the original crankshaft due to a slight increase in the stress range of 7% at the fillet and a significant increase on the order of 40% to 80% in fatigue strength due to fillet rolling, as discussed earlier. With regard to the cost of the optimized crankshaft, this is affected by the geometry changes and weight reduction, modification in the manufacturing process, and the use of MA steel. The optimized geometry requires redesign and remanufacturing of the forging dies used. Although a micro alloy steel grade is somewhat more expensive than hot-rolled steel bar, the heat treatment cost savings are significant enough to offset this difference. In addition, micro alloyed steel has 5% to 10% better machinability than quenched and tempered steel, resulting in reduced machining costs due to enhanced production rates and longer tool life (Nallicheri et al. [4]). A consideration of these factors, along with the reduced material cost due to the 18% weight reduction, indicates a reduction in the total cost of the forged steel crankshaft. Case2. Increasing Oil hole Dia and Fillet Radius Case1. Increasing Hole Depth
Case 3.Reducing the crank web thickness Figure 4. Optimized crankshaft geometry with combination of case 1,2, and 3. 6. Conclusions Geometry optimization resulted in 10% weight reduction of the forged steel crankshaft, which was achieved by changing the dimensions and geometry of the crank webs while maintaining dynamic balance of the crankshaft. Crankshaft geometry changes in this optimization stage required changing the main bearings in the engine according to the optimized diameters and using thrust bearings to reduce the increase of axial displacement of the crankshaft. Using micro alloyed steel as an alternative material to the current forged steel results in the elimination of the heat treatment process. In addition, considering better machinability of the micro alloyed steel along with the reduced material cost due to the 18% weight reduction. References [1] Kamimura, T., 1985, Effects of Fillet Rolling on Fatigue Strength of Ductile Cast Iron Crankshaft, SAE Technical Paper No. 852204, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA. [2] Park, H., Ko, Y. S., and Jung, S. C., 2001, Fatigue Life Analysis of Crankshaft at Various Surface Treatments, SAE Technical Paper No. 2001-01- 3374, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA. [3] Nallicheri, N. V., Clark, J. P., and Field, F. R., 1991, Material Alternatives for the Automotive Crankshaft; A Competitive Assessment Based on Manufacturing Economics, SAE Technical Paper No. 910139, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA. [4] Hoffmann, J. H. and Turonek, R. J., 1992, High Performance Forged Steel Crankshafts Cost Reduction Opportunities, SAE Technical Paper No.920784, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA. [5] Kothari Kartik D. 2009, Dynamic Simulation and optimization for a Dynamically loaded crankshaft of a Single cylinder I.C. Engine, Dissertation report - Saurashtra Universit, Rajkot.
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Artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Design

Milind S Kirkire1*, V B Suryawanshi 2
1
Rajendra Mane College of Engg. & Tech., Devrukh, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra. 2 VJTI, Mumbai, Maharashtra. *Corresponding author (e-mail: milind.kirkire@rediffmail. Com)
The application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to design is mainly concerned with trying to make systems smarter by learning how to enable them to represent and manipulate the real world knowledge. It is also about studying how designers apply human intelligence to design, and with trying to make computer aids to design more knowledgeable. Currently the main themes in the application of AI are to explore the formal representation of the design knowledge, and also to develop techniques for reasoning with or applying this knowledge. Computers have traditionally been able to deal with the application of the laws of science, expressed in mathematical techniques. Artificial Intelligence (AI) mainly allows representation of heuristic(or rule based) knowledge that is less easy to express using mathematical approaches. This part of AI is particularly concerned with the development of such representations is known as expert systems or more generally knowledge based systems. This paper covers the various steps and concepts involved in adding Artificial Intelligence to the design of mechanical systems. 1. Introduction
There are a number of strands of research into artificial intelligence(AI).Only one part of the activity involves trying to produce the systems which simulate intelligent behaviour.The other work involves investigating the nature of intelligence, and trying to make systems smarter by learning how to enable them to represent and manipulate real world knowledge. Brachman and Levesqe (1985) suggested that a primary concern of AI is writing down descriptions of the given area in such a way that an intelligent system can come to new conclusions about its environment by formally manipulating these descriptions. The main characteristic of AI is the representation of the domain knowledge. This paper focuses on the various concepts of AI system. Also a case of application of AI in gearbox design is discussed here. 2. Knowledge based systems
Knowledge based engineering, a new development of Artificial Intelligence in dealing with the knowledge information, is mainly focused on how to represent knowledge and work out the solution intellectually by making use of the computer. Knowledge engineering is the important theoretical base of new generation computer, which makes the research of Artificial Intelligence transfer from theory to application, from modeling based on reasoning to modeling based on knowledge. Its ultimate purpose is to develop artificial intelligence system, compliment and extend the brains function and start an age in which human beings and computer think together. 2.1 Inference engine
The extraction of information from the knowledge base is carried out by a part of the system known as an inference engine, which is generally separate from the knowledge base itself. Inference normally involves search and matching in the knowledge base in order to try to meet a goal.
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User Interface
Inference Engine
Knowledge base Knowledge acquisition
Expert
Figure 1.Elements of a knowledge based system 2.2 Knowledge-Based System for Mechanical CAD Design
The ability of current mechanical CAD system in representing design for part, assembly and drafting/drawing is well established. Parametric design and feature based modeling are common technologies found in existing 3D CAD system. There are two common approaches of 3D design: a new design or/and modification to existing design (Figure 2). For new design, the designer will have to model the part from scratch, starting either by 2D sketch and then extrude/revolve/loft/sweep; or using 3D primitive to perform Boolean operations to form 3D part. These are then followed by other feature operations such as hole, fillet, chamfer, etc. Applying assembly constraints to build a 3D assembly then forms various parts together. While for modification to existing design, dimensions and other properties are changed/varied to form new part and assembly [1]. The underlying technology for Parametric Design is dimension driven geometry where changes in geometry are generated by changes in dimensions value, constraint and relation/equation In Parametric CAD system, geometric entities of models are connected with parameters. Thus, selecting the right parameters that meet the design requirements is essential role of design engineer. The experience, knowledge and expertise of a CAD designer covering areas of product geometry and properties are crucial in producing design right the first time and cutting short the product development cycle. New design Mechanical 3D CAD software Feature design Parametric design Inputs/Changes of model parameters
Modification of existing design
Feature library / reuse
Variant design
Figure.2 Common approaches of 3D design A knowledge-based system that could capture and retain his/her expertise gained in the past designs and re-apply to the future designs is vital important. 3. Approaches to the application of AI in design There are several classes of design problems for which AI techniques are particularly useful, these are discussed below3.1 Decomposition Engineering products are often highly complex, involving thousands of parts and in the design of such products the interactions between the design activity and other activities such as- manufacturing are also very complex. A way which is adapted for managing the complexity in many approaches is to apply divide and conquer method in which the problem is divided into smaller, more soluble, sub problems. Much research into this area has also taken place by studying how designs and design knowledge and the design process, may be
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subdivided, which is called as decomposition of the problem into smaller elements. An assembly may be subdivided into the sub assemblies. Decomposition may be achieved in various ways, for example by dividing the problem according to the nature of the solution technique adopted, or dividing the design itself into a series of elements. An assembly might be divided into subassemblies, and these in turn into individual components. If the design process progresses from the upper levels to the lower ones this is known as a top-down approach to design. Conversely, if the detailed component parameters are established first, and then the results assembled at a higher level, then this is known as bottom-up design.
Figure 4. Components of the gearbox Table 1.Assembly Constraints used for the gearbox Name of the Constrained with Type of Type of Constraint Component respect to Constraint with respect to (another component) Principal casing Fix cover Output shaft Principal casing Coincidence Line + Plane cover Output ball bearing Output shaft Coincidence Line + Plane 2.2 Output Shaft Key Output shaft Coincidence Line + Plane Gear Output ball bearing 2.1 Input shaft Input Shaft Key Pinion Input ball bearing 1.2 Secondary casing cover Output shaft Output shaft Principal casing cover Input shaft Input shaft Input shaft Principal casing cover Coincidence Coincidence Coincidence + Angle Coincidence Coincidence Coincidence Coincidence Line + Plane Line + Plane Line + Plane Line + Plane Line + Plane Line + Plane Line+ Surface
No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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3.2 Plan selection and refinement In many design problems the design approach can at least in part be reduced to that of identifying a generic design type and then filling in details of dimensions, materials and component arrangement. In AI this approach is called as Plan refinement, and is a technique that originates from research into medical expert systems. There it is used to select a general treatment approach, and then to refine this to identify drug combinations and amounts appropriate to a particular patient. In our case , the process of selecting a type of bearing to be used, and then instantiating the values of the attributes in a frame describing that bearing, can be regarded as a simple example of plan refinement. 3.3 Constraint-based reasoning The particular materials, dimensions and condition selected for a given design will be chosen to ensure that the design is fit for purpose, and that it can be made. If a dimension is such that the design breaks under load, or cannot be made, then the design conflicts with constraints imposed by the strength of its materials or manufacturing process respectively. The more general concept is that a particular design is at a point in a multi-dimensional design space, and that bounds on that space that define feasible designs are imposed by constraints as shown in figure below. 4. Conclusions
Artificial Intelligence can be used very effectively and efficiently for the design of the mechanical system. It is successfully applied for the design of gearbox, which reduces design time and cost to a very large extent. References [1] Cher Dong Theng, Dr.Napsiah Ismail, Dr.Wong Shaw Voon, Dr.Wan Abdul Rahman, Knowledge based system for mechanical CAD design, The 2nd National Intelligent Systems And Information Technology Symposium (ISITS07), Oct 30-31, 2007, ITMA UPM, Malaysia, 218-224. [2] Pengshou Xie, Yongping Kang, Qiuyu Zhang, Research on Application of Development Method of Knowledge Base in the Integrated System for ICAD, Sixth International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Computing, Applications and Technologies (PDCAT05) 0-7695-2405-2/05, 2005. [3] Gheorghe Mogan, Eugen Butila, Production Engineering Book Chapter,Gheorghe Mogan, Eugen Butila, Expert system to design mechanical systems with gears, ISBN:978-1-40202932-5 (Print) 978-1-4020-2933-2 (Online), 2006, 143-162. [4] J. Cecil, Computer-Aided Fixture Design A Review and Future Trends, International Journal Of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 18, 2001, 790793. [5] Liu Zhongtu, Wang Qifu, Chen Liping, A knowledge-based approach for the task implementation in mechanical product design, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 29, 2006, 837845. [6] Hudayim Basak, Mahmut Gulesin, A Feature based parametric design program and Expert system for design, Mathematical and Computational Applications, 9(3), 2004, 359-370.
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Modal and Static Structural Analysis of Two Wheeler Chassis

Kumar Bhatt1*, Prof. Vijay Chaudhary2, Sundaram Rout3 Charotar institute Of Technology, Changa, Gujarat 3 Extencore Solutions, Pune, Maharashtra * Corresponding Author (e-mail: er_bhatt@yahoo.co.in) Most of the manufacturers are showing keen interest in designing and manufacturing higher powered or higher cc motorcycles. The efforts are taken to carry out the stress analysis and the modal analysis of a country ride vehicle upper Chassis frame which is powered with, 300cc engine. The present study mainly aims to compare the natural frequencies of the chassis with engine excitation frequencies, to check out the possibilities of resonant conditions and static stress analysis for the chassis upper frame of the motorcycle. Also the natural frequencies result validation using the Experimental Modal Analysis (EMA) has been done to validate the results. According to the degrees of freedom , the frequencies and the mode shapes have been find out using the software tools and the results are used for conducting the EMA by considering the chassis upper frame as freefree beam during the impact hammer test in the lab. 1. Introduction
1,2
In this world of global competition, the ride comfort quality offered by two-wheeler plays an important role in attracting the potential buyers. The comfort is significantly affected by noise and vibration, which is experienced by the rider during the travel. These vibrations are caused by road roughness, mass unbalance etc. and are transmitted to the occupant through the seat floor, handle bar, footrests means in totality through the frame skeleton of motorcycle chassis. In two wheeler vibrations varies largely according to the fundamental skeleton of frames, the method of engine supporting through engine mount and complicated interaction among the structural member such as engine frame, muffler and other components. On rough road tires & suspensions at front and rear ends aims at absorption of road jerks, which generally sets the vehicle in to vibration of high amplitude but of low frequency. But on plane roads type of engine mounting on vehicle chassis and actual frame skeleton determines the vibration of low amplitude during operating range of vehicle. The frequency depends on engine speed, combustion characteristics, transmission harmonic etc. Modal analysis can be used as a means of visualizing, and thereby increasing our understanding of the motions, which occurs when the structure or system vibrates. So our main objective is to conduct the modal analysis and static stress analysis on one of the dummy upper frame of a motorcycle. Here the work is done to determine the stress acting on chassis frame of the motorcycle due to the weight of the engine by using finite element technique, the natural frequencies of the chassis frame of motorcycle using software tools as well as experimental modal analysis. To compare the natural frequencies with the engine excitation frequencies and to check for any possibility of the resonance & to suggest the suitable solution if any case the resonance occurs. 2. Finite Element Model Description
The motorcycle frame was generated using the CATIA V5 with the unit thickness value. During the meshing process the mid-surface has been extracted in Hyper mesh 8.0 versions and the meshing process is done. Here the Quad Shape has been selected for the meshing and the element chosen is shell type. MPC has been used to model a rigid constraint between two deformable bodies or as a rigid component used to transmit forces and moments in engineering applications. Here this element has been used at foot rest and inside the hollow portion of the handle bar. The Figure (1) shows the model of chassis upper frame. It was made up of SAE 4340 material.
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Figure 1. FE meshed model of frame 3. FE Model analysis
Figure 2. Maximum Von-Mises stress
The Engine weight of 65Kg has been applied to the centre of foot rest part at the above shown chassis frame. The figure (2) shows the result of the maximum Von-Mises stress location and the value Here some assumptions have been made;(a) The frame of motorcycle is considered as a whole one body and the weld joint are not taken in consideration, (b) The material is considered isotropic in its elastic phase [2].The free-free boundary condition was adopted in order to obtain the chassiss natural frequencies and mode shape vectors. Neither constraint no loads were assigned in an attempt to stimulate this free-free boundary condition. Now the engine excitation frequency has been found by using the peak and low rpm of the engine, it was found between the range 11.66Hz to 41.66Hz. Now the motorcycle have the eleven degrees of freedom [7] as shown in figure (3).Now we find the natural frequencies and mode shapes for the eleven degrees of freedom onwards the first six rigid modes using the Ansys Classical version 10.0 software tool, but for deep study the further more modes have been found. Here the modal analysis of the upper main frame has been done below which the engine is been mount; the foot rest has been neglected here for showing the effect actually on the upper part of the main frame. The following results have been obtained as shown in table 1. For the Study purpose here we had chosen the four modes from the below table (Mode 7, 14, 18, 21) with there frequencies as 132.21Hz, 441.12Hz, 699.303Hz and1045.10Hz.This section presents the experimental data acquired in order to identify the modal parameter of Two-wheeler chassis. 4. EMA Impact Test
The chassis upper part of mainframe was divided into 14 grid points where at these points, frequency response functions were measured. The experiment tests which known as impact hammer test was performed by attaching the uni-axial accelerometer to a reference point [5], and excite the structure at all other points with the roving impact hammer. This method provides better results with negligible mass loading. Here the reading are taken at four critical position (at handle bar, middle position of frame, at the bend of pipe, & lastly at the centre of the engine mounting position near the foot rest. The instruments used for the EMA are FFT- 2 Channel Analyzer, [6] Impact hammer (Bruel and Kjaer) with load cell attached to its head for measure of input force; an accelerometer to measure the response acceleration at a fixed point & direction; post processing modal software. The chassis is lifted and hanged as a free-free beam on the support with belts as shown in below block diagram Figure 4.
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Figure 4. Experiment Setup Table 1. Natural Frequencies from FE Model
Mode Frequency Mode Frequency Mode Frequency No (Hz) No (Hz) No (Hz)

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 132.21 159.44 195.66 251.44 318.00 358.29 381.47 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 441.12 584.91 639.26 689.50 699.30 878.61 978.06 21 22 23 24 25 1045.10 1212.80 1272.90 1451.20 1512.60
Figure 5. FRF Graphs from EMA
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Table 2. Result Comparison of Natural Frequencies at different modes numbers
Mode No.
(7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) 5.
Expt. Frequen cy (Hz)

110.31 158.58 124.8 266.36 320.09 342.62 407.65
FEM Frequen cy (Hz)

132.21 159.44 195.66 251.44 318.0 358.29 381.47
% Error
16.57 0.53 -9.78 -5.93 4.3 4.3 -6.86
Mode No.
(14) (15) (16) (17) (19) (20) (21)
Expt. Frequen cy (Hz)

480.06 571.09 625.5 681.9 847.65 977.34 1061.6
FEM Frequen cy (Hz)

441.12 584.91 639.26 689.50 878.61 978.06
% Error
-8.82 2.36 2.15 1.10 3.52 0.075 1.57
1045.1
Conclusions
From the comparison of results from table (1) & (2), it can be seen that the natural frequencies are great away from the engine excitation frequencies, so there are very less chance of resonance in the motorcycle, which makes the riding safe and with comfort. The Von-Mises stress found is below the permissible yield stress value (270 Mpa) for the material 4340 steel ,so upper chassis frame will be safe and bear the load of engine. The result indicating that the FE model shows a good correlation with the experimental model, the natural frequencies from the EMA are found with average of 9% error on both sides both side of frequencies from the FE model. Experimental Modal analysis has successfully validated the software results for the natural frequencies. The error in the result might be due to the inaccuracies perfection of the model and the imperfection of the real structure, while hammer hitting and experimental set up which can be counted. In future scope [2] the dynamic correlation and updating technique can be used with different methods of experimental analysis. 6. Acknowledgement
I am very thankful to my college professor Mr. Vijay Chaudhary & our principal Dr Y P Kosta and the Mr. Sundaram Rout, of Extencore Solutions for providing me the basic guidance on the experimental modal analysis and there motivation throughout this work. References [1]. William A. Fladung, The Development and Implementation of Multiple Impact reference testing, Thesis-BSME, University of Cincinnati,12-16. [2]. Izzuddin bin Zaman Bujang, Roslan Abd. Rahman, Application of dynamic correlation technique and model updating on the truck chassis, University of Tun Hussein Onn & University of Malaysia. [3]. BernHard Bill, Basic Theory of Hammer Test Method, Kistler Intrumente AG, Switzerland, 1-2. [4]. Mauro Salvador, Davide Fabris, Study of Stability of a two wheeled vehicle through experiments on road and in laboratory , Automobile Motori-HI TECH,27-28 MAY 2004, 13. [5]. Peter Avitable, Experimental modal analysis A Simple Non-Mathematical Approach, University of Massachusetts Lowell, peter_avitabile@uml.edu. [6]. Brian J. Schwarz & Mark H. Richardson, Experimental Modal Analysis, Vibrant Technology Inc, California, October 1999. st [7]. Cossalter Vittore, "Motorcycle Dynamics," Race Dynamics Greendale, 1 Edition 2002, 253-259. [8]. Bruel and Kjaer, Structural Testing Part 1: Mechanical Mobility Measurements, DK 2850, Denmark, 10-38.
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Optimization of Differential Gear Box Housing by Using Computer Aided Engineering

Mr. Manoj M.Patil1*, Prof.J.G.Gajendragadakar1, Mr. Deepak Nidgalkar2
1 2
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli416 415, MH. India Mahindra Engineering Services Ltd, Pune-411 057, MH, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: mmmpatil@rediffmail.com)
Mass is one of the significant parameter while designing any automobile component due to its direct bearing on fuel economy & cost. With these objectives in mind optimization of components is carried out regularly. A case study of an optimization of differential gear box housing is described. The differential is an important subsystem in driveline of all modern cars and trucks. The differential gear box housing houses important components like axle, pinion, crown wheel, cage, etc..The strength & rigidity of housing are important parameters while designing it. Finite element analysis of housing was carried out in ANSYS 10 to ascertain scope for optimization. Then topological optimization was carried out. The objective was to minimize the volume keeping compliance & stresses nearly equal to or less than that of original design. Various loads acting on the component during vehicle operation are considered for the analysis. Effort is made to arrive at suitable boundary conditions to simulate right behavior of the system and aid optimization. The methodology developed can be used for optimization of similar components. Optimization was successfully completed & all desired objectives were met .The optimized geometry resulted in reduction of component mass by 22.63 %. This resulted into more strength to weight ratio. 1. Introduction
Differential is a device that splits engine torque two ways allowing each output to spin at different speeds while taking a turn. It has been noted by designers that the design of the differential housing is done mostly on thumb rules and very less effort has been made to optimize the design through simulations. Therefore Differential gear box housing needs to be optimized to meet market demand of reduced cost of ownership. Topological optimization capability of ANSYS has been successfully used to obtain concept design of differential gear box housing. Topological optimization in ANSYS uses density approach. In this the stiffness is assumed to be linearly dependant on the density. The material density of each element is directly used as a design variable, and is normalized to have a value between 0 & 1 representing state of void & solid, respectively. The required specification of vehicle is given in Table1.
Table 1: Specification of vehicle

Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Parameter Power Axle load carrying capacity Final drive ratio First gear ratio Maximum turning radius Material of housing 72 HP@ 4000 r.p.m 1134 Kg 4.27 4.032 6.08m FG 400
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2.
Process Methodology
Following step by step approach is followed to get an optimized shape. 2.1 Load Determination The major load coming on differential is due to driving torque, vertical reaction, tractive forces, braking forces & cornering forces. Following load cases were considered.
Table 2 - Load cases

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 2.2 Torque load + Vertical reaction + Traction Torque load + Vertical reaction + Braking Torque load + Vertical reaction + Cornering (Left) Torque load + Vertical reaction + Cornering (Right)
3 D CAD Modeling
3 Dimensional geometry with allowable design space was created by using CATIA as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig.1 - CAD Model of differential
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Fig. 2 - FE Model of differential

2.3 FE Modeling Mesh was created by using ANSYS. The total volume was divided into different volumes to separate out portions which cannot be modified and portions which can be modified (optimized). Care was taken while defining design & non design areas based on manufacturability and operational considerations. 10 noded tetrahedron elements are used for meshing. Fig. 2 shows FE Model of differential. 2.4 Boundary conditions The adopted boundary conditions are shown in Fig.3. The boundary conditions are adopted so that the model will not move rigidly in any direction.
Fig. 3 - FE Model of differential
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Fig.4 - Optimization output

2.5 Topological optimization
The topological optimization was carried out by using ANSYS & modified shape is obtained as shown in Fig.4. The objective was to minimize the compliance subjected to volume constraint. 2.6 Optimized CAD model
A CAD model was built based on output obtained through optimization exercise.Fig.5 shows the Optimized CAD model of differential. Stress analysis was carried out to ascertain validity of new design.
Figure 5 - 3D Optimized CAD Model
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3.
Results
Table 2 shows the comparison of the different parameters.
Table 3 - Comparison of results

Displacement (mm) Original Optimized Model Model Case 1 Torque load + Vertical reaction + Traction Torque load + Vertical reaction + Braking Torque load + Vertical reaction +Cornering (Left) Torque load + Vertical reaction +Cornering (Right) 100% Increased by 3% Reduced by 5.86% Increased by 3.5% Reduced by 7.03% von Mises Stress (MPa) Original Optimized Model Model 100% Reduced by 28.42% Reduced by 15.05% Reduced by 23.30% Reduced by 11.01%
Case 2
100%
100%
Case 3
100%
100%
Case 4
100%
100%
4.
Conclusion
The weight of an optimized model (i.e. new design) has reduced by 22.63%. References [1] Ji-xin Wang, Guo-qiang Wang, Shi-kui Luo, Dec-heng Zhou (2004,Nov.) Static and Dynamic Strength Analysis on Rear Axle of Small Payload Off-highway Dump Trucks, Paper presented at College of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Jilin University, Nanling Campus, No. 142 Renmin Street, Changchun 130025, PR China. [2] Charles R. Thomas Vernon S. Hillman, (1993) ,Simple Word Rules for the Determination of Gear Force Directions,Paper presented at Frontiers in Education Conference. [3] Tobias Lf, Fredrik Videll Ulf Sellgren,( 2006 ,May 31 June 1), A FEA-based design study to control run-time truck rear axle gearbox oil-leakage, Paper presented at NAFEMS Seminar: Prediction and Modelling of Failure Using FEA,Copenhagen / Roskilde, Denmark. [4] Christopher Rosica, Joseph Cristaldi, Joshua Crane, Ralph Elgesem,(2003), Design of a Differential Housing and Components of Differential Assembly, Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics Department Drexel University.
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Proc. Of the International Conferences on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India
Localization and Identification of Damage in the Cracked Cantilever Beam using Artificial Intelligence
Mihir Kumar Sutar1, Dr. DRK Parhi 2 S.I.E.T., Dhenkanal-759001, Orissa, India 2 N.I.T Rourkela-769008, Orissa, India * Corresponding author (e-mail ID: mihirsutar05@gmail.com) Identification and localization of crack plays an important role for structural health monitoring applications. In this paper defect in cantilever beam in the form of a transverse crack is being investigated using artificial Intelligence Technique like Fuzzy Logic. The Fuzzy Controller is comprised of three input parameters and two output parameters. The input parameters to the fuzzy controller are relative divergence of first three natural frequencies and the output parameters of the fuzzy controller are relative crack depth and relative crack location in dimensionless forms. For deriving the fuzzy rules for the controller; theoretical expressions have been developed considering three parameters such as; natural frequencies, crack depths and crack locations. Several fuzzy rules are derived and the Fuzzy controller has been designed accordingly. Experimental setup has been developed for verifying the robustness of the developed fuzzy controller. The developed fuzzy controller can predict the location and depth of the crack in a close proximity as par with the actual results. 1. Introduction
1
Intensive research has been going on among the scientists and engineers for fault diagnosis of cracked beams for last several years. Stiffness of the beam undergoes variation due to presence of crack. Many researchers are investigating to find out a robust method of fault detection. Sadeghi et. al [1] performed a fault diagnosis method based on genetic algorithms (GAs) and have proposed a model of damaged (cracked) structure. Saavedra [2] presented theoretical and experimental dynamics behavior of different multi-beams systems containing a transverse crack. Seshadri [3] performed an experiment to obtain a novel method for crack identification in beam. Analytical, as well as experimental approach to the crack detection in cantilever beams by vibration analysis is established by Jabbari [4] and to identify the crack, contours of the normalized frequency in terms of the normalized crack depth and location are plotted. Artificial Neural Network is being used by Hao [5] for damage detection considering the different uncertainties by taking into account the effect of uncertainties in developing an ANN model. Frequency Measurement method is being used by Patil [6] for damage detection of multiple open cracks in a slender EulerBernoulli beams. An analytical study is being performed by Chen [7] on the free and forced vibration of inhomogeneous EulerBernoulli beams containing open edge cracks. Orhan [8] in his study analyzed the free and forced vibration of a cantilever beam in order to identify the crack of a cantilever beam. H.F. Lam [9] approached Bayesian probabilistic framework for the detection of crack locations and extents on a structural member utilizing measured dynamic responses. Peng [10] introduces a new concept known as nonlinear output frequency response function (NOFRF) to detect cracks in beam like structures using frequency domain information. 2. 2.1 Theoretical Analyses Local Flexibility of a Cracked Beam under Bending and Axial Loading
The presence of a transverse surface crack of depth a1 on beam of width B and height W introduces a local flexibility, which can be defined in matrix form, the dimension of which depends on the degrees of freedom. Here a 2x2 matrix is considered. A cantilever
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beam is subjected to axial force (P1) and bending moment (P2), shown in Fig. 1, which gives coupling with the longitudinal and transverse motion.
Y axis
Z axis
B a da P2 W P
X axis L1 L
Fig.1. Cracked Cantilever beam Cross-section

The basic equation is derived from the strain energy release rate and the final equation for obtaining the local stiffness matrix is as shown in the equation. The local stiffness matrix can be obtained by taking the inversion of compliance matrix. i.e. 1 K12 C11 C12 K K 11 K 21 K 22 C21 C 22 (1) Now considering the free vibration and putting the boundary conditions the characteristic equation of the system can be derived as Q 0 (2) This determinant is a function of natural circular frequency (), the relative location of the crack () and the local stiffness matrix (K) which in turn is a function of the relative crack depth (a1/W). 3. Fuzzy Controller Analysis
The fuzzy controller has been developed where there are 3 inputs and 2 outputs parameter. The natural linguistic representations for the input are as follows Relative first natural frequency = FNF Relative second natural frequency = SNF Relative third natural frequency = TNF The natural linguistic term used for the outputs are Relative crack depth = CD Relative crack length= CL The membership functions names for the linguistic terms, as shown in the fig. 2. Some of the linguistic variables used are as shown in the table 1.
fnf snf RCL tnf Membership function
RCD
Fig. 2 Membership functions shown in the Fuzzy Controller

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Table 1: Fuzzy linguistic term used Name of the Membership function L1F1,L1F2,L1F3,L1F4 Linguistic terms Description and range of the linguistic terms Low ranges of relative natural frequency for first mode of vibration in descending order respectively Medium ranges of relative natural frequency for first mode of vibration in ascending order respectively Higher ranges of relative natural frequency for first mode of vibration in ascending order respectively
fnf 1 to 4 fnf5,6
M1F1, M1F2
H1F1,H1F2,H1F3,H1F4
fnf7 to 10
4.
Fuzzy Controller Mechanism used for Cracked Detection
The crisp values of relative crack location and relative crack depth are computed using the center of gravity method (Parhi, 2005) as: Relative crack location = cl =
location location d location location d location

rcl rcl
Relative crack depth =
depth depth d depth cd = depth d depth

rcd rcd
(3)
Using the above mechanism and the fuzzy rules the output was obtained. 5. Results and Discussions
The comparison of results between the numerical analysis, fuzzy controller and the experimental analysis is as shown in a tabular format in the table2. Table2: Comparison of results between the fuzzy controller and numerical analysis Numerical (relative Fuzzy Controller nd rd Relative Relative 2 Relative 3 (relative crack depth crack depth rcd and st 1 Natural Natural Natural rcd and location location rcl frequency Frequency Frequency rcl) fnf snf tnf rcd rcl rcd rcl 0.9848 0.9958 0.9974 0.204 0.074 0.205 0.071 0.9673 0.9874 0.9942 0.431 0.082 0.427 0.079 0.9624 0.9948 0.9982 0.548 0.16 0.537 0.16 0.9755 0.9976 0.9972 0.389 0.189 0.394 0.187 0.9852 0.9984 0.9967 0.227 0.237 0.231 0.237 0.9724 0.9961 0.9817 0.552 0.284 0.556 0.283 0.9824 0.9872 0.9917 0.449 0.405 0.451 0.404 0.981 0.9809 0.9932 0.495 0.424 0.497 0.424 0986 0.9841 0.9989 0.425 0.502 0.426 0.502 0.9834 0.9685 0.9974 0.537 0.534 0.543 0.535 The membership functions for the three input parameters i.e relative natural frequencies of first three modes are taken as Gaussian membership functions and their range is being kept within 0.912 to 1. Gaussian membership function has been chosen for this fuzzy controller as: 1. The output is very smooth
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2. Multivariate Gaussian functions can be formed from the product of the univariate sets. 3. Gaussian fuzzy membership functions are quite popular in the fuzzy logic literature, as they are the basis for the connection between fuzzy systems and radial basis function (RBF) neural network. The comparison as shown in the table indicates a very close variance in results in terms Fuzzy controller and numerical analysis 6. Conclusions
This particular research draws the attention that the developed Fuzzy controller can be used successfully to localize and identify the relative crack depth and relative crack length. By varying the crack position significant changes have been observed so far the modal natural frequencies are concerned. Further a Hybrid fuzzy controller can be designed taking reference the present fuzzy controller which will to an extend increase the accuracy level of predicting the location and identification of crack in terms of relative crack depth and relative crack length. References [1] Taghi, M., Baghmisheh, V., Peimani, M., Sadeghi, M.H., Ettefagh, M.M., Crack detection in beam-like structures using genetic algorithms. Applied Soft Computing, 8, 2008, 11501160. [2] Saavedra, P.N., Cuitino, L.A. Crack detection and vibration behavior of cracked beams. Computers and Structures, 79, 2001, 1451-1459. [3] Owolabi, G.M., Swamidas, A.S.J., Seshadri, R. Crack detection in beams using changes in frequencies and amplitudes of frequency response functions. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 265, 2003, 122. [4] Nahvi, H., Jabbari, M. Crack detection in beams using experimental modal data and finite element model. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 47, 2005, 14771497. [5] Bakhary, N., Hao, H., Deeks, A.J. Damage detection using artificial neural network with consideration of Uncertainties. Engineering Structures, 29, 2007, 28062815. [6] Patil, D.P., Maiti, S.K. Detection of multiple cracks using frequency measurements. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 70, 2003, 15531572. [7] Yanga, J., Chen, Y., Xiang, Y., Jia, X.L. Free and forced vibration of cracked inhomogeneous beams under an axial force and a moving load. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 312, 2008, 166181. [8] Orhan, S. Analysis of free and forced vibration of a cracked cantilever beam. NDT&E International, 40, 2007, 443450. [9] Lam, H.F., Leung, A.Y.T. Crack detection of beam-type structures following the Bayesian system identification framework. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 124, 2008. [10] Peng, Z.K., Lang, Z.Q., Billings, S.A. Crack detection using nonlinear output frequency response functions. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 301, 2007, 777788.
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Proc. of the International Conferences on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007, Gujarat, India
Green Design: Past, Present and Future

Minhaj Ahemad A.Rehman 1, R.R.Shrivastava2, R.L.Shrivastava3
1
St.Vincent Pallotti College of Engg & Tech, Nagpur, India 2 G.H.Raisoni College of Engg, Nagpur, India 3 Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engg, Nagpur, India *Corresponding author (e-mail:rlshrivastava@yahoo.com)
Green design involves creating products whose design, composition,& usage minimize their environmental impact throughout their lifecycle . The production processes and products are designed in such a way so as to minimize adverse impact on the environment. Production processes are examined to reduce the amount of waste, energy consumption and emissions. Green design adopts a preventive approach and integrates environmental concerns into the product life cycle .It includes Recycling activities which is carried out to ensure full usage of resources.The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on Green Design. This paper takes an integrated and fresh look into the area of Green Design. The objective of this paper is to identify major research areas on green Design and thereafter identify gaps, issues and opportunities for further study and research. Finally an integrated model is proposed that takes into account all the aspects of green design. This model may help researchers and professionals in the area of green manufacturing 1. Introduction
Researchers have analyzed different stages of a product's life and developed techniques and logistics to improve the design of the product from an environmental perspective. These techniques, all together, are referred as Green design .Products affects the environment at many points in their lifecycles. Once a product moves from the drawing board into the production line, its environmental attributes are largely fixed. Therefore, it is necessary to support the design function with tools and methodologies that enable an assessment of the environmental consequences in each phase . Green design and Manufacturing is more than using environmentally friendly resources, it is based on Manufacturing for Reuse. Design for Disassembly, etc[11]. The benefits of green design include safer and cleaner factories, worker protection, reduced future costs for disposal, reduced environmental and health risks, improved product quality at lower cost, better public image, and higher productivity. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows .Section 2 provides the review of literature on Green Design .Section 3 discusses Methodologies Suggested and adopted for Green Design {Work done in the field } section4 identifies gap in existing system section 5 provides the proposed green Design model last section gives the conclusion. 2. Literature Review
It gives an account of what has been published on Green design by accredited scholars and researchers. The readings have been taken from the Internet as well as from books, Journals, research papers published on the subject. 2.1 The Past Approaches For Green Design
In many past situations, environmental effects were ignored during the design stage for new products and processes. Hazardous waste was dumped in the convenient fashion possible, ignoring possible environmental damage. Inefficient energy use resulted in high operating costs. Waste was common in material production, manufacturing and distribution. Consumers cast aside products, usually with only minimal re-manufacturing or recycling. Since late 70s and early 80s, adopting an anti-toxics approach was a logical starting point
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which leads to the defeat of incinerators; landfills; and other polluting facilities. People just beginning to understand the dangers of the pollutants being released into the air, earth, and water. From 1980, activities in sustainable manufacturing started to focus on waste reduction in production, which are extended to the reduction of resources and energy use in production.[12].Manufacturers early efforts was thus focused on end of pipe treatment and waste disposal system .early regulatory mandates focused on control of emission, employing a media based (air, water and solid waste) approach. 2.2 Present Approaches for Green Design. As a effect of Kyoto Protocol (1997), in September 2005 a total of 156 countries agreed on the reduction of their carbon dioxide emissions and five other greenhouse gases. Regional legislations are, for example, the European Union directives on Waste of Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and End-of-Life Vehicle (ELV) are also in use. Europeans have already implemented take-back laws for autos, electronics and appliances. The rest of the world is fast catching up and the only solution for the manufacturers is to find alternate ways of production and alternate resources to use. According to Gungor, &. Gupta (1999) Green design aims to design products with certain environmental considerations, and emphasized on both the life cycle analysis (LCA) of the product and the design for environment (DFE).It can be broken down into many stages, including, manufacturing, consumer use and the end-of-life of the product. There are design objectives, include design for material and product recovery ,design for disassembly , design for waste minimization, design under legislation and regulations, etc Disassembly is used both in recycling and remanufacturing to increase the recovery rate by allowing selective separation of parts and materials. Design changes can often be more effective at reducing environmental burdens and more efficient at reducing costs than traditional end-of-the-pipe clean up strategies, Richard Ciocci and Michael Pecht (2006), gives concern that Green engineering requires environmental consideration at the design phase of a product. This consideration includes all material and energy requirements and their effects over the lifetime of the product. According to Seliger, G.et.al (2008) now, the scientific approaches have also focused on the design for environmental and material level recycling.. Innovative technologies can be applied to improve product and process design. Some techniques by which environmentally benign manufacturing can be promoted are: Remanufacturing, Reuse, Recycling Process Substitution, Process Control, Improved Process Layout, Treatment and Disposal of Manufacturing Wastes.[15] 3. Methodologies Suggested and adopted for Green Design {Work done} Schiavone Fet.al summarized a methodological approach, that integrates cultural aspects, product innovation issues and product strategic vision..Tsai-Chi Kuo et.al presents an innovative method, namely, green fuzzy design analysis (GFDA), which involves simple & efficient procedures, to evaluate product design alternatives based on environmental consideration using fuzzy logic. Teresa Wu et.al proposes use of multistage Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to assess corporate enactment of EBM as work parts move from place to place in a company. If one organization has multiple locations or is responsible for multiple products, multi-stage DEA is a promising approach. Gungor, & Gupta emphasized on environmentally Conscious manufacturing and Product Recovery (ECMPRO) which involves integrating environmental thinking into new product development including design,
Green design Strategies Source reduction Waste management
Reduce Weight
Substitute materials
Extended product life
Design for Disassembly
Design for Remanufacturing
Design for Recycling
Figure 1. Green Design strategies material selection, manufacturing processes and delivery of the product to the consumers, plus the end-of-life management of the product after its useful life. The recent World
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Technologies Evaluation Center (WTEC) study of EBM found that, a systems approach to materials and processing that considers comprehensive life cycle is necessary for evaluating design decisions that promote reduced environmental impact. Robert Sroufe et.al, examines the factors affecting Design for environment (DfE), and the role played by DfE tools, metrics, and personnel within the new product design process. Two approaches are used to reduce the environmental impact of manufacturing processes: eliminate or reduce the use of hazardous substances in the processes, and analyze the mechanisms of waste generation in different alternative manufacturing processes. In the first approach, most research focuses on the material substitution and selection, while the second approach attempts to improve the safety of manufacturing process.[15] Jack Jeswiet et.al provided some suggestions like Do not use toxic substances, but when necessary use closed loops., Minimize energy and resource consumption in production and transportation by striving for energy efficiency etc Walker describes Two approaches, One contributes to improving product design within the current product production system, the other is to redefine the role of the product designer, and offers opportunities that are not available within, conventional industrial design practice .Thus sustainable future will result from the continuing development of technology and knowledge, so that future generations can overcome any environmental problems caused now. 4. Gaps Identified Previous Research focuses on End of pipe treatment like waste reduction, pollution prevention etc .In Present situation manufacturers or designers are forced to adopt Regional environmental legislation/Directives for design (WEEE, ELV, Takeback etc) .Most researcher emphasis on material substitution, toxic reduction,product innovation, cost reduction .some of them focuses on analyzing the life cycle and product design by applying various tools like fuzzy logic. Beside this maximum attention is given to design for Recycling and disassembly ignoring other environmental aspects. Researchers focus restricted to one or two environmental aspects of design. There is no widespread consensus or agreement on the particular goals to be pursued by green design. Till date no concrete model is there which act as a base for green design, thus there is a nascent need arises to develop a Green Design model by considering both forward and reverse design aspects. 5. Proposed Green Design Model An integrated model is proposed that takes into account all the aspects of green design. This proposed model integrates Design for Environment with LCA and supported by Green PP. The product designer must explore each and every aspects of green design model before designing the product so that no corner should be left unturned for greening the product before the actual production starts or during the design phase. 5.1 Design for the Environment (DFE) Design for the environment, like design for manufacturing or design for assembly, is a set of guidelines to help designers meet particular design goals. It is a systematic consideration of design performance with respect to environmental, health and safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle .Green concept in design involves Resource saving, Utilize Green production process, Selection of proper tools and equipment, Minimize the number of components, Vendor selection etc. [10].As per the green design model, two approaches are to be considered for DFE 5.1.1 Forward Approach This approach takes into account Design for Assembly, Design for maintenance, Design for Manufacturing, Design for Quality, Design for Reliability, & Cost 5.1.2 Reveres Approach Here we have to take into consideration Design for Disassembly,Recyclability, Design for Reusability, Remanufacturability Disposability, refurbishing etc. 5.2 Life Cycle Analysis or Assessment (LCA) In order to design a product which is environmentally benign, the life cycle of the product should be well understood.[18],the cycle starts at the designing of product.literatures
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related to green design emphasize both environmentally conscious design and life cycle assessment/analysis [6]. In designing a product, the designing team can change the raw materials or substances used during the manufacturing to be less toxic, more environmental friendly. LCA is described as a process for assessing and evaluating the environmental, occupational health and resource-related consequences of a product through all phases of its
GREEN DESIGN
Supporting Factors Design for Environment (DFE) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Green Process Planning (GPP)
Forward Approach
Reveres Approach evaluate the green attributes of the process planning {raw material consumption, secondary material consumption, energy consumption, and environmental impacts.}
Design for Assembly Design for maintenance Design for Manufacturing Design for Quality Design for Reliability Design for Cost Design Design Design Design Design for for for for for
Design Design Design Design Design Design
for for for for for for
Disassembly Recyclability Reusability Remanufacturability Disposability refurbishing
Material Substitution waste Reduction minimum use of hazardous substance Innovation /Alternative technology Energy Reduction
Material extraction, primary processing and refining, manufacturing, product distribution, use, final disposition
Figure 2. Proposed Green Design model life, i.e. extracting and processing raw materials, production, transportation and distribution, use, remanufacturing, recycling and final disposal [15].The scope of LCA involves tracking all material and energy flows of a product from the retrieval of its raw materials out of the environment to the disposal of the product back into the environment.. LCA usually facilitates the systematic collection, analysis and presentation of environmentally related data. 5.2.1 Integrating LCA & DFE Considerations in Product Design
Figure 3. Integrating Environmental Life Cycle & DFE Considerations in Product Design As DFE is not standardized, it should be based on the reliable data from LCA, which provides the framework for analyzing environmental impacts associated with a product, and DFE is the vehicle for practical application of that knowledge. The Knowledge gained during LCA needs to be transferred into the initial design of a new product .The application of DFE guidelines must always take into consideration that they focus on a part of PLC and that their application might unfavorably affect other parts of the full life cycle. Hence, the LCA and DFE methodologies should be used together. A connection between LCA and DFE offers the possibility to integrate environmental evaluation with tolerable effort directly in the design process while keeping the transparency and reliability of LCA. Use of LCA as a DFE tool can Benchmark the environmental performance of existing products, Develop environmental targets for the product development team, provide an 'work-In-progress' assessment tool to review how a concept or detailed design might perform environmentally, Help the product
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development team make decisions regarding materials and components, Identify previously unknown impacts associated with a product & consumables . 5.3 Green Process Planning Green process planning does not defy traditional process planning, but is a supportive method to make manufacturing process more benign and is a supplement of traditional process planning. The objective of the process planning for green Design is to improve the green attributes of the manufacturing process by optimizing process elements, process courses, and process projects. Web-based Process Database Support System which has the function of distributed processing and storage of the data.is developed by Z.G.Jiang et.al.This process database can provide required digital information of relevant criteria and consulting data such as processing methods, machining parameters, green material, process equipments, etc. Felipe Romn et.al proposes an approach for storing and reusing environmentally-related process information of similar component process plans via environmental process model templates 6. Conclusions It has been estimated that most of the environmental impact of a product is determined by its design, and design changes can completely change a product's environmental footprint Various tools have been created to make it possible for designers to integrate the environmental stake during the early design phase. Designing environmental products essentially aim to reduce the use of restricted substances, minimize environmental impact, and increase the recyclability of the products. All environmental consequences of a product or a process from initial design to development phases need to be understood and analyzed .by considering both forward and reverse design approaches which will definitely helps the designers to green design the products for sustainable and green manufacturing. References [1] Li, J., Wu, Z. and Zhang, H-C. Application of neural network on environmental impact assessment tools, Int. J. Sustainable Manufacturing, 1(1&2), 2008, 100121 [2] Seliger, G., Kim H,J.,Kernbaum, Zettl, M. Approaches to sustainable manufacturing,Int. J. Sustainable Manufacturing, 1(1/2), 2008, 5877. [3] Walker, S. Extant objects: designing things as they are, Int. J. Sustainable Design, 1(1), 2008, 412. [4] Jack Jeswiet et.al. Market forces & the need to design for the Environment Int J Sustainability manufacturing, 1(1&2), 2008. [5] Schiavone F et.al. Strategy based approach to Ecodesign, DFE,Database for LCA , EOL ,Eco assessment tool. IJO sustainable design, 1(1), 2008. [6] S.K.Shrivastava, A state of art review Int JO Management Review, 9(1), 2007. [7] Teresa Wu et.al. Multi-stage DEA as a Measurement of Progress in Environmentally Benign Manufacturing FAIM, 2006, Limerick, Ireland [8] Tsai-Chi Kuo Sheng-Hung Chang Samuel H. HuangI. Environmentally conscious design by using fuzzy multi-attribute decision-making IJO Adv Manuf Technol 29, 2006, 209215 [9] Richard Ciocci and Michael Pecht, Impact of environmental regulations, Microelectronics International, 23(2), 2006, 4550. [10] Joseph Sarkis. Evaluating Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing Barriers with Interpretive Structural Modeling .IJOCI, 2002. [11] Timothy G. Gutowski Hand book of Design and Manufacturing for the environment, 2004. [12] T.G. Gutowski, et al. Environmentally Benign Manufacturing in Japan, Europe and the United States, NSF Panel Study; Overview, Journal of Cleaner Production, 2002. [13] Robert Sroufe et.al (2000), The new product design process and design for environment, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 20 No. 2, 2000, [14] Gungor, S.M. Gupta. Issues in environmentally conscious manufacturing and Product recovery, Computers & Industrial Engineering 36, 1999, 811-853. [15] Hong C. Zhang,et.al. Environmentally Conscious Design and Manufacturing: A State-ofthe-Art Survey, Journal of Manufacturing Systems 16( 5), 1997.
602
Study of Flange Contact for a Railway Truck on Curved Track

Nilotpal Banerjee National Institute of Technology, Durgapur 713 209, West Bengal, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: nil_rec@yahoo.com) Dynamics of a railway truck (Bogie in European usage) on fixed curved track very much resembles that of a rail vehicle. While entering a curve from a tangent track or starting from curve entry point the leading edge of the front wheelset makes the flange contact first. It is very interesting to study the nature and timing of the flange hitting and its variation with stiffness of suspensions in relation to angle of attack of wheelset. Bond graph model of a railway truck on flexible curved track has been created with eighteen degrees of freedom considering six degrees of freedom for each wheelset and truck frame. Bond graph model of a single wheelset created earlier is used to model the truck. The model is created and simulated for a given set of nominal parameter values with rigid track condition. 1. Introduction
A rail vehicle is supported on two trucks through secondary suspensions, each truck being supported by two wheelsets on track through primary suspensions. While negotiating a curve with super-elevation often it is associated with squealing (a violent shrill sound). Sometimes it leads to rail climb and derailment. A schematic diagram of a railway truck is shown in figure 1a. The diagram shows geometrical detail of a conventional truck frame with all motion variables. A simplified version of the same truck frame [1] with equivalent suspension system is shown in figure 1b for clarity and ease of analysis.
Figure 1a. Truck frame with wheelsets
Figure1b. Truck unit on equivalent suspension
The two principal axes of the truck represented by a frame, x T and yT are on the planes of symmetry and ZT is the azimuthal axis through its center of mass GT parallel to the inertial Zaxis.
T , T and T are truck angular velocity components about these axes. Two
wheelsets support the truck. Body fixed axes system for the wheelset are used with subscript w to distinguish them from similar body fixed reference system described for truck. For clear representation designation of the front wheelset is only shown in the Fig.1a. xw and yw are two principal axes of the wheelset and Zw is the azimuthal axis through its center of mass, Gf. Angular velocities of the wheel about x w and Zw are w and w respectively. Wheel spin angular velocity about yw is . The rear wheelset will have similar description. The wheelset bond graph capsule developed by Banerjee and Karmakar [2] in is used under different user
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Fig. 2. Diagrams showing actual and equivalent suspensions. name for the two wheelsets. Fig. 1b. shows the truck frame on equivalent primary suspensions. The points Gf and Gr are the mass centres of the wheelsets. In this figure only the springs are shown and dampers are omitted for the sake of clarity. Bond graph model [3] of a truck is developed on the basis of the system with equivalent primary linear and torsional suspensions. Equivalent stiffness and damping coefficients of the equivalent suspensions can be obtained from fig. 2. and may be listed as follows, where the subscripts L and t signify equivalent linear and torsional quantities.
K pxL 2 K px , R pxL 2 R px , K pxt 2 K px d p , R pxt 2 R px d p K pyL 2 K py , R pyL 2 R py K pzL 2 K pz , R pzL 2 R pz , K pzt 2 K pz d p , Rpzt 2 R pz d p
2
(1) (2)
(3)
where Kpx, Kpy, Kpz and Rpx, Rpy, Rpz are forward, lateral and vertical primary suspension stiffnesses and dampings respectively. 2. Kinematic analysis and model making
In this section, velocity analysis of the truck frame on equivalent suspension shown in Fig. 2. will be performed leading to the creation of its bond graph. Consider point Gf (center of mass of front wheelset) as a point fixed on the truck frame (or its hypothetical extension). Velocity components of Gf resulting from inertial velocity components X T , YT
and Z T of truck center of mass (GT) and angular velocities T , T and T about truck axes
xT , yT and Z T are easily obtained using truck geometrical parameters. For clarity a second
subscript T is used in addition with Gf to indicate that it is a point fixed on truck. Velocity components of GfT are given as follows,
G fT
xT
X T cos T YT sin T T hwt
(4) (5) (6)
G fT G fT
yT ZT
X T sin T YT cos T T hwb T hwt , Z T T hwb .
Now consider Gf as a point fixed on the front wheelset. Using a second subscript w to indicate that Gf is fixed on wheelset, velocity components of Gfw, in the in the directions of the truck frame xT , y T and Z T are obtained from inertial velocity components of wheelset center of mass. Velocity components of Gfw are given as follows, where X w , Yw and Z w are the inertial velocity components of the front wheelset center of mass.
G fw
xT
X w cos T Yw sin T ,
(7)
604
G fw G fw
yT ZT
X w sin T Yw cos T , Zw .
(8) (9)
In an identical manner, considering Gr (center of mass of rear wheelset) to be a point GrT fixed on the truck frame and also a point Grw fixed on the wheelset, velocity component of GrT and Grw in the directions of the truck axes are obtained. 3. Truck-wheelset bond graph model
Interfacing the above velocity components of the truck frame and that of wheelsets using the corresponding linear equivalent suspension elements now bond graph model of the truck is developed. Accordingly for the front wheelset,
a) G fT
b) c)
xT
and G fw
and G fw
and
xT
yT
are interfaced by are interfaced by are interfaced by
K pxL and R pxL K pyL and R pyL K pzL and R pzL
G fT
yT
G fT
ZT
G fw
ZT
The velocity components of GfT, Gfw, GrT and Grw can be realized in a bond graph from truck frame motions variables X T , YT , Z T , T , T and T , and wheelset motions
variables X w , Yw and Z w using transformer structures obtained from equations (4)-(9).

In the next step truck frame rotational motions elements. Accordingly for the front wheelset,
T and T are interfaced with
wheelset rotational motions w and w by corresponding equivalent torsional suspension
T and w are interfaced by K pzt and R pzt and b) T and w are interfaced by K pxt and R pxt
a) Bond graph of the truck showing the above interfacing between the linear motion variables and rotational motion variables of the truck frame and the front wheelset is given in Fig. 3. Truck frame motion variables T , X T , YT , T , Z T and T are represented by 1junctionswith appropriate suffixes on the left hand side of the figure. The wheelsets are represented by wheel capsule on the top and bottom of the fig.3. The flow variables
Fig. 3. Bond graph model of truck capsule
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Fig. 4a Truck capsule with glue ports
Fig. 4b Bond graph for truck simulation
associated with effort input glue ports of the wheelset capsules are also represented by 1junctions with appropriate suffixes. I elements for all the mass and rotary inertias of the truck frame are attached to the 1-junction representing its motion variables. Flow activated C elements are also attached to these junctions to record the variables from given initial conditions for observations and use in the transformer moduli. C and R elements on 1junctions represent five sets of equivalent suspension elements. The values of the stiffness and damping of these C and R elements are obtained from Equations (1)-(3). The SE element on 1Z junction represents the truckload. The transformer moduli for this interfacing
T
are obtained from equations (6)-(9) for front wheelset. This bond graph is converted to a capsule using five glue ports [4,5]. The icon of the truck capsule is shown in Fig.4.a. Numbered square boxes are the flow output glue ports for interfacing with the bolster. In order to study dynamical behavior of a truck on curved track, it is assumed that the same is pulled at its center of mass with a given velocity transverse to radius of the curved track through truck frame center of mass. Figure 4.b shows the bond graph to simulate truck dynamics. Glue port numbers are not given in this figure but 1-junctions of their attachments are shown. 4. Simulation Results
Some simulation studies are made to investigate the effect of primary suspension stiffness and curve radius on angle of attack. Angle of attack is important parameter of curving performance and is defined as the relative angle of yaw with respect to radial line. 6 Fig. 5a and 5b show the variation of angle of attack at a low (1.1 10 N/m) and a high 7 (1.1 10 N/m) value of longitudinal primary spring stiffness, Kpx. In both the cases the angle of attack of front and the rear wheelsets increases from the initial equilibrium position values and after a transient motion, due to flange contact settles down to a small value during steady state curving. From simulation studies for variation of angle of attack with increasing 3 9 values of Kpx from 1.1 10 N/m to 1.1 10 N/m it is observed that the time for flange contact with the leading wheelset from the same initial conditions decreases with increasing value Kpx. No such trend exists for trailing wheelset. Immediately after flange contact of leading wheelset there expectedly occurs a sharp change in the value of angle of attack of the trailing wheelset. Fig. 6a and 6b give similar plots as those of Fig. 5a and Fig. 5b for track radius of 500m. In this case also, the overall behavior, as regards angle of attack, leading wheelset flange contact and consequent disturbance on rear wheelset remains the same. However, there is a difference and that is for low value for Kpx and large track radius there may not be flange contact of the rear wheelset (Fig. 6a). Further, even though the values are small, angles of attack during steady state curving for large track radius is less than those for small track radius. Fig. 5a, Fig.5b and Fig. 6a shows that during steady state curving the front wheelset has a positive angle of attack and the rear has almost equal but negative angle of attack.
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Fig. 5a Variation angle of attack of front and rear wheelset with time for lower value of KPX and for 100m radius.
Fig. 5b Variation angle of attack of front and rear wheelset with time for higher value of KPX and for 100m radius.
Fig. 6 a Variation angle of attack of front and rear wheelset with time for lower value of KPX and for 500m radius.
Fig. 6 b Variation angle of attack of front and rear wheelset with time for higher value of KPX and for 500m radius.
References [1] N.Banerjee et al, Bond Graph Modeling of a Railway Truck on Curved Track. Simulation Modelling Practice Theory, vol 17, 2009, 22-34. [2] Nilotpal Banerjee and Ranjit Karmakar, Bond Graph Modeling of Rail Wheelset on Curved Track. SIMULATION, Transaction of Society of Modeling and Simulation International, Vol. 83, No. 10, October 2007, 695-706. [3] Amalendu Mukherjee, Ranjit Karmakar, and Arun kumar Samantaray, Bond Graph in Modeling, Simulation and Fault Identification, CRC Press, USA, 2005. [4] Mukherjee, A., Samantaray, A. K., System Modeling through bond graph objects on SYMBOLS 2000.Proceeding of International Conference on Bond Graph Modeling and Simulation (ICBGM-01) 33 (2001) 164- 170. [5] Karnopp, D.C.,Rosenberg, R.C., Margolis, D.L., System Dynamics: A Unified Approach. John-Wiley and Sons Inc., 1990.
607
Implementation of ASME Section VIII Division 2 Edition 2007

P. B. Gujarati1*, D. P. Vakharia1, P. B. Kiri2 SVNational Institute of Technology, Surat, India Design Engineer, Larsen & Toubro Ltd., Hazira, Surat. * Corresponding author (e-mail: paresh.gujarati@gmail.com)
2 1
The technology for pressure equipment design continues to advance each and every day. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) has been keeping pace with these advances over the years. To remain technically competitive, and to facilitate incorporation of new technology and future updates, ASME has developed a new code i.e. ASME Section VIII Div. 2 Edition 2007 after Edition 2004, Addenda 2006(Old code). Aim of this paper is to highlight weight saving/reduction as per new code. Weight reduction is attained by two ways. First is by reduced wall thickness of pressure vessel as new code gives higher allowable stresses because of reduced factor of safety of 2.4 from 3 of old code. Which will eventually gives lesser thick vessel compared to previous code. And second is by new nozzle reinforcement rules which give thin hub nozzle compared to given by old code. These will give considerable saving in material and hence weight and overall cost savings. 1. Introduction
In recent years, Pressure Equipment technologies have been aiming optimized performance at low cost and with high reliability. Mechanical design of critical pressure vessels are as per international standards and codes. Optimization by the user or manufacturer is normally limited. Pressure vessel codes give limited provisions for optimization. Two codes of ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) are widely used for pressure vessel construction, viz., ASME Section VIII Div. 1 (VIII-1) and ASME Section VIII Div. 2 (VIII-2). To remain technically competitive, and to facilitate incorporation of new technology and future updates, ASME is developing a new pressure vessel code (ASME Section VIII Div. 2 Edition 2007) which has considered all these latest developments in the recent technologies with inclusion of new theories and provides fruitful code which aligns the code itself to European standards for pressure vessels. ASME Section VIII Div. 2 Edition 2004 Addenda 2006 (Old Code) was the latest code before the Edition 2007. The new code is being developed primarily to address design and fabrication of pressure vessels and will result in significant cost savings for many vessels because there is significant wall thickness reduction when compared to earlier editions of Section VIII, Division 2. This paper gives how new code provides significant weight savings and overall cost savings for the current pressure vessel manufacturing industries. The paper only considers design aspects of code. 2. Weight reduction by implementation of new code
Simple pressure vessel reactor design consists of design of Shell, Heads, Flanged joints and reinforcement of nozzles. Following are the major changes in new code which is responsible for weight reduction 1. Weight reduction by design of cylindrical shell and head due to reduced wall thickness 2. Weight reduction by nozzle with lower hub thickness, designed as per the new code 3. Weight reduction of cylindrical shell and head due to reduced wall thickness
In new code, factor of safety is reduced to 2.4 from 3 of old code. Hence, there is increase in the allowable stress for the materials which will significant in thickness of thickness of pressure vessel shell and head. Table 1 gives design equations of cylindrical shell by both codes.
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Table 1. Design equations for pressure vessel cylindrical shell Design parameter Min. required thickness Shell Min. required thickness Hemispherical Head Old code [2] of New Code [1]
PR t1 SE 0.5 P t1 ' 0.5 PR SE 0.25 P
t2 t2 '
D P exp SE 1 2 D 0.5 P exp SE 1 2
of
Where, P=internal design pressure, MPa R=Reactor inside radius, mm D=Reactor inside diameter, mm S=Allowable stress at design temperature, MPa E=Weld joint efficiency Table 2 contains design conditions for two different reactors designed as per both codes and results are compared to obtain the % reduction in thickness (Table 3 & 4) Table 2. Design Conditions REACTOR* DESIGN PARAMETERS Reactor - 1 Reactor - 2 Design Pressure, MPa 6.865 18.63 Inside Diameter, mm 4216 2315 * Reactor design parameters are as per L & T Ltd. Hazira projects. Table 3. Reduction in Thickness for REACTOR 1 Sr. No 1
#
Material SA 516 Gr. 70
S-2006, MPa [4]
t-2006 t1, mm
S-2007, MPa [3]
t-2007 t2, mm
%Red. In thickness
200 C 149.34 99.18 150 98.72 0.47 350 C 128.44 115.76 128 116.14 -0.33 2 SA 387 Gr.11 CL2 300 C 163.75 90.27 164 90.11 0.17 400 C 152.92 96.81 153 96.74 0.07 3 SA387 Gr.22 CL2 300 C 164.51 89.84 169 87.39 2.73 450 C 151.62 97.66 154 96.10 1.60 4 SA 542 Type D CL 4A 300 C 191.65 76.89 244 60.15 21.77 400 C 178.37 82.72 235 62.49 24.46 450 C 169.68 87.05 205 71.79 17.53 # Materials listed in table 3 & 4 are most widely used material in division 2 Where, S-2006 = Allowable stress for material at design temperature as per the old code S-2007 = Allowable stress for material at design temperature as per the new code t-2006 = Minimum required thickness calculated as per the old code t-2007 = Minimum required thickness calculated as per the new code % Reduction in thickness = (t1-t2)/(t1) 100 (1)
609
Sr. No 1
Table 4 % Reduction in Thickness for REACTOR - 2 S-2006, t-2006 S-2007, t-2007 Material MPa [4] t1, mm MPa [3] t2, mm SA 516 Gr. 70 200 C 149.34 154.03 150 153.10 350 C 128.44 181.05 128 181.38 SA 387 Gr.11 CL2 300 C 163.75 139.66 164 139.27 400 C 152.92 150.19 153 149.91 SA387 Gr.22 CL2 300 C 164.51 138.97 169 134.92 450 C 151.62 151.56 154 148.87 SA 542 Type D CL 4A 300 C 191.65 118.29 244 91.85 400 C 178.37 127.58 235 95.51 450 C 169.68 134.49 205 110.14
%Red. In thickness 0.61 -0.18 0.28 0.19 2.92 1.77 22.35 25.13 18.11
The figure 1 given below shows % reduction in thickness by new code as compared to the old code of SA 542 Type D CL 4a for entire applicable temperature range.
% Reduction in thickness Vs Temperature
thickness
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

o
% Reduction in
Figure 1. % Reduction in thickness Vs Temperature for SA 542 Type D CL 4a
350
400
450
500
Temperature, C
Results & Discussions By comparing the two different Rectors at different design temperature, it is found that % reduction in thickness is more in the reactor when the material of the reactor is SA 542 Type D CL 4a compared to the other materials. SA 542 Type D CL 4a (figure 1) will give most % reduction in thickness ranging from average 15% to 25% at all temperatures. Means if one use SA 542 Type D CL 4a material for construction of pressure vessel as per new code, there will be more % reduction in thickness compared to vessel with other materials. 4. Weight reduction by nozzle with lower hub thickness, designed as per the new code
Pressure vessel contains nozzles for purpose of manway, access, instrument location etc. and which required opening in vessel that reduced the area from the vessel crosssection. Reinforcement is required to lower stress concentration around nozzle region. New code uses pressure area stress calculations rather than area replacement calculations of old code. The new theory gives same reinforcement of nozzle with lower hub thickness.
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Consider the following example of Radial Nozzle in Hemispherical Head (figure 2). Calculation for reinforcement is done by both the code and attempt is made to find out the minimum required thickness of the hub of the nozzle that gives nozzle reinforcement safe.
Figure 2. Radial nozzle in Hemispherical Head Table 5. Design Inputs for Radial Nozzle in Hemispherical Head Design Parameter Design Pressure, P Design Temperature, T Nominal Thickness of Head, t Inside radius of nozzle, Rn Allowable stress for nozzle at design temperature, Sn Allowable stress for Head at design temperature, S Value 6.865 420 58 386 133.6 149.8 Unit MPa C Mm Mm MPa MPa
Table 6. Results of nozzle reinforcement as per design by rule. Min. thickness of Area Area Total Weight hub to make Weight Available Available Area of reinforcement Saving in % in shell in Hub Available nozzle Safe, mm A1, mm Old Code New Code 153 105 5947 20386
2
A2, mm 34306 26259
A, mm 40253 43805
kg 1401.2 985 29.7
Weight of nozzle is calculated by using SOLID EDGE software. Weight is calculated for each nozzle case. And % reduction in thickness is found as per:
% Reduction
W153 mm W105 mm 100 W153mm
(2)
Where, W153mm = Weight of nozzle with 153 mm hub = 1401.2 kg W105mm = Weight of nozzle with 105 mm hub = 985 kg Therefore % Reduction in weight = (1401.2 985)/985 100 = 29.7
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Design validation Above calculations are performed by design by rule and it is validated by design by stress analysis that Nozzle reinforcement calculations with minimum hub thickness (105 mm) of nozzle is sufficient. Eventually 153 mm will also be safe in the same design conditions (table 5) as 105 mm is safe. Results & Discussions It is found that new code gives nozzle with lower hub thickness as compared to the old code for the same nozzle with same design conditions so, weight saving obtained by the new code is 29.70 %. 5. Conclusions
As the new code gives higher allowable stresses than the old code due to reduced factor of safety of 2.4, there is wall thickness reduction for certain materials at elevated temperatures. And reinforcement rules as per new code gives minimum thickness required for reinforcement lower than required by old code. Hence, significant saving in material and overall cost saving will result by implementation of new ASME Section VIII Division 2 Edition 2007. References [1] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII Rules for construction of Pressure Vessels, Division 2 Alternative Rules, ASME, New York, 2007 Edition, July 1, 2007. [2] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII Rules for construction of Pressure Vessels, Division 2 Alternative Rules, ASME, New York, 2006 Addenda, July 1, 2006. [3] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II Part D Properties of Materials, ASME, New York, 2007 Edition, July 1, 2007. [4] ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II Part D Properties of Materials, ASME, New York, 2006 Addenda, July 1, 2006.
612
Analysis of Influence of Internal Radial Clearance on Fatigue Life of Cylindrical Roller Bearing
P. H. Darji
1 1*
Dr. D. P.Vakharia
C. U. Shah College of Engineering & Technology, Surendranagar, India. 2 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: pranav_darji@rediffmail.com)
Bearing load is distributed among rolling elements. The load each rolling element receives is dependent, in general, on the azimuth position of the rolling element. The load distribution is important for predicting bearing contact stress, temperature, and fatigue life. A bearings internal load distribution can be obtained by analyzing contact deflections and bearing geometry constraints. As a load is applied to the bearing, deformations of various magnitudes occur at different azimuth locations. Assume the outer ring of the bearing is firmly seated in housing and the inner ring is well-fitted on a solid shaft. The fatigue life of a rolling bearing is strongly dependent on the maximum rolling element load Qmax, if Qmax is significantly increased, fatigue life is significantly decreased. Any parameter that affects Qmax, therefore, affects bearing fatigue life. One such parameter is radial (diametral) clearance. Internal load distribution of bearings is beyond the scope of bearing manufacturers catalogs as supported by the load rating standards. To analyze rolling bearing performance in an application, it is necessary to determine the load on individual rollers in case of cylindrical roller bearing. In this paper it was investigated how internal radial clearance influences on the fatigue life of the cylindrical roller bearing. Not only this, but it is also supported by Finite Element Analysis. 1. General
It is possible to determine how the bearing load is distributed among the rollers from knowledge of how each roller in a bearing carries load. To do this it is first necessary to develop loaddeflection relationships for rolling elements contacting raceways. Most rolling bearing applications involve steady-state rotation of either the inner or outer raceway; sometimes both raceways rotate. In most applications, however, the speeds of rotation are usually not so great as to cause ball or roller inertial forces of sufficient magnitude to significantly affect the distribution of applied load among the rolling elements. Moreover, in most applications the frictional forces and moments acting on the rolling elements also do not significantly influence this load distribution. Therefore, in determining the distribution of rolling element loads, it is usually satisfactory to ignore these effects in most applications. Furthermore, before the general use of digital computation, relatively simple and effective means were developed to assist in the analyses of these load distributions. In this chapter, load distributions in statically loaded ball and roller bearings will be investigated using these simple and effective methods of analysis. 2. Bearing under Radial Load
For a rigidly supported bearing subjected to radial load, the radial deflection at any rolling element angular position is given by
1 r cos Pd , (1) 2 in which r is the ring radial shift, occurring at 0 and Pd is the diametral clearance. Figure
1 illustrates a radial bearing with clearance. Equation (1) may be rearranged in terms of maximum deformation as follows:
613
1 max 1 1 cos 2
(2)
in which
P 1 d 2 2 r
(3)
(a) Before Displacement
(b) After radial Displacement
Figure 1 : Bearing ring displacement

The shift of the inner-ring center relative to the outer-ring center owing to radial loading and clearance, and the subsequent relative radial movement at any roller location are shown in Figure 1 (b). The sum of the relative radial movement of the rings at each roller angular location minus the clearance is equal to the sum of the inner and outer raceway maximum contact deformations at the same angular location. The relationship between r and max can be described from the equation
2 Above Equation (4) can easily understand from the Figure 1.
r = max +
Pd
(4)
3. 3.1
Effect of Clearance on Internal Load Distribution of Bearing Diametral clearance
The static load rating of a rolling bearing depends on the elastic properties of the material and on the geometry of the parts, as well as on the distribution of the external load between rolling elements. One of the most important factors that influences on the distribution of load between rolling elements, and thereby also the static load rating of the bearing is the internal radial clearance [1]. The fatigue life of a rolling bearing is strongly dependent on the maximum rolling element load Qmax; if Qmax is significantly increased, fatigue life is significantly decreased. Any parameter that affects Qmax, therefore, affects bearing fatigue life. One such parameter is diametral (radial) clearance denoted by Pd. Figure 2 illustrates the variation of load distribution among the rolling elements for some conditions of radial clearance as defined by the projection of the bearing load zone on a diameter. Figure 2 shows radial load distribution for various values of . Here is the ratio of the projected load zone on the bearing diameter [2].
(a)
(b)
0<
(c)
0.5 < < 1, 90 < 1 < 180, preload
= 0.5, 1
= 90, 0 clearance
< 0.5, 0 < 1
< 90, with clearance
Figure 2 : Rolling element load distribution for different radial clearance conditions.
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3.2 Problem Definition : Bearing No : 2206 (Cylindrical Roller Bearing) Following are the major dimensions of the bearing [3, 4, 5]. Internal diameter of bearing = 30 mm. Outer diameter of inner ring = 38.5 mm. Roller diameter = 7.5 mm Length of roller = 12 mm Number of rollers = 13 Inner diameter of outer ring = 53.5 mm Outside diameter of bearing = 62 mm. Applied load on bearing (Fr) = 20090 N. 5 2 Modulus of elasticity E = 2.058 x 10 N/mm Poissons ratio v = 0.3 Case I : No Clearance Pd = 0 Distribution of internal loading in statically loaded bearing. For steel roller and race way contact Harris states that, Kl = 7.86 x 104 ( l )8/9 = 7.86 x 104 (12) 8/9 4 1.11 = 71.564 x 10 N / mm
(5)
= 0.51.11 x Kl 4 1.11 = 33.155 x 10 N / mm The applied external radial load Fr may be related to the radial deformation (r), 1.11 Fr = Z x Kn x (r Pd/2) x Jr( ) For the present case taking Pd = 0, = 0.5, from table given in [6], Taking Jr( ) = 0.2453 corresponds with = 0.5 The applied external radial load Fr is also related to the maximum roll body load by, Fr = Z x Qmax x Jr( ) 20090 = 13 x Qmax x 0.2453 Qmax = 6300 N [ For 0 roller]
(6)
Figure 3 : Load distribution in roller bearing with roller position.

To calculate the load on remaining rollers,
(7)
615
= 360 / Z = 27.69 Load on roller 1 and 2, 1.11 Q27.69 = 6300 x cos (27.69) = 5504 N Load on roller 3 and 4, 1.11 Q55.38 = 6300 x cos (55.38) = 3363.4 N Load on roller 5 and 6, Q83.07 = 6300 x cos (83.07)1.11 = 602.368 N Again Fr must equal the sum of the vertical components of the rolling elements load,
83.07
(8)
Fr =
Q cos
Fr = 6300 (cos 0) + 2 x 5504 (cos 27.69) + 2 x 3363.4 (cos 55.38) + 2 x 602.68 (cos 83.07) Fr = 20013.46 N Comparing this result with the actual applied load 20090 N yields a 0.38% deviation, which is too small and negligible. Case II : With Clearance Assuming Pd = 0.041 mm [6], Also from [6] 20090 = 13 x 33.155 x 104 ( r - 0.0205)1.11 J r ( r - 0.0205)

1.11
J r = 4.661 x 10-3
(9) (10)
Solving Equation (9) and (10) by trial and error method. = 0.31, J r = 0.20781 and r = 0.5318. From Equation (6), 20090 = 13 x Qmax x 0.20781 Qmax = 7436.53 N [ For 0 roller] Equation (7), is used to calculate distribution of load on remaining rollers, = 360 / Z = 27.69 Load on roller 1 and 2, Q27.69 = 7436.53 x 1 = 6063 N Load on roller 3 and 4, Q55.38
1 1 cos 55.38 = 7436.53 x 1 2 x 0.31
1.11
1 2 x 0.31
1 cos 27.69
1.11
= 1979.1 N
1 1 cos 83.07 Q83.07 = 7436.53 x 1 2 x 0.31 =0 Again Fr must equal the sum of the vertical components of the rolling elements loads.
1.11
Load on roller 5 and 6,
83.07
Fr = Q Cos
0
Fr = 7436.53 (Cos 0) + 2 x 6063 (Cos 27.69) + 2 x 1979.1 (Cos 55.38) + 2 x 0 (Cos 83.07) Fr = 20422.58 N
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Comparing this result with the actual applied load 20090 N yields a 1.65% deviation, which is very small and negligible. 4. Conclusions
Figure 4 shows the comparison of radial load distribution without clearance (Pd = 0) and with clearance (Pd = 0.041 mm)
8000 7000 6000
Roller Load (N)
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 No Clearance Clearance
Roller Position
Figure 4 : Roller load distribution vs Roller position

Figure 4 shows the effect of radial clearance on distribution of internal loading in statically loaded bearing. As shown from the figure if clearance is not present than maximum load on 0 roller is 6300 N and total seven rollers are sharing the load. Whereas maximum load on 0 roller with clearance is 7436.53 N and only five rollers are sharing the total applied load. So if value of clearance is increase then value of Qmax will also increase and total number of rollers which share the load will decrease. In this circumstances fatigue life of the bearing will decrease. In this stage by applying preloading on the bearing, total number of rollers which share the load will increase, not only this but value of Qmax will be minimise. References [1] Radivoje Mitrovi. Analysis of the influence of internal radial clearance on the static load rating of the rolling bearing. FACTA Universitatis, Series: Mechanical Engineering, 1, 8, 2001, 1039 1047. [2] Tedric A. Harris and Michael N. Kotzalas. Rolling Bearing Analysis - Advanced Concepts th of Bearing Technology. 5 ed., Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, 2007. [3] W. W. Cheng. Experimental and Numerical study of multibody contact system with roller bearing Part I: An improved Footprint Test Method. Tribol. Trans. STLE, 39, 1, 1996, 75 80. [4] SKF General Catalogue. W. Germany, 1989. [5] Design Data. PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, 1994. th [6] Tedric A. Harris. Rolling Bearing Analysis. , 4 ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001.
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Bending Stress Analysis of Profile Shifted Gears: A Parametric Study

Paramanand Nandihal*, V. B. Math, M. S. Hebbal Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot-587102, Karnataka *Corresponding Author (email: paramanandn@gmail.com) The work presented herein is to study effect of profile shift and rim thickness on the induced bending stress at the root fillet of the spur gear tooth. The analysis is carried out with segment of single gear tooth, three gear teeth, five gear teeth and whole body model of gear using Finite Element Method. The load is applied at the Highest Point of Single Tooth Contact (HPSTC) on partially and fully constrained gear segment. The analysis is carried out to suggest the most appropriate finite element model and boundary conditions to investigate the induced root fillet bending stress in thin rim spur gears. 1. Introduction
Gears are one of the most critical machine elements in power transmission system. A vast amount of information has been accumulated on gear. Researchers have contributed to the knowledge of gear engineering and technology by providing variety of gear models. The objective of modelling of the gear encompasses static bending stress analysis, prediction of fatigue life due to cyclic loading, wear analysis, vibration analysis and noise control, load sharing between the teeth as mesh of gear advances, transmission errors, and stability analysis. In gear design there are two primary limiting factors with respect to the strength and both are related to fatigue. The rst is a fatigue fracture that leads to breakage of the whole tooth. This is due to the bending stress at the root of the tooth. The second limiting factor is surface fatigue, primarily pitting. This fatigue is due to the contact pressure between the teeth on contacting gears. In this paper the focus is on the rst limiting factor i.e. the bending stress. For thin rim gears, the thickness of the rim is another significant factor which influences the bending strength of the gear. Rim deflections increase the bending stresses in the tooth fillet and root areas. Therefore in aircraft applications, the rim thickness and allowable stress are optimized to achieve light weight. In the design of spur gear teeth, bending strength is a significant concern. The magnitude of the stress concentration depends on the size and shape of the section. In particular, it depends on the radius of curvature of the fillet at the critical section of the gear tooth. The profile of a gear tooth consists of an involute shape at the sides and a trochoidal shape at the fillet. An analytical method is used to generate the above profiles. In the present work, tooth fillet bending stresses have been calculated for both the standard and corrected gears considering the actual trochoidal fillet form, which closely represents the size and shape effects. Wilcox L. and Coleman W. [1] successfully applied the finite element method to determine the stress distribution in a spur gear at the fillet region of the tooth and the maximum surface stress at the fillet. Drago R.J. et al. [2, 3] studied rimmed gear stresses experimentally with strain gages and photoelastic models and analytically with two and threedimensional finite element models. Their studies report a nearly constant bending stress as the rim thickness decreases and a sudden increase in bending stress below a certain rim thickness. Analytical studies have been conducted on thin rim gear stresses with finite elements by several researchers. Chang S.H. et al. [4] conduct an investigation on rimmed gear using finite element method developed using SAP IV. The important objectives of his analysis are to study the effect of rim thickness, different displacement boundary conditions, and variety of loading conditions, on the root fillet stress. Oda S. et al. [5] studied a single tooth model of a thin rim spur gear using a five tooth segment fixed at its sides. They used strain gages to verify their results. Arai N. et al. [6] studied a spoked thin rim gear with four teeth in the free rim arc between spokes. Chong T.H. and Kubo A [7] used two-dimensional triangular finite elements and a rack model to study the effects of the rim on the bending
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stress in the fillet. Their rack model had statically determinate beam supports on segments of different lengths. For gear tooth modelling, Math V. B. and Chand S. [10] proposed an approach for the determination of geometry of spur gear tooth root fillet. An equation is developed to determine the point of tangency of root fillet and involute tooth profile on the base circle for a spur gear without undercutting. The majority of the thin rim gear studies report a nearly constant tensile bending stress as the rim thickness decreases to a value near the tooth depth. The tensile root stress increases rapidly with further reductions of rim thickness. However, each study reported a different transition rim thickness value. These studies also differed in the rim support geometry and the number of teeth on the gear. By critical appraisal of the available literature it is apparent that the effect of profile correction on induced bending stress in case of thin rim spur gear is yet to be investigated. In light of this, investigation is carried out hoping the present work contributes to the need. The principal objective of the work is to carry out the comparative analyses of induced bending stress at the root fillet and to study the effect of profile shift and the rim thickness on the induced bending stress at the root fillet. For analysis the single tooth segment, three teeth segment, and five teeth segment with partially and fully constrained rim of gear is considered. Also the finite element analyses of induced bending stress at the root fillet is carried out considering whole body Model with proper boundary conditions. 2. Finite Element Analysis Model
A user-friendly macro in Excel is developed to calculate the set of points on tooth profile pertaining to involute and root fillet, which accepts the parameters of rack cutter and gear as input. The program is coded in ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL) and it automate the task of creation of model, meshing, applying boundary conditions, choosing the appropriate density of the mesh depending on the stress gradient. The PLANE82 element is chosen for analyses and material property of steel is used for gear. The point of application of load and the fixed boundary conditions are as shown in the figure 1. 2.1 Convergence test
Convergence test is an essential and inevitable part of any finite element analyses to obtain reliable results. The finite element model needs to be meshed with appropriate size of elements. Course mesh may lead to erroneous results while too fine mesh exerts high computational burden. Therefore systematic analyses are carried out to decide appropriate mesh density, and confirm the convergence of the bending stress near the root fillet of the loaded gear tooth. Therefore systematic analyses are carried out to decide appropriate mesh density, and confirm the convergence of the bending stress near the root fillet of the loaded gear tooth. This is accomplished by carrying out several trials by re meshing the gear segment near the root fillet with smaller size elements than the earlier analysis. The process of refining the mesh is continued till the difference between the results of the conjugate trials reduces to a very small value (less than 0.5%). For specific gear tooth configuration it can be seen that the results converges for element size smaller than 0.25 mm reasonably. 3. Parameters considered The basic parameters such as pressure angle, addendum factor, dedendum factor, radius factor of normal service gears are taken from Bureau of Indian Standard IS 2535 (Part-1): 2004 ISO 53: 1998. A point load of 800 N is applied at the Highest Point of single Tooth Contact (HPSTC). The parameters are considered for the study is listed in table 1.
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Figure 1. Partially and fully constrained single gear tooth segment
Figure 2. Finite element model of single tooth, three teeth, and five teeth segment and whole body of spur gear Table 1: The parameters considered for the study Parameter Pressure angle Addendum factor Dedendum factor Tooth fillet radius factor No. of teeth Module Profile shift factor Rim thickness 4. 4.1 Bending stress analysis Notation haf hff rf Z m so Rt Values taken 0 20 1.25 1 0.25 30 10 -0.4, -0.2, 0, 0.2, 0.4 2.5, 2, 1.5, 1, 0.5 times module
The effect of rim thickness on induced bending stress at root fillet Figure 3 - 6 shows the Bending Stress V/s Profile Shift factor for partially and fully constrained gear segment of one, three, five teeth segment and whole body model. It is clear from the figure that the magnitude of the bending stress reduces as the profile shift factors increases. The comparison of fully and partially constrained gear revealed from figures 3, 4, 5 that the bending stress for fully constrained single tooth gear model, with rim thickness equal to 0.5 times the module, is lower than the partially constrained single tooth gear model. In true sense the gear with lower rim thickness is to be flexible enough to deform along the periphery of the rim. Therefore it is not appropriate to constrain the very thin rim gears fully. So it can be inferred that the low bending stress for gear with rim thickness equal to 0.5 times the module for fully constrained model are not the true indication of the state of stress. For whole body model from figure 6 it can be seen that there is no appreciable change in magnitude of induced bending stress at root fillet in all cases considered. But, here also the magnitude of induced bending stress at root fillet of gear model with rim thickness equal to
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0.5 times the module is low. Hence the gear with rim thickness less than unit module should not constrain fully in order to permit the natural distortion.
360 310
Bending Stress
310
Rt=2.5m Rt=2m Rt=1.5m Rt=1m Rt=0.5m

Bending Stress
Rt=2.5m Rt=2m Rt=1.5m Rt=1m
260
260 210 160 110 60 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2
210
Rt=0.5m
160
110
60
0.4
0.6
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
Profile Shift Factor
(b) (a) 2 Figure 3. The Bending Stress (N/mm ) V/s Profile Shift factor for partially and fully constrained single tooth gear segment
460 410 360
Bending Stre ss
Rt=2.5m Rt=2m Rt=1.5m

Bending Stress
310
Rt=2.5m Rt=2m Rt=1.5m Rt=1m Rt=0.5m
260
Rt=1m Rt=0.5m
310 260 210 160 110
210
160
110
60
60 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
(b) (a) 2 Figure 4. The Bending Stress (N/mm ) V/s Profile Shift factor for partially and fully constrained three teeth gear segment
310 Rt=2.5m Rt=2m 260
Bending Stress
Rt=1.5m Rt=1m Rt=0.5m
210
160 110
60 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
(b) (a) Figure 5. Bending Stress V/s Profile Shift factor for partially and fully constrained five teeth gear segment
310 Rt=2.5m Rt=2m 260
Bending Stress
Rt=1.5m Rt=1m
210
Rt=0.5m
160
110
60 -0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
Figure 6. The Bending Stress (N/mm ) V/s Profile Shift factor for whole body model of gear 4.2 The effect of number of teeth on induced bending stress at root fillet The Figure 7 shows bending stress V/s profile shift factor for partially and fully constrained gear with one, three, five teeth segment and whole body finite element model. It can be seen that the bending stress for all model is almost same except for single tooth model at 0.4 profile shift factor. This leads a clue that using single tooth model for profile shift factor above 0.2 leads different stress value than the rest of the cases. Therefore it can be inferred that it is advisable to use three teeth or five teeth finite element models for investigation of root fillet bending stress. Hence from the computational time point of view and obtainable accuracy of the results it is advisable to use three teeth finite element model for investigation of root fillet bending stress.
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310
310
One tooth Three teeth
One tooth Three teeth Five tooth

Bending Stress
260
260
Five tooth Whole body
Bending Stress
210
210
160
160
110
110
60 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
60 -0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
(b) (a) 2 Figure 7. The Bending Stress (N/mm ) V/s Profile Shift factor for different no. of teeth for partially and fully constrained gear 5. Conclusions Within the range of parameters covered by the analysis, it is observed that: The single teeth finite element model with the profile correction (profile shift factor) less than 0.2 is not recommended for the investigation of root fillet bending stress as the results deviates from the general trend. The gear with rim thickness less than unit module should not constrain fully in order to permit the natural distortion. The results with single tooth segment, three teeth segment, Five Teeth Segment, and whole body model of the gear are comparable (with exceptions specified in the above conclusion). Hence the finite element analysis model with three teeth gives better balance between the accuracy of the results obtainable and computational time. The stress counter immediately extends towards the extreme constrained portion of the rim as the thickness of rim reduces. The positive profile shift factor gives better results. The 0.4 profile shift factor gives the reduction in bending stress up to 25% for thin rim gear. Therefore the profile shift factor increases the strength at root region of the gear tooth and hence the bending fatigue life. References [1] Wilcox L. and Coleman W., Application of Finite Elements to the Analysis of Gear Tooth Stresses, Journal of Engineering for Industry, Vol. 95, No. 4, Dec. 1973, pp. 1139-1148. [2] Drago R.J., Brown F.W., and Faust H.S., Recent Advances in the Evaluation of Stresses in Light-weight, High-Speed, Heavily Loaded Gearing, Reliability, Stress Analysis and Failure Prevention Methods in Mechanical Design, W.D. Milestone, ed., ASME, 1980, pp. 225-235. [3] Drago R.J. and Lutthans R.V., Combined Effects of Rim Thickness and Pitch Diameter on Spur Gear Tooth Stresses, Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 28, No. 3, July 1983, pp. 13-19. [4] Chang S.H., Huston R.L., and Coy J.J., A Finite Element Stress Analysis of Spur Gears Including Fillet Radii and Rim Thickness Effects, Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions and Automation in Design, Vol. 105, No. 3, Sept. 1983, pp. 327-330. [5] Oda S., Nagamura, K., and Aoki, K., Stress Analysis by Thin Rim Spur Gears by Finite Element Method, Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 24, No. 193, 1981, pp. 1273-1280. [6] Arai N., Harada, S., and Aida T., Research on Bending Strength Properties of Spur Gears with a Thin Rim, Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 24, No. 195, 1981, pp. 1642-1650. [7] Chong T.H., and Kubo A., Simple Stress Formulas for a Thin-Rimmed Spur Gear, Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions and Automation in Design, Vol. 107, No. 3, Sept. 1985, pp. 406-423. [8] Lewis W., Investigation of the strength of gear teeth, Proceedings of the engineers club of Philadelphia, 1893, pp. 1624. [9] Dolan T. J. & Broghamer E. L., A Photoelastic Study of Stresses in Gear Tooth Fillets, University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 335, 1942. [10] Math V. B., and Chand S., 2004, An Approach to the Determination of Spur Gear Tooth Root Fillet, ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, Vol. 126_2, pp. 336340. [11] Litvin, F., Gear Geometry and Applied Theory, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1994.
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Proc.of the International Conference on Adavances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat-395 007, Gujarat, India.
Optimization of planar four-bar motion generator using Burmester Curve methodology

Prashant Kambali*, Dr. V. B. Math, S. G. Sarganachari Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot-587102, Karnataka, India *Corresponding Author (e-mail: prashant_kambali@yahoo.co.in) The objective in kinematics motion generation is to determine the mechanism parameters required to approximate or precisely achieve a series of prescribed rigidbody poses. Motion generation methods, specifically Burmester curve-based motion generation produce an infinite number of solutions for a prescribed series of rigidbody poses. Unfortunately, given such a vast number of possible mechanical solutions, it is difficult for designers to arbitrarily select a Burmester curve solution that ensures full link rotatability, produces feasible transmission angles and is as compact as possible. This work presents programmes for selecting planar four-bar motion generators with respect to Grashofs condition and transmission angle conditions . These programmes have been codified into MATLAB. 1. Introduction Planar four-bar mechanisms are used in numerous mechanical systems. Due to the kinematic and design simplicity of planar four-bar mechanisms, they are typically very practical to design and incorporate in mechanical applications. The usefulness of these mechanisms is evident in applications ranging from simple tools and furniture to complex industrial machinery. Extensive work on the design, analysis and synthesis of planar four-bar mechanisms has been introduced to date. Achieving specified rigid-body positions is often an important consideration when designing planar four-bar mechanisms. Kinematic motion generation involves the determination of particular mechanism variables required to approximation or precisely achieve particular user specified rigid-body positions. Mechanism synthesis with optimization includes the work of Yao and Angles [1] who apply the contour method in the approximate synthesis of planar linkages for rigid-body guidance. Cabrera et al. [2] considers solution methods for the optimal synthesis of planar mechanisms. Cossalter et al. [3] presented a numerical method for optimum synthesis for planar mechanisms for motion , path and function generation. The work of Krishnamurty and Turcic [4] applies non linear goal programming for the optimal synthesis of planar mechanisms. The work of Akras and Angeles [5] considers unconstrained nonlinear least square techniques in the optimization of planar linkages for rigid-body guidance. Sandgrens [6] work proposes adesign tree structure for the optimization of mechanisms that considers both geometric and topological change. Khare and Dave [7] presented a procedure for the synthesis of planar four-bar double rocker mechanisms for coordinating the prescribed extreme positions. In this work, programmes for selecting planar four-bar motion generators with respect to Grashof conditions and transmission angle constraints are developed and presented. The programmes search fixed and moving pivot curves and produced the parameters of the optimum motion generator (optimum with respect to particular Grashof conditions and transmission angle constraints). Two distinct programmes have been developed and codified in MAT LAB to support advanced analysis capabilities. One programme incorporates fixed and moving pivot curves generated by Burmester synthesis for four prescribed rigid body positions and another incorporates the fixed and moving pivot curves generated by Burmester synthesis for five prescribed rigid body positions.
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2. Burmester curve synthesis
Figure.1 Planar four-bar mechanism and dyads.

We i j Ze i j j Z W 0
Figure.2. Left-side dyad in its first and jth position

W e
(1) (3) (5)
i j
1 Z e
i j
(2) (4)
W e
W e
i 2
i 4
1 Z e
1 Z e
i 2
1 2
W e
i 3
1 Z e
i 3
1 3
i 4
2.1 Four position synthesis The Burmester curve methodology and algorithm presented in this are included in the work of Sandor and Erdman [8]. Although there are numerous Burmester curve solution methodologies, the method included in Sandor and Erdmans work is among those can be codified in modern mathematical analysis software (MATLAB) with relative ease. A planar fourbar mechanism and left-side dyad WZ are illustrated in Figure1. Vector W points from the fixed pivot m to the moving pivot k . Vector Z points from the moving pivot k to the coupler point P . Figure 2 illustrates the displacement of dyad WZ resulting in a coupler point displacements (from point P1 to Pj ) of j .Eqs.(1) and (2) represent a closed-loop formulation of the displacement of dyad WZ in Figure 2. For four prescribed coupler positions, there will exist three coupler point displacements ( ), three coupler displacement angles ( ) and subsequently, the three closedloop formulations in Eqs.(3)-(5). These three equations form a set in which five unknowns exist (complex unknowns W , Z and angles 2 , 3 and 4 ). Assuming a range of solutions for angles 3 and 4 can be calculated, given a prescribed range of values for angle 2 , a range for vectors W and Z could be calculated using any two of Eqs. (3)- (5). A locus of moving pivot locations (variable k1 in Figure 2) could be produced knowing k1 R1 Z and a locus of the fixed pivot locations (variable m in Figure 2) could be produced knowing m k1 W . Fixed and moving pivot loci are also called circle and centre point curves respectively, or more commonly, Burmester curves. Each point on the circle point curve has a corresponding centre point curve point (or viceverse).A planar four-bar motion generator can be constructed given two pairs of circle and centre point curve points. Eqs (3)-(5) can be expressed in matrix form
e i 2 1 i 3 1 e e i 4 1 e i 2 1 2 W i e 3 1 3 Z e i 4 1 4
(6)
2 ei2 3 ei3 4 ei 4 1 0
(7)
Where, 2
e i 3 1 3 e i 4 1 4
e i 2 1 2 e i 4 1 4
e i 2 1 2 e i 3 1 3
(8) For prescribed range of rigid-body positions R1 , R2 .................R j , the values of 1 , 2 ............ j can
1 2 3 4
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be obtained as
R1
(9). The only unknowns in Eq (6) are rotations 3 and 4 ,
vectors W and Z .For prescribed range of 2 , ranges of angles 3 and 4 can be calculated. Computation of 3 and 4 for a given value of 2
1 2 e i 2
cos 3
sin 3
(10)
2
cos 4
sin
4
(14) (15)
4 3 2 3
1 cos
2
24
1 cos
2
(11) (12) (13)
3 0
0 4
4 arg 4 arg 4
0 3
(16)
arg
arg
Once 3 and 4 are known vectors W and Z , circle point and centre point are calculated using equations given below.
k1 R1 Z
(18)
m k1 W
(19)
2.2 Five position synthesis When five arbitrary positions are given, four-bar motion generators can be synthesized by plotting the circle and centre-points curves for prescribed positions 1, 2, 3 and 4. In addition, a new set of curves for positions 2, 3, 4 and 5 are superimposed over the first set. If these curves intersect, a common solution exists and a Burmester pair (or dyad) has been found that will able to guide a plane through all five prescribed positions. Among all intersections some will be imaginary at infinity and some will be real intersections. Since usable real intersections come in pairs, we can expect zero, two, or four solutions for any five arbitrarily prescribed precision points. These points are plotted to give two sets Burmester curves which will intersect at certain points to give overlapping circle and centre-points. Once the circle points (moving pivot points, k1 ) and centre points (fixed pivot points, m ) are obtained crank/follower lengths, coupler lengths and ground lengths can be calculated. The crank/follower length is the distance between each fixed pivot point and the corresponding moving pivot point. The coupler length is the distance between any two moving pivot points and the ground length is distance between any two fixed pivot points. Crank/Follower= Coupler
realm realk1 2 imag m imag k1 2

2 2
(20) (21)
realk1 i realk1 i1 2 imag k1 i imag k1 i 1 2
Ground real mi real mi 1 imag mi imag m i 1 (23) 2.3 Grashof criteria Full link rotatability is a particularly practical design characteristics For planar four-bar mechanisms-especially when the crank link is driven system that rotates continuously. Grashof criteria predict the rotation behavior of a four-bar linkages inversions based on its link lengths. 2.4 Transmission angle The transmission angle (angle in Figure.3.3.2.(a)) is the angle between the coupler and the follower or output link. Transmission angles are optimally no less than 45 180 depending on the design of the joint and lubrication. The links quadrilateral where the length of the diagonal is represented by variable formed by using the law of cosines for the triangle formed
2 2 2
and no greater than in Figure.3. form a Ld . Equation (25) is by L1 , L2 and Ld .
Using the triangle L3 , L2 and Ld and the law of cosines result in Equations (24) and (25).
L d L 0 L1 2 L 0 L1 cos 1 (24)
L d L 2 L3 2 L 2 L3 cos
(25)
Using Equation (26) the transmission angle at any instant can be calculated.
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Figure.3. Planar four-bar mechanism breakdown to determine transmission angle. 3. Example This example [9] demonstrates the synthesis of a Grashof double-rocker and drag-link motion generator with feasible transmission angles ( 45 180 ) given a series of prescribed rigid-body positions. Table 1. includes the prescribed point coordinates and displacement angles for five rigid-body positions. Given these rigid-body positions, fixed and moving pivot curves will be produced using the Burmester method described in section.2.1. Using the range for variable 2 =0.05, 0.1 .0.75 rad. Table.1. Data for five rigid-body positions. Rigid-Body Positions
R
4.8100 10.1338 16.0919 22.7946
1 2 3 4 5
2.1949,2.9022 1.5406,3.0443 0.8728,3.0498 0.2208,2.9234 -0.3897,2.6754
As discussed in Example. Table 1. includes the prescribed point coordinates and displacement angles for five rigid-body positions. Given these rigid-body positions, 8-sets of fixed and moving pivot points will be produced using the Burmester method described in section.2.1.for positions (j=1, 2,3,4) and again 8-sets of fixed and moving pivot points will be produced using the Burmester method described in section.2.1. for positions (j= 2, 3, 4,5) .Using the range for variable 2 =0.05, 0.1 .0.75 rad.
Figure.4.Overlapping Burmester curve for five prescribed positions of planar four-bar mechanism. The Burmester curve for positions (j=1, 2, 3, 4) is superimposed over the Burmester curve for positions (j=2, 3, 4, 5) to get overlapping circle points (moving pivot points) and overlapping centre points (fixed pivot points) as described in section.2.2. The overlapping graph of Burmester curves is as shown below. From above graph the overlapping circle and centre points are tabulated as below. Using Equations (20) to (23) the crank/follower length, coupler length and ground lengths are calculated for each set and are tabulated as below.
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Table.2. Overlapping circle and centre points for five prescribed position synthesis. set 1 2 3 Overlapping circle point( k1 ) 0.1508-4.784i 0.1137-4.736i 0.0822-4.6905i Overlapping centre point( m ) 1.121-4.118i 1.075-4.088i 1.032-4.058i
Table.3. crank/follower, coupler and ground length for each set. set Crank/follower Coupler Ground length length length 1 2 1.2512 1.5188 0.0607 0.0553 0.1381 0.0530
Set.1 in above table 2. satisfies Grashof criteria and the resulting mechanism is Double rocker mechanism, since the coupler is the shortest length, whereas set.2. also satisfies Grashof criteria, but resulting mechanism is Drag link mechanism, since the ground is the shortest length. Feasible transmission angles ( 45 180 ) for different crank rotatability are calculated for each set using Equations (24)-(25). Crank rotatability ( ) Vs transmission angle ( ) is plotted for each set and each graph is as shown below.
Figure.5 (crank rotatability, vs. transmission angle, 1 ) in degrees.
Figure.6.(crank rotatability vs. transmission angle, 2 ) in degrees.
4. Conclusion For a series of prescribed rigid-body positions, an infinite number of planar four-bar mechanism solutions exist. Sorting through the unlimited number of possible mechanism solutions to find one that ensures full link rotatability, produces feasible transmission angles can be overwhelming given a set of Burmester curves. In this work, two programmes are developed (one for four prescribed position and another for five prescribed position) and presented by which the user can select the optimum planar four-bar motion generators (optimum with respect to Grashofs criteria and transmission angle criteria) from a set of all mechanism solutions produced by Burmester curves. Both programmes have been developed in MATLAB for enhanced analysis capabilities and easy of use. References [1] J.Yao, J. Angeles, Computation of all optimum dyads in the approximate synthesis of planar linkages for rigid-body guidance, Mechanism and Machine Theory 35 (8) (2000) 1065-1078. [2] J.A.Cabrera, A.Simon, M. Prado, Optimal synthesis of mechanisms with genetic algorithms, Mechanism and Machine Theory 37 (10) (2000) 1165-1177. [3] V.Cossalter, A.Doria, M.Pasini, A simple numerical approach for optimum synthesis of a class of planar mechanisms, Mechanism and Machine Theory 27 (3) (1992) 357-366. [4] S.Krishnamurty, David A. Turcic, Optimal synthesis of mechanisms using nonlinear goal Programming techniques, Mechanism and Machine Theory 27 (5) (1992) 599-612. [5] Ralph Akharas, Jorge Angeles, Unconstrained nonlinear least-square optimization of planar linkages for rigid-body guidance, Mechanism and Machine Theory 25 (1) (1990) 97-118. [6] Eric Sandgren, A multi-objective design tree approach for the optimization of mechanisms, Mechanism and Machine Theory 25 (3) (1990) 257-272. [7] A.K.Khare. R.K.Dave, Optimising four-bar crank-rocker mechanism, Mechanism and Machine Theory 14 (5) (1979) 319-325. [8] G.N.Sandor, A.G.Erdman, Adavanced Mechanism Design Analysis and Synthesis, PrenticeHali, Englewood Cliffs, 1984.
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Analysis of Sport Utility Vehicle Chassis by using Computer Aided Engineering

Mr.Pravin N. Shitole *, Prof. A.K.Kale , Mr. Deepak Nidgalkar
1 2 1 1 2
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli 416415, Maharashtra, Mahindra Engineering Services Ltd Pune 410057, Maharashtra *Corresponding author (email: pravinnks@rediffmail.com )
The chassis serves as a basic frame work of an automobile for supporting the body and suspension of the vehicle. Chassis is a major part of an automobile vehicle. It is not only main load bearing member of vehicle but also provides necessary rigidity to the vehicle. Recent advances in simulation processes have made it possible to move away from conventional design methodology for the chassis. This work has been undertaken to take advantage of this advanced technology. Along with strength, an important consideration in chassis design is to have adequate bending and torsional stiffness for better handling characteristics. So, strength and stiffness are the main concerns for constructing chassis for the vehicle. Finite Element Analysis provides the useful tool to analyze these concerns effectively because it enables the user to study the behavior of the model and make modifications before the preparation of prototype, its testing and commencement of production. A typical SUV chassis is first modeled with Catia V5R13 software and FE model is made with SOLID 92 element using ANSYS 10.0 Software. For SUV chassis firstly bending and torsional stiffness are calculated then it is analyzed for different loading conditions such as bump, turning, braking and twisting. 1. Introduction
The Finite Element Method is a very powerful technique for the numerical solution of a wide range of engineering problems. In FEM, behavior of structure is obtained by analyzing the collective behavior of the elements. In order to build a successful structure, we must first look at its most fundamental component, the chassis. Current study involves static stress and stiffness analysis of sport utility vehicle chassis. The commercial finite element package Ansys 10.0 was used for the solution of the problem. Analysis of SUV chassis was carried out for different possible loading conditions. The objective is to make product robust to all possible load cases. 2. Process Methodology
Initially a typical SUV chassis is modeled using Catia V5R13 software which is imported in Ansys 10.0 software for further analysis. Chassis component have been meshed with SOLID 92 elements. SUV chassis is analyzed for stiffness and strength as criteria of failure. Bending and torsional stiffness of chassis is calculated which is check for lower acceptable limit. SUV Chassis is checked for strength it includes stresses and displacement values for the yield limit of chassis material using different loadings conditions. Stress used is von mises stress because for ductile material distortion energy theory gives better results. Loading cases used for strength analysis are listed below. 1) Bump 2) Cornering 3) Braking 4) Twisting
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Simple steps involved in analysis of SUV chassis are shown below. Pre Processing (Ansys 10.0) Geometry Import Meshing Applying loading and Boundary Conditions
Geometry Creation (Catia V5R13)
Post Processing (Ansys 10.0) - Displacement plot - Stress plot Figure 1. Steps in analysis
Solver (Ansys 10.0)
2.1
Problem set up
Problem is set before going to actual analysis. Material used for chassis is dual phase 5 (DP) steel which has Youngs modulus of elasticity (E) = 2.1x 10 Mpa and Poisons ratio () = 0.3. Spiders are created i.e. surface nodes are connected to centre node by using RBE2 element and boundary or loading conditions are applied to this centre node. Boundary conditions are applied by creating leaf spring; four leaf springs are created at axle location of chassis. Leaf spring is created by using spider at front and rear side of long member of chassis at two axles on both sides of chassis. For loading all body mounting brackets are connected to centre of gravity of vehicle by using RBE3 element. Loads used in analysis are taken as multiple of (Force in Newton) g, which is calculated by using axle load carrying capacity. 2.2 Load calculation
Loads required for strength analysis are calculated by using axle load carrying capacity; magnitude of g is calculated by using axle load carrying capacity. Loads are defined in terms of this g value for all load cases. For bump, cornering and braking loads are taken as 3g, 0.5g and 1g respectively. These are the standard values normally used by the vehicle manufacturers. 3. Analysis of sport utility vehicle chassis
Analysis of SUV chassis consists of stiffness calculation and strength calculation. Main output from stiffness analysis is displacement and stiffness is calculated subsequently with input of loading, boundary conditions and material properties. For strength analysis input is loads, boundary conditions and material properties, displacement plot and stress plot are the output from this analysis. 3.1 Stiffness calculation
Stiffness is defined as ratio of force to displacement. SUV chassis may fail in bending or torsional stiffness case; hence it is checked for both stiffness values. Bending stiffness of chassis is the stiffness of chassis when it is subjected to the downward load at the centre of chassis by restraining the chassis. Boundary and load condition locations for bending stiffness calculation case are shown in figure 2.
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Displacement plot is checked for displacement at point of application of load; which is used for bending stiffness calculation.
Figure 2. Loading condition, boundary condition and displacement plot for bending stiffness calculation
Figure 3. Loading condition, boundary conditions and displacement plot for torsional stiffness calculation Bending stiffness is calculated by using,
F kb .
(1) Where Kb = Bending stiffness (KN/mm), F = Applied load (KN) and = Displacement at point of application of load (mm). From above formula bending stiffness is calculated and is found greater than lower acceptance limit of 3 KN/mm. Hence the SUV chassis is safe for bending stiffness criteria. Torsional stiffness is the stiffness of chassis when it is subjected to torsional load by restraining the chassis. Torsional stiffness case is shown in figure 3. Torsional stiffness is calculated by using,
T k .
Where K =Torsional stiffness (KN-m/deg), T = Applied torque and = Total torsional deflection Total Torsional Deflection calculated by using following relation
(2)
Z Z2 tan 1 1 L
(3) Where Z1 = Deflection of left hand side member at point of application of force (m) Z2 = Deflection of right hand side member at point of application of force (m) L = Torque arm length (m)
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Z1 and Z2 are taken from displacement plot. Torsional stiffness is calculated from above equations and is checked for lower acceptable limit of 3 KN-m/deg and found greater compare to lower acceptable value. Hence SUV chassis is safe for torsional stiffness criteria [4]. 3.2 Strength analysis
Strength analysis of SUV chassis is carried out to check displacement and stresses. For bump consider vehicle is moving on straight road if there is uneven surface then chassis is checked for probable bump magnitude of 3g which is applied to centre of gravity in downward direction. Chassis will act like an overhang beam giving maximum displacement at the end having more distance from the boundary condition location. Maximum stresses are found at the point of application of boundary conditions. Bump case shown in figure 3 (a and b).
Figure 4. Loading conditions, boundary conditions and stress plot.
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For cornering, consider vehicle is moving on straight road and taking turn to left hand side then the reaction force is applied in opposite direction to turn and it is taken as 0.5g. In this case maximum displacement and stresses are found at the rear end of chassis. Figure 3 (c and d) represent cornering case. When vehicle is moving on straight road and suddenly brake is applied due to which reaction force is applied in opposite direction to motion of vehicle. Maximum displacement for braking case is at rear end and stresses are maximum at boundary condition location. Figure 3 (e and f) represent braking case. Similarly chassis is checked for twisting i.e. if one of the vehicle wheels is going on uneven surface then reaction force on that wheel is applied from downward to upward direction. For twisting case maximum displacement is at boundary condition location which will induced stresses at cross member joints. Figure 3 (g and h) represent twisting case. 4. Conclusion
SUV chassis is found safe for bending stiffness criteria and torsional stiffness criteria for lower acceptable limit of 3KN/mm and 3KN-m/deg respectively. SUV chassis is checked for strength by applying different loading conditions and chassis is found safe for all loading cases. Strength analysis is carried out to check the most critical load case; bump and twisting are the most critical load cases indicating higher value of stresses and displacement. 5. 1. 2. Future scope Optimization of cross members is possible for reducing weight and subsequently cost. Noise Vibration Harshness (NVH) analysis may be done to check Noise, Vibration and Harshness values
Acknowledgement I would like to thank my guide for giving usable comments and suggestions. I would like to thanks Mahindra Engineering Services ltd. Pune for sponsoring me opportunity to work on this project. Also I would like to thank Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli for providing me software facility. References [1] [2] [3] [4] Hiromichi Kawai, Hiroshi Fujise, Hiroshi Kojima Development of Mitsubishi i Chassis to achieve lightest weight and rolling resistance. Mitsubishi motors technical review 2004 No.16. Lonny L. Thompson, Srikanth Raju and E. Harry Law Design of a Winston Cup Chassis for Torsional Stiffness. In SAE conference 1998. Mr. Vishal Chaudhari, Mr. Deepak Nidgalkar and Dinesh Channappa Case study of Process Automation- Chassis Stiffness Altair CAE Users Conference 2005. Ansys help files.
632
Design and Analysis of High Pressure Door with Stiffened Plate

Hujare Pravin P. , Hujare Deepak P.
1 1* 2
Sinhgad Academy of Engg. Pune, Maharashtra, 2 M.I.T., Pune, Maharashtra *Corresponding author (email: hujarepravin@rediffmail.com) The primary motivation for stiffening a plate is structural efficiency conservation of weight with no sacrifice of strength or reduction of critical buckling loads. The stiffeners are used to increase the strength of door plate for various pressures loading condition. A door consists of stiffened plate can be designed through effective distribution of material to resist stresses and minimize deflection. In the
present paper, the high pressure door design can be performed by using solution of the differential equation from orthotropic plate theory by Naviers method. Also a series of Finite Element Analysis is performed on a door plate with longitudinal & horizontal stiffeners by using ANASYS software
1.
Introduction
This paper examines several aspects of stiffened plate structure, with an emphasis on application to the high pressure door system. A stiffened plate is formed of a flat deck plate integrally stiffened with stiffeners in the longitudinal and in the transverse directions. The stiffeners are attached to the bottom side of the door plate and have different stiffness in the orthogonal directions which is sometimes called an eccentrically stiffened orthotropic plate. 1.1 Theory of stiffened plate A thin steel plate is very flexible when it carries loads that act in the direction of its normal but it is extremely stiff when the loads are applied within its plane. It is this rigidity which engineer attempt to utilize when they design thin walled structure such as door, plate girders, box girders and so on. This restraint can be provided by folding the plate along parallel lines, which lie in the longitudinal direction, or restraining a plate is to provide longitudinal stiffener, which are additional plate elements whose planes are inclined to that of the plate. Thus the concept of a stiffened plate has been developed and now a stiffened plate panel forms the basic building block of many thin steel structures. There are basically two types of stiffener 1] Open section stiffener, 2] Closed cross section stiffener.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. (a) Open stiffener, (b) Closed cross stiffener

The stiffened panel with closed cross section as shown in figure 1(b) has considerably greater resistance to twisting moments than single connected or so called open sections. Thus the local distortions of closed cross sections are less and it has advantages for door because there is less likelihood of cracking of the pavement under normal pressure load. Due to use of intermediate transverse and longitudinal stiffeners serves a dual purpose; it increases an initial buckling load and also enables the web to carry load in excess of initial buckling due to the so called tension field effect. There are basically four methods are used for the design and analysis of stiffened plate as given below. 1. Analysis of an equivalent grid or beam and plate system. 2. Solution of the differential equation from orthotropic plate theory.
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3. Approximate solution from Energy Principle. 4. Approximate solution by FEM. The solution of the problem discussed in this paper is obtained by using the differential equation from orthotropic plate theory by Naviers method. 2. Analytical solution A door having clean opening area 1200 x 2000 mm subjected to high pressure air of 0.1 N /mm 2 provided that the maximum deflection of the bottom door plate should be limited to 10 mm. Material selection: Bottom door plate = M.S. (I.S. 2062), Stiffener = M.S. (I.S. 2062), 2 Yield stress of mild steel = = 250 N/ mm 2.1 Case I: Door Plate without Stiffener Door plate of high pressure door system is nothing but rectangular plate. This rectangular plate is simply supported subjected to high pressure air. The maximum deflection of the door plate can be founded by using Naviers equation (2.1) Where, (2.2) As the door plate material is mild steel, consider the following parameters. 2 = possions ratio = 0.3, h = Thickness of door plate = 5 mm, E = 210000 N / mm 2 q = pressure load acting over door plate = 0.1 N / mm , a = width of door plate = 1200 mm By using above values we can get the maximum deflection. W max = 358.63 mm 2.2 Case II: Door plate with vertical stiffener In case I, it was observed that the door plate without any stiffener leads to more deflection than required. So it becomes necessary to use stiffeners to make door more rigid. It is possible to consider two vertical C channels of closed cross-section stiffeners attached to the bottom door plate. With the addition of these stiffeners it is possible to find out maximum deflection for such stiffened plate with all edges are simply supported, by using Naviers equation.
2
Figure 2. Rectangular door plate with vertical stiffeners
Figure 3. Section area of vertical stiffener
Maximum deflection of stiffened door plate is given by Naviers method
(2.3)
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For this high pressure door plate, d = Spacing between the stiffener =492 mm, a = Width of the door plate=1200 mm. b = Depth of the door plate=2000 mm, q = uniformly distributed press.=0.1N/ mm 2. 4 I = M.I. of one stiffener about the mid-plane of bottom door plate=3865926.67 mm . 2 E = Modulus of elasticity of plate material=210000N / mm . * 2 E = Modulus of elasticity of vertical stiffener material=210000 N / mm . = Possions ratio=0.3, h = Thickness of the bottom door plate= 5 mm. By using the above parameters, we can get Table 1. Values for case II S.N. D (Nmm) Dx (Nmm) Dy (Nmm) 1 2403846.154 2403846.154 1652494498
Dxy (Nmm) 721153.84
Hxy (Nmm) 1682692.308
By using all the above values in equation (2.3), we obtained the maximum deflection. W max = 15.78 mm
It can be observed that still the maximum deflection value for this case is more than permissible limit (10 mm). Therefore it becomes necessary to provide the stiffener in horizontal direction also. 2.3 Case III: Door plate with vertical and horizontal stiffener
The maximum deflection of the door plate is still more than 10mm, hence it is necessary to provide horizontal stiffeners along with two vertical stiffeners, which results in different value of flexural rigidity in X directions as compared to case II.
Figure 4. Rectangular door plate with all stiffeners

For this door plate, d1 = spacing between the stiffener in X-direction= 492mm d2 = spacing between the stiffener in Y-direction=334 mm I 1= M.I. of one stiffener of closed C cross section about the mid plane of the bottom door Plate =3865926.67 mm 4 I2 = M.I. of one stiffener of rectangular cross section about the mid plane of the bottom door 4 Plate = 482291.66mm By using the above parameters, we can get Table 2. Values for case III Dx (Nmm) Dy (Nmm) 305641117.4 1652494498
S.N. 1
D (Nmm) 2403846.154
Dxy (Nmm) 721153.84
Hxy (Nmm) 1682692.308
By using above values in equation (2.3), we obtained the maximum deflection. W max = 6.61 mm
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As the maximum deflection of the door plate of the high pressure door is reduced up to 6.61mm which less than 10 mm (prescribed limit), it can be concluded that design is safe. 3 Numerical validation In this section, the Naviers method is validated by comparison against a detailed Finite 2 Element model. Design the door for maximum clean opening area 1200 x 2000 mm subjected 2 to pressurized air of 0.1 N/mm pressure, so that the deflection of the door plate is required to be limited to 10 mm. 3.1 Case I: Door Plate without Stiffener The bottom door plate without stiffener subjected to high pressure air shown in figure.5 (a) is considered for FEA Analysis using ANSYS. This pressurized air is uniformly distributed over the door plates inner surface. The bottom door plate model consist of 4 flat plates having 12 holes for passage of shooting bolts which provide support to the door plate. The thickness of bottom door plate is 5 mm and that of flat plate is 10 mm, pressure load acting 2 over door plate is 0.1 N / mm , width of door plate over which air is acting 1200mm,Modulus of elasticity is 210000 N / mm 2.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Door plate without stiffeners-(a) FEA Model, (b) Strain distribution
As shown in figure.5 (b), the maximum deflection of door plate without any stiffener for given pressure load condition obtained by finite element analysis using ANSYS is 229.87 mm. 3.2 Case II: Door plate with vertical stiffeners As the maximum deflection obtained in case I is far more than the permissible value 10 mm. So the stiffeners are provided for reducing the deflection and increase in strength of the door plate. In this case, two closed cross section box type stiffeners in vertical direction are used. The thickness of the vertical stiffener is 5 mm. This model is also subjected to same pressure condition.
(b) (a)
Figure 6. Door plate with vertical stiffeners- (a) FEA Model , (b) Strain distribution
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As shown in figure 6 (b), the maximum deflection of the door plate with vertical stiffeners obtained by finite element analysis using ANSYS software is 13.45 mm. 3.3 Door plate with vertical and horizontal stiffeners In this arrangement the bottom door plate is provided along with vertical and horizontal stiffeners. This structure is nothing but like grid structure. In this model it is possible to providing 15 horizontal stiffeners. Due to increased stiffeners it is possible to getting stronger structure leading to reduction in deflection. The thickness of the horizontal stiffener is 10 mm.
(a) (b) Figure 7. Door plate with vertical and horizontal stiffeners - (a) FEA Model (b) Strain distribution As shown in figure 7(b), the maximum deflection of the door plate with vertical stiffener and horizontal stiffeners obtained by finite element analysis using ANSYS software is 6.66 mm which is desirable. Results and discussion It is possible to compare the maximum deflection obtained by analytical method and finite element method. By comparison it is come to know that the results obtained by these two methods are very close to each other. Table No.3 Comparison of deflection 4.
S. N.
Different type of Door plate
Maximum Deflection, Wmax (mm) By Analytical Method By Finite Element Method 358.63 15.78 6.61 229.87 13.45 6.66
1 Door plate without stiffeners. 2 Door plate with only vertical stiffeners. 3 5. Door Plate with vertical and horizontal stiffeners.
Conclusion The example presented in this paper demonstrates the practical application of stiffeners in the design of door system. A high pressure door model is developed and correlated in this paper. The model encompasses analytical representations of the door without stiffeners and with vertical, horizontal stiffeners. As shown in table no.3 the deflections obtained by both the methods are very close to each other. From the results obtained by all three steps it is proved that the deflection of the door plate decreases, as the number of stiffeners are increases. Thus the arrangement of the door plate having vertical as well as horizontal stiffeners can be used to get the desired result. References [1] W.H.Hoppann, Baltimore M.D. Bending of orthogonally stiffened plates [2] NJ.HuffingtonTheo. determination of rigidity properties of orthogonally stiffened plate [3] Stephen P. TimoshenkoTheory of plates and shells. [4] K.Bhaskar Analysis of plates. pp 151-152 Narosa Publishing House, London 1999.
637
Finite Element Analysis of Transverse Vibration of a Jointed Beam

R. C. Mohanty , B. K. Nanda National Institute of Technology, Rourkela-769008, Orissa, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: mohanty29@gmail.com) Structural joints are regarded as a source of energy dissipation between contacting surfaces undergoing relative motion. Usually the effect of joints are difficult to be incorporated in the structural mechanics and hence finite element models are used to overcome such problems. This paper presents an efficient approach for evaluating the damping capacity of thin layered jointed beams of unequal thickness using the finite element method (FEM). Modal analysis for the above structure has been made to determine the natural mode shapes and frequencies during free vibration. Extensive experiments have been carried out on a number of mild steel specimens using rivets of various diameters for establishing the authenticity of the model. 1. Introduction
*
Most engineering structures are composed of several components connected by mechanical joints. The joints usually do not form a perfect connection allowing relative motion at the interfaces of the connecting members. Microslip occurs when small parts of the joint interfaces slip which usually occurs under low joint excitation. This interfacial frictional slip developed at a jointed surface gives rise to a significant fraction of overall energy dissipation, causing the damping of the structures. Groper [1], Beards [2], Ferri [3], Gaul and Nitsche [4] and Ibrahim and Pettit [5] have worked extensively in this direction. Lee et al. [6] used the finite element model of a joint connection to obtain natural frequencies and mode shapes of a jointed beam. Oldfield et al. [7] have investigated the damping of an assembled structure using the dynamic frictional contact analysis under harmonic loading by the finite element analysis. Shin et al. [8] have shown that the damping effect is negligible when the joint is very tight. They further established that the natural frequency decreases and the damping capacity increases with the loosening of the joint Although a great deal of research work has been carried out on the damping capacity of jointed structures, but no work has so far been reported on the damping capacity of riveted structures using the finite element models. The purpose of the present work is to develop a finite element model of a jointed cantilever beam with unequal thickness of thickness ratio 2.0 for determining its damping capacity. 2. Finite element model
The structure with riveted joints is discretized with a number of elements and assembled at the nodes. Considering an element of the jointed Euler-Bernoulli beam as shown in Fig. 1 and assuming that every layer has the same transverse displacement and deformation, the total set of nodal displacements of an element is given by;
d v
e
vj j
(1)
The displacement field within the element is given by; (2) where w is the vector of displacements, [S] is the matrix of shape functions and d is the vector of nodal displacements which is a function of time.
e
w x, t S x d e
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E , I1, A1, 1 1 (1)
vi i (2) E , I2, A2, 2 2
j vj
2h1
j
2h2
Figure 1. Finite element model for the layered and jointed beam The stiffness matrix of the elastic layers is obtained from the bending strain energy of the element as given by;
1 e T e d k d e 2 e where k is the element stiffness matrix which is given by; Ue

1 T k e EI S S dx 2 0
where
l
(3)
(4)
EI E1 I1 E2 I 2 .
The kinetic energy of an element is given by;
1 &T & d e me d e 2 e where m is the element mass matrix and is given by; Te
(5)
me A S S dx
0
(6)
where
A 1 A1 2 A2 .
The FE equations for all individual elements are assembled together to form the dynamic equation of motion for free vibration of the system and is given by; (7) where [K] and [M] are the global stiffness and mass matrix respectively and {D} is the global nodal displacement vector in the entire domain. The Equation (7) is treated as a eigenproblem for deriving the modal analysis. The solution for the free vibration problem of the above equation is given by;
2 K n M 0
& & M D K D 0
where
(8) is the eigenvector representing the mode shapes and n is the square root of
eigenvalues corresponding to natural frequency of free vibration. The relative displacement is given by;
ur x, t at any distance from the fixed end under actual condition

w x, t h1 h2 S d e
x (9) where is the dynamic slip ratio. The actual overall maximum relative dynamic slip for a jointed cantilever beam with q number of rivets is given by;
ur x, t u1 u2 h1 h2
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urM h1 h2 S d e
i 1
(10)
The maximum frictional force at the interface is given by; (11) where N is the total normal force under each connecting rivet evaluated from the interface pressure and preload on the rivet. The energy loss per cycle of vibration arising due to friction and relative dynamic slip at the interface is given by;
FrM N
E f 2 FrM urM
The energy stored per cycle of vibration is given by;
(12)
(13) Neglecting the material and support damping and substituting the values of E f and En , the logarithmic damping decrement is given by;
En
1 T D K D 2
Ef 2 En
2 FrM urM
D K D
(14)
The MATLAB software has been developed to find out the logarithmic decrement using Equation (14). 3. Experimental set-up and experiments
The experiments are conducted in an experimental set-up as shown in Fig.2 from commercial mild steel flats. The distances between the consecutive connecting rivets and the width of the specimens are kept as 5.6 times their diameter as per the zone of influence. The specimens are held rigidly at the support and their cantilever lengths are varied during the experimentation. The bending modulus of elasticity (E) and the static bending stiffness (k) of the jointed specimens are found out from the experiments. The specimens are given vibration at their free ends and the initial amplitudes of excitation are varied in steps as 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 mm. The free vibration of the specimens is sensed with a contacting-type magnetic probe and the signals are recorded on the screen of the storage oscilloscope. The logarithmic damping decrement is measured from these stored signals using the expression ln a1 a n 1 n , where a1, an+1, and n are the amplitudes of first and last signal and number of cycles respectively.
Storage Specimen with 10 mm rivets

Oscilloscope
Magnetic Probe
230 V 50 Hz Rigid support Distribution Box

AC
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up
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The numerical values of the logarithmic damping decrements for layered mild steel cantilever specimens with diameters 4, 6, 8, and 10 mm connecting rivets are found out from Equation (14) using FEM. These numerical results () have been compared with the corresponding experimental results (------) as shown in Figs. 3 to 5. It is observed that both the results are in good agreement with a maximum variation of 4.68 % which shows the authenticity of the finite element model analysis. Further, the modal analysis has been made for the first and second mode shapes and results are presented in Fig. 6. Dia. of rivet = 10 mm Dia. of rivet = 10 mm Specimen thickness = (4+8) mm Specimen thickness = (3+6) mm 0.0075 0.0065
0.0065
0.0055
0.0055 0.0045 0.0035 0.0025 250 300 y = 0.1 mm y = 0.3 mm y = 0.5 mm
0.0045 0.0035 0.0025 0.0015 y = 0.1 mm y = 0.3 mm y = 0.5 mm 450
350 400 450 250 300 350 400 Length (mm) Length (mm) (a) (b) Figure 3. Variation of logarithmic decrement with length of specimen
Dia. of rivet = 10 mm Length of specimen = 280 mm (3+6) mm (4+8) mm
0.004 0.0035
0.0075 0.0065
Dia. of rivet = 10 mm Length of specimen = 448 mm (3+6) mm (4+8) mm
0.003 0.0025 0.002 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.0055 0.0045
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Amplitude of excitation (mm) Amplitude of excitation (mm) (a) (b) Figure 4. Variation of logarithmic decrement with initial amplitude of excitation
Length of specimen = 336 mm Specimen thickness = (3+6) mm 0.0055 0.0045 y = 0.1 mm y = 0.3 mm y = 0.5 mm
0.0035 0.0025 0.0015 2
Length of specimen = 336 mm Specimen thickness = (4+8) mm 0.005 y = 0.1 mm y = 0.3 mm 0.004 y = 0.5 mm 0.003 0.002 0.001
4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 Dia. of rivet (mm) Dia. of rivet (mm) (a) (b) Figure 5. Variation of logarithmic decrement with diameter of rivet
10
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Figure 6. Mode shapes for two degrees of freedom. 4. Discussion and conclusion
Most physical phenomena encountered in engineering applications are modelled by differential equations and usually the problem is too complicated to be solved by classical analytical methods. The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical approach by which general differential equations can be solved in an approximate manner. The energy dissipation and damping characteristics of mild steel cantilever beams having an interfacial micro-slip have been studied successfully using FEM. From the present analysis and results, it is found that the damping capacity of a riveted jointed structure depends mainly on coefficient of kinematic friction at their interfaces, preload on the connecting rivet, micro-slip and the intensity of pressure distribution at the interfaces. Further, the diameter of the connecting rivets, amplitude and frequency of excitation are the other key parameters influencing the damping capacity of jointed riveted structures. The damping capacity of such structures can be improved using rivets of larger diameter with more length and smaller thickness of the specimens along with lower amplitude of excitation. These results can be exploited in the design of aerodynamic and aerospace structures, bridges, pressure vessels, trusses, machine members and many more real engineering applications where higher damping capacity is desired. References [1] Groper, M. Microslip and microslip in bolted joints. Experimental Mechanics, June, 1985, 171174. [2] Beard, C.F. Damping in structural joints. The Shock and Vibration Digest, 24(7), 1992, 37. [3] Ferri, A. Friction damping and isolation system. ASME, Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, 117, 1995, 196-206. [4] Gaul, L. and Nitsche, R. The role of friction in mechanical joints. Applied Mechanics Review, 54, 2001, 93-106. [5] Ibrahim, R.A. and Pettit, C.L. Uncertainties and dynamic problems of bolted joints and other fasteners. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 279(3-5), 2005, 857-936. [6] Lee, S.Y., Ko, K.H. and Lee, J.M. Analysis of dynamic characteristics of structural joints using stiffness influence coefficients. KSME International Journal, 14(12), 2000, 13191327. [7] Oldfield, M., Ouyang, H. And Mottershead, J.E. Simplified models of bolted joints under harmonic loading. Computers and Structures, 84, 2005, 25-33. [8] Shin, Y.S., Iverson, J.C. and Kim, K.S. Experimental studies on damping characteristics of bolted joints for plates and shells. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 113, 1991, 402-408.
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Proc. Of International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007, Gujrat, India
Reducing Manufacturing Cost and Weight by Geometry Optimization for A Steering Knuckle Without Changing Attachment Geometry
Prof R. L. Jhala1*, K. D. Kothari1, Dr. S.S. Khandare2 1 V.V. P. Engineering College, Rajkot. Gujarat 2 B.D. College of Engineering, Sevagram, Maharashtra. *Corresponding author (email: aryajhala@yahoo.com) The paper envisages to reduce weight and manufacturing cost of the forged steel steering knuckle while maintaining or improving its fatigue strength. It is attempted by the optimization process. Therefore reducing the mass of the component, reducing manufacturing costs, and improving fatigue performance are focused simultaneously. Manufacturing costs and fatigue strength of a steering knuckle depend on service conditions, geometry, material and manufacturing processes. Therefore, geometry, material and manufacturing parameters are attempted in this study as design variables. The modifications are approached in two stages; first without changing the components attachment geometry and focusing on steering knuckles body; and second, with limited change in attachment geometry and focusing on the spindle as well as the body. This paper describes the first stage for the same. The material alternatives used for this paper is considered replacing the current material with materials of superior fatigue performance, and subsequently, reducing dimensions and weight. Manufacturing parameter modifications to improve fatigue performance or reduce manufacturing costs included warm forging instead of hot forging, precision forging instead of conventional forging, reducing manufacturing steps, and surface enhancement. 1. Component Parameters In view for the optimization work, it is necessary to know about the component, its service conditions, material of construction, manufacturing processes and parameters that affect its cost.
Figure 2 Simulated primary loading and restraints Figure 1 Nomenclature used for on the forged steel steering knuckle. Forged Steel Steering Knuckle The nomenclature used in this paper is shown in Figure 1. A valid simulation of the primary loading condition for the optimization study is considered as shown in Figure 2. The forged steel steering knuckles material, is a re sulphurized (free machining) highstrength low-alloy (or micro alloyed) steel that contains 0.37% carbon. High strength low-alloy steels, as defined in ASM Machining Handbook (ASM, 1989), are classified as a separate steel category than alloy steels, and are similar to as-rolled mild carbon steels but with enhanced mechanical properties obtained by the addition of small amounts of alloys. In some cases, special processing techniques such as controlled rolling and accelerated cooling methods are also used.
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2. Problem Definition - Optimization Mathematically, a general constrained optimization problem could be defined by an Objective function, design variables and a set of constraints Minimize F(Y) Objective function Subject to: gj(Y) 0 hk(Y) = 0
j = 1, m inequality constraints k = 1, l equality constraints i, n side constraints
Yi l Yi Yi u
Y1 Y 2 Where Y = Yn
design variables
In terms of a structural design like the current case of steering knuckle redesign, F(Y) represents a quality to be minimized, such as the mass of the component, maximum stress at critical locations or cost. gj(Y) is a bounded constraint like allowable stress at certain geometry locations, and hk(Y) is an equality constraint like fixed dimensions and geometry limitations. The design variables such as size and shape of the component are restricted by the upper and lower limits. Material and manufacturing parameters are also considered as side variables in order to obtain an improved design. There are several types of optimization approaches applied to automotive structural Design. Size Optimization defines the design variables in terms of discrete parameters of the system in study. Generally these parameters do not change the overall shape of the component and only the size is modified. Parameters such as geometrical properties such as thickness, diameter, and area are used as design variables in size optimization. For each optimization stage, a localized shape optimization procedure is conducted on the steering knuckle considering manufacturing limitations. The material and manufacturing processes as design variables are more used as means of design modification rather than optimization. As per the algorithm of the optimization process, the general flow of the solution for geometric optimization started with identifying pre-process design data such as design variables and constraints. Then, finite element analysis (FEA) on the original component enabled investigating the distribution of parameters such as stress, stress gradient, and displacement. Design constraints are evaluated and the important ones are retained. A parametric study is performed to observe how a defined change in the model affected structural response. Following that, the optimization problem is created and solved, where the analysis data are updated after each one of the iterations. Considering the primary load calculations, the nominal stresses generated from the primary loading on the component are essentially elastic, so linear elastic analysis is found sufficient for the optimization. The iterations continued as necessary till the convergence criteria are met. For the material alternatives and manufacturing processes a trial and error approach combined with qualitative investigation is followed by selecting replacement materials, proposing alternative manufacturing processes, and adding or eliminating some of the manufacturing steps. Objective Function The objective function is the function or parameter that is optimized. In this optimization of the steering knuckle, weight and manufacturing cost of the component are considered as the objective functions. Constraint Stress and geometry constraints are defined based on the selected optimization stage. In order to maintain fatigue performance of the component, equivalent local von Misses stress amplitude at the original models critical location (spindle 2nd step fillet) under primary loading conditions (fixed steering knuckle body and moment applied to the spindle) is obtained at a
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certain moment amplitude. This moment amplitude could change during the optimization stage, but the optimization is carried out in such a way that the equivalent local stress amplitude at any location of the optimized model did not exceed the equivalent stress amplitude at the critical location of the original model under equal moment amplitude: (equivalent @ any geometry location) (equivalent @ spindle second step fillet) 0 This criterion is reasonable considering the stress history at different locations of the component. According to this figure, the stresses generated in the component at different nd locations vary proportionally. It could also be noticed that for the root of the 2 step of the spindle (the critical location), stress is higher than at other locations. Referring to the components nomenclature of Figure 1, the following constraints are considered for each optimization stage. The optimized steering knuckle is expected to be interchangeable with the existing one. Therefore, the following dimensions are kept unchanged: strut joint center-points, and inner diameters; front and rear lateral links center-points and inner diameters; tension strut joint center-point and inner diameters; center-points and size of the bolt holes of the hub mounting plate; Spindle geometry. Design Variables Design variables specify what could change in the optimization process. Depending on each specific optimization stage of Figure 3, the geometry variables are selected as follows. body thickness and the geometry of the portion to be removed; strut joints outer diameters and thicknesses; front and rear lateral links outer diameter and thickness; tension strut joint outer diameter and thickness; hub mounting plate geometry and thickness. 3. Optimization study The optimization Study is based on the guideline of Figure 3. As per the optimization guideline (Figure 4) included geometry optimization without changing the attachment geometry, and cost saving in the manufacturing process. Since the objective of this stage is to maintain the current geometry with no attachment changes, improving fatigue performance by substituting superior materials or additional manufacturing processes, which would allow having smaller spindle dimensions, is not considered for this stage. Optimized section is shown in figure 4. 3.1 Optimization Using Geometry Variables A baseline FEA of the original model showed that some parts of the steering knuckle experience lower stresses for the primary load case considered. The shape optimization techniques are applied to lower the weight of the component. The Pro Engineer Optimization software is used to perform automatic redesign of the component. Redesign allows varying the design parameters, set limits on the design (stress), and set goals for the design (minimize stress by varying body thickness). The software then tries to find the optimal structure that satisfies these criteria. The analysis showed that reduction of lateral link joints outer diameter and thickness, and the hub mounting plate thickness is possible. In addition, such changes would not affect the integrity of the component and are manufacturable. Following the mathematical redesign optimization of Pro Engineer, the outer diameter of the joint and the thickness of the mounting plate are selected as design parameters, separately, and the maximum stress at the critical location of the component is chosen as the stress limit.The optimized lateral link joint outer diameter and the thickness of the mounting plate are found to be 20.8 mm and 11.4 mm, versus the original 24 mm and 13 mm, respectively. Figure 4 shows the modified dimensions of the optimized part. In this redesign, the components weight became 2.13 kg earning 9.4% weight saving compared to the original model. As per the distribution of von Misses stress in the component before and after optimization for the Stage I optimization (including body, hub mounting and lateral link joint optimization) for an arbitrary bending moment of 690 N.m.
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Optimized Section
Figure 3 Flow Chart of Procedure for Optimization of Steering Knuckle
Figure 4 Dimensions of Redesigned portion of Steering Knuckles body
3.2 Changes to Manufacturing Processes In the framework of this study and for optimization Stage of Figure 3 with no change in attachment geometry, the approaches considered to reduce manufacturing costs are precision forging instead of conventional forging, warm forging instead of hot forging, and reducing machining steps. Comparison of Conventional Forging and Precision Forging The current practice in the forging of steering knuckle results in a considerable percentage of the material being listed as flash, in addition to generating non-precise parts that require machining to get to the required tolerances at the interfaces with other suspension parts. The weight of the as-forged steering knuckle is 3.1 kg, while the weight of the finished steering knuckle is 2.4 kg. Therefore 0.7 kg (about 22%) of the material is removed during post forging processes, mainly machining. Reducing the amount of machining will also cut the components machining cost significantly. Despite these advantages of precision forging, it should be noted that a major advantage of closed-die forging with flash is that the volume of the preform can vary within a wider range than for flash less forging. This makes it possible to continuously manufacture products with the same quality. Precision forging requires a higher accuracy and a significantly improved process monitoring and control. Although these studies are conducted on forged connecting rods, due to similarities with steering knuckle from manufacturing point of view, they could be modified and extended for the steering knuckle of this study with the following objectives: 1. Design a tooling concept that can save material by allowing the formation of only a small amount of flash; 2. The volume of the initial preform and the volume of the cavity at the end of the process must be the same. The mass distribution and positioning of the preform must be very exact; 3. Optimize the tooling design by simulations. Find a geometry that requires the smallest load to fill the cavity without causing defects; 4. Establish guidelines and procedures to design blockers and preforms in order to accelerate the development of the production process of the forged part. In order to fill the cavity and produce components, the formation of a reasonable amount of flash should be allowed. A guideline to achieve this goal could be planned as: 1. Define a preform for the flash less forging of the steering knuckle by physical modeling experiments. An option would be plasticine billets and aluminum tooling; 2. Obtain the volume distribution in the steering knuckle; 3. Perform FE simulations of the component production to obtain the material flow and tool-billet contact conditions; 4. Determine the shape parameters to optimize the preform geometry; 5. Perform FE simulation with the optimized geometry; 6. Design the tool for forging of the component with controlled amount of flash by performing several simulations with different geometrical parameters (flash location and thickness) to optimize the geometry of the tooling.
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Use of Hot Forging Process The current forging process of the steering knuckle of this study is performed hot. The idea of replacing hot forging with warm forging is based in earlier study on an experimental study of warm and hot forged micro alloyed-steel-transmission hubs showed that the optimal combination of strength and toughness is achieved in a warm forged, fan-cooled condition. Warm forming is an energy efficient process that allows for a part to be manufactured to a near net shape, in fewer operations, and with less material than in hot forming. Warm forging, as used in the study, includes heating a blank to a controlled temperature between 760C (1400F) and 1040C (1900F), low temperatures in the austenite single-phase region, and forging into shape. The technology allows for near net shape forging of parts with intricate detail and much closer tolerances, as compared to hot forging. By nature, warm forging also results in a significant refinement of the austenite grain size. Therefore, while substituting warm forging is considered as one of the options in manufacturing process modification of the steering knuckle, it is necessary to evaluate the cost impact of the option. Eliminating or Limiting Some of the Manufacturing Steps Figure 1 shows the forged steering knuckle prior to shipping to the machining plant. Here as a modification, the strut and hub mounting holes are proposed to be extrusionpierced during the forging process. In the modified process, starting with a slug or billet from a steel bar, the steering knuckle is produced in the first stage by pressing or hammering. Then at the second stage the hub and strut mounting holes are extrusion pierced. The final stage for this part finish pierces the holes. Therefore, the forging process is modified and the machining work of the mounting holes could be reduced.In this modification of the steering 3 knuckle, 8.9 cm less volume will be removed during the machining process (about 10% of the total material currently being removed) saving about 10% of machining and 5% of total component production time and, subsequently, cost. 4. Conclusions 1. Overall weight and cost reductions of at least 12% and 5%, respectively, are estimated for the manufacturing process. The cost of the saved material is additional reduction, though not very considerable due to small portion of material cost within the total production cost. 2. Manufacturing process considerations, material and cost parameters are major constituents of a general optimization procedure with durability constraints for automotive component. A geometrical optimization without these considerations is not a practical approach for such high volume components. 3. Additional manufacturing operations such as surface hardening and surface rolling to induce compressive residual stress can be considered to improve fatigue strength of the forged steel steering knuckle at the spindle fillet area. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] A. Ravindran, K.M. Ragsdell and G. V. Reklaitis. Engineering Optimization. Sham Tickoo. Pro Engineer Wildfire 2.0 Abdul Mubeen. Machine Design S.S. Rao. Optimisation Krishna, M. M. R., , Finite Element Shape Optimization of a Steering Knuckle for a Heavy Truck A Case Study, SAE Technical Paper No. 2001-01-0634, 2001 [6] Lee, D. C. and Lee, J. I., Structural Optimization Concept for the Design of an Aluminum Control Arm, Proceedings of the IMechE, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, Vol. 217, pp. 647-656, 2003 [7] Schey, J. A., 2000, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc. [8] Schramm, U., Thomas, H., and Zhou, M., Manufacturing Considerations and Structural Optimization for Automotive Components, SAE Technical Paper No. 2002-01- 1242. [9] Pravardhan S. Shenoy and Ali Fatemi, Connectiong Rod optimization for Weight and Cost Reduction. SAE Technical Paper No. 2005 01 - 0987 [10] Kothari Kartik D., Dynamic Simulation and optimization for a Dynamically loaded crankshaft of a Single cylinder I.C. Engine, Dissertation report - Saurashtra Univ. Rajkot.
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Proc. of International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat -395007, Gujarat, India
Genetic Algorithms - A Robust Method for Optimum Design of Machine Elements

Rajesh C Sanghvi G H Patel College of Engg. & Technology,Vallabh Vidyanagar Corresponding author (email: rajeshsanghvi@gcet.ac.in) Optimization is essential in design, construction and maintenance of any engineering systems. But the general method for solving any kind of optimization problem does not exist. Several classical methods exist to solve different types of optimization problems. Besides these conventional methods, other algorithms such as Genetic Algorithms, Ant Colony Algorithms, Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithms, etc. have been developed. Of course, these algorithms may give near optimal solutions in complex problems. In this paper, it has been tried to show that GA is robust, in the sense that it is applicable to all types of problems. To prove the claim, several design problems pertaining to different classes of optimization problems, such as minimum cost design of a uniform column of tubular section with the constraints on stress, mean diameter and thickness; determination of the link lengths of a Four-Bar Mechanism for minimum structural error; minimum weight design of a helical spring subject to a constraint on stress with coil diameter and wire diameter as normally distributed random variables, etc. are considered. These problems have been solved using the corresponding conventional method and using GA also. Both these results are compared mutually as well as with the existing known results wherever possible. 1. Introduction
Mathematically speaking, all design problems are in fact optimization problems. In general, the aim of solving an optimization problem is to find a design vector
X [ x1 , x 2 , x3 , ...., x n ] which minimizes or maximizes an objective function f X subject to the constraints g j X 0, j 1, 2, ....., m
T
h j X 0, l j X 0,
j 1, 2, ....., p j 1, 2, ....., q.
No general analytic method exists which can solve any type of optimization problem. So, the problems are classified in several ways, such as a linear or a nonlinear programming problem, an integer or a mixed integer or a real valued programming problem, a quadratic programming problem, a geometric programming problem etc. Several classical analytic methods depending on the type of optimization problem have been developed to solve such problems. However, a method applicable for one type of problem either do not perform well or may not be applicable at all for another type of problem. For example, Simplex Method is applicable only for linear programming problems. Besides these classical methods, many heuristic algorithms have come into existence. Examples include Genetic Algorithms (GA), Ant Colony Optimization Algorithms (ACO), Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithms (PSO), etc. These algorithms may find only near optimal solutions in complex problems. But, for practical purposes, such solutions are also acceptable. In this paper, it is claimed that GA is a robust method for any type of optimization problems in the sense that it gives an acceptable solution irrespective of the number of variables, number of constraints, linearity or non-linearity of the equations involved, etc. To prove the claim, four problems, namely, design of a column of tubular section for minimum cost [1], design of a helical spring for minimum weight [2, 4], design of a four bar mechanism for minimum structural error [3], and cargo loading problem [1] for maximum monetary value
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are considered. All these problems are of varying nature. The author has also applied GA to working tolerance optimization problems with seventeen tolerances as decision variables and has found satisfactory results. This problem is not reported here for the sake of space. The welded beam design problem is a nonlinear problem with several constraints. GA has been applied to this problem in [5]. Similarly, the problem of optimal design of a pressure vessel using GA is dealt with in [6, 7]. In this paper, MATLAB codes for solving these problems using classical methods are developed. Also, a C++ code implementing GA is developed. The above problems are solved using GA. The solutions are compared with exact results and found satisfactory. 2. Formulations of the problems
The optimization model and the assumed data for all the four problems are accepted as per the corresponding references mentioned in introduction. 2.1 Design of a uniform column of tubular section
The aim is to determine the mean diameter d and tube thickness t of the uniform column of tubular section, which can carry a compressive load of 2500 kg f at a minimum cost. The material used to make up the column has a yield stress
of of
500 kg f / cm , the modulus of elasticity

3
of 0.85 10 kg f / cm , and density
0.0025 kg f / cm . The length of the column is 250 cm. The stress induced in the column should be less than the buckling stress as well as yield stress. The mean diameter of the column is restricted to lie between 2 and 14 cm and columns with thickness outside the range 0.2 to 0.8 cm are not available in the market. The cost of the column includes material and construction costs and can be taken as 5W 2 d , where W is the weight in kilograms force and d is in centimeters. After simplification, the problem reduces to finding
X x1 , x 2 d , t which minimizes
T T
f X 9.82 x1 x 2 2 x1 subject to the constraints

1.593 x1 x2 1 0,
47.3 x1 x2 x1 x2
1 0.
2.2
Design of a helical spring The aim is to find the coil diameter
D and wire diameter d of the spring so that the weight is minimum but the shear stress induced in the spring under a compressive load P should not exceed max . Further assume that the design variables are normally distributed with d , d 1, 0.05 and D , D 1, 0.05 , where d , D are the mean
d D
values and d , D are the standard deviations of d and D respectively. Applying chanceconstrained method, finally the problem results into finding the design vector
X [ d , D ] which minimizes
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FX
0.041 G d P D
0.278 Qd D
subject to the constraint

12.24 P D
0.75
max
2.75
1.
10 2
The data assumed are G 8.56 10 N / m , P 510 N , 78, 000 N / m , 0.02 m, Q 2,
max
0.306 10 Pa.
Design of a four bar mechanism
2.3
The aim is to find the link lengths of the four bar mechanism for minimum structural error. Let a , b, c , d denote the lengths of input link, coupler link, output link and grounded link respectively. There are in fact four variables. Assuming the structural error to be zero at one precision point gives one equality constraint. So, number of variables gets reduced to three. Moreover, assuming the length of the input link to be unity, the problem remains to be of two variables only. One more constraint of physical relevance, namely, a = d , say
3a 1, is
d added. Considering point 4 as the point with structural error zero, for the following data,
Precision point Input angle (deg) Desired output (deg)
1 0 30
2 10 38
T
3 20 47
4 30 58
5 40 71
6 45 86
the problem is to find the vector X [ a , c ] which minimizes

f X 0.1563 a c
2
0.76 a c
subject to the constraint

3a d 1.
2.4
Cargo loading problem Suppose there are n different types of articles. Each article of type i has a weight wi ,
a volume vi , and a monetary value ci . The aim is to find number of articles xi of article of
n
each type i so that the total monetary value of all the articles
c x is maximum with total

i i i 1
weight and total volume not exceeding some specified values. The data assumed are as follows: Article Type Weight Volume Monetary value 1 4 2.25 5.25 2 4.25 5 9.5 3 2 4.25 7.5 4 4.5 3.5 8 5 3 2 4.35
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Further, assume that the total weight should not exceed 720 and total volume should be within 560. Then the problem is to find the vector X [ x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 , x5 ] which maximizes
f X 5.25 x1 9.5 x2 7.5 x3 8 x 4 4.35 x5
T
subject to the constraints

4 x1 4.25 x 2 2 x3 4.5 x4 3 x5 720, 2.25 x1 5 x2 4.25 x3 3.5 x 4 2 x5 560.
3. 3.1
Solution Methods Classical Methods
Problem 2.1 is a geometric programming problem with two degree of difficulty. Problem 2.2 is a stochastic geometric programming problem. Such a problem is first converted into deterministic form using chance-constrained methods and then appropriate classical method is applied to solve the problem. Problem 2.3 is a problem with four variables. However, appropriate physical considerations as mentioned above reduce it to a problem with two variables only. Then it becomes a geometric programming problem with one inequality constraint having zero degree of difficulty. Finally, problem 2.4 is an integer linear programming problem. The classical method of solving such a problem requires first applying simplex method to find a real optimum solution and then Gomorys cutting plane method or branch and bound method is applied to satisfy the integer requirements. 3.2 Genetic Algorithms
GA is based on the Darwinian principle of survival of the fittest. The general methodology of a GA involves performing several cycles of three basic operators, namely, selection, crossover and mutation till some user defined termination criterion is satisfied. Such a cycle is called a generation in GA terminology. The algorithm starts with a randomly initialized set of solutions from the search space. This set is called a population. These solutions are encoded as binary strings. A fitness value is assigned to each of these solutions based on some appropriate fitness function. A selection operator is applied to emphasize good solutions and eliminate bad solutions. Normally, selection is a probabilistic operator, which uses
r f xi
r f x
j
to serve as selection probabilities. Then crossover is
for all j
applied, in which distinct pairs of two solutions are randomly selected and their sub-strings after some randomly generated point are interchanged. Sometimes the solutions get stuck into local optimum. Mutation tries to avoid it. In mutation operation, a random number is generated for each bit of every solution of the population. If it is less than some pre-decided probability, that bit is altered. The pre-decided probability is called the probability of mutation, pm . There are also other variants of GA based on encoding scheme, choice of selection operator, crossover probability and type of crossover etc. For example, other encoding schemes used are value based encoding, permutation encoding. Similarly, tournament selection method and rank selection method are frequent choices of researchers, etc. Crossover probability need not be one. One-point crossover, multi-point crossover and uniform crossover are other alternatives for the crossover operator. Further details on GAs are available in [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
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4.
Results and discussion The results using classical methods and those using GA are as under: Classical method GA
Proble m 2.1 2.2
d 5.44 cm, t 0.293 cm , fmin 26.53

d 0.0053 m , D 0.0358 m,
f min 2.266 N
d 5.62 cm , t 0.497 cm, fmin 26.61

d 0.0053 m , D 0.0359 m,
f min 2.254 N
2.3 2.4
a 1, b 3.662, c 0.41, d 3.0

x1 18, x2 0, x3 6, x4 140,
* * * *
a 1, b 3.634, c 0.47, d 3.0

x1 6, x2 21, x3 0, x4 100,
* * * *
x5 2, f max 1268.2
5. Conclusions
x5 44, f max 1222
It can be concluded that GA works well irrespective of the number of variables, nonlinearity of the objective function or of the constraints, the presence or absence of constraints or the randomness of the variables etc. Acknowledgement First I express my utmost gratitude and appreciation to God almighty for His grace and strength to undertake this work. I am thankful to G H Patel College of Engineering & Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar for providing me software and hardware facilities. I am also thankful to Mr Kalpesh Patel from EC dept, GCET for his frequent help in editing of this paper. References [1] Rao, S.S. Engineering Optimization Theory and Practice, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, 2002. [2] Beohar, S.B.L. and Rao, A.C. Optimum design of helical springs using stochastic geometric programming, Progress in Engineering Optimization, 1981, 147-151 R W Mayne and K M Ragsdell, Eds., ASME, New York, 1981. [3] Rao, A.C. Synthesis of 4-bar function generators using geometric programming, Mechanism and Machine Theory, 14, 1979, 141-149. th [4] Shigley, J.E. and Mischke, C.R. Mechanical Engineering Design, 5 ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989. [5] Deb, K. Optimal design of a welded beam via genetic algorithms, AIAA journal, 1991, 29:2013-15. [6] Liu, P.et al., Optimal design of a pressure vessel using an improved genetic algorithm, Journal of Zhejiang university-Science A, 2008, 9(9):1264-1269. [7] Tahera, K. et al, GADYM-A novel genetic algorithm in mechanical design problems, Journal of universal computer science, 2008, vol.14, No.15, 2566-2581. [8] Holland J.H. Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems, MIT Press, Second Edition,1992. [9] Gen, M., Cheng, R., Genetic Algorithms and Engineering Optimization Engineering Design and Automation, Wiley Interscience Pub., John Wiley and Sons. Inc., New York, 2000. [10] Goldberg, D.E. Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning, Addision-Wesley, 1989. [11] Fogel, D., Back, T., Michalewicz, Z., Pidgeon, S. editors, Handbook of Evolutionary Computation, Oxford University Press, 1997. [12] Mitchell, M. Introduction to Genetic Algorithms, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall, 2002. [13] Rajasekaran, S., Pai, G.A. Vijayalakshmi Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic, and Genetic Algorithms Synthesis and Applications, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall, 2003.
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Stress Analysis of a Rectangular Plate with an Elliptical Hole: An Experimental & FEA Approach
Yeshwant M. Sonkhaskar , Gajanan R. Nikhade Kavikulguru Institute of Technology and Science, Ramtek- 441106 (M.S.), India * Corresponding author (e-mail: ymsonya@yahoo.com) In this research paper the investigations are carried out on the analysis of stresses and strains of the Rectangular Plate with an elliptical hole using both the numerical and experimental methods. This includes a thorough study of Experimental Stress Analysis, FEA and Strain measurement. Creating innovative products, reducing costs and compressing development cycles are the major challenges facing manufacturers today. As companies embrace global product development and production process, the manufacturing enterprises requires expanded virtual engineering applications and fully integrated product development process. An extensive survey has been carried out on the Rectangular plate with a circular hole. Thus in the quest to improve the product development and analysis process in working conditions using CAD/CAM/CAE suit of solutions, an attempt is made to analyze the stresses that are produced during the application of the load on the Rectangular plate with an elliptical hole. The geometry abstraction and Stress analysis was done in I-DEAS 11 CAD/CAM/CAE software. Numerical simulation is carried out and analysed that stresses and deformations are in good agreement with the corresponding values obtained in the experimental programme. Hence CAD/CAM/CAE software packages helps analysts find the performance of the products in working conditions which also used in automation process and saving the time of analysis. 1. Introduction
*
The object of this research paper is to study and analyze the stresses and deformations produced in a rectangular plate with an elliptical hole under axial loading. The word stress analysis indicates analyzing the stresses produced in the plate at different loading values which is carried out in two ways: by testing the specimen by the experimentation and with numerical method. In the experimental method, the electrical resistance strain gauges are bonded on the plate and then the specimen is loaded axially using a Universal testing machine (UTM).Then the stresses and strains are found by using the Wheatstone bridge circuit system. The next stage is the analysis by using the numerical method, in which the specimen of same size is modelled and tested by using the I-DEAS 11 software 2. Experimental Programme
Different apparatus are used during the experimentation viz. specimen, acetone, electrical resistance Strain gauges, adhesive (Fewiquick), circuit, Universal Testing Machine etc. The material used for the specimen is aluminium and mild steel. The size of the plate is 300mm x 50mm x 5mm thick. For holding the specimen within the clamps of the Universal testing machine, 100 mm from both side of the plate is used, and the middle 100 mm plate length is subjected to tensile loading. Three specimens with different sizes of elliptical holes are prepared. By using the milling process, the elliptical shaped rough holes are made initially and by using the milling process, fine finishing and exact shape of the elliptical hole is obtained. The set of sizes selected for the ellipses are 4mm, 3mm, 2 mm as respective
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major axes and 2mm, 1.5mm, 1 mm as minor axes on each material. The plate sizes are kept constant. 2. 1 Bonding of strain gauge
The specimen is smoothened by using the sand paper and then cleaned with acetone then bonding the electrical resistance strain Guage to the plate with a hole. The purpose of using the sand paper is to remove the roughness and that of acetone is to clean the surface and remove the impurities, thereby the strain in material is faithfully transferred to the strain gauge. By using fewiquick as the adhesive, the strain gauge is bonded on to the specimen. Fig 1 shows the rectangular plate with an elliptical hole after the strain gauge is bonded.
Figure 1: Specimen after strain gauge is bonded 2.2 Measuring Circuit arrangement
Fig.2: Wheat-stone bridge circuit
Fig.3: Circuit for measurement of change in voltage
To measure the strain, a bonded resistance strain gage, is connected to an electric circuit which is capable of measuring the minute changes in resistance corresponding to strain. Four Strain gage transducers are used and connected to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in fig 2 and the circuit used for measurement of change in voltage is as shown in fig 3.
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A Wheatstone bridge is a divided bridge circuit used for the measurement of static or dynamic electrical resistance. The output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge is expressed in milli volts output per volt input.
Figure 4: Circuit connected to strain gauge The Wheatstone circuit is also well suited for temperature compensation. All four strain gauges are connected to Wheatstone bridge circuit is as shown is fig 4. The specimen is axially loaded in the UTM. As shown in the fig 5, the position of the plate is vertical. Only the central 100 mm part of the plate is seen and the rest of the plate is under the clamps of the UTM for the proper gripping purpose. Then the load is gradually increased, with this the stresses are produced in the plate which has developed the strain, which further led to the change in the length of the grid of the strain gauge. As the strain gauge is one of the elements of the balanced wheat stone bridge, due to the change in the length of the grid, there is change in the resistance and there is change in the voltage and thus making the bridge unbalanced. The change in voltage is directly measured by using the multi meter connected to the circuit. By getting the ratio of the change in voltage to the original voltage, the strain was calculated. The Youngs modulus of the material is known, the stresses produced were calculated. The similar procedure is adopted for all the other specimens also.
Figure 5: Specimen under loading condition in UTM
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2.3
Formulae and Calculations used in the Experimental Investigations: Stress () = [E x 4 x V] / [G.F x Vsg x M.F] Sample calculation: Stress () = [70000 x 4 x 0.006 / [2 x 5 x 2] = 84 N/mm 2.
3.
Numerical Investigation The second phase of investigation deals with analyzing the stresses in the plate by using the numerical method. The numerical simulation is carried out in order to calculate and verify the results obtained by the experimental programme. General Purpose Finite Element software I-DEAS 11 is used to model and analyze the rectangular plate with an elliptical hole. The main advantage of this is that it very much user friendly and the results are obtained in very less time. The 3-D model is built up and the FE analysis is carried out for each specimen using Tetrahedron element. The total number elements and nodes are 27869 and 82704 respectively. Numerical Investigation of a plate with an elliptical hole of 2mm major axis and 1mm minor axis with different loading is as shown in fig 6, 7, and 8.
Figure 6: Aluminium (2/1) plate at 500 kg load
Figure 7: Aluminium (2/1) plate at 1000 kg load
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. Figure 8: Aluminium (2/1) plate at 1500 kg load 4. Results and Discussions Our Investigations explain that the Maximum stresses were developed at the vicinity of the elliptical hole and there is a negligible variation in the results obtained by both the methods. The reasons for this could be the material distribution, which is not uniform in the experimental method, but it is assumed uniform and even in the numerical method. The other reason could be the improper bonding of the strain gauges on the specimen surfaces. The strain gauges used are not of special type for measuring the stress at a point. A line of conclusion is drawn on the analysis made by Numerical method is closer to the actual stress distribution obtained by the Experimental method. Notations 2 = stress produced in N/mm . 2 E = Youngs modulus of the specimen in N/mm . V = change in voltage obtained by the multimeter in Volts G.F = Gauge Factor. Vsg = the voltage across the strain gauge Volts. M.F = Magnification Factor of the circuit. Acknowledgement The authors express their deep sense of gratitude to the Management, KITS Ramtek. The authors are also grateful to the Principal, Dr. P. Bhaskar for his continued encouragement without which this would have not possible. The authors also thankful to the Prof. P. S. Pachpor Head, MED for his forbearance References [1] T. Hayashi .Stress Analysis of a Rectangular Plate with a Circular Hole under Uniaxial Loading Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials Vol. 2, No. 2, 143-151 (1989) [2] T. K. Paul and K. M. Rao. Finite element stress analysis of laminated composite plates containing two circular holes under transverse loading Composites & Structures, Volume 54, Issue 4, 17 February 1995, 671-677 [3] James W Dalley and William F Riley. Experimental Stress Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Co-Singapore, 81-83. [4] L. S. Srinath Experimental Stress Analysis S-Chand Publications, 341-432 [5] S. P. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier Experimental Stress Analysis Mc Graw-Hill Publications, 196-243
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Prototype Development of A Disc Coupling by Rapid Prototyping Process

Dr. Sriram Venkatesh *, Ramya C.S , B.T.Swathi
1 2 1 1 2
College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India Sree Nidhi Institute of Science and Technology Hyderabad, India *Corresponding author (email: venkatmech@yahoo.com)
During recent years, to increase productivity, industries have attempted to apply more computerized automation in manufacturing. Amongst the various technologies to take the industry by storm is rapid prototyping(RP) technology. RP technologies provide the bridge from product conceptualization to product realization in a reasonably fast manner, without the fuss of NC programming, jigs and fixtures. Rapid Prototyping (RP) can be defined as a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. RP includes various technologies out of which selective laser sintering technology is prominent because SLS allows the production of fully functional prototypes with high mechanical and thermal resistance, strength & rigidity under the extreme conditions of high temperature. Durable metal parts, mold inserts, direct Low density complex investment casting patterns can be prepared directly from CAD data. In this paper, a CAD model of the disc coupling is prepared and STL file preparation of the model is done in Magics RP. It is sliced into 2D layers using EOS RP Tools and the sliced file is then imported into PSW software which is further exported into FORMIGA P100 and the prototype obtained is examined for dimensional accuracy using laser coordinate measuring machine. This prototype can be used for applications such as sand casting, investment casting and injection molding. 1. Introduction: Rapid Prototyping technique can process wide variety of prototyping materials and can produce direct assembly components with the exact interpretation of the given design. Rapid Prototyping has also been referred to as solid free-form manufacturing; computer automated manufacturing, and layered manufacturing. In addition, RP models can be used for testing, such as when an airfoil shape is put into a wind tunnel [1]. RP models can be used to create male models for tooling, such as silicone rubber molds and investment casts. When the RP material is suitable, highly convoluted shapes can be produced because of the nature of RP. 2. Methodology of Rapid Prototyping: A CAD model is constructed, and then converted to STL format. The RP machine processes the .STL file by creating sliced layers of the model. The first layer of the physical model is created. The model is then lowered by the thickness of the next layer, and the process is repeated until completion of the model. 3.Selective Laser Sintering Process: In this process, a laser beam is traced over the surface of a tightly compacted powder made of a thermoplastic material (A) (Fig 1). The powder is spread by a roller (B) over the surface of a build cylinder (C). A piston (D) moves down one object layer thickness to accommodate the layer of powder. The piston moves upward incrementally to supply powder for the process. Heat from the laser melts the powder where it strikes under guidance of the scanner system (F). The CO2 laser used provides a concentrated infrared heating beam. The entire fabrication chamber is sealed and maintained at a temperature just below the melting point of
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the plastic powder. Thus, heat from the laser need only elevate the temperature slightly to cause sintering, greatly speeding the process. A nitrogen atmosphere is also maintained in the fabrication chamber which prevents the possibility of explosion in the handling of large quantities of powder. After the object is fully formed, the piston is raised to elevate the object. Excess powder is simply brushed away and final manual finishing may be carried out. No supports are required with this method since overhangs and undercuts are supported by the solid powder bed. This saves some finishing time compared to stereolithography. However, surface finishes are not as good and this may increase the time. No final curing is required as in stereolithography, but since the objects are sintered they are porous.
Figure1. Selective Laser Sintering 3.1 Advantages of Selective Laser Sintering: Any powder which can be sintered or will bond without melting can be used. Materials are non-toxic. The accuracy is in the range of +-0.05-0.25mm. It has fairly good speed, for example a piece 305x380 mm can be cast at 12-25mm per hour. Fully automatic process.
Figure 2. Exploded View of the disc Coupling Assembly prepared in CAD. 4. STL File Preparation of Disc Coupling in Magics RP Step 1: Via the file menu, Disc coupling component prepared in native CAD Modeling is imported (Fig 3).
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Figure 3. Imported disc coupling from PROE
Figure 4. Scaling of disc coupling
Step 2: The components of the disc coupling after being imported into the Magics software are scaled to the required size using the RESCALE option from the file menu. Then positioning and orientation on the Formiga Platform are adjusted using the TRANSLATE and ROTATE options of the file menu. (Fig 4 and Fig 5).
Figure 5.Translation and Rotation in Magics RP
Figure 6.Merging of the parts
Step 3: Merging of all the parts is done using the MERGE PARTS option of the File menu (Fig 6). Step 4: After merging all the parts, FIX WIZARD option is used to fix various errors such as bad edges ,bad countours ,overlapping triangles and noise shells occurring due to the data transfer from CAD format to Magics. Step 5: Various properties of the component like volume, dimensions and number of triangles are displayed using the DISPLAY PROPERTIES option (Fig 7) which give an idea of the quantity of powder to be used and time taken for manufacturing.The .stl Magics file is saved.
Figure 7. Properties of the disc coupling
Figure 8. Different layers of the coupling after Slicing
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5. SLI File Preparation Using EOS RP Tools .stl data is converted into layer data (Fig 8) with the extension .sli using the Slicer module. The data errors are analyzed and rectified using the Slifix module. Selection of the parameters like MECHANIC or SKIN CORE is done in this process. Importing File into PSW Software: The fixed .Sli file is imported into PSW Software by LOAD PART option in the File menu. Various Exposure parameters like Skin core or Mechanic are set and the building time is calculated which comes to be eight hours with an accuracy of 5 %. Exporting Into FORMIGA P 100: By choosing EXPORT BUILDING TASK option from the menu, the task is loaded into the machine and a window appears indicating that the EXPORT IS SUCCESSFUL. 6. MANUFACTURING PROCEDURE: FORMIGA P 100 is a small, fast, flexible, efficient, e-Manufacturing in the Compact class The FORMIGA P 100 represents laser-sintering in the compact class. The machine is ideally suited for the economic production of small series and individualized products with complex geometry. With turnover times of less than 24 hours the FORMIGA P 100 integrates itself perfectly in a production environment that requires the highest level of flexibility. 6.1 Technical Data of the machine Effective building volume Building speed (materialdependent) Layer thickness (materialdependent) Support structure Laser type Precision optics Scan speed during build process Power supply Power consumption (nominal) Nitrogen generator Compressed air supply 200 mm x 250 mm x 330 mm (7.9 x 9.8 x 13 in) up to 24 mm height/h (0.94 in/h) typically 0.1 mm (0.004 in) not necessary CO2, 30W F-theta lens up to 5 m/s (16.4 ft/sec) 16 A 2 kW integrated (optional) minimum 6,000 hPa; 10 m3/h (87 psi; 13.08 yd3/h)
Figure 9. FORMIGA P 100
Figure 10. Screen showing temperatures
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Step1: Fitting building platform in the exchangeable frame. Fitting exchangeable frame in the machine. Step2: Preparing building: Loading building task into the machine using LOAD button on the touch screen and warming up machine to building temperature using the TEMPERATURE CONTROLS. Step3: Setting building: When setting the building parameters, decision on which material will be used for building, how the machine should behave after the building process is complete, and which temperatures should be used in the process chamber and removal chamber for building are made which comes out to be 1690C. Here we use PS2200 material. Step4: Switching on nitrogen supply and starting building process (Fig 10) using the START button on the touch screen. Step5: Taking Machine out of Operation. Cooling time = building time and removing exchangeable frame from the machine. Step6: Unpacking the parts using the unpacking and processing station. Thus the Flexible Disc Coupling is manufactured.
Figure 11. Components of the disc Coupling produced.

7. Conclusions
Figure 12.Prototype of the disc Coupling.
The Prototype Development of a disc coupling using Rapid Prototyping Technique is complete (Fig 11 and Fig 12) with fairly accurate results obtained within the manufacturing capabilities of the FORMIGA P 100 machine which is a Plastic Sintering Machine. The design has been based on theoretical calculations. By surface testing, the prototype is found to have a smooth surface finish conforming to the design data. The dimensions of the prototype produced can be measured using Laser CMM and can be scaled to get the original dimensions of the coupling.
References [1] Rapid Prototyping: Principles and Applications By Chee Kai Chua, Kah Fai Leong, Chu Sing Lim Contributor Chu Sing Lim Published by World Scientific, 2003. [2] Rapid Prototyping: Laser-based and Other Technologies By Patri K. Venuvinod, Weiyin Ma Published by Springer, 2004. [3] Basic training tutorial FORMIGA P100 by EOS Gmbh. [4] Karania. R., and Kazmer. D., 2007, Low Volume Plastics Manufacturing Strategies ASME Journal of Mechanical Design Vol. 129, pp. 1225-1233. [5] Wohlers report 2006 by Terry Wohlers, Wohlers Associates, 2006. [6] Rapid Prototyping and Engineering Applications: A Toolbox for Prototype Development By Liou W. Liou, Frank W. Liou Published by CRC Press, 2007.
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Modelling and Kinematic Analysis of a 2-DOF PKM in CATIA

* A. B. Koteswara Rao , L. V. Suryam , and Pradeep Jayasimha Dept. of Mechanical Engg., G.V.P. College of Engg., Visakhapatnam 530048 (AP), India * Corresponding author (e-mail: abkr_gvp@yahoo.co.in)
In the present work, a typical two degree of freedom PKM, that offers translational motion, has been modelled and assembled in one of the widely used software, namely, CATIA. Secondly, the inverse kinematics of the modelled PKM, i.e., finding the velocities of the two sliders when the tool traces a trajectory with a given velocity, has been attempted considering typical trajectories which are necessary for milling of a v-block and a semi-circular pocket. On the other hand, a source code in the MATLAB environment is developed to solve the inverse kinematics. The results from both the environments are found to be in good agreement. 1. Introduction
Parallel kinematic machines (PKMs), consisting of a mobile platform that is connected to a fixed base by several limbs or legs in parallel, are commonly claimed to offer several advantages like high structural rigidity per weight, high dynamic capacities, accuracy, stiffness, over the conventional serial mechanism based machines. The PKMs suffer from two major drawbacks, namely, a complex workspace and highly non-linear input / output relations. The kinematics modeling of most of the PKMs is difficult, due to the existence of closed loop chains. In the recent past, parallel mechanisms with less than 6 DOF, especially 2 and 3 DOF mechanisms have increasingly attracted the attention of researchers [1] and [2]. The existing planar 2 DOF parallel mechanisms are the well known five-bar mechanism with prismatic actuators or revolute actuators. The output of the mechanism is the translational motion of a point on the end-effector, i.e., the orientation of the end-effector is also changed correspondingly. In the present work, the modeling, assembly, and kinematic analysis of a typical two degree of freedom Translational Mechanism based on Parallel Kinematics, shown in Figure 1, in a widely used software environment, namely, CATIA, has been addressed. The mechanism consists of two rails along which the two sliders move and a moving tool platform to which the tool is attached. The orientation of the tool platform remains constant. The tool platform is connected to the sliders by two identical legs. The legs are connected to the tool platform by means of revolute joints. Actuation of the sliders provides the position of the tool platform in the vertical plane. Since the legs can be made light and stiff, this mechanism offers better stiffness characteristics. These PKMs offer larger workspace since all the joints are of single DOF type.
Figure 1. A schematic of the 2-DOF PKM and its parameters

With the following objectives, to model all parts of the PKM and assemble in CATIA, to find the velocities and accelerations of actuators using DMU Kinematics in CATIA, to validate the results by comparing with those obtained through simulation in MATLAB,
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the paper is organized as: Section 2 focuses on the modelling and assembly of the PKM in CATIA, while section 3 presents the use of DMU kinematics in CATIA for the inverse kinematics. The derivation of the theoretical expressions useful for inverse kinematics is reported in section 4. At the end conclusions are provided. 2. Modelling of PKM in CATIA
In order to model the PKM (Figure 1) in CATIA, its physical parameters: length of each leg (L), stroke length (S), and gap between parallel rails (2R), and width of platform (2r) have been chosen from [2] as L = 1.975 m, R = 1.2 m, S = 1.5 m, and r = 0.075 m. All the parts necessary for the PKM are created in the part design (Figure 2).
Slider Frame
Leadscrew
Tool holder
Leg
Figure 2. Parts of PKM created in the part design

Next step is to assemble all the existing parts (just created) in assembly. From the standard windows toolbar, selecting the Insert > Existing component and arrange all parts by using the move command tool bar . Then using the coincidence icon from the constraint
, axis of the leadscrew and axis of frame are
selected to make the coincidence between them. Next, using offset icon , top plane of the leadscrew and frame are selected and the offset value is set zero. This constrains the lead screw to rotate between fixed centres. Similarly, using the coincidence icon, the axis of guide bar of frame and corresponding axis of slider are made coincident to make the cylindrical joint between them. Similarly, axis of the slider and axis of the leg are made coincident. Next, using the offset constraint, plane of the leg and the corresponding plane of the sliders are selected and offset value is set zero. The final assembly of the two degree-offreedom PKM is as shown in Figure 3. 3. Kinematic Analysis of PKM using DMU in CATIA
The inverse kinematics of the modelled PKM has been simulated considering typical trajectories which are necessary for (i) milling the inclined surfaces of a Vee-block (with tool velocity along the trajectory as 1.324m/s) and (ii) milling a semicircular pocket (with tool velocity along the trajectory as 0.614m/s). Kinematic analysis of the modelled PKM is carried out using the DMU kinematics of Digital mock up in the following steps:
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Figure 3. Two Degree of freedom PKM modelled in CATIA

Using the Assembly Constraints Conversions symbol toolbar in DMU kinematics
, a new mechanism is created.
Clicking the button in the pop up box automatically creates the revolute joints between tool holder and legs; sliders and legs; and cylindrical joint between the sliders to guide bar of frame that appear in the application tree. Using the screw joint symbol in Kinematics joints toolbar
, the joints are made between the sliders and the respective lead-screws. Then, the tool path curve is drawn on the frame and one point on the tool is created. Coincidence between these two is made to keep them in same plane. Using the point curve joint in the kinematics joints tool bar, a joint between the trajectory, namely, milling path for the Vee-block (or milling path for the semicircular pocket as the case may be) and point on the tool holder is created. While doing this, length driven option in the pop up box is checked. Using the simulation symbol in DMU generic animation tool bar
, the entire mechanism is simulated. Next, laws are created in the mechanism using the formula icon knowledge tool bar as 1 sec. Then, using the speed-acceleration icon sensors, one on each slider, are placed. from the
. Simulation time is chosen in DMU kinematics tool bar, two
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Finally, using the simulation with laws icon
from simulation tool bar
, sensors are activated by selecting the linear speed and accelerations of sensors in vertical direction (Z) in pop up box. The play button is then clicked. After the completion of simulation for 1 sec, using the graphics button in the pop up box, the required graphs appear on the screen. Figures 4 and 5 show the tool trajectory for both the cases under study.
Figure 4. Simulation of PKM along the Vee trajectory
Figure 5. Simulation of PKM along the semicircular trajectory

4. Inverse Kinematics of the PKM - Analytical Approach
As illustrated in Figure 2, a reference frame Oxyz i s fixed to the base and a reference frame Oxyz is attached to the tool platform. yi : th Displacement of the i slider (or actuator), i.e., the distance from the th starting point of i rail, namely, point Ai. When the tool tip is at P = (x, y), the co-ordinates of various points are: A1 = (R, 0); A2 = (-R, 0); B1 = (x+r, y); B2 = (x -r, y); R1 = (R, y1); and R2 = (-R, y2). Height of Figure 8. Kinematic diagram of PKM the tool is taken as h. From the geometry, the position of the sliders, namely, y1 and y2 can be expressed as
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y 1 L2 ( R x r ) 2 y h
(1a)
y 2 L2 ( R x r ) 2 y h
(1b) Differentiation of (1a) and (1b) with respect to time give the velocity relations between the tool platform and the sliders. The velocities of sliders 1 and 2, i.e., y1 and y2 , are expressed as
y1 [( x r R) x ( y y1 h) y ] /( y y1 h)
(2a)
y 2 [( x r R) x ( y y 2 h) y] /( y y 2 h)
(2b) Differentiation of (2a) and (2b) with respect to time give the acceleration relations between the tool platform and the sliders. The simplified expressions for the accelerations of sliders 1 and 2, i.e., 1 and 2 , are obtained as y y
1 [ x r R ( y y1 h) x 2 ( y y1 ) 2 ] /( y y1 h) y x y 2 2 [ x r R ( y y 2 h) x ( y y 2 ) 2 ] /( y y 2 h) y x y
(3a) (3b)
To solve the inverse kinematics of the PKM, for the two test cases presented in section 3, a source code in the MATLAB environment is developed based on the expressions presented so far. The results from both the environments are found to be in good agreement. It may be noted that the PKM under study is only a two degree of freedom mechanism. However, spatial six degree of freedom PKMs, for example, Stewart platform that find applications in flight simulation [3] or HexaM that find machine tool applications [4], the expressions are cumbersome, and hence in such cases the use of CATIA makes the kinematics analysis much simpler. 5. Conclusions A typical two degree of freedom PKM, that offers translational motion, has been modelled in one of the widely used software, namely, CATIA and its inverse kinematics, i.e., finding the velocities of the two sliders when the tool traces a trajectory with a given velocity, is attempted considering typical trajectories that are necessary for milling of a v-block and a semi-circular pocket. On the other hand, a source code in the MATLAB environment is developed to solve the inverse kinematics analytically. The results from both the environments are found to be in good agreement. Implementation of the method presented for complex spatial six degree of freedom PKMs, for which the theoretical expressions are cumbersome, is under the way. References [1] Xin-Jun Liu, Jongwon Kim, and Jinsong Wang, Two Novel Parallel Mechanisms with Less than Six DoFs and the Applications. Proceedings of the WORKSHOP on Fundamental Issues and Future Research Directions for Parallel Mechanisms and Manipulators, October 34, 2002, Quebec, Canada, pp. 172-177. [2] A. B. Koteswara Rao, S. K. Saha, and P. V. M. Rao, Workspace and Stiffness Analyses of a Two Degree of Freedom Parallel Kinematic Machine Tool. Proceedings of International conference PCEA-IFToMM (PICA 2006), Nagpur, INDIA, July 11-14, 2006. [3] Merlet, J. P., Parallel Robots, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, 2000. [4] A. B. Koteswara Rao, S. K. Saha, and P. V. M. Rao, Dynamics Modelling of Hexaslides using the Decoupled Natural Orthogonal Complement Matrices. International Journal of Multibody System Dynamics, 15, 2006, pp. 159-180.
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Evaluation and Simulation of Semi Active Suspension System for Multi-Utility Cars by Modified Skyhook Control Theory Using Half Car Model
Dabhi Shyam K. , Chirag Patel
1, 2 * 1* 2
Charotar Institute of Technology-Changa. Corresponding author (e-mail: shyamdabhi.me@ecchanga.ac.in)
In present work modified control theory is developed for semi active control of suspension system for MU (Multi Utility) cars. A mathematical model for half car model is developed for passive suspension system. Modified control theory for control of damping coefficient for variable damper is included. Half car model is developed on MATLAB/SIMULINK for results comparison for passive and semi active controlled suspensions system. Response of Passive Suspension System and Semi Active Suspension System for defined road test profile are compared from which it is conclude that Semi Active Suspension System give best result. It can be test for different type of road profile also. Maximum acceleration goes in Passive Suspension System is half then in Semi Active Suspension system which comes into range of Shock Tolerance of Human Body for Comfort. 1. Introduction
In automobiles main functions of suspension system are to carry the vehicle and its weight, maintain correct wheel alignment, control the vehicles direction of travel, keep the tyres in contact with the road for safety, and reduce the effect of shock forces to isolate the body from long and short wave vibrations for improve riding safety and comfort. Improving ride safety it required hard suspension but to improve ride quality and comfort it required soft suspension. Also a suspension system with fixed characteristics (damping and stiffness) can be optimally designed only for a particular road excitation, which is the result of the condition of the road surface and the speed driven. If the road surface or the speed driven differs, either comfort is diminished to an unnecessary extent or possible safety is not achieved or both. Semi active suspension system is optimal solution for this [5]. This paper discusses about semi active suspension system. it is necessary to classify suspension system according to the existence of control input. Suspension system can be classified according to the existence of control input as follow [4]: Conventional or Passive Suspension System Active Suspension System Fully active suspension system Partially active suspension system with respect to load Partially active suspension system with respect to frequency Partially active Pneumatic or hydro pneumatic suspension system Semi Active Suspension system The Semi Active Suspension System uses a varying damping force as a control force. For example, in a hydraulic Semi Active Damper, varies the size of an orifice in the hydraulic flow valve to generate desired damping forces. An electro-rheological (ER) Damper or a magneto-rheological (MR) Damper applies various levels of electric field or magnetic field to cause various viscosities of the ER or MR fluids. On the other hand, the fully active suspension system produces the control force with a separate hydraulic/pneumatic unit. Therefore, the cost and the weight of a fully active suspension system are much higher than those of a Semi Active one. Semi Active suspension systems are getting more attention because of their low cost and competitive performance to the fully active ones [2]. 2. Half Car Modelling of Multi Utility Car. A 4 degree of freedom (DOF) mathematical model of a complete vehicle is developed. The coordinate system was defined as follows:
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Positive x-axis pointing to the front of the vehicle. Positive y-axis pointing to the drivers left. Positive z-axis pointing up. Positive angles are defined by the right-hand rule.
Dynamic model (see figure 1) of a half car represents the whole vehicle. The model is having spring mass and damper system. The model has Pitch and bounce motion for the chassis mass. Both front and rear axle has bouncing motion. Both tyres and suspensions are represents with spring and damping system. Both front and rear axle represents with each single masses. Pitching motion is considered at the C.G. of the chassis mass.
Figure 1. A Dynamic Half Car Model of Multi Utility Car [6]

Free body diagram shows the different kind of forces acting on the body mass, front and rear axle masses. Here all masses motion is considered in +Z direction. Pitching motion is considered also in Z direction but about +Y direction. In this model upward forces are considered as positive and anti-clockwise angle is positive. Zr1 and Zr2 are the road inputs at front and rear wheel respectively. Zr2 is delay by (a1+a2) from Zr1. Zs, Zu1 and Zu2 are the vehicle sprung front unsprung and rear unsprung mass displacement in Z direction. Here is pitching angle. Pitching is happening because of the unevenness of the Zr1 and Zr2. In above free body diagram all masses, stiffness, damping and dimensional values are known which are shown below.
Parameters(data) [7]:
mu1 mu2 I ks1 Cs1 kt1 Ct1 Front Unsprung mass, kg Rear Unsprung mass, kg Moment of inertia of chassis,kg.m2 Front suspension stiffness Front suspension damping Front wheel stiffness Front wheel damping 40 60 3375 22510 2225 134000 700 Ms a1 a2 ks2 Cs2 Kt2 Ct2 sprung mass, kg Centre line distance between front wheel and C.G., m Centre line distance between rear wheel and C.G., m Rear suspension stiffness Rear suspension damping Rear wheel stiffness Rear wheel damping 2200/2 1.375 1.3 22740 2290 134000 700
Mathematical model developed from the figure 2 are as under.
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Figure 2. Free Body Diagrams of Chassis, front suspension and rear suspension for car model.
Equation (5) [7] is representing the mathematical model of half car model as show in figure 2. Above state space equations of car model are validated [7]. 3. Modified Skyhook Theory for Semi Active Suspension System.
Control system for semi active suspension system is based on Modified skyhook control theory. As per this theory, semi active controlled suspension system damping coefficient is controlled by equation as mention below.
Where, Cv = variable damping coefficient, Chard = upper limit of damping coefficient, Csoft=lower limit of damping coefficient, =coefficient of modified skyhook damper. The optimum value of is 0.3 [1]. In this paper lower (Csoft) and upper (Chard) limit of front and rear dampers damping coefficients are set at 0.2 and 0.5 damping ration . 4. Simulation results comparison of passive and semi active suspension by using MATLAB/SIMULINK for evaluation of comfort.
Half car model is developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK is shown in figure 3(a). Sub system of front and rear suspension for passive suspension system is shown in figure 3(b). Same as Sub system of front and rear suspension for semi active suspension is shown in figure 3(c). Controller for variable damper is developed which work on modified skyhook control theory discussed in section 3 which is included in semi active damper in figure 3(c). A common test road profile and constant vehicle speed 100 km/h is use for comparison of passive and semi active suspension system comfort levels. Road profile developed in
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MATLAB for testing purpose has half sine wave bump profile [3] start from 5 m distance, having height 10 cm and length 25 cm. Different road profiles can be use for testing speed at different speed. Sampling time is set at 0.001 s. Responses of designed systems are taken from centre of gravity (C.G.) in form of acceleration.
(a) Half car model of suspension system
(b)Model of Passive suspension system (c) Model of Semi active suspension system Figure 3. MATLAB/SIMULINK models.
Figure 4. Sprung mass C.G. response comparison of semi active vs passive suspension system for half car model with vehicle speed 100 km/h.
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Simulation results are shown in figure 4. In this figure acceleration of sprung mass C.G. for passive and semi active suspension systems are compared. When vehicle passing over defined bump with speed 100 km/h, maximum acceleration of sprung mass with passive 2 2 suspension system is 5.049 m/s and that is for semi active suspension is 2.758 m/s . 5. Conclusion Passive suspension has limitation that it has fix damping coefficient, so design of passive suspension can be optimized for particular road condition. To improve ride quality and vehicle handling performance over wide range of road condition, semi active suspension systems were introduced. In this paper semi active suspension system is evaluate for half car model for multi utility car, based on modified skyhook theory. As shown in figure 4 sprung mass C.G. response of semi active suspension is nearly half then passive suspension which shows that semi active suspension system gives more comfort. From figure 4 it is also concluded that damping of bump disturbance is done in 2.5 sec for semi active suspension system when in passive suspension system it is 3.5 sec which shows that semi active suspension system is more stable then passive suspension system. Acknowledgment We are very much thankful to prof. V. P. Chaudhary, head of Mechanical department and Dr. Y. P. Kosta, Principal of C.I.T. Changa for the constant encouragement and valuable support. References [1] Kitching, K.J. and Cebon, D. and Cole, D.J. Performance of a semi-active damper for heavy vehicles. Transactions of the ASME: Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control, 122 (3), ISSN 0022-0434, 2000, 498-506. [2] Keum-Shik Hong Hyun-Chul Sohn, J. Karl Hedric. Modified skyhook control of semiactive suspensions: A new model, gain scheduling, and hardware-in-the-loop tuning. transactions of ASME,124, March 2002, 158-167. [3] T R Gawade, Dr. S Mukherjee, Prof D Mohan. Wheel lift-off and ride comfort of threewheeled vehicle over bump. IE(I) Journal-MC, Vol: 85, July 2004. [4] H. Chen, Z. Y. Liu, P. Y. Sun, 2005. Application of control to semi active suspension systems on half-car models. Journal of dynamic systems, measurement, and control, sept. 05, Vol: 127, 345-354. [5] Thomas D. Gillespie. Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics. Publication of Society of automotive engineers, Inc, 2002. [6] Dabhi Shyam K. Design of passive and semi active suspension system of front suspension for multi utility car. A dissertation report, Mechanical Department, L. D. College of Engineering, Gujarat, 2008. [7] Patel Chirag B. Modeling and vibration analysis of road profile measuring system. A dissertation report, Mechanical Department, Charotar Institute of Technology - Changa, Gujarat, 2009.
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Eddy Current Proximity Probe Gap Voltage Trending a Tool to Diagnose Machinery Journal Bearing Problem
Sanjiv K Kamble Rashtriya Chemicals & Fertilizers Ltd., Chembur, Mumbai-400074 To increase reliability of machinery, different condition monitoring techniques/parameters viz. bearing lubrication oil properties, overall casing vibration data, Signature Analysis plot, eddy current proximity probe AC (rotor vibrations magnitude) & DC output(Gap Voltage) etc. have been used . In this paper, use of eddy current proximity probe gap voltage trending for diagnosing high speed critical rotating machinery journal bearing problem is presented. Fluid film bearings problem identification becomes easy through constant monitoring and trending of Eddy Current Proximity Probe gap voltage. This paper discusses two case studies, one of steam turbine journal bearing problem (drive of GHH make axial flow air compressor) and other of synthesis gas centrifugal compressor high pressure barrel journal bearings problem. With the help of these case studies, it is demonstrated that gap voltage trending is one of the useful tool/technique amongst other available techniques to diagnose journal bearing problem. Abbreviations: AC: Alternating Current, DC: Direct current, LP: Low pressure, HP: High pressure, NDE: Non drive end DE: Drive end, NDEL: Non drive end left, NDER: Non drive end right, DEL: drive end left, DER: drive end right, S/d: Shut down 1. Introduction The effective condition monitoring of high speed rotating machinery is based on proper selection of Condition Monitoring techniques & parameters used. Change in each parameter can be co-related to change in functional behavior of machinery. In literature, different condition monitoring parameters, techniques, and plots are available for the diagnosis of machinery journal bearing problem. In addition to these advanced tools & methodologies, eddy current proximity probe gap voltage monitoring and trending can also be used effectively to diagnose high speed rotating machinery journal bearing problem. With the help of this trending technique, not only early indication of bearing problem is identified but severity level of bearing problem can also be diagnosed even at low level of rotor vibrations. Thus un-repairable damage to machinery can be avoided. Two case studies which are presented below, explain the concept of eddy current proximity probe gap voltage trending technique for identification of high speed machinery fluid film bearing problem. These case studies clearly establish that it is one of the important techniques which can be used to identify journal bearing condition. 2. Case study 1 In ammonia manufacturing process, make up gas from front end section of plant and the recycle gas are compressed before entering ammonia converter by using Synthesis Gas Centrifugal Compressor. Low pressure and High Pressure stages of this centrifugal compressor are driven by condensing type steam turbine. These compressor stages are of barrel type and supported by tilting pads type journal bearing and dry gas sealing arrangement.
LP Compressor
Steam Turbine
HP Compressor
Figure 1. Synthesis gas centrifugal compressor machinery arrangement
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Bently Nevada 3300 series on-line vibration monitoring system is installed on this compressor as safety tool. The details of compressor specifications of this compressor and analysis of problem are given below 2.1 Specifications LP and HP compressor: Make: M/s HITACHI Ltd Tokyo, Japan, 4449 KW,13500 rpm, Steam Turbine : Make: M/s Siemens Germany, 4894 KW. 13500 rpm. 2.2 Problem
HP compressor drive end rotor vibration had increased (40 microns) and was unsteady. HP compressor eddy current proximity probes gap voltage also had shown some changes. 2.3 Analysis HP barrel drive end rotor vibrations had increased and were unsteady (Table1). Table 1. HP barrel rotor vibrations (microns) trend Dates RPM HP NDE L HP NDE R HP DE L HP DE R 28/2/06 12231 17 27 22 25 10/4/06 12231 20 33 21 30-34 Before Job done 26/5/06 9/6/06 12152 12205 20 20 31 30-34 22 25 35-40 36 19/6/06 12133 17 31 25 30-34 3/8/06 11856 18-20 35 22 35 After job 9/8/06 11867 17 22 22 15
HP compressor rotor vibration analysis indicated presence of 0.29x frequency component with increase in 1x dominant frequency component (figure 2).
Figure 2. Vibration spectrums Therefore following possibilities were probable Problem with HP barrel drive end eddy current proximity probe system. HP barrel journal bearings related problem. HP barrel eddy current proximity probe system was checked and no abnormalities were observed. HP compressor rotor vibrations analysis indicated presence of sub synchronous 0.29X frequency component, which was close to intermittent rubbing (1/3x) frequency component [1]. This frequency component had indicated that problem may be due to rubbing in journal bearings. Therefore attention was focused on change of HP barrel bearings eddy current vibration probes gap voltage. Eddy current vibration probe gap voltage normally does not change provided there is a actual change in gap between the probe tip and the target (ruling out any abnormalities related to proximity system). From eddy current proximity probe theory, it is clear that the change in gap voltage is due to change in gap between rotor and probe tip [1]. As a distance between proximity probe tip and the target material increases, the output voltage increase is proportional [1] and vice versa. From gap voltage trending (figure 3) HP barrel NDE vibration left probe showed increasing trend wherein right probe showed decreasing trend. Also from gap voltage trending (figure 3) HP barrel DE vibration left probe showed increasing trend wherein right probe showed decreasing trend.
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HP Barrel NDE side Eddy Current Proximity probe Gap Voltage Trend
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
29/3/03 26/5/03 20/2/04 19/5/05 27/6/05 19/12/02 17/10/03 18/11/05 7/8/2002 3/2/2005 27/3/06 10/10/2004 10/8/2005 3/8/2006
HP Barrel DE side Eddy current Vibration probe gap voltage trend

12 10 8 6 4 2 0
10/10/2004 7/8/2002 3/2/2005 10/8/2005 3/8/2006 29/3/03 26/5/03 20/2/04 19/5/05 27/6/05 19/12/02 17/10/03 18/11/05 27/3/06
Gap Voltage
Series1 Series2
Gap Voltage
Series1 Series2
Dates
Series 1: HP NDE L Series 2 : HP DE R
Dates
Series 1: HP DE L Series 2: HP DE R
Figure 3 Eddy current proximity probe gap voltage trend Thus from eddy current vibration probe gap voltage trending, it was revealed that the rotor had shifted from original position, which may be due to change in HP barrel journal bearings physical condition. Therefore it was suspected that HP barrel both journal bearing clearances might have increased. Hence inspection of HP compressor journal bearings pads was recommended. 2.4 Investigation, job done and Result During June 2006, HP barrel overhauling job was taken up. HP compressor barrel NDE journal bearing was inspected. It is tilting pads type bearing. On the 02 no. of bottom pads scouring marks were observed (figure 4) and corresponding pads thickness were observed to be reduced from 28.93 to 28.50 mm. Condition of other pads was found to be normal. On HP Barrel DE journal bearing, scouring marks (figure 4) were also noticed on two bottom pads & pads thicknesses were observed to be reduced from 28.93 to 28.50 mm. Other pads were found with no abnormalities. HP barrel NDE bearing damaged bottom pads HP barrel DE bearing damaged bottom pad
Figure 4 HP barrel damaged journal bearing pads photograph 3. HP barrel both journal bearings, two pads were replaced with new ones. After the job of HP compressor journal bearings pads replacement and shaft alignment, rotor vibrations were reduced to normal (Table 1) Case Study 2
In Nitric Acid manufacturing plant, GHH make steam turbine driven axial flow Air compressor is being used to supply process air. Driving power to the horizontal split type air Compressor is supplied in part by the condensing type steam turbine (57%) using steam generated within the plant itself while the remaining (43%) power is supplied by the tail gas expansion turbine which is finally vented to atmosphere. Bently Nevada 3300 on-line vibration monitoring system is installed on this compressor as safety tool.
Tail Gas Turbine
Compressor
Gear Box Steam Turbine
Figure 5. Machinery arrangement of steam turbine and tail gas driven compressor
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3.1
Air Compressor Specifications Air Compressor Make: GHH Sterrkrade Gmbh, Germany , 9600 KW , 5050 rpm Steam Turbine : 5580 KW, 7940 rpm, rotor is supported by plain lemon type journal bearings Tail Gas Expansion Turbine: 4150 KW , 5050 rpm .
3.2
Problem
During June 2005, Steam Turbine rotor vibrations were found increased. Intermittent peaks in rotor vibrations were also noticed. Turbine NDE eddy current vibration probes gap voltage was found changed. 3.3 3.4 Chronology of Events During May 2005, steam turbine was overhauled and turbine rotor vibrations were normal th On 12 June 2005, sudden rotor vibrations increase/peak at steam turbine was noticed. th On 13 June 2005, Turbine NDE one vibrations probe gap voltage was observed to have decreased whereas other vibration probe gap voltage was observed to have increased. th On 16 June 2005, the plant tripped due to electric power failure. th After starting up of plant on 18 June 2005, steam turbine rotor vibrations remained high th On 19 June 2005, turbine rotor vibrations were found increased by almost two times. Observations Intermittent sudden rise in steam turbine rotor vibrations were noticed (Table 2). Table 2. Steam turbine rotor vibrations (microns) trend Date Rpm TNDE L TNDE R TDE L TDE R After S/d Before Turbine NDE bearing replaced 30/5/05 12/6/05 13/6/05 18/6/05 19/6/05 23/6/05 7600 7600 7600 7595 7550 7550 32 48.3 32.9 41 56.5 42 25 37.5 25.9 31 42.3 24 9 44.7 9.4 25 65.0 15 12 57.2 18.8 38 78.4 21 After job 29/6/05 7600 35 26 26 34
Steam turbine NDE bearing right eddy current vibrations probe gap volts had shown increasing trend and left probe gap voltage had shown decreasing trend . Rotor Vibrations analysis indicated increase in 1x frequency component (figure 6).
Figure 6. Vibration spectrums 3.5 Analysis of Problem From steam turbine rotor vibration frequency analysis, it was observed that there was rise in only 1x frequency. Therefore following possibilities were probable: Problem with load sharing of steam turbine & tail gas expansion turbine. Turbine rotor unbalance Steam turbine journal bearings problem. Supply pressure of steam (39.8 bar) and temperature to the steam turbine were steady. From steam inlet condition and steam turbine governor opening, it was indicated that there was no problem related to load sharing of steam turbine and tail gas expansion turbine. As there was no increase in steam flow & governor opening and no change in steam chest pressure of
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turbine, turbine rotor salting resulting into steam turbine rotor unbalance was also ruled-out. Therefore attention was focused on change in steam turbine NDE eddy current vibration probe gap voltage. Turbine NDE left vibration probe gap voltage had shown decreasing trend wherein right vibration probe gap voltage had shown increasing trend. Hence from trending of vibration probe gap voltage (figure 7), it was suspected that steam turbine NDE journal bearing condition could have deteriorated. Hence turbine journal bearings inspection was recommended.
Turbine NDE Eddy Current Proximity Vibration Probe Gap Voltage Trend
Gap Voltage
1 5 1 0 5 0 Series1 Series2
05 005 / 05 / 05 / 05 / 05 / 05 6 6 5/ 6 6 6 0/ /6/2 13/ 16/ 18/ 19/ 21/ 3 1 Series
Dates
1: TNDEL Series 2: TNDER
Figure 7 Eddy current proximity probe gap voltage trend 3.6 Investigation , job done and Result On 23 June 2005, steam turbine bearings inspection job was taken up. Turbine NDE bearing bottom half Babbitt lining was found damaged & cracked and top half Babbitt lining was found slightly damaged at sides (figure 8). Steam turbine DE bearing was found to be o.k.
th
Turbine NDE bottom bearing
Turbine NDE top bearing
Turbine DE bottom bearing
Figure 8 Turbine removed journal bearing photograph 4. Steam turbine both side journal portions were found with no abnormalities. Steam turbine NDE journal bearing was replaced and DE bearing was reused. After turbine bearing replacement, centering and alignment jobs, turbine rotor vibrations were found to be normal when it was restarted. Conclusion
Amongst other condition monitoring techniques, eddy current proximity probes gap voltage monitoring and trending techniques plays very important role in identification of high speed machinery journal bearing problem. The case studies discussed above support the methodology of analysis through eddy current proximity probes gap voltage monitoring and trending. Thus eddy current proximity probes gap voltage trending technique can be used to diagnose journal bearing problem of other high speed machineries also. References [1] Robert C Eisenmann, Sr., P.E., Robert C. Eisenmann , Jr, Machinery Malfunction Diagnosis and Correction : Vibration Analysis and Troubleshooting for the Process Industries [2] B.C. Nakra, G.S. Yadava, L Thuestad , Vibration Measurement & Analysis
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Proc. Of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S. V National Institute of Technology, Surat -395 007, Gujarat, India
Evolution of Mathematical Function Based on Statistical Methods for Determination of Geometrical Parameters for Known Natural Frequency of Structural Elements
S.M Khot, Nitesh P. Yelve, Himanshu Paretkar, Kunjal Kapadia, Nikhil Sehgal, Vivek Hariharan Fr. C. Rodrigues Institute of Technology of Technology, Vashi, Navi Mumbai 400 703 Corresponding author (email: smkhot66@yahoo.com) The prime objective of any design engineer is to avoid resonance while designing a structure that is subjected to substantial vibrations. To avoid vibration problem related to resonance, instead of applying vibration control technique after the product design, it is advisable to use some technique at the initial stage of design. In this connection in the present study a mathematical function based on statistical method is evolved, which predicts values of geometrical parameters for the known natural frequency. This mathematical function is tested for a particular case study and it is seen that it works well within 5% of error. 1. Introduction The designing process for a product is constantly under strain to provide the best possible output in least possible time. Continuous changes must be made in the designing procedure to obtain the desirable results. In majority of design processes the dynamic testing of the product is done after the strength design and development of prototypes. However during the dynamic testing if the natural frequency of product matches with the operating frequency resonance occurs. Hence to avoid resonance in some cases there is a need to change the geometrical parameters of the product. This leads to wastage of time. Therefore, in the present study we propose a tool or a mathematical function based on statistical methods for a cantilever type of structure, to estimate the geometrical parameters of the product for a given natural frequency. 2. Evolution of Mathematical Function The basic equation of natural frequency of cantilever beam, it is well known that the length, thickness and material properties are the major parameters which influence the natural frequency. In the present study the objective is to identify the relation between geometrical parameters and the natural frequency for the given material. Therefore, to establish this relationship two step approach is adopted. In the first step Design Of Experiment (DOE) is conducted for generating data and in second step Regression technique is used to establish relationship and this process is explained in the next subsection. 2.1 Design Of Experiment The DOE approach is based on the use of orthogonal Array (OA). A design of experiment is the simultaneous evaluation of two or more factors (parameters) for their ability to affect the resultant average or variability of particular product or process characteristics [2]. The material for the cantilever beam is fixed as stainless steel. To vary the natural frequency, length and thickness of the beam are varied. The experimentation details are given in Table1. Since only two factors are involved a full factorial experiment with 3 levels of these factors can be performed. The set of data required as per the combination of factors suggested by orthogonal array (OA) is obtained by doing Finite Element Analysis (FEM) in ANSYS.
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Table 1. Parameters and Their Levels Control Factors Length Thickness Level 1 550 (L1) 9 (T1) Level 2 610 (L2) 10 (T2) Level 3 650 (L3) 11(T3)
The natural frequency of cantilever beam is determined in ANSYS for the first mode shape for different combinations of length and thickness. The element selected is beam 3.The results obtained from ANSYS are validated with the experimental and analytical results [1] and found to be in close agreement. The analysis using ANOVA is performed manually and the effect of individual parameters and their interactions is determined. Table 2. Frequencies obtained for different Combinations Factors t1 t2 t3 Total l1 24.856 27.617 30.379 82.852 l2 20.209 22 24.698 66.907 l3 17.7712 19.776 21.753 59.3 lt 62.386 69.393 76.830 209.059
From the above table we can hence estimate the following terms using the equations[2] SST = (Yi - Tm) SSl = [ (li2/nli)] T2/N SSt = (t1 -t2)2 / N 2 2 SSlt = [( (lt)i / n(lt)i )] T /N SSl SSt Where Yi T N Tm SSA SST SSAB nAi = i observation, response, data = sum of all observations = total number of observations = average of all observations = T/N = variation due to any factor A =total sum of squares = total sum of squares due to interaction = number of observations under Ai level
th 2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
The portion of the total variation observed in an experiment attributed to each significant factor and/or interaction is reflected in the percentage contribution. It indicates the relative power of a factor and/or interaction to cause the variation in the final outcome. If the factor and/or interaction level were controlled precisely then the desired value of the outcome can be controlled. The results for percentage contribution of individual parameters and their interaction are given in Table 3. Table 3. Percentage contribution of various factors Factors Length Material Material Length Residual 2.2 Regression Analysis In the present study there are two independent variables and one dependent variable hence multiple Regression technique is adopted. SST 96.312 32.682 0.710 0.0047 %Contribution 74.225 25.197 0.540 0.008
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2.2.1 Theory of Multiple Regression [3] A general additive multiple regression model, which relates a dependent variable y to k predictor variables is given by the model equation y = + 1x1 + 2x2 + + k xk (5) The is are called population regression coefficients. Hence, the regression equation to predict natural frequency with length and thickness as predictors will be modelled as f = + 1l + 2t (6) The coefficient of multiple determinations is defined as 2 R = 1 - SSRes / SST (7) Residual sum of squares, denoted by SSRes, is given by 2 2 2 SSRes = (y*i yi) = (y*1 y1) + + (y*n yn) (8) And total sum of squares, denoted by SST, is defined as ~ 2 ~ 2 ~ 2 SST = (y i yi) = (y 1 y1) + + (y n yn) (9) Where the * above y denotes that y is a prediction of y that results from the substitution of any particular x value into the approximate regression equation. The R value is the portion of y variation that can be explained by an approximate 2 linear equation. The closer the value of R is to 1 the better the explanation of the model of the variation of the predictors with the response variables. In the present study not only two independent variables but also their interaction plays an important role. Hence additional predictors are created from existing ones. The ability of the predictors to explain the variation in the response variable can be enhanced by using additional predictors. If the change in the mean y value associated with a 1-unit increase in one independent variable depends on the value of a second independent variable, there is interaction between these two variables. Denoting the two independent variables by x1 and x2, we can model this interaction by including an additional predictor x3 = x1x2, the product of the two independent variables. As the natural frequency depends simultaneously on thickness and length an additional interaction predictor is incorporated which is the product of the length and thickness, thus, making the model f = + 1l + 2t + 3 (lxt)
2 2
(10)
This regression model, though, increasing the R value considerably, still falls short in the effective explanation of variation. Next the quadratic predictors, which are squares of the length and thickness variables, are included. Now the full quadratic model which includes both, the interaction predictors as well as the quadratic predictors is developed. f = + 1l + 2t + 3 (lt) + 4l 2 + 5t2 2.2.2 Application of Multiple Regression to Cantilever Beam Initially with a database of 30 values a regression equation was obtained with the help of MINITAB software which yielded the model f = 41.8 - 0.0618 (l) + 1.88(t) (12) (11)
A sample calculation from the database was checked for the above equation and was compared with the frequency obtained from ANSYS Table 4. Error Calculation Length (mm) 500 Thickness (mm) 15 Expected Frequency (Hz) 50.106 Calculated Frequency (Hz) 39.1 %Error 21.96
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It can be seen from the Table 4 that the percentage error is 22. Hence this fit function is not useful. In order to obtain a more accurate fit function the database is expand. The resulting function is given in Equation 13. f = 7.25 - 0.0986(l) + 4.48(t) - 0.00375(lxt) This function is tested with existing dataset and the results are given in Table 5. Table 5. Error Calculation Length(mm) 702.9 Thickness(mm) 9.82 Expected Frequency (Hz) 16.604 Calculated Frequency (Hz) 18.428 %Error 10.9 (13)
It can be seen from the Table 5 that the percentage error is reduced, but it is not in the acceptable range. Hence database is expanded further. The resulting function is given in Equation 14. f = 76.2 - 0.236(l) + 6.17(t) - 0.00621(lxt) + 0.000178(l) - 0.00088(t)
2 2
(14)
This function is tested with existing dataset and the results are given in Table6. From Table 6 it can be seen that the fit function provides better results within the acceptable percentage of error. Table 6. Error Calculation Length(mm) 690 Thickness(mm) 13.4 Expected Frequency (Hz) 23.513 Calculated Frequency (Hz) 23.2081 %Error 1.3
3. Application of Methodology to Reed Valve of Compressor The practical application of cantilever beam type of structure may be found in many places. But, in the present study Reed Valve of the Compressor is selected. For a particular make of the reed valve there will be a constant material. So the natural frequency of the system is dependent on the length and thickness. To perform regression analysis there must be an agreement upon a particular range of length and thickness for a given material. The reed valve under consideration is the one used in Hermetic compressor model KC-3, manufactured by the KIRLOSKAR COPELAND LTD., KARAD. A. Material properties: E = 2.068428 * 1011, Density= 7800 Kg/m3 B. Range of thickness: 0.2mm to 0.7mm C. Range of Length: 40mm to 70mm It has been observed that the mathematical fit function developed for the cantilever beam in the earlier section is not suitable for the application of the Reed valve. This is mainly because the range of dataset of Reed valve is totally out of range used for fitting the mathematical function for general cantilever beam. Therefore it is felt essential to develop mathematical function for reed valve separately. A database for reed valve is created. The data base contains information about the natural frequencies of reed valve at different combination of length and thickness. The relation obtained as a analytical method given in [5] is used to determine the natural frequency of the given reed valve. A part of the entire database is given in Table 7.
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Table 7. Sample of Database created Length (l) 40 44 48 62 72 Thickness (t) 0.62768 0.3221 0.29282 0.5192 0.354 Natural Frequency (f) 296.8112 138.4646 105.7716 112.4093 56.8315
A full quadratic regression model is created. This includes additional parameters like thickness2, length2, length x thickness (interaction). The entire database is then analyzed in the statistical software MINITAB The regression equation is obtained as follows. Frequency = 328 12.3 (length) + 922.0 (thickness) 11.0 (length x thickness) 2 2 + 0.11 (length) 11.2 (thickness) (15)
This fit function is tested for specific dimension of Reed valve and the results are compared with that of the analytical function and given in Table 8. It can be seen from Table 8 that percentage error is very less and hence this functional fit can be effectively used for Reed valve type of application. Table 8. Sample Calculations Length (l) 60 4. Conclusions The procedure involves a path wherein one needs to determine the significant parameters affecting the natural frequency of a structure and obtain a mathematical relationship for it. The technique of ANOVA and Regression Analysis makes this possible. The mathematical fit function evolved separately for a cantilever beam and specifically for Reed valve in a particular range of length and thickness gives acceptable results. Therefore it can be concluded that this type of functions can be used at the initial stage of design to avoid resonance related problems. References [1] Phillip J. Ross (Edition 4), Taguchi Techniques for Quality Engineering Tata McGraw Hill Publication [2] Madhav S. Phadke (Edition 2), Quality Engineering and Robust Design, Tata McGraw Hill Publications. [3] Douglas C. Montgomery and George C. Runger (Edition 4), Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, Prentice Hall India Publications. [4] S.M. Khot, C.M. Choudhri, Nitesh P. Yelve and Jitendra K. Sardar, 2006, An Investigation of Effect of System Parameters on Natural Frequency of Beams by Using Statistical Methods, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Computational Mechanics and Simulations. [5] A Project Report on Design Analysis of Discharge Valve Thickness of a Hermetic Compressor by Using Technique by Somesh J. Ghunkikar under the guidance of Professor S. M Khot. Department of Mechanical Engineering , Rajarambapu Institute of Technology, Rajaramangar. Thickness (t) 0.457 Natural Frequency (f) 106.45 Frequency obtained from Regression 103.386 % Error 2.96
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Design of Driving Pinion and Ring Gear of Autogenous Mill

Shankarachar.M.Sutar Indian Institute of chemical Technology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad-500007 Correponding author (email: shankar_sutar@yahoo.co.in)
The Driving Pinion and Ring Gear of Autogenous Mill (AG Mill) are designed for dry grinding of raw bath (cryolite) mixed with other materials such as aluminium modules or sheets, iron scraps, papers, etc. The mill body is the driven unit of the driving pinion and ring gear, the maximum power required to drive the AG Mill is 150kW. The raw bath is lifted during the rotation of the mill by the internal mill liners and it is then broken during free falling. As the size of the particle is reduced, the gas stream through the discharge trunnion removes the ground product. The reduced size of bath is obtained by impact work and attrition work. The ring gear is fitted on the periphery of shell of the mill and the pinion is set with ring gear at an angle of 20. The rotation of the pinion occurs in such a way that the pinion load always acts against the gravity to reduce the bearing load at the mill The final desired product size is 100% < 5 mm, 95% < 3 mm, 30% < 74 microns. 1. Introduction The driving pinion and ring gear assembly is designed for Autogenous mill (AG Mill) as shown in fig-1, of a capacity of rated 20 TPH and designed upto 30 TPH.The designed mill size is 3900x1450x50mm, feed material used is anode bath for aluminium smelter and the bulk density of the material is 1.8 2 T/Cu m, type of discharge is air swept discharge. The autogenous mill consists of mill shell with three types of liners a) Extreme head liner b) Lifter Liner c) Deflector Liner and Ring gear & Pinion, auxiliary systems for Tramp Metal Butts Extractor with Feed Launder Movement Device and Dust collection Outlets, Access Doors, Main Driving Mechanism and Motor (150 kW-1500 rpm), Inching Drive with Motor (3.7 kW- 1500 rpm), Lubrication System, etc. Autogenous grinding involves the use of coarse ore particles as media. The predominant grinding mechanism in autogenous grinding is attrition. Very little grinding is by impact. For an ore to be ground autogenously its specific gravity must generally be at least 2.5 and grain boundaries must exist at the desired product size. The competency of the ore (its ability to hold together) is important Ref [1]. The practice followed thus far differs between U.S. European designed mills. The diameter of U.S. built autogenous mills is frequently 2 to 3 times largest than its length while many European built autogenous mills have roughly the same diameter as length. These are sometimes referred to as square mills. The ore charge is usually 25% to 35% of the mill volume depending on ore hardness. Autogenous mills use a grated discharge because coarse ore particles must be retained in the mill as media. They would be discharged from an overflow mill. Also, an autogenous or semi-autogenous mill must have a low discharge level so that the weight of the ore can be used to grind the material. If an overflow design were used, ore would float out of the mill with minimal grinding action imparted to it Ref [2]. In autogenous milling, media hardness varies, as ore hardness can be substantial. Thus, the determination draw is not as straightforward as in a conventional rod or ball mill. However, some generalities can be stated power varies as the mill diameter to an exponential power of 2.5 Power increases as the length until the length becomes as great as the diameter. Then the effect of length diminishes. Autogenous power also increases as ore specific gravity, mill RPM, feed size and percent solids increase. The power draw of a mill is affected by the design of the grate openings and by the design of the lifting compartment Ref [3].
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Fig1.0: Mill body with ring gear & total mill layout 2. Driving Pinion & Gear Assembly This is the main driving system of the mill. The ring is fitted peripherally at one side of shell body of the mill and the pinion at an angle of 20 degree (pressure angle of the gear profile) is engaged with the gear. The rotation of the pinion occurs in such a way that the pinion load always acts against the gravity to reduce the bearing load at the mill. Table 1.0: The Basic Gear Data 1. NO. OF TEETH 2. MODULE 3. PITCH CIRCLE DIAMETER 4. OUTSIDE DIAMETER 5. ADDENDUM 6. DEDENDUM 7. TOTAL TOOTH HEIGHT 8. PRESSURE ANGLE 9. TOOTH FORM 10.CLASS OF ACCURACY 11. MATING PINION TEETH NOS. 12. WORKING CENTRE DISTANCE 284 16 4544 4576 16 20 36 20 INVOLUTE IS: 2535-9 DIN 9 31 25200.04
Table 2.0: The Basic Pinion Data 1. NO. OF TEETH 2. MODULE 3. PITCH CIRCLE DIAMETER 4. OUTSIDE DIAMETER 5. ADDENDUM 6. DEDENDUM 7. TOTAL TOOTH HEIGHT 8. PRESSURE ANGLE 9.TOOTH FORM 10.CLASS OF ACCURACY 11.TEETH TO BE MEASURED 12. BASE TANGENT LENGTH 13. WORKING GEAR TEETH NO.S 14. WORKING CENTRE DISTANCE 15. WORKING GEAR DRG NO. 31 16 496 540.80 16 20 36 20 INVOLUTE , IS: 2535-91 DIN 8 3 192 -0.068 -0.135 284 25200.04 X
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Fig. 2: Spur Gear & Pinion 3. Design The design of the gear & pinion is done on the basis of IS: 4460:1995
MOTOR 150KW, 1500RPM
MAIN REDUCER 10:1
PINION 150 RPM No. OF TEETH 31
GEAR 16 RPM No. OF TEETH 284
Fig. 3.0: Block Diagram of Main Power Transmission 4. Mill drive Ring gear as shown in fig.4 is used for driving of AG mill, with a 360 fully enclosing guard. The ring gear casting material is either nodular iron or steel, usually with helical type teeth, which makes them reversible, allowing the use of both flanks throughout their operational life. The drive may be mounted at either the feed or the discharge end of the mill. Power required to drive the designed mill is up to 150 kW. A single pinion can drive it; dual pinions are mostly used for mill applications above 6,000 kW Ref.[4].
Fig. 4.0: Three Dimensional View of Driving Pinion & Gear Assembly
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5. Spur and Helical Gears Calculation of Load Capacity Refer - IS: 4460: 1995 DESIGN INPUT DATA 1. Number Of teeth (Pinion), z1 = 31 2. Number Of teeth (Gear), z2 = 284 3. Normal Module, mn = 16mm 4. Normal Pressure Angle = 20 o 5. Helix Angle, = 0o 6. Pinion Speed, n1 = 150rpm. Mpa 7. Transmited Power, P = 150000 W 8. Face Width, b = 150 mm 9. Life, LH = 72000 hr 10. Probality of Failure, pf = 0.01 11. Accuracy Grade = 6 12. Material Hardness, HB1 = 250 BHN 13. Material Hardness, HB2 = 210 BHN 14. Modulus of Elast, E1&E1 = 206000 Mpa 15. Poisson's Ratio, = 0.3 16. Viscosity grade of Lub. = ISO VG 32 2 17. Lubricant Viscosity,VG32, v40 = 32 mm /s 2 18. Lubricant Viscosity,VG32, v50 = 20 mm /s 19. Endurance Limit, Hlim1 = 600 MPa 20. Endurance Limit, Hlim2 = 460 MPa 21. Nominal Endurance Limit, FE1= 420 22. Nominal Endurance Limit, FE2= 300 Mpa 23. Profile Correction Factor, x1 = 0.00 24. Profile Correction Factor, x2 = 0.00 25. Mean Roughness, RZ! = 6.30 m 26. Mean Roughness, RZ2 = 6.30 m 27. Protuberance Angle pro1 = 20 o o 28. Protuberance Angle pro2 = 20 29. Buckling Height, hk2 ( n= pro) = 0 mm 30. Buckling Height, hk1 ( n= pro) = 0 mm
SUPPLEMENTARY DATA 1. Ratio of Gearing, u = 9.16 2. Gear Speed, n2 =16.37 rpm 3. Pinion PCD, d1 = 496.00 mm 4. Gear PCD, d2 =4544.00 mm 5. Outside Dia. (Pinion), da1 =528.00 mm 6. Out Side Dia. (Gear), da2 =4576.00 mm 7. Working Center Distance, a' =2520.00 mm 8. Linear Speed, v =3.90 m/s 9. Tangential Load, Ft =38505.23 N 10 Transverse Module, m t =16.00 mm 11. Base Circle Dia.(Pinion), d b1 =466.09 mm Factor of Safety For Contact Stresses, For Pinion, SH1 = 1.50 For Gear, SH2 = 1.17 12. Transverse Pressure Angle a t =20.00 o 13. Trans. Working Pr. Angle, a wt =20.00 o 14. Base Helix Angle, b b =0.00 o 15. Tip Pressure Angle, a a1 =28.03 o 16. Tip Pressure Angle, a a2 =21.07 17. Transverse Cotact Ratio, e a1 =0.83 18. Transverse Cotact Ratio, e a2 =0.97 19. Transverse Cotact Ratio, e a =1.80 20. Normal Cotact Ratio, e an =1.80 21. Overlap Ratio, e b =0.00 22. Base Circle Dia.(Gear),d b2 =4269.96 mm Factor Of Safety For Bending Stresses, For Pinion, SB1 = 3.56 For Gear, SB2 = 1.44 Face Width =150mm Ring Thickness, t =92.5mm Inner Diameter, d =4359.00mm Weight Of The Ring, W = 1.5 MT
o
t b d
Table : 3 Calculated sets of Pinion and Ring gear Pinion / Gear Set Set - 1 Set - 2 Set - 3 Set - 4 Set -5 No. of Teeth 21 / 182 33 / 284 29 / 326 33 / 380 31 / 284 Factor of Safety Module Contact Bending 25 1.8/1.6 8.5/5.6 16 1.6/1.4 4.2/3.0 14 1.2/1.1 2.9/2.0 12 1.2/1.0 2.4/1.7 16 1.49/1.16 4.0/2.2 Speed Input Ratio Working CD RPM 8.67 2557.84 150 8.61 2549.12 149 11.24 2496.48 194 11.52 2487.84 199 9.16 2533.16 150 Gear PCD Rmks. 4550 Same GB 4544 Same GB 4564 New GB 4560 New GB 4544 Same GB
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6. Calculation of Pinion Shaft and Bearing 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Number Of teeth (Pinion), z1 = 31 Normal Module, m = 16 mm Pinion PCD, d1 = 496 mm Pinion Speed, n1 = 150 rpm Linear Speed, v = 3.9m/s Transmited Power, P = 150000W 7. Tangential Load, Ft = 38505N 8. Bearing span, l = 600 mm 9. Pinion distance, l1 (= l/2) = 300 mm 10.Bearing reaction, R1= 19253N 11. Bearing reaction, R2 = 19253N 12. Max. bending moment, Mmax = 5776N m
Graph-1.0 : Shear force diagrame of pinion shaft
Graph-2.0 : Bending moment diagrame of pinion shaft
7. Conclusions The driving pinion and ring gear assembly is most vital part of transmission drive of autogenous mill. An understanding of torque relationships in the operation of rotary grinding mills necessitates a complete analysis of the mill, gear geometry and torsional load, inertia, and frictional losses are concerned. Ability of a gear and pinion drive by using motor power to develop the required torque is dependent upon its inherent torque characteristics in combination with its electrical supply system. A complete evaluation of both the drive motor and power system is therefore necessary to assure that proper torque will be supplied by the drive motor for the mill requirements.
Acknowledgement The author is grateful to Dr. J.S Yadav, Director, IICT and Head, Colleagues of Design and Engineering Division of IICT, Hyderabad for their constant encouragement and help extended for this research work. And also I acknowledge to Ex-Colleagues of CMERI, Durgapur for helping in CAD work. References [1] George Charles Lowrison Crushing and grinding. Pg. 225-249. Published by England, Butterworth & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., London, published in 1974. [2] Andrew L Muler, Doug N.Halbe & Derek J.Barratt Mineral Processing Plant Design, Practice and control: Vol-1. Pg.755-770. Published by Society for mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Inc.(SME), 8307 Shuffer Palkway,Littleton,Colorado,US published in 2000. [3] Mevlut Kemal, Vedat Arslan & Ali Akar- Changing Scopes in Mineral Processing. Published by A.A Balkema, Rotterdam, Brookfeild, published in 2006. [4] D.R Malhotra, revised by H.C Gupta- Strength of Materials Pg.131.Tech India Publications.59/26, Rohtak Road, New Delhi-5, published in 1969.
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Stress and Free Vibration Analysis of Gas Turbine Blade During Temperature Excursion at Start-Up
S. Narasimha1*, G. Venkata Rao2
2
PRRM Engineering College, Shabad 509 217, A.P, India. Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad500 003, AP, India. *Corresponding author (e-mail: narasimha4s@yahoo.com)
The development of advanced high temperature gas turbine requires materials data and an understanding of the material behaviour under operating conditions and environment. The components for turbine unit operate at temperatures above 6000 and up to 8000 in order to reach high efficiencies. In order to fill the gap existing in the vibration behaviour data for turbine blades during initial start-up to the operational temperature, a finite element analysis is carried out on a gas turbine blade made out of Nimonic 86. In this paper, the displacements and von Mises stresses are investigated at different rotational velocities of the blade for varying temperature from 0 room temperature to 800 c for Nimonic 86 turbine blade and also the free vibration behaviour of the turbine blade. 1. Introduction Turbine blade failures in gas turbines have a severe impact on the power generation system. A failure condition may initiate due to number of phenomena, each having the ability to exclude a unit from service. The most common failure mechanisms which occur with in a mature unit are normally associated with the material properties and metallurgical conditions. The high pressure turbine blade operates under the most arduous conditions of temperature and stress of any component in the turbine. It also experiences rapid temperature transients at various points in the operating cycle. Combination of direct stress and temperature gives rise to creep while the temperature transients can cause thermal fatigue. The natural frequency of a turbine blade will be modified as a consequence of creep or thermal fatigue cracking in service. 2. Turbine starting system Before the gas turbine can be fired and started it must be rotated or cranked by auxiliary equipment. This is accomplished by an electric motor operating through torque converter to provide power required by the turbine for start up. Cranking and turbine power are both supplied by the starting system during gas turbine start up and shut down cycles. In the starting system there are three primary functions provided, namely, (a) the gas turbine starts rolling (break away from stand still), (b) accelerate the gas turbine to a speed where it can be fired and (c) after the turbine has fired, further accelerate it to a self sustaining speed above which gas turbine develops net positive power output. In the normal starting sequencing, the turning gear motor is energized, shaft breakaway is achieved and the turbine starts to rotate. After breaking is achieved turbine lube oil is admitted into the torque converter hydraulic circuit, integral guide blades are then positioned for the purge cycle. The purge cycle then accelerate the gas turbine rotor to approximately 31% speed for several minutes. 3. Material selection The designing of the blades is very complicated and the materials chosen should be such that they can withstand high temperatures and have strength. The repeated heating and cooling of the material affects the physical properties of the materials. The properties of the material such as Youngs modulus, coefficient of thermal expansion and density etc, vary with
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the temperature. As the blade is subjected to severe thermal gradients, the nonlinear nature of the material properties should also be taken into account. Poissons ratio has only an insignificant effect on the stress distribution. In the present analysis, the stress and vibration behaviour of a turbine blade made from one of the widely used alloys viz., Nimonic 86 Alloy is taken up for analysis. Table.1 gives the data used in the analyses. Table.1 Material properties of Nimonic 86 at varying Temperatures Temperature ( C ) Property 30 Youngs Modulus (N/m2) Density (Kg/m3) 1.95 +E11 8420 100 1.92 +E11 8380 200 1.87 +E11 8280 300 1.82 +E11 8240 400 1.75 +E11 8200 500 1.69 +E11 8180 600 1.64 +E11 8160 700 1.57 +E11 8140 800 1.50 +E11 8120
0
4. Finite element modeling and analysis The simulation of Turbine blade is carried out to study the stress and vibration behaviour by using the Finite element software ANSYS version 10.0. A number of turbine blades similar to the one shown in the Fig.1 are fixed to the rotor, since the turbine blade is fixed to the rotor; the root geometry of the blade is neglected in the modeling by assuming that the effects of such rigid connection can be neglected. The blade profile is modeled and meshed with finite elements as shown in the Fig. 2. 3-D Solid brick 45, an 8-noded element is used for the analysis. The nodes at the lower end of the blade are constrained in all DOF. Since the blade is subjected to a varying flow of hot pressurized gases which force the rotor to rotate at its required speed for part-load as well as full-load operation of the turbine, (inertia loads) rotational angular velocity from 39.25, 78.5, 157, 314, 628 and 1256 rad/sec (each time doubling the value) are considered in the analysis . By applying these loading and boundary conditions the stress analysis and free vibration analysis are carried out. Since the blade experiences small changes in geometry during its rotation, Static pre-stress is included in the computations.
Fig.1 3-D Solid model of the blade 5.
Fig.2 Meshed model of the blade
Results & discussions Stresses due to the rotation of the turbine blade is analyzed for six different load cases from 39.25, 78.5, 157, 314, 628 and 1256 rad /s for varying temperatures from Room temperature , 1000c, 2000c, 3000c, 4000c, 5000c,6000c, 7000c and 8000c. In the modal analysis, the first 10 mode shapes are obtained to have 10 natural frequencies of the blade Displacement results of blade from angular velocity 39.25 to 1256 rad/s for 0 0 temperature range from Room temperature (30 c to 800 c) are shown in the Table.2
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Table.2 Displacements of blade at different angular velocities for varying Temperatures Displacement (m) Omega (rad/s) 300C 1000C 2000C 3000C 4000C 5000C 6000C 7000C 8000C 39.25 2.6E-7 2.6E-7 2.7E-7 2.7E-7 2.8E-7 2.9E-7 3.0E-7 3.2E-7 3.3E-7 78.5 1.0E-6 1.0E-6 1.0E-6 1.1E-6 1.1E-6 1.1E-6 1.2E-6 1.2E-6 1.3E-6 157 4.2E-6 4.2E-6 4.3E-6 4.4E-6 5.8E-6 4.7E-6 4.9E-6 5.1E-6 5.3E-6 314 1.7E-5 1.7E-5 1.7E-5 1.7E-5 1.8E-5 1.9E-5 1.9E-5 2.0E-5 2.1E-5 628 6.7E-5 6.8E-5 6.9E-5 7.1E-5 7.3E-5 7.6E-5 7.8E-5 8.1E-5 8.5E-5 1256 2.7E-4 2.7E-4 2.7E-4 2.8E-4 2.9E-4 3.0E-4 3.1E-4 3.2E-4 3.4E-4 Deformed shape of blade at an angular velocity of 314 rad/sec for room temperature is shown in the Fig. 3 and displacement diagram at an angular velocity of 314 rad/sec for 0 temperature 800 C is shown in the Fig.4. A comprehensive picture of the displacement behaviour of blade at different Angular velocities 39.25, 78.5, 157, 314, 628 and 1256 rad/sec for varying temperatures from Room temperature to 8000c is shown in Fig.5. It can be observed from Fig.5 that the displacements rise rapidly as the speed increases. This is obvious from the fact that the centrifugal loading increases as square of the angular speed. These displacements have to be accounted for in the design of high speed turbines.
Table.3 von Mises stresses of blade at different angular velocities for varying temperatures Omega (rad/s) 39.25 78.5 157 314 628 1256 Von Mises stress (N/m2) 30 C 9.3E+5 3.7E+6 1.5E+7 5.9E+7 2.3E+8 9.5E+8
0
100 C 9.3E+5 3.7E+6 1.4E+7 5.9E+7 2.3E+8 9.5E+8
200 C 9.1E+5 3.6E+6 1.4E+7 5.8E+7 2.3E+8 9.4E+8
300 C 9.1E+5 3.6E+6 1.4E+7 5.8E+7 2.3E+8 9.3E+8
400 C 9.1E+5 3.6E+6 1.4E+7 5.8E+7 2.3E+8 9.3E+8
500 C 9.0E+5 3.6E+6 1.4E+7 5.8E+7 2.3E+8 9.3E+8
600 C 9.0E+5 3.6E+6 1.4E+7 5.8E+7 2.3E+8 9.2E+8
700 C 9.0E+5 3.5E+6 1.4E+7 5.7E+7 2.3E+8 9.2E+8
800 C 9.0E+5 3.5E+6 1.4E+7 5.7E+7 2.3E+8 9.2E+8
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A comprehensive idea of the variation of Max. von Mises stresses in the blade for the angular velocity range, 39.25 to 1256 rad/sec for Temperature range from Room Temperature 0 to 800 c can be had from the results given in Table.3 More specifically, the von Mises stress distribution in the blade at an angular velocity 0 0 of 314rad/sec for Room Temperature (30 c) and Temperature 800 c are shown in the Fig.6 and Fig.7. The variation of von Mises stresses in the blade at different angular velocities in the range, 39.25, 78.5, 157, 314, 628 and 1256 rad/sec for varying temperatures from Room temperature (300c) to Temperature 8000c are shown in Fig.8. It is observed that stresses are Maximum at near to the root of the blade and displacements will be increasing and stresses will be decreasing with increasing Temperature.
The modal analysis for the blade is carried out to obtain the natural frequencies and mode shapes by making use of the appropriate material properties of density and youngs modulus variations with temperature. Various mode shapes for three different temperatures as shown in the Figures 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and Fig.14. Table.4 gives the comprehensive data of the variation of natural frequencies at different temperatures. Plots of the results are shown in Fig.15. It is evident from these results that the variation of frequency with temperature must be considered in the design which most of the times does not appear to be taken care of as per the open literature available Table.4 Natural frequencies of blade at different temperatures Natural frequency (Hz) Mode 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 NO 30 C 100 C 200 C 300 C 400 C 500 C 600 C 700 C 800 C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 930.94 2151.9 3873.8 5295.1 9238.5 10371 12115 13228 18287 22433 927.4 2143.7 3859 5275 9203.3 10332 12069 13178 18217 22348 920.3 2127.3 3829.5 5234.6 9132.9 10253 11977 13077 18078 22177 909.14 2101.5 3783.1 5171.1 9022.2 10129 11832 12918 17859 21908 895.7 2070.4 3727.1 5094.7 8888.8 9978.8 11657 12727 17595 21584 879.8 2033.7 3661 5004.2 8731 9801.7 11450 12501 17282 21201 865.91 2001.6 3603.2 4925.2 8593.2 9647 11269 12304 17010 20866 848.21 1960.7 3529.5 4824.6 8417.5 9449.8 11039 12052 16662 20440 830.88 1920.6 3457.4 4726 8245.5 9256.7 10813 11806 16321 20022
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5. Conclusions Finite element analysis is carried out in the present paper to obtain the effects of variation in the density and Youngs modulus with temperature on displacements, stresses and frequencies of vibration. There appears to be no previous papers describing the effects of temperatures on frequencies during start-up of the turbine. The reasons for this could be that such effects are highly transient and the effect dies off rapidly. This gap in knowledge of the natural frequencies of turbine blades is of great importance in the study of response of blades to various excitations. Acknowledgement Authors are grateful to the Managements of PRRM Engineering College, Shabad & Vasavi College of Engineering, Hyderabad, A.P, for their support in making this paper to happen. References [1] Couturier,R. and C. Escaravage, High Temperature alloys for the HTGR Gas Turbine, Required properties and development needs, FRAMATOME-NOVATOME, Lyon, France [2] Driver,D., D.W. Hall and G.W. Meetham, The Gas Turbine Engine, Rolls-Royce Ltd, P.O.Box. 31, Derby DE28BJ, UK [3] Alexy and Igor A. Artamonov, 3D Finite Element Modeling and Vibration analysis of Gas turbine structural elements Comp. Mechanics Laboratory, St. Petersburg state polytechnic University, Russia. [4] Amr M.S. El-Henfny, and S.M. Elraghy, Stress analysis of Gas Turbine Rotor using Finite Element Modeling, Production Engineering & Design for Development, PEDD7, Cairo, February 7-9, 2006 [5] Istvan Bagi, Gabor voros and zsolt Vizvary, Dynamic analysis of a turbine blade using the Finite Element Method, GEPESZET 2002, Budapest, 2002, May, 30-31, 595-598.
692
Studying Effect of Multiaxiallity on Creep Properties of 316l(N) SS Weld Joint with Circumferentially Notched Bar
S.R.Charde , D.R.Peshwe , R.K.Paretkar , M.D.Mathew
1* 2 2 3
1. Govt. College of Engg, Amravati, Maharashtra 2. Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur 3. IGCAR, Kalpakkam.
*Corresponding author (e mail:srcharde@rediffmail.com)
According to RCC-MR code, 316 L (N) Stainless Steel is chosen as the structural material for core components of PFBR.It is observed that most of the structural members work under multiaxial stress condition. For assessing resistance to failure during service or for prediction of life, particular attention must be given to a phenomenon called as creep. When a notch is introduced into a bar under uniaxial tension, a non-uniform triaxial stress state is set up. Present work proposes evaluation and comparison of multiaxiallity developed, in the circumferentially notched specimens with different notch geometries, to predict component life. The same can be approximated with the help of ANSYS 11.0. 1. Introduction 316 L (N) Stainless Steel is chosen as the structural material for core components of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, due to its compatibility with liquid sodium coolant, good weldability, good corrosion resistance and good high temperature mechanical properties [1]. Welds are the regions of geometric discontinuity, exhibit a gradient in microstructure and hence in the mechanical properties, which is a cause of concerns for the structural integrity of components [2].At temperature greater than 0.4 * melting temperature of material, the materials undergo time- dependent deformation called as creep, at constant load or constant stress. At high temperature, welds are weak links and creep failures are known to happen in weld metals. For creep deformation analysis of weld joints, the study of parameters like (i) creep strain rate (ii) creep strength and (iii) creep ductility, is important. For the same level of stress when the response strains are different in different regions i.e. base metal, weld metal and heat affected zone, a potential situation for failure is created. The modern theories demand perfect understanding and identification of principle mechanisms that act in the stages governing creep behaviour. A uniform state of multiaxial stress is difficult to produce in laboratory experiments. Most popular method is by introducing circumferential notch into a cylindrical specimen tested under tensile load. The tests are carried out by many researchers with the results saying that, -Notch strengthening occurs, especially for circumferentially notched cylindrical bars made of ductile materials under tension creep and static tension. These notched cylindrical bars deform in the entire net section and produce large strain near the notch root owing to the strain concentration. When considering the aspect of notch strengthening in creep, the main reason should be revealed of the behavior of strain on the net section, where rupture occurs. -Studies on both an increase in strain and a change in strain distribution with deformation are essential. This is because of the following reasons (1) Magnitude and distribution of strain on the net section relate directly to the lifetime (2) Condition of constant load is certain to restrict an increase in stress and a marked redistribution of stress, except for drastic decrease in axial stress near the notch root at the beginning of the creep. In large deformations, however, an increase in stress is produced by
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an increase in average axial stress; this increase in average axial stress is caused by a decrease in the net section area. In the studies on redistribution of stress and strain on net section of circumferentially notched bars, the emphasis is given on stress redistribution and strain has been infinitesimal [4]. -Even when notch weakening occurs owing to material brittleness caused by long-time exposure to high temperature under a low stress level, notch strengthening due to sufficient ductility often occurs in a shorter lifetime under a higher stress level. This suggests that notched bars with a short lifetime deform with a large strain near the notch root. It has been found that the rate at which stress redistribution takes place is sensitive to the constraints developed in the notch root and stress exponent n in Nortons creep law [7]. Thus present work focuses on, influence of parameters like creep ductility, constitutive creep law and notch geometry ,on the development of multiaxiallity in base metal and weld joint of 316 L(N) SS . 2. I. Experimental (Stress rupture test) Mostly design of component is based on stress rupture data. By carrying out a series of stress-rupture tests to find out how the creep life varies with stress at different temperature, estimates can be made of the maximum stress, which a material can withstand at any temperature, without creep failure occurring during service or planned life. In most cases tests are carried out by applying a known tensile load at a fixed temperature. This test is carried out until specimen breaks. The data derived from test is about time to fracture and strain at failure. By measuring final gauge length creep ductility can be known.
II.
III. IV.
A creep test therefore provides full information about creep strain/time record at a constant load and temperature under consideration. Constant load stress rupture tests are to be carried out on single lever creep testing machine [5],[6].Notched specimens with representative geometries, prepared in ANSYS 11.0 , are as shown in figure 1 (a), (b).
V.
Experimental results will then be confirmed with the help of non-linear, creep option in ANSYS 11.0.All calculations will be carried out for one temperature and one stress level. Metallographic studies will be carried out on failed samples to know the mode of failure. Thus plain and notched samples of base metal and weld joint will be compared for stress redistribution and life prediction. Summary
VI.
VII.
3. I
In the proposed work, numerical calculations of creep behavior of circumferentially notched specimens with different stress concentration factors with emphasis on the role of specimen geometry, material ductility and constitutive law used will be carried out. II The stress redistribution thus will be studied, supported by nonlinear, creep analysis in ANSYS 11.0. III The results will be compared for base metal and weld joint, for the failure modes
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with metallographic investigations.
(a) (b) Kt1=2.9, =0.38, t=2.03 Kt2=4.5, =0.16, t=1.28 All dimensions in mm Figure: 1 (Kt= Stress concentration factor, =Notch root radius, t=notch depth)
4.
Conclusions
The strength of weld joint can be qualitatively evaluated by the relative creep and rupture characteristics of the base metal and weld joint for a direction of loading. However a quantitative study requires the analysis utilizing creep and rupture characteristics of the metallurgical zones of the weld joint and their subsequent interaction. The use of circumferentially notched bars is good for generating triaxial state of stress but to gain an understanding of consequent creep behavior, knowledge of stress distribution and how it varies with time is important. For a given material and temperature, Notch strengthening phenomenon will be studied emphasizing degree of constraint i.e. specimen geometry, material properties and stress level will be the main focus of work. In view of these facts, a detailed programme is undertaken to characterize the creep deformation and fracture behaviour developed due to multiaxial stress state of 316 LN SS base metal and weld joint. Acknowledgement The authors are grateful to Directors, VNIT Nagpur and IGCAR Kalpakkam, for technical support and laboratory facilities.
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References [1] RCC-MR codes edition 2000, 2002. [2] Chellapandi, S.C Chetal, Influence of mis-match of weld and base material creep properties on elevated temperature design of pressure vessel and pipes, Design and technology group IGCAR Kalpakkam. [3] Hua-Tang Yao, Fu-Zhen Xuan, Zhengdong Wang and Shan-Tung Tu, A review of creep analysis and design under multi-axial stress states, Review paper, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, China. [4] T.Majima,Q.Liu and K.Haruki, Effect of the type of creep constitutive equation on strain and stress distributions of notched cylindrical bars under tension creep, Journal of Stress analysis,vol. 33,5, 1998, 347-356. [5] ASTM Designation E -139 test standards, ASTM Designation E -292-01 test standards. [6] G.A.Webster,H.R.Holdsworth et al ,A code of practice for conducting notched bar creep tests and for interpreting the data, Fatigue and fracture of engineering materials and structures 27, 319-342,2004. [7] G.Eggeler, C.Wiesner, A numerical study of parameters controlling stress redistribute on in circular notched specimens during creep, Journal of Strain Analysis,28,pp 13-22,1993.
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A Simple Finite Element for Non-Linear Analysis of Composite Plates

S S Choudhary , V.B. Tungikar
* 1* 2 1 SGGS Institute of Engg. & Tech., Nanded.(M.S), India Corresponding Author (e-mail : csantoshs@rediffmail.com)
Finite Element Analysis for geometrically nonlinear behavior of laminated composite plates is presented and compared with the reported investigations. Efforts are taken for making the realistic displacement variation by inclusion of zigzag function. The formulation accounts for piecewise layer-by-layer variation in the thickness direction for the displacement. It satisfies the continuity conditions at the layer interfaces. A four nodded rectangular isoparametric plate element with thirteen degrees of freedom per node is formulated for geometric nonlinear analysis of laminated plates. Von karman strain approach has been considered in analysis of plate. Incremental Pica iterative scheme is used to solve nonlinear equilibrium equations. The accuracy of two dimensional plate model is compared and the effects of factors like central deflection, lamination scheme, number of layers on the response of the plate is investigated. This theory is expected to be a good alternative over the laborious three dimensional analysis.
1.
Introduction
The quest for optimized material configurations to meet various high efficiency critical applications has resulted in an ever increasing demand for composite materials. Several attractive properties including high strength to weight ratio and tailor made design have resulted in composite materials gradually replacing conventional materials. In last thirty years many contributions have presented different laminates theories, dealing with different problems related to nonlinear behaviour of laminated plates. The thirst of approaching towards elastic solution for real life problems has resulted in the development of realistic formulation. A review has been carried by Webster [1] for various methods used to solve nonlinear equations using iterative methods. Reddy [2] has developed geometric nonlinear and refined formulation for analysis of plates. K.M.Liew [3] has presented analysis of plates using the mesh-free kp-Ritz method based on first order shear deformation theory. A new displacement based plate element has been developed by Y.X.Zhang [4] for geometric nonlinear analysis. Eight node hexahedral element is formulated by L.G. Andrade [5] for the analysis of geometric nonlinearity with one point integration method. Recent developments in finite element analysis of composite plate are reviewed by Y.X. Zhang [6]. The present work takes advantage of Kant and Kommineni [7] linearization technique for deriving the stiffness matrix in the formulation of a four node, rectangular finite element, with Independent thirteen degree of freedom at each node. 2. Formulation
In the present work formulation of a finite element for the analysis of geometrically nonlinear behaviour of laminated composite plates, subjected to transverse load (q) is presented. The geometry of the plate, having n layers, and a,b the in-plane dimensions is shown in Figure1. A higher-order displacement field with Zigzag term [8] is used in the present work. The displacement field is adopted from the higher-order shear deformation theory [9] as represented in equation (1):
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Figure 1 : Plate geometry

U (x, y, z) U 0 ( x, y,0) z x (x, y,0) z 2 x (x, y,0) z 3 x (x, y,0) z 4 x (x, y,0) x (x, y,0)Zz V (x, y, z) V0 ( x, y,0) z y (x, y,0) z 2 y ( x, y,0) z 3 y ( x, y,0) z 4 y (x, y,0) y (x, y,0)Zz
(1) Where U, V, W are respective displacements in x, y, z directions, ,,, are the higher order terms. Thus thirteen independent parameters are required to define the displacement state at a point. The zigzag function [8], Zz, is defined by equation (2) Zz= 2(-1) Z / hk
th k (k)
W( x, y, z) W0 (x, y,0)
(2)
Where Z(k) = Z Z0(k) the local transverse coordinate with its origin at the center of the k layer, Z0(k) is the z coordinate for middle surface of the kth layer and hk is the corresponding layer thickness. The zigzag function, as defined above, takes care of inclusion of the slope discontinuity of in plane displacement at the interfaces of laminate, as observed in exact three-dimensional elasticity solutions of thick laminated composite structures. Use of such function is more economical than a discrete layer approach of approximating the displacement variations over thickness of each layer separately. The strain vector can be computed by Mindlin [10] formulation. These strains are in terms of mid plane deformation, rotation of the normal and higher-order terms associated with displacements. Introducing the Von Karman [13] assumptions, which imply that derivatives of u and v with respect to x, y and z are small and noting that w is independent of z, allows nonlinear strain to be written as (3):
u 1 w 2 x 2 x 2 v 1 w x y y 2 y xy u v w w y x x y yz u w zx z x v w z y (3)
x Q11 Q12 Q16 y Q12 Q22 Q26 xy Q16 Q26 Q66 0 0 yz 0 zx 0 0 0
0 x 0 0 y 0 0 xy Q44 Q 45 yz Q 45 Q55 zx 0
(4)
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The constitutive equation (4), between the stress and strain in a composite laminate is given by Jones[12]. Where Qij (i,j = 1,2,6) are the plane stress reduced stiffness coefficients and Qij (i,j = 4,5) are the through thickness shear stress coefficients. 3. Finite element formulation A rectangular element with thirteen degrees of freedom as given below at each node including one zigzag displacement is developed. (5) Knowing the generalized displacement vector at all points within the element, the generalized strain at any point is expressed in a suitable matrix form, i. e. equation (6) :
i 0i ,V0i ,W0i , xi , yi ,xi , yi , xi , yi , xi , yi , xi , yi T U
Bi i B
i 1
in which
Bi
B B1 , B2 , B3 ,...............BN
B mb Bs
(6) (7) The formulation further provides a strain displacement matrix [Bi], evaluated as given in equation (7): Where i = 1, 2, 3, 4 The strain-displacement matrix [Bmb] is of the order of (18x13) while [Bs] is of the order of (10x13). It contains the partial derivatives of shape functions Ni with respect to the global coordinates along with the non-linear terms. [Bi] is Matrix for membrane and bending terms as well as shear terms. For an approximate discretization scheme in space, the governing nonlinear set of equations can be written as [k] = Fm (8) In which is the global vector of unknown displacement and [K] is the nonlinear global stiffness matrix, while Fm is global mechanical load vector. By substituting the interpolation of element displacements in the governing equations and writing them in matrix form, the above matrices can be calculated using the following relations given in equation (9) and (10):
NE
K K e ;
e 1
K B DBdV
e T V (e)
Fm Fme
e 1
NE
and 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0...
T
(9)
F 0 0 q
e m
0i
qoi
q N
o A
e
dA
(10)
where, i = 1, 2, 3, 4 In Equations (9), [K ] is the element stiffness matrix, [D] is rigidity matrix, Fm is element mechanical load vector. NE are the number of elements in the discretisation. The integrals for calculation of [Ke] and qoi are evaluated using the Gauss quadrature rule. Hence for the solution of nonlinear equation (8), pica iterative scheme is used. 4. Results and Discussions
e
Numerical investigations are conducted on composite laminated plates to bring out the nonlinear response behaviour of the laminate under various configurations, loading conditions, etc. Present model is validated with experiment results presented by Putcha and Reddy [10] and FEM based numerical results presented by Chang and Huang [11]. The material properties and plate conditions are adopted in the present work from given reference.
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Table 1. Variation of central deflection ( 4 ply symmetric bidirectional (0/90/90/0) clamped square plate) Load Psi Higher order theory With Zigzag term 0.0688 0.116 0.149 0.174 0.194 Central Displacement (in.) Experimental results [10] 0.078 0.125 0.155 0.175 0.195 Higher order theory [10] 0.085 0.145 0.182 0.21 0.235
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
From table 1 it is found that present formulation show more accuracy, which may be attributed to the inclusion of zigzag function. The higher order displacement function (thirteen degree of freedom per node) also contributes in the accuracy of present formulation. Further numerical example is considered for comparison of the present model with Chang [11]. Table 2. Comparison of central deflection for clamped rectangular plate lay-up 45/-45 Load (psi) 30000 60000 90000 120000 150000 180000 210000 240000 270000 300000 3.0941 4.0733 4.7418 3.1847 4.2148 4.9227 2.9690 3.9560 4.6423 3.0526 4.1088 4.8305 2.8578 3.8770 4.5428 2.924 4.0101 4.7438 2.8018 3.7045 4.3292 2.5877 3.4471 4.0372 2.4975 3.3313 3.8878 2.6697 3.5092 4.089 2.4484 3.2900 3.8508 2.498 3.3605 3.9524 Central Deflection (in.) 5.2551 5.7196 6.0874 6.4154 5.4747 5.9382 6.3412 6.7002 5.1660 5.5915 5.9996 6.3154 5.3913 5.861 6.2689 6.6317 5.1126 5.5452 5.9547 6.2712 5.3121 5.7874 6.1994 6.5656 4.8077 5.2392 5.6169 5.9555 4.4968 4.8821 5.2166 5.5143 4.3304 4.6900 5.0000 5.3262 4.5418 4.922 5.2526 5.5471 4.2964 4.6577 4.9701 5.3024 4.4133 4.7998 5.1355 5.4343 6.7672 7.0256 6.6503 6.9602 6.6006 6.8968 6.2657 5.7836 5.6105 5.8139 5.5783 5.7047 7.0623 7.3241 6.9614 7.2614 6.9031 7.2003 6.5559 6.0306 6.0086 6.0587 5.9633 5.9527 7.3230 7.6008 7.2032 7.5403 7.1301 7.4813 6.6973 6.2593 6.1313 6.2855 6.0990 6.1823
Present Chang [11] Present -45/45/45/-45 Chang [11] 45/-45/-45/45/ Present 45/-45/-45/45/ Chang [11] Present 0/90 Chang [11] Present 90/0/0/90 Chang [11] 90/0/0/90/ Present 90/0/0/90 Chang [11]
0.5
Nonlinear Experimental Nonlinear Present 0.4 Non linear Reddy and Pucha Linear Reddy and Pucha
Central Deflection (in)
0.3
Linear Experiment Linear Present
0.2
0.1
0 0 0.4 0.8 Load (PSi) 1.2 1.6 2
Figure 2. Central Deflection Vs load under linear and nonlinear condition
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Table 2 compares the central deflection, for various laminate lay-ups when subjected to different loads, under clamped boundary conditions. It is observed that the deflection for the same load decreases as the numbers of layers in the anti-symmetric angle ply and cross ply form are increased, while the plate thickness kept constant. The effect of higher order terms in the displacement field along with the zigzag function on the accuracy of the response of the plate is demonstrated in Figure 2.Also it is observed that the present formulation not only holds good for nonlinear behaviour but also it stand accurate under linear condition also. 5. Conclusions A simple finite element is developed for nonlinear analysis of laminated composite plate subjected to transverse mechanical load. Inclusion of higher order terms and zigzag function in the formulation demonstrates improvement in the accuracy of the solution. Numerical results show that for constant plate thickness the central deflection decreases with the increase in the number of layers. The present model is versatile for geometric nonlinear as well as linear analysis of laminated composite plate. References [1] Webster R.L., On the static analysis of structures with strong geometric nonlinearity, Computers & Structures, 1980; Vol. 11, 137-145. [2] Reddy, J.N. A refined nonlinear theory of plates with transverse shear deformation. Int. J. Solids Structures, 1984; Vol. 20, No. 9/10, 881-896. [3] K.M. Liew, J. Wang, M.J. Tan, S. Rajendran , Nonlinear analysis of laminated composite plates using the mesh-free kp-Ritz method based on FSDT, Compute. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg.2004; 193 (2004) 47634779 [4] Y.X.Zhang, K.S.Kim Geometrically nonlinear analysis of laminated composite plates by two new displacement-based quadrilateral plate elements, Composite Structures , 2006 ; 72 (2006) 301310 [5] L.G. Andrade, A.M. Awruch , I.B. Morsch., Geometrically nonlinear analysis of laminate composite plates and shells using the eight-node hexahedral element with one-point integration, Composite Structures 79 (2007) 571580 [6] Y.X. Zhang , C.H. Yang Recent developments in finite element analysis for laminated composite plates, Composite Structures 88 (2009) 147157 [7] Kant, T.; Kommeneni, J.R. Large amplitude free vibration analysis of cross-ply composite and sandwich laminates with a refined theory and C0 finite elements. Computers & structures, 1994; Vol. 50, 123-134. [8] Ali J S M, K. Bhaskar, T.K. Varadan, A new theory for accurate thermal/mechanical flexural analysis of symmetric laminated plates, Composite Structures, Vol.45, pp. 227232, 1999. [9] K H Lo, R M Christensen, E M Wu. A Higher Order Theory of Plate Deformation, Part II: Laminated Plates. Applied Mechanics, Vol 99, E, 1977 p 669. [10] Putcha, N S, Reddy, J N. A refined mixed shear flexible finite element for the nonlinear analysis of laminated plates. Computers & structures, 1986; Vol. 22, No.4, 203- 215 [11] Chang, Jeng-Shian, Huang, Yuh-Pao. Geometrically nonlinear static and transiently dynamic behaviour of laminated composite plates based on a higher order displacement field. Composite Structures, 1991; Vol. 18, 327-364. [12] Jones, R M. Mechanics of composite materials, Scripta book company, Washington D.C. 1975. [13] Rao, J S. Dynamics of Plates, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi.1999
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Structural Design, Analysis and Optimization of Head stock: A Machine Tool Structure case study
S. D. Daxini 1*, B. D. Upadhyay 2, Y. D. Vora 3
1, 2
A. D. Patel Institute of Technology, New V.V. Nagar, Gujarat, India 3 Government Engineering College, Surat, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: sachin_daxini@rediffmail.com)
In machine tools, 70-90% of the total weight of the machine is due to the weight of its structure. The function of machine tool structure is to support and guide the work piece and cutting tool to resist the cutting and feed forces encountered during the machining operations. The paper presents significance of structure in composition of machine tool and so how important the structure analysis could be, before arriving at final design decision. The paper reports use of high end GEA/FEA package, Pro/Mechanica for structural analysis and subsequently sensitivity study and optimization of a Headstock of a Vertical Machining Centre. Present work reports structural analysis of head stock considering case studies of face milling and drilling operations performed on a machining centre. After performing a set of standard design study, sensitivity study and optimization of the design of head stock, in terms of shell thickness and rib thickness, has been carried out to reduce weight of the structure at the same time retaining required static and dynamic stiffness. 1. Introduction The function of the machine tool structure is to support and guide the work piece and cutting tool and to resist the cutting and feed forces encountered during the machining operations. The performance of a machine tool is ultimately assessed by its ability to produce work piece of the required physical features with precision and accuracy. The degree of precision with which a component is produced is therefore dependent upon the accuracy of the slides of the machine under specified working conditions [4]. Again, to support the work piece and position it correctly with respect to the tool movement, under the action of cutting forces, high static and dynamic stiffness of machine tool structure is prerequisite. The objective of the present work is to predict the performance of Headstock of a Vertical Machining Centre using latest software tools. 2. Design Considerations Machine tool structures have, as a rule, highly complicated profiles. While designing the structure of machine tool a number of criteria must be respected i.e. range and types of work pieces to be machined, room for chip removal, room for other mechanisms and electric/hydraulic equipments, ease of assembly, ease of manufacturing etc. Forces occur during the machining operation giving rise to deformations, which disturb the accuracy of machining. Some of the forces do not depend directly on the intensity of the cutting processes i.e. weight forces while cutting forces are directly related to the machining operations. Forces are, thus, classified into four different criteria: weight forces, cutting forces, forced vibrations due to unbalanced rotating masses and Self excited vibrations. The problem of stability of the frame/structure against selfexcited vibrations energized by the cutting process is not only the most important one but also the most difficult. Members of cutting machine tools are designed mainly on the basis of stiffness and stability. And thus deflection and deformation of all components along the line of action of forces should be a minimum [4]. Accordingly, machine tool structure can be broadly divided into three groups i.e. structures like beds and columns with fully or partially closed thin box profiles or consisting of two walls connected by parallel and diagonal stiffeners, closed box type structures like housing of speed and feed boxes, headstock are designed for forces perpendicular to the
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walls, supporting structures like tables knees, etc. which are generally loaded normal to their base plane analyzed as plates [5]. 3. Cutting force calculation Present work deals with a problem of structural analysis and optimization of proposed Headstock design of a Vertical Machining Centre. For structural analysis and optimization, first and foremost task is to calculate cutting forces generated during various cutting conditions and consider the most adverse case of machining for structural analysis [3]. Present work was carried out considering face milling and drilling operation. In case of face milling operation, tangential cutting force generated is directly proportional to the spindle power, which will be maximum in case when it draws maximum power with its rated speed. While in case of drilling operation, thrust force generated is function of diameter of drill and feed per revolution. Generated thrust during drilling operation is not related to spindle speed. Face milling operation: Assumptions: Diameter of cutter: 63mm - D Material to be cut: Medium carbon steel Cutting speed: 300 m/min - v From Motor (at 60% duty cycle) to Spindle: 10 kW N Based on above values, tangential cutting force generated equals to,
Pz 6120 * (N / v) 2040 N
N power at the spindle, kW v Cutting speed, m/min Tangential cutting force is resolved into two components, radial and axial (thrust), where,
(1)
Px and Py
(2) (3)
Px 0.5 to 0.55 Pz 0.55Pz 1122 N Py 0.25 to 0.35 Pz 0.35 Pz 714 N

Drilling operation: Assumptions: Diameter of drill: 25 mm - D Material to be cut: Medium carbon steel Cutting speed: 80 m/min - v Feed per revolution: 0.2 mm S Based on the assumptions and cutting parameters, maximum thrust force equals to,
Th 1.16 K D (100 * S) 5365.8 N

where, K Material factor 4. Structural analysis
0.85
(4)
The limitations of physical model techniques have led to the development of mathematical models representing a variety of mechanical structures. In all the mathematical models, the first step is to subdivide the real structure into simple elements such as beams and polygonal plates, these elements being interconnected at specified nodal or station points only. Then relationships between the forces and displacements at these nodal points are then derived in the form of element matrices, the manipulation of these element matrices giving the required information about the whole structure [1]. Thus FEA is a very useful tool in engineering today and same has proved to be an important technique in machine tool structural analysis.
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Present work tackles a problem of structural analysis and optimization of proposed Headstock design of a Vertical Machining Centre using Pro/Mechanica - Advanced Structural and Thermal Simulation package. The problem is approached by creating a model in the software and considering cutting forces occurred during case studies of drilling and face milling operations for structural analysis. Table 1: Face milling: Structural analysis details Particulars Model description Assumptions Details Headstock Vertical Machining centre, FE 30 a) Static loading considered b) Self weight of the structure is not considered c) Material properties are homogeneous 3 D solid elements (tetrahedron) a) Dead weight of spindle assembly: 450 N b) Dead weight of motor assembly: 630 N c) Cutting forces during face milling: - Axial component of tangential cutting force: 1122 N - Radial component of tangential cutting force: 714 N Headstock is mounted on column Standard Design study, Static analysis
Type of elements Loads
Constraints Solution type
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. (a) Loads and constraints for Headstock during face milling (b) Mesh model
Figure 2. Results of displacement and stress for Headstock during face milling
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Table 2. Drilling: Structural analysis details (other details are same as face milling) Loads a) Dead weight of spindle & motor assembly: 450 N & 630 N respectively b) Thrust force during drilling: 5365.8 N Headstock is mounted on column
Constraints
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. (a) Loads and constraints for headstock during drilling (b) Mesh model
Headstock Drilling Figure 4. Results for displacement and stress for Headstock during drilling operation 5. Sensitivity study and design optimization How the variation in a particular design parameter affects the results of interest can be studied through sensitivity study of the design. While optimization will search the value of design parameter, from the range specified, which achieves desired goal in terms of minimizing weight or cost and simultaneously not violating specified constraints in terms of limiting displacement value or stress. Study of headstock design was carried out considering shell thickness and ribbing thickness as a design parameter. Initial headstock design had shell and rib thickness of 20 mm,
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which subsequently selected as a design parameter to vary and observe the results of interest i.e. maximum displacement and stress. The range of variation of shell and rib thickness was between 16 to 20 mm. considering limitation of casting process for structure, rib thickness lesser than 16 mm would not be practical. While optimizing machine tool structural elements, importance should be given to their optimization for the functional requirements of maximum tool point stiffness, stability and accuracy [1]. In the present work optimization of headstock design was approached for minimum weight design by searching the shell thickness value in between 16 to 18 mm and simultaneously not violating maximum allowable displacement value constraint. In case of headstock design maximum allowable displacement value is 9.5 m. Due to the constraint of available system configuration, only two optimization passes were carried out, which was resulted in optimized design of headstock with shell thickness value of 17.28 mm and final weight of the structure was 187 kg, which initially was 197 kg.
Figure 5. Mass variation with varying shell thickness 6. Conclusion
Figure 6. Mass and displacement variation in Optimization passes
After structural analysis and optimization of Head stock design, suggestion made was to reduce the shell and rib thickness to 17.28 mm from 20 mm and hence the total weight of the structure was reduced by 10 kg. References [1] J. Radhakrishnamurthy, G. C. Reddy, Optimization of functional properties of machine tool structures A FEA method, 20th Intl. Journal on Machine Tool design and research, 1978. [2] CMTI Handbook of Machine Tools, 1975. [3] F. Koenigsberger and J. Tlusty, Machine Tool Structures, Vol. 1, 1965 [4] Bhattacharya & Sen,Principles of Machine Tools,New Central Book Agency,Calcutta, 1973. [5] N. K. Mehta, Machine tool design and Numerical Control, TMH Ltd., New Delhi, 2002.
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Product Design and Finite Element Analysis of Wheel Loaders Rear Chassis Using Concurrent Engineering Approach
Samruddhi Patel 1*, Rupal Vyasa2, Divya Bhatt3, Manish Bhavasar4 L.D. College of Engineering. 2 V.G.E.C. 3, 4 L&T e-Engineering Solutions *Corresponding author (email: samruddhi.patel@gmail.com) The Objective of this paper is to illustrate the advantages of concurrent Engineering used in the product design process with special application to Engineering outsourcing business. It also personified Finite Element Analysis which is a mathematical representation of a physical system comprising a part/assembly (model), material properties, and applicable boundary conditions {collectively referred to as pre-processing}, the solution of that mathematical representation {solving}, and the study of results of that solution {post-processing}.The Business Rationale of Concurrent Engineering and finite element analysis is indisputably the wave of the future for new product development for all companies regardless of their size, sophistication, or product portfolio. It is not just a topic of academic interest. The Industry Application of Concurrent Engineering and finite element analysis is that it can provide to design engineering companies competitive advantage, increased performance, increased resource utilization and reduced design & development time. The Problem used here is product design of Rear Chassis of Wheel Loader (Off highway machinery). We first have designed the product with the Concurrent practices then analysis is done. The Tool used for the product design is ProE and for analysis Pro/Mechanica. The Technology used for Concurrent Engineering is Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) approach. Pro/Mechanica is used due to faster procedure, better result and less space storage. For analysis various Force calculations are done using for different load cases named breakout load, crows load case, articulation to stop load case (static) and, articulation to stop load case (dynamic).Analysis is done for different load cases for the same load cases. 1 Concurrent Engineering
1
Concurrent Engineering has emerged way of bringing solution to product design and development process. The Concurrent Engineering concept brings together multidisciplinary teams irrespective of the location, in which product developers from different functions work together and in parallel from the start of the project with intension of getting things right as early as possible. This leads to reduce the design time, increase the resource utilization, reduced design errors and reduction in product cost. The Technology used for Concurrent Engineering is Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) approach Winchill has been chosen for the problem study based on the technical evaluation, product applicability & organizational mandates. Modeling of Rear chassis of wheel loader is done through the Pro/E as shown
Figure 1. Assembly Of Rear Chassis
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Name Of Parts
Table 1. Concurrent Engineering Approach CONCURRENT ENGINEERING MH Start Date End Date 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 22/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 25/12/08 25/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 25/12/08 4 day 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 22/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 22/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 23/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 25/12/08 25/12/08 24/12/08 24/12/08 25/12/08
Designer D#1 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#2 D#3 D#1 D#1 D#2 D#2 D#2 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#3 D#2 D#1 D#1 D#1 D#1 D#2 D#2 D#2 D#2 D#3 D#3 D#1 D#1 D#1 D#2 D#2, D#3 3
Trunnion Assembly Casing front 8 Dowel Pin 0.5 Front Bushing 0.5 Trunnion Truth Ring 1 Trunnion Rear Plate 1 Rear Casing 8 Rear Bushing 0.5 Assembly 6 Steering Mount Mount Plate 3 Spacer 0.5 Boss 0.5 Ear 0.5 Assembly 3 Trunnion Mount Assembly Trunnion end plate 2 Trunnion mount plate 4 Mount axle pivot rear 0.5 Plate axle mount rear 0.5 Bolt 0.5 Plate gusset 0.5 Plate axle support 0.5 Assembly 6 Frame Articulation Assembly Articulation plate 3 Boss 0.5 Angle support 1 Assembly 1.5 Transmission mount Assembly Mount plate 3 Boss 0.5 Ear 0.5 Assembly 1.5 Individual Parts Side plate 5 Counter weight 4 support Battery support plate 1 Battery cover plate 5 Cab mount plate front 2 Cab mount plate rear 2 Final assembly 12 Total 90
The study resulted into markable reduction in each of the evaluated parameters, i.e., Design Time, Design Errors, Resource Utilization and Cost Reduction. The quantitative & qualitative results are The Results incurred by Concurrent Engineering approach were eye-opening with 18% reduction in design time, 100% resource utilization by Concurrent approach markable reduction in design errors & design cost. The achieved reduction in an individual parameter can be due to itself and/or supplemented by the other parameters. As in Concurrent
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Engineering, the multifunctional team is working for doing multiple tasks. Hence the rear chassis of wheel loader is taken for the finite element analysis. 2 Finite Element Analysis
Finite Element Analysis is a technique by which the stresses, deflection and reaction forces etc in object can be estimated. The technique involves dividing the object into relatively small elements whose individual behavior is easily calculated. The behavior of all the small elements is then put together to estimate the stresses and deflection in the entire object. The analysis of rear chassis of wheel loader is carried out for four different load condition named Crowd load, Breakout load, Articulation to stop load (static), Articulation to stop load (dynamic). General data inputs are as below for all the calculations The load coming on articulation joint (Pivot) due to engine transmission power to operate machine is Tyre Radius Distance between up & low pivot Distance of axle from low pivot (x direction) Distance of Trunnion from low pivot Distance between two faces of Trunnion Horizontal distance of Trunnion from bucket (Z-axis) Vertical distance of Trunnion from bucket (X-axis) Table 5.1 C.G.And Weight Information WEIGHT (LBF) 2169.35 1653.47 5585.19 4798.14 1802 5496.35 21504.5 WEIGHT (KG) 482 360 900 1179 816 1332 5069 POSITION OF C.G. X(INCH) X(mm) 79.6 2021.84 35.6 904.24 151.3 3843.02 69.2 1757.68 15.7 398.78 69.9 1775.46 37201.07 lbf 32.095 inches 32.6 inch 69.9 inch 5.7 inch 25.4 inch 164.88 inches 169.95 inches
ENGINE TRANSMISSION REAR CWT REAR FRAME CAB AXLE& WHEEL TOTAL WT.
Based on this Data input taking moment and summation of vertical and horizontal force to be zero various load condition are to be evaluated as below Table 2. Loads On Rear Chassis Of Wheel Loader Type Of Load Case Direction Trunnion Left-End Right-End Crowd Load Case X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z Z 37201.72 -31154.94 0.000 0.000 -2748.175 0.000 26700.398 -17885.79 10884.73 At Counter Wt 16755.57 At Transmission Wt 1154.41 0.000 62859.39 0.000 0.000 2748.175 0.000 0.000 49590.51 -36787.73 At Engine Wt. 3389.51 At Cab Wt. 702.102
Break Out Load Case
ART To Stop Load Case(Static) ART To Stop Load Case(Dynamic)
Type Of Load Surface Bearing Bearing Surface Bearing Bearing Surface Bearing Bearing Point Point
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Figure 2. Merge Model and Idealization Of Rear Chassis The rear chassis consist of various components mounted on it as cabin, counter weight, transmission, engine etc. All these components are not significant from analysis point of view except their dead weight and thus these components can be replaced by idealizing them as mass of magnitude same as dead weight of the original component and its location at center of gravity of the component for which it is idealized.(Figure 2) 2.1 Constrains The constrains for all the load cases are as shown below.
Figure 3. Crowd & Break Out Load Case 2.2 Loading
Figure 4. Articulation to Stop Load Case
For rear chassis loading is to be done at trunnion support and rear axle. Surface load and Bearing load is applied for crowd load case, break out load case, and articulation stop load case (static) while point load is applied for the articulation stop load case(Dynamic) as shown below.
Figure 5. Crowd Load Case
Figure 6. Break Out Load Case
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Figure 7 Articulation to Stop Load(Static) 2.3 Von-Mises Stress Plot
Figure 8 Articulation to Stop Load(Dynamic)
Various von-misses stress plot diagram for all the four load cases are as shown and it is maximum for articulation to stop load case (Dynamic) as shown in figure 12
Figure 9. Crowd Load Case
Figure 10. Break Out Load Case
Figure 11 Articulation to Stop Load (Static) Acknowledgement
Figure 12 Articulation to Stop Load (Dynamic)
I wish to express my warm gratitude to my tutor Rupal Vyasa whose constant guidance and advice gave me fundamental insight into my work. I would also like to express my deep appreciation to my tutor Divya Bhatt for her enthusiasm and her never-ceasing flow of ideas. I would like to thank Chetan Shah & his team for support & providing all technical resources. I am especially thankful to Mr. Manish Bhavasar, Mr. Brijesh Dave, Mr. Chandradeepsinh Vala, Mr. Susheel Gupta and Ms. Kiran Panchal for providing guidance and support. References [1] Geoarge Dieter, Engineering Design ,2005,Tata McGraw-Hill [2] J. Adebayo, Concurrent engineering: principles and conceptual methodology for process innovation [3] Leading Wheel loader Manufacture
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Periodic, Quasi-Periodic and Chaotic Motion Analysis of a High Speed Rotor Supported by Rolling Element Bearings
S. H. Upadhyay , S. P. Harsha, S. C. Jain Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee-247 667, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: upadhyaysanjayh@yahoo.com) This paper presents a mathematical formulation to investigate the nonlinear dynamic behavior of a balanced rotor-bearing system due to radial internal clearances. In the formulation, the contacts between rolling elements and inner/outer races are considered as nonlinear springs. A nonlinear damping, correlating the contact damping force with the equivalent contact stiffness and contact deformation rate has been derived and used in the derivation. This formulation accounted the sources of nonlinearity such as Hertzian contact force and radial internal clearance resulting transition from non-contact to contact state between rolling element and the races. The equations of motion of a rolling element bearing are formulated in generalized coordinates, using Lagranges equation considering the vibration characteristics of the individual constitute such as inner race, outer race, rolling elements and rotor, in order to investing the structural vibration of the bearing. The effects of rotor speed in which rolling element bearings shows periodic, quasi-periodic and chaotic behavior are analyzed. Techniques like Poincar maps and frequency spectra are used to expound and to exemplify the diversity of the system behavior. The comprehensive model developed in this investigation is a useful tool for machine system design, optimization and performance evaluation. 1. Introduction Rolling element bearings are used today in the design of increasingly sophisticated arrangements, involving high speed, and high temperature, heavy or unusual loadings and requiring continuous operation; a clear understanding of vibration associated with them is needed. Rolling element bearings are a non-negligible source of vibration in many type of rotating machinery. When a bearing is subjected to a radial load, a parametrically excited type of vibration appears. Clearance, which provided in the design of bearing to compensate the thermal expansion, is also a source of vibration and introduces the non-linearity in the dynamic behaviour. The early work in rotor dynamics by Yamamoto [1] introduces nonlinearity to the Jeffcott equation by including the effect of bearing clearances (or dead bands). Childs and Moyer [2] presented an explanation for the sub harmonic response of rotors in presence of bearing clearance and side load. Choi and Noah [3] analyzed the coherence of super and sub harmonic in a rotor bearing model using harmonic balancing method along with discrete Fourier transform procedure. The dynamic responses of rotors in high-speed rotors with bearing clearance have been studied by Ehrich [4, 5] these studies by Ehrich show the appearance of high sub harmonic and chaotic response in the rotor. Tiwari et al. [6] has studied the effect of radial internal clearance, the appearance of sub harmonics and Hopf bifurcation is seen theoretically whereas the shift in the peak response is also observed experimentally. Harsha et al. [7] simulated some dynamics responses of a rotor supported by rolling element bearings using a model with clearances and waviness, and found that nonlinear dynamic responses were associated with ball passage frequency. In this work, the effects of radial internal clearance and varying rotor speed have been studied. The appearance of periodic, sub-harmonic and chaotic is observed. The results show the appearance of instability and chaos through a route of period doubling and intermittency, which are highly sensitive to rotor speed. The results presented, have been obtained from a large number of numerical integrations; mainly showed in the form of Poincar maps and frequency spectra.
*
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2.
Problem Formulation For investigating the structural vibration of rolling element bearing, a model of bearing assembly can be considered as a spring mass damper system. Elastic deformation between races and rollers gives a non-linear force deformation relation, which is obtained by Hertzian theory. In the mathematical modelling, the rolling element bearing is considered as spring mass system and rolling elements act as non-linear contact spring as shown in Fig.1.
Figure 1. Mass spring - damper model of rolling element bearings 2.1 Mathematical modeling The rolling element bearing model considered here has equi-spaced balls rolling on the surfaces of the inner and outer races. For developing the theoretical model it is assumed that the outer race is fixed rigidly to the support and the inner race is fixed rigidly to the rotor.
r cage rotor rR ,
2.2
vc cage N b
Where, Nb is the number of
(1)
Energy expression of the rolling element bearings
The total energy of system is considered to be the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy, strain energy of the springs representing contact and dissipation energy due to contact damping. The detail description of the energy expressions due to different parts of rolling bearings and energy dissipation due to contact damping, which have already derived in the papers published by Upadhyay et al. [8,9] are using in this paper. The contacts between rolling elements and races are treated as nonlinear springs, whose stiffness is obtained by Hertzian theory of elasticity. 2.3 Equations of motion
The kinetic energy and potential energy contributed by the inner race, outer race, balls, rotor and springs, can be differentiated with respect to the generalized coordinates j (j = 1, 2,, Nb), xin, and yin to obtain the equations of motion. For the generalized coordinates j, where j = 1,2,, Nb, the equations are:
3 j 3 1 1 1 kin_ contact in 2 in 2 j g sin j j kin_ contactin 2 kout_ contact out2 mj j mj 2 mj j 2 1
1 kout_ contact out 2 out2 3 2 mj j 2 mj

1 Nr .e.
Nr .e.
3 q j cin k in _ contactin2 j j 1 j j 1,2,........, r.e N
(4)
3 2 mj
c k
out j 1
out_ contact
3 2 out
j 0
For the generalized coordinate xin the equation is:
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3 xin kin _ contact in 2 x 2 m mrotation j 1 in rotation

3
q 3 j Fu sin( s t ) 2 cin kin _ contactin j mrotation xin j 1 For the generalized coordinate yin the equation is: q N r .e. 3 j 3 j 1 Nr.e. 3 W Fu cos(s t) 2 2 kin _ contact in yin g cin kin _ contactin j mrotation j 1 yin 2mrotation j 1 mrotation y in
N r . e.
N r . e.
(5)
(6)
where m rotation minner m rotor This is a system of (Nb + 2) non-linear differential equations. The + sign as subscript in these equations signifies that if the expression inside the bracket is greater than zero, then the rolling element at angular location j is loaded giving rise to restoring force and if the expression inside bracket is negative or zero, then the rolling element is not in the load zone, and restoring force is set to zero. The deformation of spring at inner race j, (using Figure 1) is also derived in authors previous published paper [8, 9], is used in the current paper. 3. Results and discussion In this work, besides speed as a parameter of study, the effect of radial internal clearance is also studied. The radial internal clearance is an important parameter of study because even if it is predictable, it can be controlled to a good extent. Speed response plots are obtained for the combination of the above parameters under study. These plots are generated by numerical integration to reach steady state when peak-to-peak values of x and y displacements are obtained. For reaching steady state for the first speed the initial conditions are taken as the "fixed point solution. For successive speeds, the initial conditions are taken as the steady state solution obtained for the preceding speed. The overall response plot of rolling element bearing for point contact with internal radial clearance 10 m and radial load of 6 N is shown in Fig. 2. The overall response plot has a high rough appearance. Three regions can be identified which have high p-p response and those are bounded by lines A A, B B, and C C as shown in Fig. 2. The nature of solutions for various speeds is given in Table- 2. Period one solution becomes multi orbit unstable from 800 to 2650 rpm, because of periodic doubling bifurcations. The Eigen values of the monodromy matrix go out through 1. The solution undergoes pitchfork bifurcations till 2700 rpm after which at 2750 rpm the chaotic solution is obtained.
Figure 2. Response plot for 0 = 10 m, W = 6 N The first chaotic region is observed in speed range 27503400 rpm, the loss of stability is seen to be due to the Eigen values crossing +1. In this region, the period doubling bifurcations give way to chaos at about 2750 rpm and this chaotic region extends up to 3400 rpm. The chaotic solutions at 2900 and 3300 rpm are shown in Figs. 3 &4 (a) respectively. The frequency spectrum has a band structure as seen in-between spikes of varying compliance (VC) and its multiples. The Poincar maps of chaotic solutions have fractal structures that repeat as the map is magnified. It is clear that loss of periodicity is one of the important characteristic of chaotic solution. As speed increases, the second unstable region (BB region) appears between 5500 to 6500 rpm, in which the nature of response has quasi
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periodic at rotor speed 5515 rpm as shown in Figs 3& 4 (b). The Poincar map is also giving an indication of quasi-periodic response because of net structure. As speed increases from 9200 rpm to 10000 the response is mode locked with the ratio between the varying compliance frequency and the newly generated frequency being (p=4). It is seen that the frequency generated due to Hopf bifurcation changes with speed. At the rotor speed is increased form 11800 to 12000 rpm the quasi-periodic nature of response can be seen from the frequency spectrum and the orbit plot, as shown in Figs. 3& 4 (d) The torus solution becomes 1-T stable solution up to 15000 rpm and onwards (Figs. 4 (e)). No indication of chaos is observed here. The nature of response for various speeds is given in Table 2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) Figure 3. Poincar Map of Balance Rotor at Speed(a) 2900 (b)3300 (c) 5515 (d)11800 (e)15000 rpm
3VC
Amplitude (m) Amplitude (m) Amplitude (m)
2VC
Amplitude (m)
VC
Horizontal Displacement
5VC VC/2 VC
VC
VC
3VC/4 Horizontal VC
Displacement
2VC
VC/4
4VC
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
(a)
(b)
Amplitude (m)
(c)
VC
(d)
(e) Figure 4. FFT of Balance Rotor at Speed (a) 2900 (b) 3300 (c) 5515 (d) 11800 (e) 15000 rpm
Frequency (Hz)
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4.
Conclusions In this paper the effects of clearance on the stability and the dynamic response of a ball bearing supporting a horizontal rigid perfectly balanced rotor system were investigated using an analytical model and the following conclusions may be drawn.
a) Radial internal clearance is an important parameter for determining the dynamic response as it is observed that with increase in clearance, the regions of unstable and chaotic response become wider. b) A rotor roller bearing system may have chaos, period doubling bifurcation, and quasiperiodic nature as rotational speed increases. c) Damping coefficient, radial forces and speed of rotor exert significant influences on the stability and vibration behaviors of a rotor roller bearing system. Table 1 Geometric and physical properties used for the ball bearings Ball radius 4.762 mm Inner Race Diameter 18.738 mm Outer Race Diameter (Do) 28.262 mm Internal radial clearance () 10 m Radial load (W) 6N Mass of bearing (m) 0.6 kg Pitch radius of the ball set (rm) 27 mm Table 2 The Response of Rolling Element Bearings for ( = 10 m, W= 6 N) Speed (rpm) Nature of solution Up to 800 Multi orbit (stable) 1000- 2000 Multi orbit (unstable) 2700 Onset of chaos 2750-3400 Chaotic 5500-6500 Quasi periodic 9200-10000 Hopf (Quasi periodic) -15000 1T periodic (stable) low amplitude
References [1] Yamamoto T., On the vibration of a shaft supported by bearing having radial clearances, Transaction of JSME, 21, 1955, 182192. [2] Childs D.W. and Moyer D.S., Vibration characteristics of the high pressure oxygen turbopump of the space shuttle main engine, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power, 107, 1985, 152159. [3] Choi Y.S. and Noah, S.T., Nonlinear steady state response of a rotor support system, ASME Journal of Vibration, Acoustics, Stress, and Reliability in Design, 109, 1987, 255 261. [4] Ehrich, F.F., Sub harmonic vibration of rotors in bearing clearance, ASME-paper MD-I, 66, 1966, 281289. [5] Ehrich, F.F., Higher order sub harmonic response of high speed rotors in bearing clearance, ASME Journal of Vibration Acoustic Stress and Reliability in Design, 110, 1988, 916. [6] Tiwari, M. Prakash O. and Gupta K., Effect of radial internal clearance of a ball bearing on the dynamics of a balanced, horizontal rotor, Journal of Sound and vibration, 238(5),2000, 723-756. [7] Harsha S.P., Sandeep K, and Prakesh R., Nonlinear dynamic behaviors of rolling element bearings due to surface waviness, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 272 (3-5), 2004, 557-580. [8] Upadhyay S.H., Harsha S.P. and Jain S.C., Nonlinear vibration signature analysis of high speed rotor due to defects of rolling element, Adv. Theor. Appl. Mech., Vol. 1, 2008, no. 7, 301 314. [9] Upadhyay S.H., Jain S.C. and Harsha S.P., Non-linear vibration signature analysis of a high-speed rotating shaft due to ball size variations and varying number of balls, Proc. IMechE Part K: J. Multi-body Dynamics, 223, 2009, 83-105.
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On the stability of articulated vehicle

Sanjoy K. Ghoshal , Subrata K. Ghosh Indian School of Mines University, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: sanjoy.ghoshal@gmail.com) An articulated vehicle modeled as two massive blocks connected by a compliant and a dissipative element is considered for the stability analysis when a velocity sensor picks up the velocity of the front vehicle and control command is applied on the rear vehicle with an error amplifier of some gain to establish the control. To control the velocity of two articulated vehicles connected by sole compliant element is impossible by introducing simple velocity feedback, because the system is unstable in the absence of dissipative force. The problem can be tackled by introducing additional damper in between the two vehicle masses, by usong Rouths criterion of classical control theory approach as shown in this article. Thereafter a novel analytical approach for finding out the minimum value of coupling damper coefficient corresponding which can stabilize the system for any feedback gain is described by using bond graph models. All the analytical results obtained for system stability are validated with model simulation. 1. Introduction The work presented in this paper follows a different model based approach for stability analysis of an articulated vehicle modeled as two massive blocks connected with spring damper combination in between. Bond graph modeling [1-2], being a unified multienergy domain modeling tool, is especially suitable for developing analytical models because of direct exploitation of causality from physical system. The very idea of causality has been explored by Gawthrop [3] to address the inverse dynamics. Dauphin-Tanguy and her coworkers [4-6] have extended the bond graph theory to analyse pole placement, derivation of transfer function and design of control systems. In systems theory, signal-flow graphs (SFG) and transfer function are valuable tools for analysis as well as design of control systems. In this article we have derived transfer function for the linear time invariant system from its bond graph model via SFG. Once transfer functions are obtained, further analysis is routinely carried out by the techniques, well developed in classical control theory [7] of these systems. The critical parameters of the system can quickly be established using the transfer function by applying the stability criteria of Routh, Routh-Hurwitz or other graphical methods [7]. In this article, the way to approach classical control theory starting with bond graph models as presented in [2] is followed. With respect to state-of-art, the work presented here follows a different analytical approach for computing the critical value of coupling damper coefficient for any feedback gain value, whereby the centre of gravity of the asymptotes of root locus is assigned to zero, and the stability is ensured as the asymptotes are making right angle for this type of system. The analytical results are validated through simulation. Signal flow graph is obtained from system bond graph model and there from the transfer function is derived by using Masons gain rule [2] which is described below for ready reference. 2. Masons gain rule The transfer function, G s , can be obtained directly from signal flow graph by using Masons gain rule: G s Pi . i (1)
i
Where, Pi =gain of the ith forward path;

determinant of graph 1.0 all individual loop gains all individual gain products of two non touching loops ...
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i =the for that part of the graph which does not touch the ith forward path.
3. Velocity control of articulated massive blocks
An articulated vehicle is modelled as two massive blocks connected by a compliant (Kc) and a dissipative element (Rc ) as shown in Figure 1. The symbol Re represents the environmental damping. To control the velocity of the vehicle a velocity sensor picks up the velocity of the front mass mf and an error amplifier of gain is used to establish the control applying a modulated force to the rear mass block of mass mr. The system may be found unstable for a particular set of parameter values of the system components and feedback gain. Let us first assume that the feedback gain is constant and cannot be changed and the designer is allowed to adjust the coupling damper Rc suitably to make the system stable. Using Rouths criterion the minimum value of Rc which would stabilize the system is found out. In what follows we address an analytical procedure starting from bond graph model of the system (Figure 2) and obtain the transfer function via SFG (Figure 3).
Figure 1. An articulated vehicle modelled as two massive blocks
Figure 2. Bond graph model of the articulated vehicle
Figure 3. Signal flow graph of the articulated vehicle derived from Figure 2 Now the open loop transfer function from e1 to f9 (using Masons gain rule):
K c R c s m r s R e .s.mf s R e G o s K c R c s K c R c s 1 mr s R e s mf s R e s
Considering mf m r m = 1 kg, for analytical simplicity K c Rc s Go s 2 s R e s Re 2R c s 2K c
(2)
(3)
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3.1 Case: 1. The task is to find out the value of Rc so that the system is stable for the set of other parameter values assigned. Simplifying Equation (3),
Go s
s 2R e R c . s R e 2Re R c 2K c . s 2K c R e
3 2
K c Rc s
2
(4)
Now, connecting the feedback of gain

G c s
, the closed loop transfer function,
G o s Kc R c s 3 (5) 2 2 1 .Go s s 2R e R c . s R e 2R e R c 2K c R c . s 2K c R e K c
The characteristic equation is obtained by equating the denominator of Gc s to zero as given in Equation (6).
s 3 2R e Rc . s 2 R e 2R e R c 2K c Rc . s 2K c R e K c 0 .
2
(6)
Now, using Rouths criterion the coefficients of the polynomial are arranged in rows and columns assuming all coefficients of the polynomial (in s) of Equation (6) are positive: s
3
2 e
2R e R c 2K c R c
2R e R c
2R e R c R e 2R e R c 2K c R c 2K c R e K c 2R e R c
2K c R e K c
2
s s
2K c Re K c
Rouths stability criterion states that if there are sign changes of the first column then same number of roots of the characteristic polynomial lie in the right-half s-plane of the root locus plot, thereby making the system unstable. So the necessary and sufficient condition that all roots lie in left-half s-plane is:
2Re R c R e 2R e R c 2K c R c 2K c R e K c 0 2R e Rc
(7)
The critical value of R c can be obtained from finding out the roots of
2Re R c R e 2R e R c 2K c R c 2K c Re K c 0 .
2
(8)
3.2. Case: 2. Again if we keep on increase the value of coupling damper coefficient R c whether a minimum value for R c can be obtained which would stabilize the system for any value of positive feedback gain. The answer is yes and it is derived analytically using the root locus method, as given below.. Let us start with the open loop transfer function Go s for the system given in Equation (3). K The zero is Z1 c Rc
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2 0 So, there are one zero and three poles and thus two asymptotes at 90 angle with the real axis of root locus plot. The Centre of Gravity (C.G.) of asymptotes is
The three poles are P1 R e , P2,3
(R e 2R c ) (R e 2R c ) 2 8K c
No. of poles (n ) No. of zeros (m ) K Re Re 2R c c Rc or , . (9) 2 Setting out 0 , one can ensure no pole is lying in the right-half of the s-plane of the corresponding root locus plot, thereby making the system critically stable for any value of . Note that it can be achieved in this procedure due to the asymptotes making an angle of
poles zeros
90 0 ( Angle of asymptotes
180 0 2k 1 ; k 0, 1, 2, ... ) for the particular system under nm
consideration. Therefore, the admissible root(s) of Equation (9) can ensure stability of the system for any arbitrarily chosen positive feedback gain. K Rc 2 Re Rc c 0 (10) 2 4. Validation through simulation The analytical results (case 1) are tested through simulation with the software SYMBOLS 2000 [8]. The parameter values assigned for the simulation are: m = 1 kg, Kc = 100N/m, Re = 0.2 N.s/m and 5 . The numerical values for the roots are obtained as 1.110448 and -38.35489 solving Equation (8) and the admissible value of Rc is 1.110448 N.s/m. For all the simulation the reference velocity command is assigned as vref = 20 m/s. The time response of the velocity of frontier mass block with the calculated value of coupling damper coefficient (i,e, Rc= 1.110448 N.s/m) is given in Figure 4, from which one can conclude that the system is critically stable with a steady oscillation, and that validates the analytical findings.
Figure 4. Time response of velocity of front mass in critically stable condition
Figure 5. Phase plot of velocity of front mass in unstable condition
Now, if the value of Rc is slightly reduced to 1 N.s/m, the system becomes unstable as described by the phase plot given in Figure 5.
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The analytical result for case 2 is obtained as 6.971775 and -7.171775 as the roots of Equation (10) and the admissible value of R c 6.971775 N.s/m. This value leading to stability of the system for any gain ( 10 ) is validated in phase plot simulation in Figure 6. However if the value of is reduced then the reference velocity cannot be achieved and Vmf would end up to a little lower value although the system would be stable. The root locus plot is given in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Phase plot of velocity of front mass in stable condition
Figure 7. Root locus plot
5.
Conclusions
The message for the whole analysis is that to design the damper for an articulated vehicle from the viewpoint of stability one need not check Rouths criterion every time and instead it can be computed by setting out the centre of gravity of the asymptotes of root locus to zero, which can ensure stability for any positive gain in the negative feedback loop. The bond graph model is used only to address an alternative way to find out the transfer function using Masons gain rule via SFG. References [1] Karnopp D. C., Margolis D. C. and Rosenberg R. System Dynamics: A Unified Approach, New York: John Wiley, 1990. [2] Mukherjee, A., Karmakar, R. and Samantaray, A.K. Bond Graph in Modeling, Simulation and Fault Identification. I. K. International: New Delhi, India, 2006. [3] Gawthrop, P. J. Physical interpretation of inverse dynamics using bicausal bond graphs. Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 337, Issue 6, pp. 743 - 769, 2000. [4] Rahmani, A., Sueur, C and Dauphin-Tanguy, G. Pole assignment for systems modelled by bond graph. Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 331, Issue 3, 1994, pp.299-312. [5] Kamel, A., Sueur, C and Dauphin-Tanguy, G. How to derive a bond graph model from a transfer matrix. Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 330, Issue 5, 1993, pp. 787-798. [6] Dauphin-Tanguy, G., Rahmani, A. and Sueur, C. Bond graph aided design of controlled systems. Simulation Practice and Theory, Vol. 7, Issues 5-6, 1999, pp. 493-513. [7] Ogata K. Modern control engineering. PHI: New Delhi, India, 2003. [8] Mukherjee A. and Samantaray A. K. System modelling through bond graph objects on SYMBOLS 2000. Proceedings ICBGM01, Simulation Series, Vol. 33, No. 1, ISBN: 156555-103-6, pp. 164 - 170, 2001.
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Multi-objective design optimization of rolling element bearings using a modified ABC optimization technique
V. J. Savsani, R. V. Rao*, D.P. Vakharia S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat 395 007, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: ravipudirao@gmail.com) Optimization aspects of a rolling element bearing are presented in this paper considering three different objectives namely, dynamic capacity, static capacity and elastohydrodynamic minimum film thickness. The optimization procedure is carried out using artificial bee colony (ABC) optimization technique. Classical ABC is modified and two different variants of modified ABC are also experimented on the bearing optimization problem. The results of the considered techniques are compared with the previously published results. The considered techniques have given much better results in comparison to the previously tried approaches and also modified ABC has shown superiority over classical ABC. 1. Introduction Very limited work was reported in the past for the design optimization of rolling element bearings. Seireg [1] reviewed some examples of the use of optimization techniques, in the design of mechanical elements and systems. These included gears, journal bearings, rotating discs, pressure vessels, shafts under bending and torsion, beams subjected to the longitudinal impact and problems of the elastic contact and load distributions. Changsen [2] presented the optimization of rolling element bearings for five different objective functions namely, maximum fatigue life, maximum wear life, maximum static load rating, minimum frictional moment and minimum spin to roll ratio. Gradient based numerical optimization technique was implemented for the optimization of bearing. However, only the basic concepts and solution techniques were introduced without any illustrations. Hirani et al. [3] proposed a design methodology for an engine journal bearing. The procedure of selection of the diametral clearance and the bearing length was described by limiting the minimum film thickness, the maximum pressure and the maximum temperature. The research was concerned mainly with the journal bearing design. However, internal geometries of journal bearings are far simple as compared to rolling bearings. Choi and Yoon [4] used genetic algorithms (GA) in optimizing the automotive wheel-bearing unit, by considering the maximization of life of the unit as the objective function. Periaux [5] discussed in detail the applications of GA to the aeronautics and turbo machineries. Chakraborthy et al. [6] described a design optimization problem of rolling element bearings with five design parameters, by using genetic algorithms based on requirements of the longest fatigue life. The authors had presented bearing internal geometrical parameters resulted from the optimized design of different bearing boundary dimensions. However, only single objective function was used and some of the constraints were unrealistic. Also, assembly angles were assumed and values of certain constraint constants were chosen arbitrarily. Rao and Tiwari [7] described ten different design variables for the design of rolling element bearings of which five design variables were associated with the constraints. Dynamic capacity was maximized using a genetic algorithm (GA). Also the variation of design variables (associated with the constraints) with dynamic capacity were presented. A convergence study for the GA was also presented by taking different number of generations and population size with different crossover and mutation probabilities. Gupta et al. [8] presented the optimization of rolling element bearing considering three different objective functions, dynamic capacity, static capacity and elastohydrodynamic minimum film thickness. Optimization was carried out by first considering all the objectives separately and then the multi-objective optimization was carried out considering simultaneously two different objectives and then considering simultaneously three different objectives. Non-dominated
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sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) was implemented for the optimization process. Sensitivity analysis on objective function was also carried out for different design variables. However, genetic algorithms have certain limitations such as risk of replacement of a good parent string with the deteriorated child, less convergence speed, more computation, and difficulty in selecting the controlling parameters such as population size, crossover rate and mutation rate. It has been observed from the review of research work on design optimization of rolling element bearings that the recently used advanced optimization technique is the genetic algorithm. However, this method provides a near optimal solution for a complex problem having large number of variables and constraints. This is mainly due to difficulty in determination of optimum controlling parameters. Therefore the efforts are continuing to use more different optimization algorithms, which are more powerful, robust and able to provide accurate solution. This paper is intended to apply one such optimization algorithms known as artificial bee colony (ABC) optimization technique. In the present work, an effort is made to verify if any improvement in the solution is possible by employing ABC optimization technique to the same optimization model proposed by Gupta et al. [8]. Moreover artificial bee colony (ABC) optimization technique is the most recently developed technique. It is not so far tried for the complex optimization problems for mechanical design. Hence, the same is considered in this paper for multi-objective design optimization of rolling element bearings. The next section gives a brief description of ABC optimization techniques. 2. ABC optimization technique Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) Algorithm is an optimization algorithm based on the intelligent foraging behaviour of honeybee swarm. The colony of artificial bees consists of three groups of bees: employed bees, onlookers and scouts [9,10]. The colony of the artificial bees is divided into two groups, first half of the colony consists of the employed artificial bees and the second half includes the onlooker bees. Scout bees are the employed bee whose food source has been abandoned. An employed bee produces a modification on the solution in her memory depending on the local information. If the objective function value (fitness) of the new solution is higher than that of the previous one, the bee memorizes the new position and forgets the old one. Otherwise she keeps the position of the previous one in her memory. After all employed bees complete the search process; they share the nectar information of the food sources and their position information with the onlooker bees on the dance area. An onlooker bee evaluates the fitness information taken from all employed bees and chooses a food source with a probability related to its fitness value. An onlooker bee also produces a new solution and it memorizes the new position if its fitness value is better than the previous position. In order to produce a candidate food position from the old one in memory, the ABC uses the following expression (1):
vij xij Rij ( xij x kj )
(1)
Where k {1, 2,..., N} and j {1, 2,...,D} are randomly chosen indexes. Although k is determined randomly, it has to be different from i. Rij is a random number between (-1, 1). Generally, Rij is uniformly distributed random number. In this paper ABC is investigated using normally distributed random number with mean 0 and variance 1 instead of uniformly distributed random number. ABC with uniformly distributed random number will be referred as ABC_1 and with normally distributed random number as ABC_2 in this paper. Another modification is made in equation (1) by replacing (xij-xik) by (xbestj-xij) and using normally distributed random number, which will be referred as ABC_3 in this paper. Here xbestj is the best solution from the population. The next section presents an example to demonstrate and validate the considered variants of ABC optimization techniques for the design optimization of rolling element bearings.
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3. Example Figure 1 shows the geometries of a radial ball bearing. Generally bearing is specified by three standardized boundary dimensions, namely, bore diameter (d), the outer diameter (D) and the bearing width (Bw). Keeping these boundary dimensions fixed, internal parameters can be altered to have the maximum performance of the bearing. Internal parameters include ball diameter (Db), pitch diameter (Dm), inner and outer raceway curvature coefficients (fi and fo), and number of balls (Z). The purpose of optimization is to evaluate the above-mentioned internal geometry to maximize the performance of the bearing. There are many parameters such as KDmin, KDmax, , e, and , which only appear in constraints and indirectly affect the internal geometry. These parameters were considered constant by Changsen [2] but were taken as design variables with some studied range by Gupta et al. [8]. So, a total of ten design variables were considered for the optimization problem and these were:X = [Dm, Db, Z, fi, fo, KDmin, KDmax , , e, ]. All the design variables are continuous in nature, except Z (number of balls) which varies as integer during the optimization process.
Figure 1. Geometries of radial ball bearing [8] Gupta et al. [8] presented the optimization aspects of rolling element bearings using a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II). The design parameters, objective functions, and constraints are explained by Gupta et al.[8]. Three different objective functions were considered which deal with the performance of the bearing. These were maximization of dynamic capacity, minimum film thickness, and static capacity. The same problem is considered in this paper and is solved by using ABC, which is coded in MATLAB, and all experiments are done on 1.4 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo Laptop machine. The performance of all the variants of ABC algorithm is compared by considering only dynamic capacity as the objective function. Values of standard dimensions for bearing are taken as D=30, d=10 and Bw=9. For ABC the value of limit is set to N*S where N is the number of employed or onlooker bees and S is the dimension of design variable. For the bearing optimization problem value of S is 10 as there are ten design variables. One hundred trial runs were performed for each variants of ABC algorithm for the optimization of bearing. Each variant of algorithms are compared for the best value, mean value and the standard deviation for one hundred runs for the best solutions. In this comparison best value gives the global optima, mean value serves the purpose for the average performance to search optimum result. Standard deviation gives the deviation of best result from the mean result for all the runs. Comparison is also made based on success rate, which indicates the percentage success the technique has achieved in finding the global solution. All the algorithms are experimented by taking different population size and different number of generations to study its effect on best solution and success rate. Results are presented in Table 1. (N20G50 indicates the population size of 20 and number of generations
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of 50). Table 1 shows the best solutions for dynamic capacity. It is observed from the result that ABC_3 has shown better results than other algorithms for best solution, mean solution and standard deviations. All the variants have given improvement in the result with the increase in population size and number of generations. Table 2 shows the success rate for dynamic capacity. It is observed from the table that ABC_3 has better success rate with less population size and number of generations. With the increase in population size and number of generations success rate increases for all the variants. Because of high success rate ABC_3 can be used with less population size and number of generations, which requires less function evolutions to reach global optima. Table 1. Comparison of different algorithms for the dynamic capacity with different population size and generations for the best solutions obtained in 100 runs
ABC_1 Best N20G50 Mean SD Best ABC_2 Mean SD Best ABC_3 Mean SD
6013.84241 5935.54032 53.43416 6029.69913 5997.13237 16.82051 6032.85377 6019.70935 16.17167
N20G100 6032.82442 6025.22867 6.90551 6032.86231 6029.56039 8.91467 6032.86293 6032.08349 5.51245 N20G200 6032.86293 6032.86180 0.00397 6032.86293 6032.86293 0.00028 6032.86293 6032.86293 0.00037 N50G50 6029.64197 5970.68342 32.28392 6031.33106 6009.48664 13.32269 6032.86293 6029.63706 11.13222 N50G100 6032.72174 6029.14917 2.64474 6032.86083 6032.42048 0.57088 6032.86293 6032.86293 0.00030 N50G200 6032.86293 6032.86284 0.00022 6032.86293 6032.86293 0.00028 6032.86293 6032.86293 0.00023
Table 2. Comparison of different algorithms for the dynamic capacity with different population size and generations for the success rate obtained in 100 runs
ABC_1 ABC_2 ABC_3 N20G50 N20G100 N20G200 N50G50 N50G100 N50G200 0 0 0 0 0 0.03 0 0 0.85 0 0 0.94 0 0.25 1 0 0.97 1
Table 3. Comparison of results of simultaneous optimization of Cd, Hmin and Cs _________________________________________________________________________ D d Bw Db Dm Z fi fo KDmin KDmax e 30 10 9 6.21297 20.059 7 0.515 0.515 Cd(GA)[8] 5511.5 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.1 0.85
Cd(ABC) 6032.315
Hmin(ABC) Cs(ABC) 0.21485 3792.42
Hmin(GA)[8] 0.2096
Cs(GA)[8]
3401.91
__________________________________________________________________________ For the above reason design optimization of the rolling element bearing for D=30, d=10 and Bw= is now carried out using ABC_3 with, population = 20, and generations = 100. A combined objective function F is formulated considering three objective functions Cd, Hmin, and Cs as F = w1(Cd/Cdmax) + w2(Hmin/Hminmax) + w3(Cs/Csmax) (2)
Where, w1, w2 and w3 are different weight factors and Cdmax, Hminmax,and Csmax are the maximum values of the objective functions Cd, Hmin, and Cs, respectively, when these
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objectives are considered independently under the given constraints. Results of multiobjective optimization using ABC are presented in Table 3 along with the results obtained by using NSGA-II (Gupta et al., 2007). The results obtained by using ABC are comparatively better than the results obtained by Gupta et al. [8] using NSGA-II. 4. Conclusions In the present paper, a procedure for the multi-objective optimization of rolling element bearing design has been presented. Static and dynamic capacities and the elastohydrodynamic minimum film thickness have been taken as objective functions to be maximized. Constraints are mainly kinematics in nature. Three different variants of ABC algorithms have been applied for the optimization of rolling element bearing considering the objective functions simultaneously. It is shown that ABC is capable of solving complicated mechanical engineering design problem. In terms of quality of solution, the results have shown that modified ABC has produced better results than classical ABC including NSGA-II for the considered bearing design problem. References [1] Seireg, A. A survey of optimisation of mechanical design. Transactions of ASME, Journal of Engineering for Industry, 94, 2,1972,495599. [2] Changsen, W. Analysis of Rolling Element Bearings, Mechanical Engineering Publications Limited, London, 1991. [3] Hirani, H., Athre, K. and Biswas, S. Comprehensive design methodology for an engine journal bearing, Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J-Journal of Engineering Tribology, 214, 2000, 401412. [4] Choi, D.H. and Yoon, K.C. A design method of an automotive wheel bearing unit with discrete design variables using genetic algorithms. Transactions of ASME, Journal of Tribology, 123,1, 2001,181187. [5] Periaux, P. Genetic Algorithms in Aeronautics and Turbomachinery, New York: Wiley,2002. [6] Chakraborthy, I., Vinay, K., Nair, S.B. and Tiwari, R. Rolling element bearing design through genetic algorithms. Engineering Optimisation, 35, 6, 2003,649659. [7] Rao, B. R. and Tiwari, R. Optimum design of rolling element bearings using genetic algorithm.Mechanism and Machine Theory, 42, 2007, 233-250. [8] Gupta, S., Tiwari, R. and Shivashankar, B.N. Multi-objective design optimization of rolling bearings using genetic algorithm. Mechanism and Machine Theory, 42, 2007,1418-1443. [9] Karaboga, D. An Idea Based On Honey Bee Swarm For Numerical Optimization.Technical Report-TR06, Erciyes University, Engineering Faculty, Computer Engineering Department, 2005. [10] Basturk, B. and Karaboga, D. An Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) Algorithm for Numeric function Optimization. IEEE Swarm Intelligence Symposium, May 12-14 2006, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.
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Synthesis of Slider Crank Mechanism with Optimal Transmission Angle

Sharangouda , V. B. Math, S. G. Sarganachari BEC Bagalkot-587102 *Corresponding authorsharanu.b8@gmail.com The synthesis of slider crank mechanism with optimal transmission angle is the determination of the dimensions of planar slider crank mechanism with optimum transmission angle for given values of slider stroke and corresponding crank rotation. For the synthesis of planar slider crank mechanism the loci of the fixed and moving pivots of the crank and the link lengths are expressed in terms of single parameter. The full rotatability of the crank, the ranges for the parameters are determined. In this study complex algebra is used to solve this synthesis problem. The transmission angle optimization is analytically treated and the optimum is found as the root of a cubic equation within a specified range. The mechanism synthesis routine easily implemented on MATLAB. An example is given for illustration 1. Introduction The transmission angle is one of the important design criteria to be consider for the effective force/motion transmission by a mechanism. Design of a four bar mechanism for optimum transmission angle and optimum structural [1],Transmission angle optimization of planar four bar linkages was one of the synthesis problems solved by Alt [2], Transmission angle in mechanism improved by Meyer zur Capellen [3] and Primrose and Freudenstein [4] obtained a closed form analytical solution which was determined as the root of a cubic equation. E. Sylemez and F. Freudenstein [5] are design of plane crank-and-rocker linkages with given rocker swing angle, corresponding crank rotation and optimum force transmission are well known problems in kinematic synthesis. In case of right angled four bar mechanisms similar transmission ratio optimization has been performed using a single design parameter [6].Shijie Fang, Lei Zhang and Jing Zhang [7] developed the crank-rocker mechanism, crankslider mechanism in which basic parameters of the mechanisms such as the time ratio, the oscillating angle of the rocker and realize the improve transmission properly and realize the optimal transmission results. A. K. Khare and R. K. Dave [8] Closed form equations are developed for the synthesis of the 4-bar crank-rocker mechanism.The design is optimized by maximizing the minimum transmission angle. Shrinivas S.Balli and Satish Chand [9], The transmission angle is an important criterion for the design of mechanisms by means of which the quality of motion transmission in a mechanism, at its design stage can be judged.The initial stage of kinematic design of any mechanism, whether geometrically or an analytical method of synthesis, the transmission angle is necessary. In the present study, the synthesis of a planar slider crank mechanisms the loci of the fixed and moving pivots of the crank and the link lengths are expressed in terms of a single parameter. For the full rotatability of the crank, the ranges for the parameter are determined. The transmission angle optimization is analytically treated and the optimum is found as the root of cubic equation within a specified range. An example is given in this paper for illustration. 2. Dead centers of slider crank mechanisms In Fig. 1 a planar slider crank mechanism is shown. The link lengths are a Ao A (crank); b AB (rocker) and c is the eccentricity c 0 . For a certain input crank angle the slider is at a position x and the transmission angle is . The dead centers of the slider crank mechanism are when the crank and coupler links are collinear as extended Ao Ae Be or folded Ao A f B f forms (Fig.2).The
*
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stroke s Be B f is the total displacement of slide while the crank rotates by an angle between dead centers 180 0 without loss of generality, stroke is taken as unity s 1 . Any given stroke can be obtained by the appropriate scaling of the mechanism. The vector loop equations at the dead centers are Ao Be Be Ae Ae Ao 0 (1) Ao B f B f A f A f Ao 0 (2) Or in complex numbers: ic se b a e i1 0,
ic s f b a e
i 1
(3)
0,
(4)
Where i 1 Subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (3) and noting s e s f s 1 :

1 b a e i1 b a e i 1 0.
(5) (6)
If we let Z be
i1
and a b , Eq. (5) can be rewritten in the form

i
Z 1 Z 1 e
1 0.
Figure 1. Slider-crank mechanism.
Figure.2. Dead center positions of slider crank mechanism. Eq. (6) can be solved for Z to yield: 1 Z , (7) i (1 e ) (1 e i ) Where Z is a circle locus of the crank moving pivot in extended position k a in terms of a single parameter .The fixed pivot locus is another circle k o which is Z 1 . These circles are the well known degenerate form of Burmester circle and centre points for the relative motion considered [4].
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Any line drawn from Be intersects these circles at Ae and Ao , respectively, yielding the slider crank mechanism in an extended dead centre position .In Fig. 3 these circles are shown for 160 0 . The eccentricity c can be obtained as the imaginary component of the vector Be Ao Be Ae Ae Ao which can be written as:
2ci b a e i1 b a e i1
(8)
Figure 3. Circle point and centre point loci. Or using Z and : 2ci Z 1 Z 1 , Where Z is the complex conjugate of Z . Substituting the value of Z 1 (1 2 ) sin c 2 [(1 2 ) (1 2 ) cos ] Using Eq. (7) and noting b 2 Z Z the link lengths can now be expressed as 1 1 b2 2 [(1 2 ) (1 2 ) cos( )]
a 2 b 2 2
(9)
(10)
(11)
1 2 (12) 2 2 1 1 2 cos Eqs. (10)- (12) yield a singly infinite set of solution for the slider crank mechanisms satisfying a given crank rotation (stroke =1 unit). One can also use the eccentricity, crank or coupler link length as the free parameter to determine the other link lengths.
3. Ranges of a and According to Grashofs rule, a slider crank mechanism with a full rotatable crank must satisfy the following two inequalities: ba (13) and ba c (14) Using Eqs. (10)- (12) these conditions yield the ranges for and as: 1 tan 1 (15) 2 c 1 1. (16) tan 2 2
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4. Transmission angle optimization The transmission angle at any input crank angle is given by:
c a sin cos 1 b
(17)
The minimum transmission angle is when

c a min cos 1 b Expressing min in terms of and :
cos min 1
2
(18)
1 sin 2 1 1 cos
2 2 2
1 2
(19)
Since is a free design parameter, the necessary condition for the minimum d Transmission angle to be a maximum is min 0 . If the value of which makes the d d min 0 yields: derivative equal to zero is opt , differentiating Eq. (19) and setting d
2 2 1 cos 1 cos 2 sin 2 2 1 cos 3 cos opt opt opt

Eq. (21) is a cubic in terms of 2 .Setting opt
(20)
1 Q 2 t 2 , where t tan ,the cubic opt 2
equation in terms of the new parameter Q is: t 2 Q 3 1 t 2 Q 2 t 4 t 2 1 Q 1 t 2 0 . (21) The root of Eq.(22) are: 1 1 Q1 5 4t 2 2 2 1 1 Q2 5 4t 2 2 2 1 Q3 2 . (22) t The root Q1 is within the range 1 t 2 , t 2 , satisfies the necessary and sufficient condition for a slider crank mechanism with optimum transmission angle characteristics. Since Q must be positive, Q2 is not a solution. Corresponding to Q3 , 1 t 2 the deviation
of the minimum transmission angle from 90 0 is maximized. Therefore: 1 2 2 5 4t 2 1 Is the unique optimum solution. opt 2t
(23)
5. Example For slider stroke s 120 mm and corresponding crank rotation 1600 , determine the slider crank mechanism with optimum force transmission characteristics. From Eq. (23) opt =0.405185. Utilizing Eqs. (10)- (12) For unit stroke the link lengths are: a=0.465542, b=1.148960, c=0.377378 and for 120 mm stroke: a=55.87mm, b=137.88, c=45.29 mm. The minimum transmission angle for the mechanism is min 42.810 .
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Figure 4. The slider crank link lengths (a, b, c), opt and optimum minimum transmission angle (max min ) values as function of crank rotation in between dead centres . 6. Discussion and Conclusions For the synthesis of mechanisms, the charts, diagrams and graphical methods may give error. This imperfection can be over come by analytical methods. hence analytical methods are believed to be an important tool for the present design approach. The method presented for the synthesis of slider crank mechanism is hoped to give a faster and more accurate result for todays mechanism designers. The mechanism synthesis routine easily implemented on MATLAB. References [1] T.E.Shoup, B.J.Pelan, Design of a four bar mechanism for optimum transmission angle and optimum structural error, in: Proceeding of 2nd OSU Applied Mechanism Conference, Stillwater, 1971, pp.4.1- 4.9 [2] H.Alt, Ueber die Totlagen des Gelenkvierecks, Z.A.M.M.5 (1) (1925) 347-354. [3] Meyerzur Capellen W,Die Totlagen des ebenen Gelenkvierecks in Analyticher Darstellung, Forchung a.d., Bd 22/Heft 2, 1956, pp.42-50. [4] Freudenstein and F.Primrose , The classical transmission angle problem, The Institution of Mechanical Engineers, C96/72, Mechanisms 1972,London. [5] E.Soylemez, F. Freudenstein, Transmission optimization of spatial 4-link mechanisms, Mech. Mach. Theory 17 (4) (1982) 263-283. [6] E.Soylemez, Transmission optimization of right angled four bar mechanisms, Mech.Mach.Theory 28 (4) (1993) 539-552. [7] Shijie Fang, Lei Zhang and Jing Zhang, Research on the Optimal Transmission Design of Planar Bar Mechanism.Yantai University, China. [8] A. K. Khare and R. K. Dave, Optimizing 4-bar crank-rocker mechanism, Mech. Mach.Theory 14 (1979),pp.319-325 [9] Shrinivas S. Balli and S.Chand, Transmission angle in mechanisms- a review, in Mechanism and Machine Theory 37, May (2002) 175-195
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Investigation of Pisco-mechanical properties of sisal fiber reinforced epoxy composite.

B.Shivamurthy1*. Siddaramaiah2, N. A. Jnanesh 3, Manujesh.B.J KVG College of Engineering, Sullia-574239, D.K, India. 2 SJCE Mysore. *Corresponding author (e.mail: b_shivamurthy@yahoo.co.in) The global demand for wood as building material is steadily growing, while the availability of source is diminishing. This has lead to the development of alternative materials. Out of many alternative materials polymer composites claim a major participation as building materials. There has been a growing interest in utilizing natural fibers as reinforcement in polymer composite for making low cost construction materials in recent years. Natural fibers are prospective reinforcement materials and their use until now has been more traditional than technical. They have served many useful purposes but the application of the material technology for the utilization of natural fibers as reinforcement in polymer matrix took place in comparatively recent years. Economic and other related factors in many developing countries where natural fibers are abundant, demand that scientists apply appropriate technology to utilize these natural fibers as effectively and economically as possible to produce good quality fiber reinforced polymer composites for housing and other needs. Among various natural fibers , sisal is of particular interest in that its composites have high impact strength besides having moderate tensile and flexural properties compared to other lignocelluloses fibers. In the present paper author as made an attempt to fabricate and mechanical characterization were carried out as per ASTM standard on short sisal fiber mat reinforced and continuous sisal fiber weaved cloth reinforced epoxy composite. Results were compared.continuous fiber reinforcement composite exhibits higher strength than short fiber reinforced composite. Sisal fiber reinforced composite could generate a non-food source of economic development for farming and rural areas. Also, the water absorption study was carried out for both types of composites. 1.Introduction Polymeric based composite materials are being used in many applications, such as automotive, sporting goods, marine, electrical, industrial, construction, household appliances, etc [1] and continuously the usage is increasing due to there special properties like high strength and stiffness, light weight, and high corrosion resistance etc. but the polymeric composites are non degradable, thermoset polymer composites are difficult to recycling and the reinforcement fibers were costly. These disadvantages lead to invention of bio fibers as reinforcement in polymer composites. In the past decade, extensive research work has been carried out on the natural fiber reinforced composite materials in many applications. Natural fibers are available in abundance in nature and can be used to reinforce polymers to obtain light and strong materials. Natural fibers from plants are beginning to find their way into commercial applications such as automotive industries, household applications, etc. [3].A number of investigations has been conducted on several types of natural fibers such as kenaf, hemp, flax, bamboo and jute to study the effect of these fibers on the mechanical properties of composite materials [47]. Gowda et. al. [7] tested jute fabric-reinforced polyester composites for the evaluation of mechanical properties and compared with wood composite, and it was found that the jute fiber composite has better strengths than wood composites. Pothan et al. [11] concluded that, pulped banana fiber composite has good flexural strength. In addition, short banana fiber reinforced polyester composite. Also the
1,3&4
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study concentrated on the effect of fiber length and fiber content which results, the maximum tensile strength was observed at 30 mm fiber length while maximum impact strength was observed at 40 mm fiber length. Incorporation of 40% untreated fibers provides a 20% increase in the tensile strength and a 34% increase in impact strength. Joseph et al. [12] tested banana fiber and glass fiber with varying fiber length and fiber content as well. The analysis of tensile, flexural, and impact properties of these composites revealed that composites with good strength could be successfully developed using natural fiber as the reinforcing agent. Mansur and Aziz [6] studied bamboo-mesh reinforced cement composites, and found that this reinforcing material could enhance the ductility and toughness of the cement matrix, and increase significantly its tensile, flexural, and impact strengths. Information on the usage of sisal fibers in reinforcing polymers is limited in the literature. Even though, the sisal fibers having good mechanical property and available abundant in many places in the world. Therefore, composites of highstrength sisal woven fabric reinforcement polymer can be used in a broad range of applications. The objective of this work is to study the tensile, flexural, impact, surface hardness, moisture absorption of sisal fiber reinforced epoxy composites. 2. Materials and experimental techniques Materials Sisal plants are abundantly available in dry lands in India. In this work we are using sisal leaf fibers to make reinforced composites. Initially the leaves are extracted from the sisal plant, which are normally long in length. These leaves are then fed in to fiber extracting machine, where these leaves are crushed by a set of cutters and bunch of fibers are extracted. These extracted fibers will have some moisture content they are kept under sunlight for about 10-15 days for drying. The dried fibers are converted in to threads manually and further threads are weaved manually in bi-direction in to fiber mats. The fiber conversion method consists of stages of operation as shown in Figure 1. In this investigation, two types of composites were fabricated using two directional plain-woven sisal fabrics and 10mm length short sisal fiber matt as reinforcement with unmodified epoxy resin of medium viscosity LAPOX L-12, hardener K-6 supplied by M/s. Athul polymers, Gujarat, India was used as matrix material. The matrix was prepared by mixing epoxy resin, LAPOX L-12 and hardener K-6 in the ratio 100:10 by weight at room temperature and stirred continuously about 3 min to get homogenous mixture before applying on to the fiber matt. In both the composite 40 g content of fiber and 380 g of resin was maintained. The key properties of the epoxy resin and hardener which is used in this investigation listed in Table1. The composite were prepared by hand lay up method and the specimens were prepared for the entire test as per ASTM standard. The prepared composites and test samples are as shown in figure 2. Table1.The key properties of the epoxy resin and hardener Properties Appearance Colour Epoxy valve Hydrolysable chlorine Viscosity at 25 Volatile content Refractive index Water content Unit Gardener scale eq/kg % MPa % % Resin LAPOX L-12 Clear pale yellow Max 2 5.25-5.4 0.1 Max 10000-12000 0.55Max Hardener k-6 Clear pale yellow Max3 10-23 1.4940-1.5 1 Max
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Sisal fiber woven Fabric
Long sisal fiber reinforced composite
Leaves extracted from plant Harvested Sisal fiber
Fiber extracting machine

Figure1. Sisal fiber conversion methods.
Figure 2.Samples of prepared composites and test samples as per ASTM standard 3. Experimental techniques The fabricated composites have been tested to investigate the physico-mechanical behaviors. Density of composites was measured according to ASTM D 792 86 (displacement method) using Mettler electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.0001g/cc. Surface hardness of composite was investigated as per ASTM D 785 on Rockwell hardness testing machine for 10kg minor load and 140kg major load. Tensile behaviors as per ASTMD 638 were investigated by using Loyds LR 100K, Universal tensile testing machine. A three point bending technique was adopted for flexural test as per ASTM-D790 standard for all composites. The impact strength was determined using Izod impact tester pendulum type (PSI make, India) as per ASTM-D256 specification. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) was investigated according to ASTM D2344-76 (short beam shear test method). In each case to evaluate the physico-mechanical properties, five samples were tested and the average valve reported.
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4. Results and discussion The density of long fiber reinforced and short fiber reinforced composites are 3.701 and 3.699 g/cc which almost same this is due to same resin and fiber content in the composites. Properties Unit Cured resin without fiber Long fiber reinforced composite 3.7 420 23500 323 22.5 7.4 669 82 64 25 Short fiber reinforced composite 3.6 299 18500 230 16.2 2.7 546 42 64 17.6
Density g/cc 2.8 2 Tensile Strength N/mm 50 Youngs Modulus N/mm2 4400 2 Flex. Strength at Peak Load N/mm 130 % Elong. at Peak Load % . % Elong. at Break Load % .. 2 Flexural Modulus N/mm .. Impact strength J/m 17 Surface Hardness Shore D 68 Water absorption after 5 % of change 2 days of immersion in weight 2 From Figure3(a), the long sisal fiber reinforced composites exhibits 420 N/mm 2 tensile strength at break which is higher compared to 299 N/mm tensile strength at break of short sisal fiber reinforced epoxy composites. Tensile strength at break has very less in case of un-reinforced composites. But comparing the cost of epoxy, the cost of sisal fiber is less per unit weight. Hence sisal fiber reinforced epoxy composite gives better strength than unreinforced epoxy composite at low cost.
Figure 3(b) shows the youngs modulus of the composites. The long sisal fiber 2 reinforced epoxy composite exhibits highest youngs modulus of 23500N/mm than 18500 2 2 N/mm of short sisal fiber reinforced composite and 4400 N/mm of un reinforced epoxy composite. Increased trend in tensile strength and youngs modulus due to addition of fiber in epoxy composite makes the existing neat resin caste products possible to manufacture by this developed composite comparatively at low cost. From Figure 3(c), it is observed that the flexural strength of long fiber reinforced composite 2 2 exhibits highest flexural strength of 323 N/mm compared to 230 N/mm of short fiber 2 reinforced composite and un-reinforced composite of 130 N/mm . Fiber reinforced composites
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are highly strain rate sensitive and hence the static mechanical properties cannot be used in designing against impact failure. Impact testing is useful in comparing the failure modes and the energy absorption capabilities of different materials under impact loading .In this investigation the impact strength were observed highest (82J/m) in long fiber reinforced composite compared to short fiber reinforced composite (42J/m )and cured resin without reinforcement(17 J/m) which is plotted in figure 3(d). Figure 3(e) and figure 3(f) shows water absorption short fiber reinforced sisal epoxy composite and long fiber reinforced sisal epoxy composite. It is observed that, increase in water uptake with increase in duration till 5days of immersion, after it is observed that water absorption becomes constant in case of long fiber reinforced sisal composite (at 25% of water absorption) and in case of short fiber reinforced composite decreasing the total weight. This indicates that the material is dislodging from the surface due to poor of fiber and matrix in short fiber reinforced composite. Due to this the strength after water absorption decreases and degrades the performance of composite material. 5. Conclusions Sisal fiber reinforcement increases the mechanical properties. Long fiber reinforcement composite exhibits higher strength than short fiber reinforced composite. Sisal fibers have good potential as reinforced in polymer composites. Due to low density and high specific properties these types of composites have lot of opportunities in automotive and transportation industries. Which reduce equipment abrasion and subsequent reduction of retooling cost will make those composites more attractive. This could generate a non-food source of economic development for farming and rural areas. References [1] http://i-cias.com/e.o/sumer.htm [2] http://www.theplumber.com/history.html [3] F. T. Wallenberger and N. Weston, Natural Fibers, Plastics and Composites Natural Materials Source Book from C.H.I.P.S. Texas, 2004. [4] K. G. Satyanarayana, K. Sukumaran, P. S. Mukherjee, C. Pavithran and S. G. K. Pillai. Natural FiberPolymer Composites, J Cement and Concrete Composites, 12(2)(1990), 117136. [5] K. G. Satyanarayana, K. Sukumaran, A. G. Kulkarni, S. G. K. Pillai, and P. K. Rohatgi, Fabrication and Properties of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polyester Composites, J. Composites, 17(4)(1986), pp. 329333. [6] M. A. Mansur and M. A. Aziz, Study of Bamboo-Mesh Reinforced Cement Composites Int. Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, 5(3)(1983), pp. 165171. [7] T. M. Gowda, A. C. B. Naidu, and R. Chhaya, Some Mechanical Properties of Untreated Jute Fabric-Reinforced Polyester Composites, J. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 30(3)(1999), pp. 277284. [8] L. Lundquist, B. Marque, P. -O. Hagstrand, Y. Leterrier and J. -A. E. Mnson, Novel Pulp Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites, Composites Science and Technology, 63(1)(2003), pp. 137152. [9] Laly A. Pothana, Zachariah Oommenb, and Sabu Thomas, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of Banana Fiber Reinforced Polyester Composites, Composites Science and Technology, 63(2)(2003), pp. 283293. [10] T. Corbire-Nicollier, B. G. Laban, L. Lundquist, Y. Leterrier, J. -A. E. Mnson, and O. Jolliet, Life Cycle Assessment of Biofibers Replacing Glass Fibers as Reinforcement in Plastics, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 33(4)(2001), pp. 267287. [11] L. A. Pothan, T. Sabu, and Neelakantan, Short Banana Fiber Reinforced Polyester Composites: Mechanical, Failure and Aging Characteristics, J. Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 16(8)(1997), pp. 744765.
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Finite Element Study of Serrated Chip Formation

Amrita Priyadarshini, Surjya K. Pal , Arun K. Samantaray
* *
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal, India Corresponding author (e-mail: skpal@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in)
The present work focuses on 2D Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the chip formation process by using a commercially available general-purpose finite element solver, ABAQUS/Explicit version 6.7. The analysis is based on an adiabatic hypothesis as it is assumed that no heat conduction occurs because the cutting process is extremely rapid. The main objective of the study is to satisfactorily predict the chip morphology, cutting temperatures, stresses and forces. Numerical results provide a better understanding of the phenomena accompanying the formation of saw-tooth chips during the machining of AISI 4340 steel. 1. Introduction
Metal cutting, or simply machining, is one of the most widely used manufacturing processes for giving final shape to the products. Numerous attempts are being constantly made by the researchers to properly understand the physics underlying the cutting process; thus enabling higher productivity. Experimental studies have proved to be very useful in studying the metal cutting process which is being carried over past 150 years by using a variety of cutting conditions. Unfortunately, this approach is very costly and time consuming. Therefore, considerable amount of research is being devoted to develop analytical and numerical models of chip formation process, thus replacing the costly experiments. In recent years, with the advancement in computer technology and development of numerical techniques, Finite Element Method (FEM) is gaining popularity for the simulation of metal cutting process. This not only gives the information of some difficult to measure variables like plastic strain, stresses and machining temperatures, but also takes into account the material and contact non-linearity better than analytical models. Pioneering work in the analysis of metal cutting by using FEM has been carried out by Tay et al. [1]. Generally, the FEM modeling involves two types of formulations, namely, Lagrangian formulation and Eulerian formulation. In the former approach, grid is attached to the material and follows its deformation. While in the latter approach, the grid is fixed in space while the material flows through the grid. Both the formulations have been extensively used by the researchers for the simulation of metal cutting processes [2, 3]. These two formulations, however, have their own limitations which make it difficult to simulate the chip formation process accurately. Hence, a more general approach, Arbitrary Eulerian Lagrangian (ALE) approach, was introduced by the end of the last decade. It combines the advantages of both Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches, and thus, is being employed by many of the researchers in the recent years to carry efficient FE analysis of the metal cutting process [4]. According to the review made by Ng and Aspinwall [5], majority of the works concerned with the numeric modeling deals with the 2D FEM of continuous chip formation. Although study of segmental or serrated chip is quite important in the cutting process when considering wide range of work-piece materials including hardened steels and some aerospace materials, not much work is found in the literature till the year 1999. Recently, there are some significant works that explain the segmented chip formation [6, 7, and 8]. The type of chip formed affects the stress field generated in the work-piece which determines the residual stresses, the cutting temperatures and the cutting force. Therefore, this necessitates that finite element simulations have the capability to satisfactorily analyze both the continuous and the segmental chip formation.
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The main objective of the present work is to develop a 2D FEM model of the serrated or segmented chip formation process while machining AISI 4340 by using the commercially available general purpose finite element solver, ABAQUS/Explicit version 6.7. 2. Finite Element Method The modeling of the two dimensional orthogonal cutting process was simulated using a commercially available general purpose finite element solver, ABAQUS/Explicit version 6.7. A plane strain condition was assumed in the present study as it is supposed that the value of feed is lower than that of the cutting depth. An adiabatic condition is considered owing to the fact that the cutting process is extremely rapid and the generated heat has no time to diffuse. In the case of orthogonal cutting conditions, feed corresponds to the thickness of the material to be cut. The boundary conditions and the geometric model details are presented in Figure 1. The cutting tool was fixed by constraining the right boundary in the x-direction and the top boundary in the y-direction, as shown in the Figure 1 with small triangles. The workpiece was given the cutting velocity in the positive x-direction, keeping its bottom surface fixed in the y-direction. Both the work-piece and the tool are initially assumed to be at 25 C. Four-node plane strain thermally coupled quadrilateral, bilinear displacement and temperature (CPE4RT) type elements were used for discretization of both the work-piece and the cutting tool. The work-piece is meshed with 2331 elements while the tool is meshed with 375 elements of CPE4RT type.
Cutting tool
Rake angle
= -6o
Clearance angle = 5o Work-piece Damage Zone Cutting parameters Length= 4mm Width= 0.4mm Width= 60m Feed rate= 0.2mm/rev Cutting velocity=100m/min
Figure 1. Boundary conditions with geometric model details. JohnsonCook model was employed in this study because it is a strain rate and temperature dependent material model where the strain rates vary over a large range and the temperature changes due to plastic deformation caused by thermal softening are considered. This model uses the following equivalent flow stress [6]:
eq 1 rate, 0 is the reference strain rate (1.0 s ), T is the element temperature, Troom is the room temperature, and Tm is the melting temperature. A is the initial yield stress (MPa), B the
where hardening modulus, n the work-hardening exponent, C the strain rate dependency coefficient (MPa), and m is the thermal softening coefficient. The JohnsonCook parameter values used
(1) is the equivalent stress, is the equivalent plastic strain, is the plastic strain
n
& T Troom eq A B 1 C ln 1 & 0 Tm Troom
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to simulate the behaviour of AISI 4340 work-piece as well as the physical properties of the work-piece and the cutting tool (tungsten carbide) are specified in [6]. The ductile failure damage model was incorporated to simulate chip formation that occurs in two subsequent steps: damage initiation and damage evolution. Detailed description of this chip separation criterion can be found in [7]. An Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) approach was employed to conduct the FEM simulation. Explicit dynamic ALE formulation is very efficient for simulating highly non-linear problems involving large localized deformations and changing contact conditions as seen in the case of machining [9]. Modeling of tool chip friction in ABAQUS/Explicit was based on Coulombs law. The mean value of coefficient of friction was considered to be 0.2 in this study. The energy equation considering heat generation due to plastic deformation as well as frictional work determines the temperature field [8]. 3. Results and discussion In this section, numerical results dealing with Von Mises equivalent stresses, equivalent plastic strains and temperatures during serrated chip formation are presented. Cutting forces and thrust forces are calculated over the simulation time of 2ms. Finally, feed rate is varied to study its effect on the chip morphology, cutting force ( Fc ), thrust force ( Ft ) and tool chip contact length (Ln). 3.1 Chip morphology Serrated chips are produced while machining AISI 4340 steel by using tungsten carbide tool, as shown in Figure 2. The simulated chips produced are in close agreement with those developed by Mabrouki et al. [6]. The interval between teeth on the simulated chip is 0.292mm as compared to the value of 0.28mm obtained by Mabrouki et al. [6]. Figures 35 show the distribution of equivalent Von Mises stresses, Von Mises equivalent strains and temperatures, respectively during the tool-workpiece interaction.
Figure 2. Morphology of the chip.
Figure 3. Von Mises equivalent stresses (Pa).
High temperature zone
Figure 4. Von Mises equivalent strains.
Figure 5. Temperature distribution (C).
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It is observed that high-magnitude stresses are localized in the primary shear zone and the tool tip. From Figure 4, it can be seen that the strains as high as 22.5 occur, especially along the primary and secondary shear zones. Consequently, the temperature values (Fig. 5) in these regions are high. The segmentation is the result of a softening state during tool-workpiece interaction. The high stress along the primary shear zone causes higher strains and results in the material damage. This causes a plastic deformation and localized heating, resulting in the thermal softening. During cutting, shear banding starts near the tool tip where the temperature rise occurs and extends towards the chip free side. This induces waved irregularities due to thermal softening on the chip back in the form of saw-teeth as shown in Figure 5. It is noted that maximum temperature on the chip surface can be as high as 650700C. Figure 6 shows the time evolution of the cutting and the thrust forces over 2ms simulation time. These are obtained by adding the reaction force component in the associated direction at all constrained nodes of the cutting tool. The mean values of Fc and Ft deduced by numerical simulation for a cutting time of 2ms are 428.39 N and 138.56 N, respectively.
Fc
Ft
Figure 6. Variation of the cutting force and the thrust force. The variation of the cutting and thrust forces is attributed to the chip morphology. Chip formation process begins with the bulging of the workpiece material in front of the tool. The forces increase gradually during the bulging of the material and drop suddenly when the shear band begins to form. 3.2 Effect of the feed rate
In order to validate the developed model, feed rate is varied over a range of 0.10.4 mm/rev and its effect on the cutting and thrust forces are studied and compared with the existing results. Figures 7(a)(b) show the effect of feed rate on the forces Fc and Ft as well as Ln,, respectively, when cutting AISI 4340 steel at Vc = 100m/min for 2ms.
800 700 600
Force (N)
Fc Ft
0.6 0.5 0.4

Ln (mm)
500 400 300 200 100 0 0 0.1 0.2 Feed rate (mm/rev) 0.3 0.4
0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.2 Feed rate (mm/rev) 0.3 0.4
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. (a) Effect of the feed rate on Fc and Ft and (b) Effect of the feed rate on Ln.
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The cutting force and thrust force, as expected, increase almost linearly increasing feed rate; thus confirming the results obtained by the present model. machining forces are also known to vary with the change in tool-chip contact length From Figure 7(b), it is observed that the tool-chip contact length grows as the feed increases; thereby, increasing the values of Fc and Ft. 4. Conclusions
with The (Ln). rate
The present work demonstrates that serrated chip formation during metal cutting can be modeled by using the simulation software ABAQUS/Explicit with appropriate material and damage models. It is shown that high stresses and strains along the primary shear zone cause plastic deformation and localized heating, resulting in adiabatic shear banding which is responsible for the serrated chip formation. In order to verify the developed model, feed rate is varied over a range of 0.10.4 mm/rev and its effect on the cutting and thrust forces are studied. The obtained results conformed to those available in the literature. The cutting and thrust forces, as expected, increase almost linearly with increasing feed rate. Since adiabatic analysis module is not completely acceptable in real machining, fully coupled temperature-displacement analysis module can be exploited to more accurately simulate the segmented chip formation process. This will not only model a more realistic scenario but also determine the evolution of temperature field in the cutting tool, which is impossible to obtain in the case of adiabatic analysis. References [1] Tay, A.O. Stevenson, M.G. and Davis, de V. Using the finite element method to determine temperature distribution in orthogonal machining. Proc. Institution of Mechanical Engineering (IMechE), 188, 1974, 627-638. [2] Strenkowski, J.S. and Moon, K.-J. Finite element prediction of chip geometry and tool/workpiece temperature distributions in orthogonal metal cutting. ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry, 112, November 1990, 313-318. [3] Raczy, A. Elmadagli, M. Altenhof and W.J. Alpas A.T. An Eulerian Finite-Element model for determination of deformation state of a copper subjected to orthogonal cutting. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, 35A, August 2004, 2393-2400. [4] Arrazola, P.J. and Ozel, T. Numerical modeling of 3D turning using Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian finite element method. International Journal of Machining and Machinability of Materials, 3, 2008, 238-249. [5] Ng, E.-G. and Aspinwall, D.K. Modeling of hard part machining. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 39, 2002, 885-903. [6] Mabrouki, T. and Rigal, J.-F. A contribution to a qualitative understanding of thermomechanical effects during chip formation in hard turning. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 176, 2006, 214-221. [7] Mabrouki, T. Girardin, F. M. Asad, M. and Regal, J.-F. Numerical and experimental study of dry cutting for an aeronautic aluminium alloy. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 48, 2008, 1187-1197. [8] Li, K. Gao, X.-L. and Sutherland, J.W. Finite element simulation of the orthogonal metal cutting process for qualitative understanding of the effects of crater wear on the chip formation. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 127, May 2002, 309-324, [9] HKS ABAQUS Theory manual (ver. 6.7), Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen Inc., Pawtucket, USA.
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Synthesis of Adjustable Planar Four-Bar Mechanism for Function Generation

Syed Abbas Ali*, Dr. V. B. Math, S. G. Sarganachari, C. M. Veerendrakumar BEC Bagalkot-587102 *Corresponding author (e-mail: syed.abbasali86@gmail.com) It is usually tiresome for us to synthesize linkage mechanism because of the limitation of the maximum precision points. In general, we could not synthesize exactly our necessity or desired linkage mechanism. This present work is an attempt to synthesize an adjustable link mechanism to overcome this imperfection, also, presents a synthesis procedure making use of Cheybychev spacing method. This technique has been developed for synthesis of adjustable four-link mechanism for function generation considering transmission angle.This method has some advantages in formulating and solving the problem of kinematic synthesis. The choices of design variable have the freedom of desired input and output relationship which can be satisfied exactly. Furthermore, the necessary computing time is also reduced for changing the adjustable link. The synthesis procedures are illustrated with two examples. 1. Introduction The kinematic synthesis methods are the graphical method [1, 2] and the loopclosure equation [3, 6]. The matrix approach was given by Suh [7] for the synthesis of planar linkages. Morgan and Wampler [14] solved a planar four-bar design problem using continuation. Yao and Angeles [15] used the symbolic computations to derive the normal optimization equation problem for the approximate synthesis of planar linkages. The methods for synthesis of mechanism are so many but these methods have a common disadvantage, that is, the limitation of the maximum precision points. In general, it could not synthesize exactly our necessity or desired linkage mechanism. Ahmad and Waldron [9] used the synthesis techniques of adjustable four-bar mechanism for motion generation with driven side-link pivot adjustable. Naik and Amaranth [10] synthesized the adjustable four bar function generation through five bar loop closure equations. Zhou and Ting [12] adjusted simply the position of the slider-crank linkages to generate multiple paths. Given multiple sets of precision points, the objective is to synthesize a single mechanism that can trace each set of precision points by simply adjusting the values of the adjustable parameters (link lengths) by predetermined amount. This paper provides synthesis procedures making use of Cheybychev spacing method. This technique has been developed for the synthesis of adjustable four link mechanisms for function generation. It is shown that single link adjustment could be utilized to meet adjustability requirements for function generation and also try to satisfy desired input and output relationship. This method has some advantages in formulating and solving the problem of kinematic synthesis. The choices of design variable have the freedom of desired input and output relationship which can be satisfied exactly. Furthermore, the necessary computing time is also reduced for changing the adjustable link. The synthesis procedures are illustrated with two examples. 2. Adjustable mechanism Adjustable mechanism allows design of machines which can perform several duties without costly alterations. The adjustments are performed by changing the distance between two adjacent joints. Although adjustable mechanisms find many applications, studies to develop synthesis procedures for these mechanisms are not as those on other devices. Adjustable linkages can provide not only flexibility, that is required in many industrial applications but also high operational speed, high load bearing and high precision capabilities.
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Adjustable mechanisms have applications in flexible fixturing and flexible assembly systems. The idea here is to adjust one of the linkage parameters in real time to enable the end effectors of given mechanism configuration to accomplish a different tasks, depending on the value of adjustable parameters different tasks in this context include a set of desired motion trajectories. To take this endeavor one step further, one could even attempt to design kinematic chains in such a way that multiple configurations can be generated by a single chain in that each configuration fulfills a specific desired function. This leads to a multifunctional, multiple configurations from a single kinematic chain mechanism. For any planar linkage mechanism, the degree of freedom of these mechanisms is greatest 3, that is, two translations and one rotation about Z-axis. If one of the link is adjustable, will add 3 DOF in planar linkage mechanism because in the polar coordinate, It can be used (r, 2 ) coordinate to describe any planar physical phenomenon. However, if one link is adjustable, it will have ( r , ) variables, so it could finish any planar synthesis by controlling the variable
r , i.e., the length of the adjustable link.

3. Examples 3.1 Planar slider-crank mechanism From Figure 1. the design constant variables are a, b, e, and the design variation variable is b . The desired design curve is shown in Figure 2. Considering the design constant variables, firstly choose three positions to decide one value of the three design variables. Then derive the relationship between b and the desired curve as follows.
Figure 1. Planar slider crank mechanism From the figure (2) and equation (1) will get, a=-1.591, b=8.409, e=0. 0 Using input angle values with difference 6 , the two positions of the slider crank mechanism are drawn using modeling tool. With this the values of starting displacement of slider and final displacement of slider are measured which are used to get precision points for each case. The slider displacement related to input angle is tabulated in table 1.
M 2 4 LN 2L
(1)
Where, L 1, M 2a cos 2 , N a 2 e 2 (b b)2 2ae sin 2

Besides, the design variation variable b is derived from equation (1) as fallows
b b SM S 2 a 2
(2)
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(1) S
45 22
2 2 10 3
10 15/2
(2) S 10
2
(3) S
0 60 120 240 300 360
45 22
4 2 10 3
Figure 2. The given curve S corresponding to input angle 2 . Table 1. Sample readings of slider displacement related to input angle Slider Displacement Input angle ( 2 ) 0 0 6.82 60 6.83 120 6.85 180 6.88 240 6.93 300 6.99 360 7.07 420 7.16 480 7.26 540 7.37 600 7.5 The entire problem is then divided into three segments, each represented by unique function as shown in figure 2. Using the above functions the values of input angle 2 determined. From the above equation (2), the values of b corresponding to input angle 2 will be calculated. This means we can synthesize exactly the planar slider-crank mechanism by adjusting the length of link 3 in Figure 3. The response of b corresponding to 2 is shown in Figure 3. From Figure 3. found that the curve is continuous and differentiable. Hence, the variation velocity of length of the adjustable link. Table 2. Transmission angle for fixed and adjustable link mechanism
Input angle 00 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600
Fixed link mechanism 900 850 810 790 810 850 900 950 990 1010 990 950 900
Adjustable link mechanism 900 850 810 800 810 850 900 950 990 1000 990 950 900
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Figure 3. The response of b corresponding to Input angle 2 of slider-crank mechanism 0 The table 2. shows transmission angle for slider crank mechanism which is maximum for 270 0 and minimum for 90 of input angle of the input link. 3.2 Planar four-bar linkage mechanism From Figure 4. the design constant variables are a, b, c, d, and the design variation variable is b , the desired design curve is a Function Generation
y sin( x ), 0 0 x 90 0 ,
0
0 y 1
0
0 0
Initial angle 0 97 , 0 60 , and 120 , 60 .
(3)
a 29.0 , b 75.88 , c 38.18 , d 52.5
b b a2 c2 d 2 2ack3
Where,
(4)
d d k1 , k 2 a c
tan2 4 Btan 4 2 2 k3 4 tan2 1 2
B 2 sin 2 , k1 1 k 2 cos 2 , k1 1 k 2 cos 2

Figure 4. Planar four bar mechanism Considering the design constant variables, derive the response of b corresponding to given curve y=sin(x) as in equation (4). Using Cheybychev spacing method choose three positions by using the values of input/output angle and their ranges to decide one value of the three design variables. Further it is decided to use the value of first position for further calculations of input angle and output angle which are necessary to calculate the value of design variation variable b . The calculated values are tabulated in table 3. Table 3. Sample readings of design variation variable corresponding to input angle Sr. No. b Input angle ( 2 ) 1 97.0000 -0.452479 2 104.998001 0.000208 3 112.996002 0.274404 4 120.994003 0.398453 5 128.992004 0.404148 6 136.990005 0.3240023 7 144.988007 0.189262 8 152.985992 0.028479 9 160.983994 -0.133073 10 168.981995 -0.273444 11 176.979996 -0.373549 12 184.977997 -0.416822 13 192.975998 -0.389081 14 200.973999 -0.279262
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Equation (4) is the exact synthesis form of planar four-bar linkage mechanism by adjusting the length of floating link 3 in Figure 4. find the variation of b is between -0.5 and 0.5. The variation of b is function of link length and inputoutput relationship. So it will be different between any sets of link length and inputoutput relationship. Hence, the variation velocity of length of the adjustable link. 4. Conclusion It is usually tiresome for us to synthesize linkage mechanism because of the limitation of the maximum precision points. In general, it could not synthesize exactly our necessity or desired linkage mechanism. This present work is an attempt to synthesize an adjustable link mechanism to overcome this imperfection, also, presents a synthesis procedure making use of Cheybychev spacing method. This technique has been developed for synthesis of adjustable four-link mechanism for function generation. This method has some advantages in formulating and solving the problem of kinematic synthesis. The choices of design variable have the freedom of desired input and output relationship which can be satisfied exactly. Furthermore, the necessary computing time is also reduced for changing the adjustable link. From the results, it is found that the variation or variation rate of adjustable link is reasonable and is function of link length and inputoutput relationship. This can be controlled well by changing link length and inputoutput relationship. It always controllable in any design constant variables and design variation variables except for the given or customer desirous inputoutput relationship. It provides the engineer wider design space to choose design variables. From the table 2. it is clearly found that the transmission angle condition is satisfied by adjustable mechanism. References [1] J.C.Lindholm, A survey of the graphical techniques in designing for specific inputoutput relationships of a four-bar mechanism, in: Proceedings of the First Applied Mechanisms Conference, Tulsa, Oklahoma, July 1969. [2] D. C. Tao Applied linkage synthesis. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, London, 1964 [3] R.S.Hartenberg, J.Denavit, Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages. McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964. [4] Arthur G. Erdman, George N. Sandor, Mechanism Design: Analysis and synthesis, volume1. Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, 1988. [5] Robert L. Norton, Design of Machinery, An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanisms and Machines. Third edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company limited [6] J.Denavit, R.S. Hartenberg, Approximate synthesis of four-bar linkages. Transactions of ASME 77 (August) (1955) 853861. [7] C.H.Suh, C.W.Radcliffe, Synthesis of plane linkages with use of displacement matrix. Journal of Engineering for Industry, Transactions of ASME 89B (1967) 206214. [8] Hiroaki Funabashi, N. Iwatsuki and Y. Yokoyama, a synthesis of crank-length Adjusting Mechanisms. paper No. 84-0607, Bulletin of JSME, Vol. 29, No. 252 June 1986. [9] A.Ahmad, K.J.Waldron, Synthesis of adjustable planar 4-bar mechanism. Mechanism and Machine Theory 14 (3) (1979) 405411. [10] D. P. Naik, C. Amarnath, Synthesis of adjustable four bar function generators through five bar loop closure equations. Mechanism and Machine Theory 24 (6) (1989) 523526. [11]S. J. Wang, Raj.S. Sodhi, Kinematic synthesis of adjustable moving pivot four-bar mechanisms for multi-phase motion generation. Mechanism and Machine Theory 31 (4) (1996) 459474. [12] H. Zhou, K.L. Ting, Adjustable slider-crank linkages for multiple path generation. Mechanism and Machine Theory 37 (2002) 499509. [13] C.F. Chang, Synthesis of adjustable four-bar mechanisms generating circular arcs with specified tangential velocities. Mechanism and Machine Theory 36 (3) (2001) 387395. [14] A.P.Morgan, C.W.Wampler, Solving a planar four-bar design problem using continuation. ASME Journal of Mechanical Design 112 (1990) 544550. [15] J. Yao, J. Angeles, Computation of all optimum dyads in the approximate synthesis of planar linkages for rigid-body guidance. Mechanism and Machine Theory 35 (8) (2000) 10651078.
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Interaction Between an Arbitrarily Oriented Crack and A Circular Hole in Infinite Composite Plate Subjected to In-Plane Loading at Infinity
V G Ukadgaonker and D S Sharma* Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai-40076, India *Corresponding author (dharmendrassharma@yahoo.co.in) General solutions for determining the stress functions, for crack and circular hole in infinite composite plate subjected to arbitrary biaxial loading, with layers of arbitrary fiber orientations and stacking sequence, are obtained using complex variable method. The interaction effect between the hole and the crack is studied using Schwarzs alternating method. The effect of centre distance between them, crack orientation, crack length and hole size, loading factor and fiber orientation on stress intensity factor (SIF) and stress field is considered for Graphite/Epoxy. 1. Introduction
Analytical solutions of stress analysis problems facilitate parametric study and provide benchmarking results. Savin [1] solved some problems of simply connected regions using Kolosov-Muskhelishvilis [2] stress functions. Ukadgaonker and Kakhandki [3] found stress distribution around holes of different shapes under different types of loading conditions for infinite laminated composite plate. Cheong and Hong [4] calculated SIF using modified mapping collocation method and elaborated the dependence of SIF on material anisotropy and geometry. The problem of doubly connected region has received very little attention, particularly in anisotropic field. For orthotropic plate Peng and Sung [5] explained interaction effect between the two arbitrarily oriented cracks. In this paper, the interaction effect of a crack and a hole in infinite anisotropic plate, under arbitrary biaxial loading is considered using Kolosov-Muskhelishvilis[2] stress functions and Schwarzs alternating method. 2. Complex variable formulations
A thin anisotropic plate is considered under generalized plane stress condition. The stresses can be written in terms of complex stress functions as follows:
x 2 Re s1 ' ( z1 ) s 2 ' ( z 2 ) ; y 2 Re ' ( z1 ) ' ( z 2 ) ; xy 2 Re s1 ' ( z1 ) s 2 ' ( z 2 )
' ( )
(1)
where, s1and s2 are the complex constants of anisotropy. The mode I and mode II stress intensity factors for the crack tips are obtained by using following formula given by Sih and Liebowitz [6]
KI
K II K 2 s 2 s1 2 s1 s 2 ' ( ) or K I II 2 2 s s2 a 2 s1 a s1
(2) where, a is half crack length. The area external to a given hole/crack, in Z-plane is mapped conformably to the area outside the unit circle in plane using following mapping function
L 1 m (3) a j m b j 2 Where a j (1 is j ), b j (1 is j ), ( j 1,...,4) L is constant for size of the hole, m=0 for z j j ( )
hole and m=1 for crack.
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3.
Figure 1 Plate with a circular hole and crack Stress functions for single hole under remote loading
For in-plane loading of symmetric laminates, the boundary conditions about the arbitrary coordinate axes XOY can be written as (4) x ' ; ' ; x ' y ' 0 At z y Where,
x ' ; y ' and x ' y ' are stresses applied about x`, y` axes at infinity. is arbitrary
biaxial load factor. By applying transformation of axes, boundary conditions about XOY axes can be written explicitly. The stress functions 1 ( z1 ), 1( z 2 ) are obtained for hole/crack free plate due to remotely applied load x ' ,
y' .
1 ( z1 ) Bz1 ; 1 ( z 2 ) ( B'iC ' ) z 2

(5) B,B and C are loading condition constants. The boundary conditions f1 , f 2 on the fictitious hole are then determined from these stress functions 1 ( z1 ), 1( z 2 ) .The plate with a hole is applied to negative of the boundary conditions f1 f1 and f 2 f 2 in absence of remote loading. By evaluating Schwarz integral the stress functions of second stage solution are obtained.
0 0
a mb3 a 4 mb4 0 ( ) 3 ; 0( ) 1 Where, a 3 s 2 ( K1 K 2 ) ( K 3 K 4 ) ; s1 s 2 1 a4 s1 ( K 1 K 2 ) ( K 3 K 4 ) ; s1 s 2 K 1 L Ba1 ( B'iC ' )a 2 ; 2 L s Ba s ( B'iC ' )a K3 2 2 1 1 2
(6)
b3
1 s2 ( K 2 K1 ) ( K 4 K 3 ) s1 s 2 1 b4 s1 ( K 2 K 1 ) ( K 4 K 3 ) s1 s 2 K 2 L Bb1 ( B'iC ' )b2 2 L s Bb s ( B'iC ' )b K4 2 2 2 1 1
The stress functions ( z1 ), ( z 2 ) for single hole/crack problem, can be obtained by adding the stress functions of first and second stage.
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( z1 ) 1 ( z1 ) 0 ( z1 ); ( z 2 ) 1 ( z 2 ) 0 ( z 2 )
(7)
4.
Stress functions for the hole and crack problem under remote loading
The plate with a hole and a crack is shown in Figure 1.The solution is obtained as follows: 4.1. First approximation The stress function for hole, and for the crack are given by 1 ( 1 ); 1 ( 1 ) and 2 ( 2 ); 2 ( 2 ) , respectively. This does not take any account of interaction effect between them. Stress functions for hole:
a a L a L a 1 ( 1 ) 31 B1 1 b1 1 1 ; 1 ( 1 ) 41 ( B1 'iC1 ' ) 1 b2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
Stress functions for the crack:
(8)
a b L 1 2 ( 2 ) 32 32 B2 2 (a1 b1 ) 2 2 2 2 a b42 L2 1 2 ( 2 ) 42 ( B2 'iC 2 ' ) ( a1 b1 ) 2 2 2 2

4.2.
(9)
Second approximation The stress functions 1 ( 1 ) and 1 ( 1 ) of hole are transformed to the crack centre by the rotation through angle (1+2) and translation through distance C0 in the mapped plane, where C0 is obtained from Z 0 L1 C 0 , Z0 is the centre distance between two holes in Z-plane. The transformed stress functions are
12 ( 2 ) [1 ( 2 C 0 )e i ( 1 2 ) ]e i ( 1 2 ) 12 ( 2 ) [ 1 ( 2 C 0 )e i ( 1 2 ) ]e i ( 1 2 ) C 0 '12 ( 2 )
The
12 1
(10) a boundary conditions
transformed
stress
functions
12
give
f (t 2 ) 2 Re 12 (t 2 ) 12 (t 2 ) and f 2 (t 2 ) 2 Re s112 (t 2 ) s 2 12 (t 2 ) on the crack surface. In order to achieve stress free boundary condition at the crack, a new problem of an infinite plate with crack is solved with the boundary conditions given
by f 1 (t 2 ) f1 (t 2 ); f 2 (t 2 ) f 2 (t 2 ) The stress functions for the crack are obtained using above boundary conditions
0 12 12 0 12 12
K5 1 ( s1 s 2 ) K 5 I 1 K 6 I 2 C K 6 ( 2 C 0 ) s1 s 2 ( s 2 s 2 ) K 7 I 1 K 8 I 2 C 0 I 3 2 0 ( s1 s1 ) K 5 I1 K 6 I 2 K 7 K ( C ) 8 2 0 ( s1 s 2 ) 2 C0 2 ( 2 ) K5 ( s 2 s1 ) K 7 I1 K 8 I 2 K6 ( 2 C 0 ) 2 ( s1 s 2 ) C I 0 3
2 ( 2 )
(11) 2 i ( 1 2 ) Where, K 5 ( a3 B1 L1 ( a1 / 2))e ; K 6 B1 L1 (b1 / 2)) ;
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K 7 ( a 4 ( B '1 C '1 ) L1 ( a 2 / 2)) ; K 8 ( B '1 C '1 ) L1 (b2 / 2)) ;
I1
(1 2 2 C 0 ) 1 1 1 1 ; I2 ; I3 2 2 C 0 (1 2 C 0 ) 2 2C 0 C 0 (1 2 C 0 ) 2C 0
To find the stress functions for circular hole the stress functions 2 ( 2 ) and 2 ( 2 ) of the crack are transformed to the hole center by translation and the rotation. Using these transferred functions, the corrected stress functions for the hole are obtained. 5. Results and discussions
With the generalized solutions obtained above different problems can be solved by setting the values of hole radius, crack lengths, crack angles, loading factors, load, fiber orientation, stacking sequence and center distance between the hole and crack. The problem is solved numerically for infinite laminated plate of Graphite/Epoxy (0/90) and Graphite/Epoxy (45/-45) with following constants: E1=181GPa, E2=10.3GPa, G12=7.17GPa, 12=0.28 and 21=0.016. The problem is also solved for isotropic plate (E=200GPa, G=80GPa and =0.25) for sake of comparison.
Figure 2 Stress distributions (/) around hole for Uniaxial loading
Figure 3 Stress distributions (/) around hole for Biaxial loading
Figure 4 Effect of crack orientation angle on SIF
Figure 5 Effect of centre distance on stress ratio
The Figure 2 and Figure 3 presents tangential stress (/) distribution around circular hole for uni-axial and biaxial loading respectively. Figure 4 explains effect of crack orientation angle on SIF under uniaxial loading. For biaxial loading the SIF does not change with orientation angle for single crack problem.
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Figure 5 and Figure 6 presents effect of centre distance on the stress intensity factor for G/E(0/90) and G/E(45/-45).It can be observed that the inner crack tip is showing more interaction effect than the outer tip. Similarly, the stress ratio (ratio of at =00, for the plate having hole and crack to at =00, for the plate having hole) is more near the area facing the crack (Refer Figure 7)
Figure 5 Effect of centre distance on SIF(G/E(0/90))
Figure 6 Effect of centre distance on SIF (G/E(45/-45))
6.
Conclusions
The solution of infinite orthotropic plate with a crack and a hole obtained using Mushkhelisvilis complex variable formulation and Schwarz alternating technique. The arbitrary biaxial loading condition is applied to facilitate consideration of any biaxial loading and crack orientation. The generalized formulation thus obtained is coded and few numerical results are obtained to understand effect of centre distance between two holes, effect of biaxial load factor, effect of crack orientation and, effect of change in crack length on SIF. The solutions obtained are applicable for single as well as multiple layered laminated plate with openings and cracks. The inner tip of the crack shows more interaction effect compared to outer tip. The fibre orientation and stacking sequence has significant effect on stress field. References [1] [2] [3] Savin, G.N., Stress Concentration around Holes, Pergamon Press, New York, 1961. Muskhelishvili, N.I., Some Basic Problems of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, P.Noordhooff Ltd., Groningen, The Netherlands, 1963. Ukadgaonker, V.G. and Kakhandki, Vyasraj, Stress analysis for an orthotropic plate with an irregular shaped hole for different in-plane loading conditions-part-I., Composite Structure,70, pp.255-274, 2005. Cheong, S.K. and Hong, C.S., Analysis of cracks emanating from a circular holes in [0n/90m]s laminates under various boundary conditions. Engineering Fracture Mechanics. 32(6), pp.923 -934, 1989. Peng, W.B. and Sung, J.C., Interactions of two arbitrarily oriented cracks in a homogeneous anisotropic medium. Applied Mathematical Modelling,27, pp.701715,2003. Sih, G.C., and Liebowitz, H., Mathematical theories of brittle fracture; An advanced treatise, volume II. New York-Academic press, 1968.
[4]
[5]
[6]
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Manufacture of Slotted Array Antenna

Vimal k Jain*, Theenathayalan.K, Dr.K.Ramesh Kumar, Dr. D R Yadav
Defense Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad.
*Corresponding author (email: vimalk_jain@rediffmail.com) Antenna is one of the important components in communication system of tactical missile, function of which is to transmit and receive the electromagnetic waves into the free space. Antenna array is the collection of such antennas to achieve the directional gain and to amplify the efficiency; slotted array antenna is one of such a kind. This paper elaborates the manufacturing criticalities that are involved in realizing slotted array antenna. This paper also briefs the criticalities involved in thin wall machining CAM data generation, stress relieving and inspection in realization of antenna. 1. Introduction Seeker is a device used in tactical missile to locate a target by detecting light, heat or other radiation and Antenna is one of the important components in seeker of tactical missiles. The function of antenna is of two fold; firstly, to transmit electromagnetic waves into free space so that the waves reach out the target. Secondly, to receive the electromagnetic waves that are reflected from the target, if found. Antenna array is the collection of such antennas to achieve the directional gain and to amplify the efficiency; slotted array antenna is one of such a kind. The size of the slotted array antenna is about 280 mm diameter and 7.17 mm thick and the minimum thickness of the antenna is 0.5 mm. Around 328 slots of size 1.6 mm width (with varying length) and 6.67 mm deep are to be machined accurately with required stringent dimensional and geometric tolerances. 24 Rectangular projections of size 9.13 mm length & 0.6 mm width are also to be machined maintaining the gap of 1.4 mm from the side wall. Moreover, circular bosses of 4 mm diameter are to be machined in order to facilitate the assembly. Figure 1(a) and (b) shows the 3D model and the completed antenna.
Figure 1(a). CAD model - slotted array antenna
Figure 1(b). Completed slotted array antenna
Slotted array antenna is made of Aluminium alloy (AA 6082) as non magnetism is of prime importance for antenna material. The processing methodology adapted and the problems associated in realizing the antenna are described in detail in this paper. 2. Material: AA 6082 Alloy Slotted array antenna is made of magnesium-silicon based aluminium alloy (AA 6082) having high strength to weight ratio. Aluminium alloy 6082 is a medium strength alloy with excellent corrosion resistance. It has the highest strength of the 6000 series alloys. Alloy 6082 is known as a structural alloy. In plate form, 6082 is the alloy most commonly used for machining. As a relatively new alloy, the higher strength of 6082 has seen it replace 6061 in
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many applications. The addition of a large amount of manganese controls the grain structure which in turn results in a stronger alloy. It is the most machinable of the common metals and good conductor of heat and electricity. AA 6082 alloys have good formability, weldability, machinability, and relatively good corrosion resistance, with medium strength. Formation of magnesium-silicide (Mg2Si) makes this alloy heat treatable. Magnesium and silicon are used as strengthening agents. Alloys in this heat-treatable group may be formed in the T6 temper (solution heat treated but not precipitation heat treated) and strengthened after forming to full T6 properties by precipitation heat treatment. In this case, the material is received in T6 condition. Yield strength of this alloy is about 340 MPa (in T6 condition) and percentage elongation is about 11% (in T6 condition). Table 1 & 2 list down chemical composition and physical properties of AA 6082 alloy and Table 3 & 4 shows the mechanical properties and heat treatment cycle followed to achieve T6 condition Table 1: Chemical composition of AA 6082 alloy Element % by weight Silicon 0.7-1.3 Magnesium Copper Manganese Iron Zinc Titanium Chromium Aluminium
Element % Pre
Table 2: Physical properties of AA 6082 alloy Properties Value Density 2.7 g/cc Melting point Youngs modulus Elec. Resistivity Thermal Conductivity Thermal Expansion 555 C 70 GPa 0.038 x 10 .m 180 W/mK 24 x 10 /K
-6 -6 o
0.6-1.2 0.1 0.4-1.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.25 Remainder
Table 3: Mechanical properties of AA 6082 alloy in T6 condition Properties Value Proof Stress 0.2 % 310 MPa Tensile Strength Shear Strength % Elongation Hardness (BHN) 340 MPa 210 MPa 11% 100
Table 4: Heat treatment cycle to attain T6 condition in AA 6082 alloy Parameters Solutionizing Aging o Temperature,( C) 525+/-5 180+/-5 Soaking time (hr) Cooling medium Hardness (BHN) 1 Water 50-60 10 Air 90-110
3. Manufacturing criticalities Though aluminium is one of the easiest materials to machine having very good machinability index, machining of slotted array antenna posed few problems due to following operational constraints. They are, a. Tight dimensional tolerance (final thickness: 0.5 +/- 0.02mm): Since aluminium possess very high thermal conductivity (180 W/mK) compared to other metals, maintaining close dimensional tolerance on slotted array antenna is of great difficulty. As aluminium conducts the heat generated at tool chip interface very quickly, the dimension measured immediately after machining will deviate from the same dimension if it is measured after some time.
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b. Thin wall machining (wall thickness: 0.8 mm): In thin wall machining, the job deflects under cutting force rather than cutting tool which is otherwise the case in normal machining. In such cases, it is very much essential to reduce cutting force drastically to as low as possible. So, the trade off is arrived between material removal rate and cutting force. c. Work clamping constraints: Generally, thin sheets are clamped using magnetic tables, if machining is required. Vacuum clamping is otherwise used in such applications. Magnetic table cannot be made use of owing to non magnetic property of aluminium and vacuum clamping is also ruled out because of the through slots in the antenna.
d. Close geometrical tolerance (Flatness: 0.03mm): As mentioned earlier, the overall size of the antenna is about 280 x 7.17 mm. It is machined out of raw material having size of 300 x 300 mm. The flatness requirement is 0.03mm. If the job set up is like the one shown in fig 2(a), it will result in convex bending of the job leading to increased flatness error. So it is to be processed as shown in fig 2(b) and single point fly cutter (refer fig 2c) is to be made use of in order to reduce the cutting force. The same problem of convex bending would result after rough machining. After the material is removed from the slots leaving the corner un-machined, the job will become convex. Then, maintaining final wall thickness of 0.5 +/- 0.02 mm will not be possible. These problems are to be catered while establishing the process sequence.
Strap clamp
Wedge
Jo
Figure 2(a): Strap clamping
Figure 2(b): Wedge clamping
Figure 2(c): Fly Cutter
4. Process sequence The process flow chart, shown in fig (3), is prepared considering aforesaid manufacturing constraints. The flow chart lists down the various stages of operations that the raw material undergoes. 4.1. Solutionizing and aging As shown in Table(4), Aluminium alloy AA6082 is heated to a temperature of around 525 +/- 5 deg C, soaked for about one hour at that temperature and then cooled in water, which resulted in hardness of 56 BHN. Then followed aging process, wherein the material is heated to a temperature of 180+/-5 deg C, soaked for about 10 hrs and then cooled in air. The hardness resulted was 107 BHN. 4.2. Raw material preparation: The raw material size is finalized to be 300 x 300 x 12 to enable the clamping elements have enough area for proper clamping.
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4.3. Rough machining 12 mm thickness has been reduced to 8.2 mm, keeping 0.5 mm allowance on both faces. Then slots are rough milled by keeping 0.5 mm allowance on wall and 0.25 mm allowance on floor of the slot. In order to reduce concave / convex bending of the component, Solutionizing and aging (T6) the slots are rough milled in a zig-zag pattern as shown in fig (4). The alternate slots are machined in the sequence to distribute the Raw material preparation material removal so that the bending can be avoided. All the bosses are also machined by keeping same allowance as that of slots. The NC data has been generated using CAM Rough machining software (Pro/E), to reduce the programming time that would otherwise consume in manual part programming. Table 5 shows the Stress relieving parameters used for rough machining.
Finish machining
Inspection
Figure 3: Process flow chart of antenna Table 5: Parameters used for slot machining Machine Cutter used Cutter material Coolant Cutting Speed Feed Depth of Cut Figure 4: Zig-Zag machining Allowance 3 Axis VMC End mill 5.0 Solid carbide Avantin 331 126 m / min 800 mm / min 0.50 mm 0.5 mm on wall 0.25 mm on floor
4.4. Stress relieving Mechanical stress relieving has been carried out to bring down the residual level in the material. 4.5. Finish machining 0.5 mm allowance on face has been machined using single point fly cutter of diameter 75 mm (refer fig 2c) to bring down the value of cutting force. Multi point face mill / shoulder mill cutter exert cutting force of the order greater than single point fly cutter. 0.5 mm allowance on wall and 0.25 mm on floor of slot has been machined by generating NC data with help of Pro/E. The material removal rate (MRR) is reduced drastically to reduce the
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problem of thin wall machining. Higher the MRR, higher will be the cutting forces; higher the cutting forces, higher will be the deflection of thin walls. Table 6 lists down the parameters used for finish machining. Table 5: Parameters used for slot machining Machine Cutter used 3 Axis VMC End mill 5.0 mm End mill 2.0 mm Endmill 1.0 mm Cutter material Coolant Cutting Speed Feed Depth of Cut Solid carbide Avantin 331 63 m / min 300 mm / min 0.25 mm
Figure 5: Finish machining setup 4.6. Inspection
In-process inspection method is devised to check the accuracy of the component while machining itself. Templates have been prepared to inspect length, width and depth of slots. Final inspection had been carried out using Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) and the accuracy is found satisfactory. Fig (6) shows inspection set up on CMM. 5. Conclusions
Figure 6 CMM
Slotted array antenna has been manufactured and delivered successfully. The manufacturing criticalities involved and the process sequence established to overcome the criticalities are discussed in detail in this paper. Also, an insight is given on the material, AA6082.
References [1] Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing; Material, Processes, and Systems, 1996, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. [2] ASM Hand Book Vol.10, Materials characterization, American Society for Metals TH [3] ASM Hand Book Vol.16, Machining, 9 Edition ,Published in 1989. [4] G. Mrwka-Nowotnik, J. Sieniawski, A. Nowotnik, Effect of heat treatment on tensile and fracture toughness properties of 6082 alloy. Journal of achievement in materials and manufacturing engineering, , Feb 2009. [5] Phillip N. Richardson, Hung Yuet Yee, Design and analysis of Slotted wave guide antenna array, Microwave journal, June 1988.
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Analysis of a Four Link Revolute Type Model Using Forward Kinematics and Geometric Approach
V. M. Daiya , Dr. H. J. Nagarsheth S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author (email: vmd@med.svnit.ac.in) Matrix algebra is utilized to develop a systematic and generalized approach to describe and represent the location of the links (resembling lower limb of a human body) with respect to a fixed reference frame. A four link revolute type model is considered and analyzed. The analysis of the link mechanism is carried out by Forward Kinematics and Geometric approach applied to four cases resembling the human motions namely the upright, hip up and down movement, ankle dorsal and ankle rotation upright position. Applying matrix algebra, MATLAB program is developed for forward kinematics for different cases. The rotational and positional values are obtained for each case. Geometric approach by graphical way and by use of AUTOCAD gives the same results. Nomenclature l1 l2 l3 l4 1 2 3 4 R T Zeta1 1.
*
Link (Phalanges) Link (Metatarsal) Link (Tibia ) Link (Fumer ) Angle of rotation of l1 in Sagittal plane Angle of rotation of l2 in Sagittal plane Angle of rotation of l3 in Sagittal plane Angle of rotation of l4 in Sagittal plane Fixed angle between l1 and l2 Homogeneous rotation matrix Homogeneous transformation matrix relating to two coordinates system Angle of rotation of l2 & l 3 in dorsal plane
Introduction
Kinematics it is defined as the study of geometry of motion involving determination of position, displacement rotation, speed, velocity and acceleration. A majority of mechanism exhibit motion such that the part moves in parallel plane (2D). This is called planar mechanism. There have been extensive studies to define motion and to provide useful information about joint angle relationship of lower limb of human skeletal bones considering it as rigid four bar open link with their corresponding joints. This is further extended in 3 dimensional plane using forward kinematic approach. Model Development The human lower limb skeleton can be modeled as a set of four linked segment starting from toe to hip. The bones are the links and the joints from where the rotation takes place are toe- end, ankle, knee and hip. The basic oxyz reference co-ordinate (0, 0, 0) frame is fixed at the start of the toe considering the right hand rule. This also represents joint J1. The phalange forms the link l1, metatarsal-tarsal are link l2 with J2. Ankle forms joint J3 with Tibia, Fibula as link l3. The knee is the joint J4 and Femur is link l4. This model is represented in Figure 1 (a) & Figure 1 (b). 2
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Hip Hip Fumer Knee

l3 l4
Tibia
toe
(0,0,0 )
Ankle
l2
Ankle
Figure 1 (a) Lower Limb of human body
Figure 1 (b) Skeletal model
2. Mathematical Modeling The basic rotation frame is fixed in such a way that x-axis is aligned with l1. The movable frames undergo rotation about their own axis depending on the motion of links in their respective directions. For this purpose four cases are considered (2.1) Position upright in sagittal plane (Figure 2). (2.2) Position Hip down in sagittal plane (Figure 3). (2.3) Position Ankle dorsal in dorsal plane (Figure 4). (2.4) Position Ankle dorsal rotation in dorsal plane (Figure 5) which is perpendicular to the plane of the paper, for each of these position forward kinematic approach is applied and MATLAB program is developed. (2.1) Position - Upright 0 The link l1 is along x-axis and there is fixed value of angle (20 ) between l1 and l2. Links l3 and link l4 are vertical and parallel to y axis (fig.2) End point co-ordinates of the links are computed using equation of motion written in matrix form. [T] = R1z.Tl 1xRq1z.R2.z.Tl 2x.Rq1.z.R3z.Tl3z.R4z. (1)
Kinematics of lower link
l4
l3
l1
l2
Figure 2 Position Upright
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(2.2) Position Hip down Hip down is the position when a human is about to sit or stand from original position. From 4 upright position link l3 at J3 is rotated by 3 and l4 at J4 by direction. Link l3 and link l4 are parallel to y axis (fig. 3) End points are computed using equation of motion [T] = R1z1.Tl1x1.Rq1z2 .R2.z2 .Tl2x2 .R(q0-1)z2 .R3z3 .Tl3x3 .R4z4.Tl 4x4 ...... (2)
l3 l1 l2
Figure 3 Position Hip down

(2.3) Position Ankle dorsal In this position movement is made is sagittal plane and also in dorsal plane. From hip down position links l3 and link l4 are given rotation by zeta1 in dorsal plane which is perpendicular to paper. End point co-ordinates are computed using equation of motion. [T] = R1z.Tl 1.Rq1z .R2.z .Tl2x .Rq1.z .R3z . Rzeta1x.Tl3z . (3)
l4
l3 l2 l1
10
Figure 4 Position Angle Dorsal
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(2.4)
Position Ankle rotative upright In the upright position links l3 and l4 are rotated by an angle zeta1 in dorsal plane at joint J3. End point co-ordinates are computed using equation of motion. [T] = R1z.Tl 1.Rq1z .R2.z .Tl2 .R-q1.z . Rzeta1x.Tl3....(4)
l4
l4
l3
l3
100
l2 l1
Figure 5 Position Angle Rotative

3. Results Table: 1 End Point locations for (a) Position- Upright
Joints
1 2 3 4 5
AutoCAD method
0,0,0 25, 0, 0 175.35, 54.72, 0 175.35, 454.72, 0 175.35, 854.72, 0
Graphical method
0,0,0 25, 0, 0 174.55,0 174,455,0 174, 855, 0
MATLAB Program
0,0,0 25, 0, 0 175, 35, 54.72,0 175, 454, 0 175, 854, 0
Table: 2 End Point locations for (b) Position-Hip down
Joints
1 2 3 4 5
AutoCAD method
0, 0, 0 25, 0, 0 175.35, 54.72,0 38.54, 430.6, 0 108, 824.52,0
Graphical method
0, 0, 0 25, 0, 0 174.55, 0 36.4, 431.2, 0 105.8, 827, 0
MATLAB Program
0,0,0 25, 0, 0 175, 54, 0 38, 430, 0 108, 824, 0
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Table: 3 End Point locations for (C) Position-Ankle Dorsal
Joints
1 2 3 4
AutoCAD method
0,0,0 25, 0, 0 175.35, 54.72, 0 40.62, 424.89, 69.46
Graphical method
0,0,0 25, 0, 0 174.54, 0 54, 425.8, 65
MATLAB Program
0,0,0 25,0,0 175, 54.35, 0 40.62, 424.88, 69.45
Table: 4 End Point locations for (D) Position-Ankle Rotative Upright
Joints
1 2 3 4
AutoCAD method
0,0,0 25,0,0 175.35, 54.72,0 175.35, 448.65, 69.46
Graphical method
0,0,0 25,0,0 174.54, 0 175, 448, 71.4
MATLAB Program
0,0,0 25,0,0 175,54.72,0 175.35, 448.64, 69.45
In all these cases results obtained by MATLAB programming and obtained by AutoCAD are in good agreement. Based on above analysis physical model can be developed considering biological constrains of lower limb. Such types of four bar linkages are very useful in simulation especially for estimation and visualization of sagittal kinematics of lower limb orientation of human body. References [1] Jacob Apkarian, Stephen Nanmann and Bonne Cairns A dimensional kinematics and dynamic model of the lower limb Journal of Biomechanics, Vol-22 issue 2, 1989,Pages 143-155. [2] A. G. Bharatkumar, K.E. Daigle, M. G. Pandy and J. K. Aggarwal Lower limb kinematics of Human Walking with the Medial Axis Transformation, 0-8186-64355/94 1994 IEEE Xplore. [3] J.De Vries, Conventional 4-bar linkage knee Mechanism A strength and weakness analysis Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development Vol. 32, Feb. 1995, Pages 36-42. [4] Nathalie Doriot and Laurence Cheze A Three-Dimensional Kinematics and Dynamic study of the lower limb During the stance phase of Gait Using and homogenous Matrix Approach IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 51 No 1 January 2004. [5] Ashitona Ghosal Robotics Fundamentals Concepts and Analysis Oxford University Press- 2006. [6] L. Consiglieri E.B. Pires, Analytical approach for the evolution of the torques using inverse multibody dynamic s syst. Dyn (2007) 18:471-483 Springer sciences.
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Real- time Colour based Obstacle Detection and Avoidance System for Wheeled Mobile Robot
V. U. Rathod 1*, W. S. Rathod 2 1Govt. Polytechnic Mumbai-400051 2V.J.T.I Matunga Mumbai-400019 * Corresponding author (e-mail: sayvijay@rediffmail.com) This paper presents a colour based obstacle detection and avoidance method for mobile robots. The method uses the Webcam as a sensor and performs in real time. Webcam captures images of surrounding and provides an information to the vision software. Each individual images ( snap shots) are analyzed for an obstacle for its position ( pixel coordinates), colour and colour value. Depending upon the position of an obstacle, navigation system decides the direction of movement of the robot for obstacle avoidance. The system needs driving the robot through the environment having contrast background, so that obstacles can be easily detected. Obstacles of any one colour can be detected at a time. Navigation system assumes that obstacles are not changing their position with respect to time. 1. Introduction Robots are widely used in many industries due to the high level of performance and reliability. When the robot is working far away from the control station, then it becomes very essential that ,robot must take its own decision to avoid any obstacles if it finds in a path. Obstacle detection is an important task for mobile robot applications.The robot acquires information from its surrounding through sensors mounted on the robot. Various types of sensors can be used for obstacle detection. Methods of obstacle detecting and avoiding are distinct according to the use of sensor. Some robots use single sensing device to detect an object and some robots use multiple sensing devices also. The common used sensing devices for obstacle avoiding are bump sensor, infrared sensor, ultrasonic sensor, laser range finder; charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, web cam and so on can be used as the detection device.[ 6,7,8] Designing an autonomous robot requires the integration of many sensors and actuators [1]. This paper mainly presents the method to control the robot for material handling, path detection and avoiding obstacles if any, in an autonomous Mode in which Robot detects an obstacles in its path and changes its path accordingly for its safe and controlled working, and Path Execution Mode in which Robot will move as per the Predefined path defined though programming by user.[5] 2. System Overview This mobile robot is designed to explore in the environment by detecting obstacles and avoiding collision based on the information obtained from the vision sensors. Vision sensor i.e. webcam senses an obstacle along its path and is connected to the PC through USB port.[1] The input signal is received from sensor and controller is operated according to the received signal. The basic block diagram that makes this system is shown in Figure 1. The mobile robot system consists of 2.1 Personal Computer The PC is loaded with vision software application ,as well as GUI using Visual Basic 6.[4] This application (CImageBufferX,) processes an images captured by web camera and sends an appropriate command to micro controller. PC is connected to the robot system through RS232 serial communication port. 2.2 Level Converter The level converter is nothing but an intermediate I.C. between PC communication (serial port) and the rest of our circuit. This unit converts the voltage levels from one logic form to another. Since the PC serial port works on the principle of RS 232 logic and rest of our circuit works on TTL logic. The level converter makes it easy by inter converting this RS 232 and TTL logic.[3]
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Figure 1. Block Diagram of wheeled mobile robot. Micro Controller The micro controller is the basic controlling device to control the complete system. Its controls the motors present in the system, reads data coming from the serial port, and executes appropriate instructions. The system is based on AT89C5021 core micro controller. It has a CPU, in addition to it fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O Ports, Timer and Com port all are on a single chip. Main reasons to select the micro controller for such application is that they are faster in working, small in size, less power consumption, easy to develop the new products and mainly they are easily available.[3] Specifications- ROM- 4Kbytes, Ram -128 Kbytes, I/O Pins -32, Timer 2, Interrupt- 6, Vcc5V, Speed- 12Mhz, Pins- 40, DIP Plastic Packaging and used for commercial use. 2.4 Motor Controller And Driver Motor controller and driver (L293D) drives the motor as per signals by the microcontroller. A controller is a basically the combination of driver and the switching circuits. The driver is the actual circuit that drives the DC motor , and the switching circuits decides how the motor should be driven. There are two parameters of the DC motor that can be controlled are Speed and direction of rotation. Changing the direction is very simple ,as it just need to reverse the supply given to the DC motor. For varying the speed of the DC motor we have to vary the applied voltage. H bridge driver is used to change the direction of rotation of the motor[3]. For movements in various direction refer table I 2.3 Direction of Rotation Left Wheel Right Wheel Forward Clockwise Anticlockwise Backward Anticlockwise Clockwise Left Anticlockwise Anticlockwise Right Clockwise Clockwise Table I- Driving Motor movements for Navigation system. 2.5 DC Motors DC motors are used as an actuators to drive the wheels of the vehicle. These motors are geared motors and hence they produce large torque that can carry the weight of the entire vehicle. Two such motors are used in the vehicle, which would push the vehicle forward. To make turns, the concept of differential control is used. i.e. to take a right turn, slow down the speed of the right wheel and increase the speed of the left wheel. Due to this a couple is generated about the longitudinal axis of the vehicle which makes the vehicle turn.[3] Motor DetailsStandard DC geared motors , 12 Volt , 30 RPM ,100-130 ma. 2.6 SensorWeb camera is used as a sensor , to capture an images of an environment. Live images can be seen on user interface and these captured images are then analyzed for an obstacle if any in a path[1]. Direction of movement
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3.
Circuit operation for Wheeled Mobile Robot System
VB APPLICATION
OBSTACL
WEB CAMERA
RS232
ROBOT
LCD
LEVEL CONVERTER
MICROCONTROLLER
LEFT MOTOR
MOTOR DRIVER
RIGHT MOTOR
Figure 2. Basic circuit diagram for Wheeled Mobile Robot System The basic circuit that makes this system is as shown in figure 2. Web camera is connected to the PC through USB Port. It captures images and transmits the video signal to application program which displays the real time video on the User Interface through CImageBufferX [4] .An application program then extracts image frames from the live video, analyzes it and sends commands to microcontroller accordingly. As per the signals received from the Micro controller, the Driver drives the motors in clockwise or anticlockwise direction for the movement of the robot in left, right , forward or backward direction[6] 4. Software consideration of obstacle detection and Avoidance Using the input signals from sensor circuit, the navigation system determines a direction of movement to avoid an obstacle. After turning a suitable angle, the navigation system negotiates the robot to the desired direction and check whether there is an obstacle along its way. According to the sensing information, microcontroller controls the driver unit. Web camera is connected to the PC through USB Port and visual basic application program is installed on to the PC.[2] Screen of the GUI ( Snap shot) is devided into three parts as shown in figure 3 . [4]
when an obstacle is found at left i.e in region A , the navigation system moves the robots towards Right. (Fig. 7) If an obstacle is found in the middle in region B then the system moves the robot backward ,until there is no obstacle seen on live image and then continuous to left or right as predefined ( fig. 8). If it is at right in Region C then navigation system moves it to the left to avoid collision with obstacle ( fig. 9).[5] Figure 3 GUI screen for obstacle detection The decision to move robot in a particular direction is governed by three factors namely Priority, Previous positions tracked and Stuck up condition. Priority - Priority resolves the ambiguity of moving the robot when it is eligible to move in more than one direction. Priorities assigned in this program are as follows: Forward: Highest priority. 2. Left 3.Right 4. Back : Lowest priority
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Previous Tracked Positions This condition ensures that as far as possible, the robot must not go to positions which it has already tracked previously. For this the robot may even override priority condition if necessary.
Figure 4 Actual photograph of wheeled mobile Robot
Figure 5. Wheeled mobile robot with an obstacle
Figure 6. An obstacle seen in live image in GUI
Figure 7. An obstacle in live image at Left Figure 4 in GUI & Snapshot.
Figure 8 An obstacle in live image at mid In GUI & Snapshot
Figure 9 An obstacle in live image at Right in GUI & Snapshot
Stuck Up Condition : This is a special condition that a robot may encounter during its motion. In stuck up condition the robot is in such a position that all the positions in which it is free to move have been covered previously. In such a case if we stick to the argument that the robot must not go to a previously tracked position, then robot would not move at all ! , To overcome
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this situation i.e. stuck up condition the robot is forcefully made to move where it came from i.e. it follows a reverse trail until it finds a new uncovered position where it can move. Thus we make sure that the robot does not get stuck up anywhere. [5] Navigation system makes the following assumptions- Obstacle is not moving towards the robot or away from the robot, Obstacle is not changing its colour w. r. .t. time, no obstacle is overhanging and obstacle of only one colour can be detected at a time. 5. Experimental results linear velocity of the robot is @ 2 m/minute, Distance of an obstacle form Robot , so that it becomes visible by camera is 40cm ,Turning angles and the time required for turning by navigation system is as shown in table II Table II- Navigation system input output considerations.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 Turning Angle ( Left/Right) 45 90 135 180 Actual Time Taken ( Seconds) 5 10 15 20
As the Robot finds any obstacle in front ( @ 40cm) , webcam sends live video of it to the Cimagebufferx, which analyses an image and gives signal to navigation system within @ 3 seconds and thus navigation system controls the direction of robot. ( i.e. it moves @ 10cm towards an obstacle before changing direction) 6. Further improvements It is possible to improve the Robot system by some of the ways mentioned below1. Wireless link can be established between PC and robot. 2. Various types of sensors can be mounted on the body of the robot so that details of environment can be obtained Another possible improvement consists of enlarging763 field of view by using a wide-angle lens or a the panoramic camera system. 7. Conclusions This paper presented the method of obstacle detection and avoidance using webcam. The method performs in real-time and provides live image of environment at high resolution. Based upon the position of pixels, colour and the colour value of on obstacle in an image ,navigation system decides the direction of movement for the robot. The system has performed well in a Laboratory. References [1] Roland Siegwart and illah R. Nourbakhsh, Introduction to Mobile Robots, Prentice hall of India ISBN 81-203-2686-5,2005 [2] Robin R. Murphy,Introduction to AI Robotics Prentice hall of India ISBN 81-203- 2458-7 [3] Mohhamad Ali mazidi, The 8051 Microcontroller and embedded systems. Prentice hall of India 2008,ISBN81-317-1026-2 [4] Petter Nortons Guide to Visual Basics 6, Techmedia 1998, ISBN 81-7635-145-8 [5] Borenstein J. Evert, H. R. ,Feng,L. Navigating Mobile Robots, systems and Techniques NATIK, MA,A K. peters ,Ltd. 1996. [6] Iwan Ulrich and Illah Nourbakhsh The Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University [7] Pittsburgh, PA 15213 Appearance-Based Obstacle Detection with Monocular Color Vision Proceedings of the AAAI National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Austin, TX, July/August 2000. [8] Aye Nwe, Wai Phyo Aung and Yin Mon Myint Software Implementation of Obstacle Detection and Avoidance System for Wheeled Mobile Robot Proceedings Of World Academy Of Science, Engineering And Technology Volume 32 August 2008 Issn 2070374 [9] R. Andrew Russell and Jaury Adi Wijaya Object Location and Recognition using Whisker Sensors Intelligent Robotics research Centre Monash University Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
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Modelling and Fatigue Analysis of Truck Wheel Using Computational FEM/FEA

Vipul Patel , Kiran Patel , Subakanth Ruthiran , Kandrap Joshi
1 1* 2 3 4
Manumatic Industries Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, Victoria, Australia-3076 2 Bharatmatrimony.com, Surat, Gujarat, India 3 Caterpillar Elphinstone Pty Ltd, Tasmania, Australia 4 Shri Tapi Brahmcharya Ashram Sabha College of Diploma, Surat, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: vpatel@y7mail.com) This paper describes the life of the components under constant cycle loading was investigated by Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The FEA results are compared with actual life cycle of complements done by Holden Car Industries. A simulation platform was developed by the commercial available FEA software package Pro/Mechanica/Structure. The stress, strain and displacements were first defined in the first step of static analysis and then calculated properties of the model from results of static analysis inputted into Fatigue Analysis. In fatigue analysis, the load was given in the base of cyclic order. Deflection criteria were compared and the local symmetric criteria provided the most accurate and efficient predications. An automatic mesh definition was done with the aid of Pro/Mechanica/Structure. 1. Introduction
The demand for lighter structures and material saving constructions are leading to designs which approach the limit in the strength of material. The research work was done on a truck wheel made of styles white steel. The wheel was used to carry automobile body and persons weight. A prototype was developed by a company called Ford Motor Company. There was an urgent need to investigate causes of the fatigue failure and to modify the truck wheel design according to customer requirement and the supply schedule. The company wants to increase the life of truck wheel by validate CAD model of wheel. In short, the wheels were designed for a maximum load of vehicles accessories including weight of persons. One of the weight carrying members of wheel was frame of wheel. A main objective of paper was determined valid CAD model for fatigue life so that company can guarantee their product life. The truck wheel was modelled in 3D using parametric Computer Aided Design (CAD) software from PTC, Pro/Engineer. The fatigue analysis was done using Pro/Mechanica. The automobile company that produces the truck wheels has developed their wheels without any sound engineering technique and to fulfil the personal confidence limits of their production staff. They have experimented with various wheel types and sizes using trial and error techniques. To improve on the wheel design, they need to investigate how engineering science can contribute to the improvement or structural optimization of the wheel. In order to improve the design further a valid CAD model is necessary over which the design optimization and further analyses can be done. Wheel structures are subjected to various types of loads by its structure. Generally they are designed to handle these loads by providing strong and excess supports so that the structure will not fail under the specified loading condition. Excess supports means the material usage is more than what is required for the design. So there is a need to optimize the design so that the material usage can be reduced which in turn reduces the cost and manufacturing time. This paper presents a study to fatigue analysis of a truck wheel from Ford Motor Company which could be used in future for optimization of wheel design. The validity of the results of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the truck wheel is checked by comparison with the fatigue experiment results done by previous research. CAD software available at the university was used for the fatigue analysis
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of the truck wheel. Further studies were recommended based upon the validation results. The paper provides computer generated analysis of the truck wheel. The problem was to validate the computer generated model using the experimental data obtained from the past research. Before any wheel was approved for use it was subjected to a cornering fatigue test to assess its durability. The developments of new innovative engineering components need testing and prototyping for their life in the area of estimated usages. In the past decades, works were carried out on studying the effects under single point loading to multiple loading. Still, the underlying fatigue principles for such conditions were not completely expounded. The study of fatigue under complex loading histories begins by investigating strain interaction effects arising from simple 2- step loading sequences. Fatigues for all investigations were conducted under axial push pull mode in strain control. The study of fatigue failure was so important because the innovative parts are susceptible of suspected by customers about their durability and reliability. For this a prototype was made and checked. But design of prototype and conducting test requires time and also expensive. This paper clearly explained that finite element analysis can produce result very accurate, so that experiment tests are not necessary and innovative products did not cost much to guarantee their life and certify for reliability to customers. Several studies have been made to predict fatigue life and suggestion to improve fatigue life. Topac [1] has carried out extensive study on fatigue failure of a rear axle housing using prototype of axle in ANSYS analysis software. He has also discussion stress concentration on housing and suggestion for reducing stress concentration would increase fatigue life of axle housing. Fatigue is a progressive, localized and permanent structural change that occurs in a material subjected to repeated or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum value. Liu et al. [2] if steel bar was repeatedly loaded and unloaded to 85 per cent of its yield strength, it was ultimately failed in fatigue. [4]The paper was concerned with the modelling of a case study to avoid fatigue failure. An analysis of fatigue life determines life of the new parts. In fatigue analysis not only the log life, where as stress concentration areas and maximum load cycles were also determined. Before any wheel is approved for use it is subjected to a cornering fatigue test to assess its durability. If scrutinize a scrap yard, most scrap which reveal majority of the failures were due to fatigue and still they were failed below the yield strength. This is a result of phenomenon called fatigue which has been estimated to be responsible for maximum percentage of part failures which occurs in industries. The paper was concerned with the modelling of a case study to avoid fatigue failure. The results were validated by comparing experiment results of past research paper. An analysis of fatigue life determines the life of part analyzed. In fatigue analysis not only the log life, where as stress concentration areas and maximum load cycles were also viewed. Furthermore, a mythology was developed to analyze a part design by means of a CAE tools. First of all, the part was modelled with Pro/engineer software and dimension were taken from the past experimental done by researcher. The wheel model was imported in Pro/Mechanica/structure for fatigue analysis. By performing the analysis parameters fatigue life was calculated by software itself and results were validated by comparing experimental data done by student of Deakin University, Geelong, Australia [3].The specimen was a wheel of round shape with 370mm long 370mm wide and 8mm thick. The specimen as shown in Figure 1. The wheel centre had eight vents punched on existing tooling, and only required a large centre bore and mounting stud pitch circle diameter. [3] 2. Methodology
The selected case study was a thesis which had done in Deakin University in 1982, Kevin J. Cosgriff, in this case study the wheel of the Ford Car was undertaken for fatigue analysis. Truck wheels were made of 1020 steel. The testing machine called Mohr and Feder
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Hoff was used for test specimen. The stress recorded in this machine was in increment of 0.2 KN to the maximum of 2.4 KN.
Figure 1. Picture of wheel for analysis [3] 3.
Figure 2. Constrain and load of truck wheel
Fatigue analysis of truck wheel in Pro/Engineer software
A full scale CAD model of the truck wheel was prepared for analysis as shown in Figure 3. The solid model of truck wheel was composed via Pro/Engineer. CAD model of the complete truck wheel was imported into Pro/Mechanica pre-processing environment to continue the FE model required in the analyses. The FE model used in fatigue analysis is shown in Figure 2. The model was created in Pro/engineer CAD software in the way so that it was act as a real object.Tetrahedal elements were used to create the FEM meshed model. The constrain was given at the base of the wheel, same as given in the experiment.
Figure 3. A 3D model of truck wheel in Pro/Engineer 4. Result and discussion
Since the truck wheel is actually loaded with dynamic forces during services, fatigue analysis was performed.FE analysis was used to predict the exact lifecycles of the truck wheel. FE analyses showed that the regions, where fatigue failure was initiated during fatigue test. The lifecycle determined from experiment test was 233,000 cycles. Two wheels were tested in experimental set up, the first failing at 1800 cycles and the second at 2400 cycles. Cracks had propagated in one wheel from apex of three vents towards stud holes 1, 3 and 4 and in other wheel from two vents. Plates 2 to 4 are of three of the five cracks. [3]
Figure 4. Wheel fatigue log damage
Figure 5. Wheel fatigue log life
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Figure 4 and 5 illustrates the results in form of logarithmic value of life was 5.282 e logarithmic value of truck wheel. 00 5.282e = 91,425.5925 cycles
00.
It is the
The fatigue analysis results are in agreement with the experimental results. Enhancement of the fatigue life of the housing is the dependent on the decrease on the stress concentration. The simplest way to reduce the stress concentration and improve fatigue life is to increase thickness of metal used in truck wheel. However except red regions, the truck wheel satisfies infinite life criteria. An increase of metal thickness causes an unnecessary weight increase. For example, a thickness increase of say 0.5 mm enhances the fatigue limit of the truck wheel at the critical region up to more than 191,425.59 cycles which is higher than desired limit. On the other hand, this also means increase about 5% of unsprung mass of vehicle therefore it is not a practical solution. As an alternative, the transition geometry may be redesign. Smoother transition geometry may offer an enhanced fatigue life without any weight increase. 5. Conclusions
Premature fatigue failure of a truck wheel was investigated by using finite element analysis. In the analyses, in which experimental test was predicated actual life cycle of truck wheel investigated in past research. The region in which the fatigue cracks originated were well matched with the results of the analyses. By using FE analysis the location of failure can be predicted. Results shows that fatigue failure is important because the innovative parts are susceptible of suspect by customers about parts durability and reliability. Nowadays industries are using prototype technique for checking life of parts but it is very expensive and time consuming process. This paper presents that FEA can produce results very accurate so that experiment tests were not necessary and innovative products do not cost much to guarantee their life and certify for reliability to customers. Results for fatigue analysis show that life of truck wheel similar to those obtained by experimental testing. In order to solve problem, increasing thickness of metal is not a practical solution because of the weight increase of truck wheel. An application including both redesigning of the fatigue failure area may be good alternative to obtain a long fatigue life, which can be satisfying minimum design criteria. Further work is being continuing at Swinburne University of Technology in the above mentioned area to get an improved model for validation and optimization complex truck wheel, results of which are planned to in future publications. Acknowledgement Authors would like to acknowledge technical assistance provided by Swinburne University of Technology for the support in this research project and also would like to acknowledge the precious comments and suggestions of Dr Pio Lovenitti from Swinburne University of Technology in Australia. References [1] Topac M.M., Gunal, H. and Kuralay, N.S. Fatigue failure prediction of a rear axle housing prototype by using finite element analysis. Engineering Failure Analysis, 16, 2009, 14741482. [2] Liu, A.F.Mechanics and mechanisms of fracture.ASM International Society, Materials Park, OH-2005. [3] Congriff, K.J.Experimental stress analysis of steel light truck wheel. School of Engineering and Architecture, Deakin University. [4] A.S.O.Metals.In exposition, on fatigue corrosion cracking, fracture mechanics and failure analysis. American Society of Metals, Salt lake city, Utah, USA-1985.
[5] Seung K.Koh. Fatigue analysis of an automotive steering link, Engineering Failure Analysis,, 16,2009, 914-922.
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Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry and Parameters of Different Welding Processes using Various Computational Methods - a Review
Kamble A.G , Dr. R. V. Rao , Siddhartha Gupta
1 1* 2 1
Sinhgad Institute of Technology, Lonavala, Dist: Pune 410401 Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat Corresponding Author: (e-mail: avi_nash1000@yahoo.co.in)
This paper presents a comprehensive review of the application of various computational methods used for optimizing the weld-bead geometry and parameters of different welding processes. It includes various methods like linear regression, response surface methodology, artificial neural networks, Taguchi methods, genetic algorithm, etc. Optimal process parameters critically influences productivity, quality and cost of production. 1. Introduction Generally, the quality of a weld joint is directly influenced by the welding input parameters during the welding process; therefore, welding can be considered as a multi-input multi-output process. Any welding process is strongly characterized by the weld bead geometry. This is because the weld bead geometry plays an important role in determining the mechanical properties of the weld. In order to achieve high quality welds, mathematical models that can predict the bead geometry and shape to accomplish the desired mechanical properties of the weldment should be developed. This paper focuses on the previous work done on development of mathematical models for the selection of process parameters and the prediction of bead geometry for best results. Optimum range of bead parameters and dilution are required for better economy and to ensure the desired mechanical and corrosion resistant properties of the overlay. The above objectives can easily be achieved by developing mathematical equations to predict the weld bead geometry [1-4]. Traditionally, it has been necessary to determine the weld input parameters for every new welded product to obtain a welded joint with the required specifications. To do so, requires a time-consuming trial and error development effort, with weld input parameters chosen by the skill of the engineer or machine operator. Then welds are examined to determine whether they meet the specification or not. Finally the weld parameters can be chosen to produce a welded joint that closely meets the joint requirements. Also, what is not achieved or often considered is an optimized welding parameters combination, since welds can often be produced with very different parameters. In other words, there is often a more ideal welding parameters combination, which can be used if it can only determined. In order to overcome this problem, various optimization methods can be applied to define the desired output variables through developing mathematical models to specify the relationship between the input parameters and output variables. In the last two decades, designs of experiment (DoE) techniques have been used to carry out such optimization. Evolutionary algorithms and computational network have also grown rapidly and been adapted for many applications in different areas. In this paper a comprehensive literature review of the application of these techniques is presented. This review shows the correlation between input parameters and output variables, the paper also presents the optimization of the different welding processes through the mathematical models. The classification of this literature review will be according to the weld joint features [1].
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2. Weld Bead Geometry The bead geometry that characterizes the quality of the weld is dependent on a number of input process parameters. These parameters are closely coupled in such a way that it is difficult to identify the extent of contribution of these factors toward the desired output. An expert welder from his experience of trial and error selects a set of parameters that may yield fairly good results. However, the obtained result may not be the optimal one. The trial and error of the welder can be avoided, if a suitable mathematical model can be developed, which could forecast the output from a set of desired parameters or vice versa [5]. A mathematical model can be made to solve the above problem using differential equations depicting the actual physical phenomena. Welding is a process comprising of a number of complicated natural phenomena, all of which may not be fully understood. In such situations, models are made from the outcomes of experiments performed as per some statisticaldesigns and then analyzed by regression methods to predict the required output. The regression equations can be either linear or non-linear [5]. 2.1 Optimization work done on weld bead geometry Andersen et al. [6] have explained some concepts related to neural networks and how they can be used to model weld-bead geometry, in terms of equipment parameters, in order to evaluate the accuracy of neural networks for ward modeling. They carried out a number of simulations and they used actual GTAW data for this purpose. The data consisted of values for voltage, current, electrode travel speed and wire feed speed and the corresponding bead width, penetration, reinforcement height and bead cross-sectional area. The performance of neural networks for weld modeling was presented and evaluated using actual welding data. It was concluded that the accuracy of neural networks modeling is fully comparable with the accuracy achieved by more traditional modeling schemes. Yang and Chandel (1993) performed both linear as well as non-linear regression analysis to model submerged arc welding process. Non-linear regression equations are generally used to model welding phenomena but it was observed by Yang and Chandel (1993) during modeling of submerged arc welding process that linear regression equations were equally suitable. The above statistical regression analysis yielded more or less satisfactory results, while predicting the response from the process parameters [5-8]. Park and Rhee [9] have analyzed the signal of the plasma, or spatter, and bead size, to develop a bead size estimation system using the regression method and a neural networks method. It was found that the relationship is a non-linear function caused by the penetration state. In contrast, the authors concluded that the regression models were appropriate for estimation when classifying the penetration state as partial-penetration and full penetration, whereas, the neural network was a very accurate estimation approach for bead size. Gunaraj and Murugan (1999, 2000a) [10] performed experiments with submerged arc welding of stainless steel pipes, based on central composite design (CCD) with four factors, each of them set at its five levels. Regression equations were used to predict bead geometric parameters like bead height, bead width and weld penetration. Those models were found to be good in predicting an output from a given set of input parameters [5]. Raveendra and Parmar [11] have built mathematical models using the fractional factorial technique to predict the weld-bead geometry and shape relations (penetration, width, and reinforcement height, width to penetration ratio and percentage dilution). The parameters of the FCAW process considered in this work were: arc voltage, welding current, welding speed, gun angle and nozzle to plate distance. They have developed models which can be used either to predict the bead geometry or to determine a combination or a range of parameters to obtain the desired bead geometry dimensions within the factors domain [1]. Kim et al. (2002) did a study on relationship between process variables and bead penetration for robotic CO2 arc welding. The control variables they selected were measured response (mm), welding current, arc voltage, welding speed and welding angle. They found out
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some formulas relating these variables to how they affect the weld bead geometry [12]. Tarng, Juang and Chang (2002) used grey-based Taguchi methods to determine submerged arc welding process parameters in hardfacing. Hardfacing involves the application of decomposition on the surface of a metallic workpiece by employing a welding method. They studied the variations in welding parameters such as arc current, arc voltage, welding speed, electrode stick-out and preheat temperature. They concluded that higher the deposition rate and hardness in the SAW process, the better is the welding performance. Also the smaller the dilution in the SAW process, the better is the welding performance [13]. Koleva [14] has developed models to investigate the influence of electron beam welding (EBW) parameters namely electro beam power, welding velocity, distance from the main surface of the magnetic lens to the focus point and the distance between the magnetic lens and the sample surface on the welding depth and width. The experiment was performed with samples of austenitic steel, type 1H18NT. Also, the desirability approach was used to find the optimal welding conditions which would lead to the desired depth and width. The author has suggested the use of the developed models for online control of the process. This allows the selection of the optimal levels eliminates the time required for testing and prevents losses of components. Paola Bassani et al. (2005) studied the process parameters on bead properties of A359/SiC metal matrix composites welded by laser. The variable control factors were the beam power and the laser travel speed. Bead on plate welds on the metal composites were performed with the CO2 and diode lasers in accordance with the operation conditions. Bead width and height were optimized [15]. Palani and Murugan (2006) worked on the the optimization of weld bead geometry for stainless steel claddings deposited by FCAW. Cladding is a process of depositing a relatively thick layer of filler material on carbon or low alloy steel base metal. The study was carried out in two steps. In the first step, regression models for the prediction of area of penetration, dilution, coefficient of internal shape and coefficient of external shape were developed from the data obtained by conducting the experiments. The control variables selected were welding current, speed and nozzle to plate distance. They concluded that among the three parameters only any two factors play a dominant role in determining a bead geometry parameter [16]. Ganjigatti (2007) developed a new methodology to model the inputoutput relationships by carrying out regression analysis cluster-wise, which took care of the forecasting of intermediate points, as well [17]. Vidyut Dey et al. (2007) suggested a genetic algorithm based model for optimizing the bead geometry for electron beam welding considering the parameters as bead height, bead penetration, and bead width which was subjected to the conditions of voltage, current and speed. On varying values of these conditions results were found and the optimized results for bead height was 0.48mm; for bead width was 1.87mm; for bead penetration was 5.02mm [5]. Siva, Murugan and Logesh (2007) optimized weld bead geometry in plasma transferred arc hardfaced austenitic stainless steel plates using genetic algorithm. The experiments were conducted based on a five factor, five level central composite rotatable design matrix. A genetic algorithm was developed to optimize the process parameters for achieving the desired bead geometry variables [18]. Babu, Senthil Kumar and Balasubramanian (2008) optimized pulsed current gas tungsten arc welding parameters of AA6061 aluminum alloy using Hooke and Jeeves algorithm. The parameters taken were peak current, base current, pulse frequency and pulse on time. They plotted various graphs and developed contours by conducting various experiments by varying the values of the parameters [19]. 3. Conclusion The optimization methods covered in this survey are appropriate for modeling, control and optimizing the different welding process. The survey reveals the high level of interest in the adaptation of RSM and ANNs to predict response(s) and optimize the welding process. Generally, there is a lack of comparative study regarding the performance of the optimization methods, in other words for a given optimization problem which method would suit better. Combining two optimization techniques, such as GA and RSM, would reveal good results for
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finding out the optimal welding conditions. Future work should focus on the application of these modeling and optimization techniques to find out the optimal welding combinations for a certain welding process at which the process could be considered safe, nature friendly and economical. References [1] K.Y. Benyounis, A.G. Olabi. Optimization of different welding processes using stastical and numerical approaches-a reference guide, Advances in Engineering Software, 2008, 483-496. [2] K.Y. Benyounis, A.G. Olabi, M.S.J. Hashmi. Effect of laser welding parameters on the heat input and weld-bead profile. Journals of Materials Processing Technology, 164-165, 2005, 978-985. [3] Kim IS, Son KJ, Yang YS, Yaragada PKDV. Sensitivity analysis for process parameters in GMA welding processes using a factorial design method. Int J Mach Tools Manuf, 43, 2003, 7639. [4] Y.S. Tarng, W.H. Yang- optimization of the weld bead geometry in gas tungsten arc welding by the Taguchi Method, Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 14, 1998, 549-554. [5] Vidyut Deya, Dilip Kumar Pratihara, G.L. Dattaa, M.N. Jhab, T.K. Sahab, A.V. Bapatboptimization of bead geometry in electron beam welding using a genetic algorithm. Journal of Materials Processing Technology,2007,1151-1157. [6] Andersen K, Cook G, Karsai G, Ramaswamy K. Artificial neural network applied to arc welding process modeling and control. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 26(5),1990, 82430. [7] Yang LJ, Bibby MJ, Chandel RS. Linear regression equations for modeling the submergedarc welding process. J Mater Process Technol, 39,1993, 3342. [8] Juang SC, Tarng YS, Lii HR. A comparison between the back propagation and counterpropagation networks in the modeling of the TIG welding process. J Mater Process Technol 75, 1998, 5462. [9] Park H, Rhee S. Estimation of weld bead size in Co2 laser welding by using multiple regression and neural network. J Laser Appl 11(3),1999,14350. [10] Gunaraj, V., Murugan, N., 1999. Prediction and comparison of the area of the heat-affected zone for the bead-on-plate and bead-on-joint in submerged arc welding of pipes. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 95, 246261. [11] Raveendra J, Parmar RS. Mathematical models to predict weld bead geometry for flux cored arc welding. J Metal Construct ,19(2), 1987, 31R5R. [12] Kim IS, Son JS, Park CE, Lee CW, Prasad YKDV. A study on prediction of bead height in robotic arc welding using a neural network. J Mater Process Technol, 130131,2002, 229 34. [13] Juang SC, Tarng YS. Process parameters selection for optimizing the weld pool geometry in the tungsten inert gas welding of stainless steel. J Mater Process Technol 2002, 122, 337. [14] Koleva E. Statistical modeling and computer programs for optimization of the electron beam welding of stainless steel. J Vacuum, 62, 2001,1517. [15] Paola Bassani, Edorado Capello, Daniele Colombo, Barbara Previtali, Maurizio Veddanieffect of process parameters on bead properties of A359/SiC MMC welded by laser, 2007, 1089-1098. [16] P.K.Palani, N.Murugan-optimization of weld bead geometry for stainless steel claddings deposited by FCAW, Journals Of Materials Processing Technology, 2007, 291-299. [17] Ganjigatti, J.P., Pratihar, D.K., RoyChoudhury, A., 2007. Global versus cluster-wise regression analyses for prediction of bead geometry in MIG welding process. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189, 352366 [18] K.Siva, N. Murugan and R.Logesh (2007)- Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 41:24-30 [19] S.Babu, T.Senthil Kumar and V.Balasubramanian (2008)-Trans nonferrous met. Soc., 10281036.
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Study of Effect of Material Property Variation on Tube Hydroforming Process

Mali A. Y.1*, Gangurde S. R.2
2 1
Guru Gobind Singh Polytechnic, Nashik-422009, MS, India. K. K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik MS, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: anil_mali191079@yahoo.com)
The tube hydroforming (THF) technology has been widely used in manufacturing of high rigidity structural components used in automotive industry. However, as the deformation behavior of the tube is relatively complex, it is very essential to study the effect of the process parameters, material parameters, tool parameters, and process limit on THF. The effect of different material parameters, such as the plastic strain ratio (r- value), strain hardening exponent (n- value) on the hydroformability of tubes is discussed in this paper.
1.
Introduction
In many industrial and aeronautical applications lightweight construction is very crucial. Hydroforming technology can achieve weight reduction of about 30% in comparison to conventionally manufactured components. However, in order to reduce the weight of the component, the material has to go to greater depth of draw i.e. up to maximum limit strains. n Fig. 1 and 2. shows the basic tube hydroforming process and principle of operation. In many hydroforming parts, the same forming limit strains are applied as for conventional stamping processes [1]. Hence, the tube hydroforming (THF) technology has been widely used in manufacturing of high rigidity structural components used in automotive industry. However many failures like wrinkling, buckling, folding back, and bursting are frequently experienced during the THF process under improper forming conditions [2]. THF is a complex process that is combined with certain other processes such as the pre-bending, hydraulic bulging, and stamping of tubes. Therefore, the deformation behavior of the tube is relatively complex. It is also important to study the effect of the process parameters, material parameters, tool parameters, and process limit on THF [3]. The effect of different
Figure1. Tube hydroforming
Figure 2. Principle of hydroforming process [4]
material parameters, such as the plastic strain ratio (r- value), strain hardening exponent (nvalue) on the hydroformability of tubes is discussed in this paper. Material properties have significant impact on the THF process as well as the quality of the deformed tube, so it is important to select proper materials and evaluate the material formability prior to actual processing. As THF is a relatively new technology compared to conventional stamping there is less information available that can be used in selecting proper material. Furthermore, investigation of any variation in the incoming material is required to identify for its consequent effects during hydroforming, post processing (such as piercing, cutting and welding) and performance in the actual life.[13]. This paper presents a technological study of variation in material properties on THF process.
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The overall success of hydroforming product heavily depends on the incoming tubular material properties. Material properties such as composition, weld type, yield and tensile strength, ductility, anisotropy must be determined for tubes. Monitoring and controlling of tube rolling, welding and annealing processes should be conducted carefully to produce tubes with desired properties. Followings are the required characteristics of tubular materials for quality THF applications such as high and uniform elongation, high strain-hardening exponent, low anisotropy, and close mechanical and surface properties of weld line to the base material, good surface quality, free of scratches, close dimensional tolerances), burr free ends, and tube edges perpendicular to the longitudinal axis [5]. 2. Literature review
Manabe and Nishimura [6] investigated influence of the strain-hardening exponent and anisotropy on forming of tubes in hydraulic bulging and nosing processes. They briefly presented the maximum internal pressure as a function of tube radius, thickness, strainhardening exponent, and strength coefficient assuming no axial loading condition. Results of the plastic anisotropy study showed that the r-value in hoop direction affected the internal pressure requirement, while r-value in longitudinal direction affected the maximum expansion of the tube. Fuchizawa [7] analyzed bulge forming of finite-length, thin-walled cylinders under internal pressure using incremental plasticity theory. He presented the influence of strain-hardening exponent on limits of bulge height. Similar to Manabe et al., he utilized the fundamental plasticity and membrane theories in his predictions. Internal pressure and maximum expansion radius were expressed in terms of length, diameter, strength coefficient (K) and strain-hardening exponent (n). The strain-hardening exponent (n-value) study showed that as the n-value increased, the internal pressure required to form a certain bulge height is decreased, thickness distribution became more uniform, and greater expansion was realized. Later, Fuchizawa [8] extended his studies to explore the influence of plastic anisotropy on deformation behavior of thin-walled tubes under only internal pressure. He based his analysis on deformation theory and Hill's theory of plastic anisotropy. With increasing anisotropy in longitudinal axis, thinning is reduced while obtainable expansion gets larger with less internal pressure requirement [9]. Assuming that the tube materials obey power law of strain hardening, experimental and calculated results were found to be in good agreement. Studies of Manabe and Fuchizawa on anisotropy effects were mostly found useful in THF applications involving aluminum products. Carleer et al.[10] performed experiments and FE simulations by Pam Stamp to gain insight into the free-expansion behavior of various steel grades. The influence of the material parameters especially r-value and n-value on the geometry, tube profile, strain distribution and thickness distribution was determined as in Fig.3-6. An analytical model developed by them succeeded in explaining shape transitions during free expansion hydroforming of tubes and also provides a simple tool to predict a ranking of steel grades suitable for hydroforming. The behavior of tube profile and thickness distribution by analytical model is illustrated in Fig.7-9.
Figure 3.Geometry of free expanded Figure 4.Strain distribution for free expansion tube for different r-values. [10] of a tube with different r-values.[10]
Manabe and Amino [11] confirmed factors affecting wall thickness distribution of the hydroformed tube by FEM simulation using LSDYNA3D and experimental work. The process model involves simple hydroforming of a square expanded product from a round tube using combined axial load and internal pressure in order to identify the factors influencing the deformation behavior. Experimental results using an aluminum alloy tube (A6063) are in good
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Fig.5.Tube profile for materials with different r-values [10]
Fig.6. Tube profile for materials with different n-values [10]
Fig.7.Tube profile for materials with different r-values [10]
Fig.8. Thickness distribution corresponding to the profiles of Fig.7 [10]
Fig.9. Profiles and thickness distribution for material with different n-values [10]
agreement with FEM simulation results. Local thinning which causes fracture proceeds in case of high friction coefficient and materials with low n-value and r-value. By increasing the stress ratio m, i.e. axial loading to internal pressure, uniformity of wall thickness of the hydroformed part can be achieved. Comparison of wall thickness distribution under different r-values and nvalues is given in Fig.10 and 13 whereas influence of them on maximum expansion radius-axial displacement is described in Fig.11 and 12. Sungtae and Youngsuk [12] used analytical models to determine the forming limits for THF process and demonstrate how the loading path and material parameters of the strain hardening exponent (n-value) and anisotropic parameter (rvalue) influence the forming results. They developed the analytical model for necking criterion of tube during bulging process and forming limits of wrinkling during bulging process. The results were then compared with Backs experimental results summarizing that the bursting pressure is higher with an increased anisotropic parameter and lower strain hardening exponent. Muammer [13] studied the effects of loading path and material property variations on: a) part quality specifications and b) production equipment capacity requirements for a production scale automotive structural frame part concluding that variation of n-value from 0.16 to 0.22 causes a difference of 0.07 in the expansion ratio (this corresponds to 7% expansion difference) as in Fig.14. Hence under these conditions it can be concluded that variation of n value between 0.16 and 0.22 would not substantially affect the attainable bulge height and thickness specification of the hydroformed part. But, he also mentioned that, this may not be the case for a different material or grade, or under different processing conditions.
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Fig. 10. Comparisons of wall thickness Fig. 11. Influence of n-value on maximum distribution under different n-values.[11] expansion radius-axial displacement.[11]
Fig.12. .Influence of n-value on maximum expansion radius-axial displacement.[11]
Fig. 13. Comparisons of wall thickness distribution under different n-values.[11]
Lejeune et al. [14] presented influence of material and process parameters on bursting during hydroforming process. First, forming limit diagram (FLD) is built to validate the approach and the influence of material parameters is illustrated. Secondly, the criterion is implemented in
Fig. 14. Effect of strain hardening exponent (n) on the expansion ratio (r1/r0) [13]
Fig. 15. Influence of the n-value on formability of Cu-brass [14]
Fig.16. Effects of the n-value on the thickness distribution [15]
Fig.17. Effects of the r-value on the thickness distribution [15]
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finite element code HYDROFORM. The considered material is copper brass. It is found that, in the expansion domain, the FLD is an increasing curve for n-parameter smaller than 0.33 and a decreasing one for n-parameter greater than 0.33 in Fig. 15. X. Xu et. al. [15] studied mathematically the thickness distribution along the cross-section of a square sectional hydroformed part and the effects of the friction coefficient, the strain-hardening exponent and the anisotropic coefficient on the thickness distribution of hydroformed parts are investigated as in Fig. 16 and 17. They concluded that the increment of either the strain-hardening exponent or the anisotropic coefficient helps to improve the thickness uniformity of the tube wall. Therefore, a high level of strain-hardening exponent and anisotropic coefficient is expected in selection of tube material. 3. Conclusions
The overall success of hydroforming product heavily depends on the incoming tubular material properties. Material properties have significant impact on the THF process as well as the quality of the deformed tube, so it is important to select proper materials and evaluate the material formability prior to actual processing. The strain hardening coefficient and plastic anisotropic ratio are the two very important material properties in this regards for THF. Therefore it is necessary to study the effect of these parameters thoroughly on THF. Local thinning which causes fracture proceeds in case of high friction coefficient and materials with low n-value and r-value. The strain-hardening exponent and the anisotropic coefficient helps to improve the thickness uniformity of the tube wall of hydroformed parts. Therefore, in order to obtain hydroformed parts with uniform wall thickness, tubular materials with high n-value and rvalue should be selected and good lubrication should be maintained. References [1] H.Lucke, Ch.Hartl, T. Abbey, Hydroforming, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 115, 2001, 87-91. [2] M. Koc, T. Altan, Prediction of forming limits and parameters in the tube hydroforming process, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacturing, 42, 2002,123-138. [3] S.T.Kim, S.E.Kim, T.K.Lee, Y.S.Kim, Experimental studies of the forming process for the tubular hydroforming technology, J.Korean Soc. Technol. Plast. 9 (1), 2000, 35-42. [4] M. Keigler, H. Bauer, D. Harrison, A.K.M. De Silva, Enhancing the formability of aluminium components via temperature controlled hydroforming, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 167 (2005) 363370. [5] M. Koc, T. Altan, An overall review of the THF technology, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 108 2001, 384-393. [6] K. Manabe, H. Nishimura, Influence of material properties in forming of tubes, Bander Bleche Rohre 9 (1983). [7] S. Fuchizawa, Influence of strain hardening exponent on the deformation of thin-walled tube of finite length subjected to hydrostatic external pressure, Adv. Technol. Plasticity 1, 1984, 297-302. [8] S. Fuchizawa, Influence of plastic anisotropy on deformation of thin walled tubes in bulge forming, Adv. Technol. Plasticity, 2, 1987, 727-732. [9] S. Fuchizawa, Deformation of metal tubes under hydrostatic bulge forming with closed die, Adv. Technol. Plasticity, 3, 1990, 1543-1548. [10] B.Carleer, G. van der Kevie, L.de Winter, B. van Veldhuizen, Analysis of the effect of material properties on the hydroforming process of tubes, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 104, 2000,158-166. [11] K. Manabe, M. Amino, Effect of process parameters and material properties on deformation process in THF, J. Mater. Process. Technol.,123, 2002, 285-291. [12] S. Kim, Y. Kim, Analytical study for THF, J. Mater. Process. Technol.,128, 2002, 232-239. [13] M. Koc, Investigation of the effect of loading path and variation in material properties on robustness of the THF process, J. Mater. Process. Technol.133, 2003, 276-281. [14] A. Lejeune, N. Boudeau, J. Gelin, Influence of material and process parameters on bursting during hydroforming process, J. Mater Process. Technol. 143-144, 2003, 11-17. [15] In press X. Xu, S. Li, W. Zhang, Z. Lin, Analysis of thickness distribution of squaresectional hydroformed parts, J. Mater. Process. Tech, 2008, doi: 10.1016/jmatprotec. 2008.01.034.
779
Determination of Optimal Process Parameters in Metal Injection Moulding For Bilayer of 316l-SS & Fe Combinations
Ashish D. Urade K.I.T.S., Ramtek - 441 106, Nagpur Dist. (India) Corresponding author (e-mail: ashishurade@yahoo.com) Metal injection moulding (MIM) is emerging as upcoming age technology for processing of complex shaped parts at a competitive cost. In this paper an attempt is being made to establish interface layers contact stability for bi-layer metals combinations on intricate macro geometry as gear, cylinder and ring made by two layers. Feedstocks made with different loadings either of 316L stainless steel (SS), carbonyl iron (CIP) and electrolytic iron (IP) powders were co injected into dies designed to obtain radial as well as axial density variations, with intension to increase powder loading proportions. The optimal conditions for debinding and sintering were established through design of experiments.An important part of activities are concentrated to control over size and location of porosity in the part for bilayer metals combinations. The advantages of bilayer injection process are that products with different properties in various locations can be made. The sintered product characteristics like microstructures, density and porosity of green and sintered bilayer were studied. Dissimilar feedstocks were found to give steeper density gradients thereby, investigated new norms going to be established in co injected MIM. 1. Introduction Powder metallurgical route of manufacturing provides great flexibility in tailoring the material properties to achieve desired product characteristics. For instance, functionally graded materials have become a reality. Flexibility in combination of powders of different metals and alloys imparts this processing route an edge over the conventional means of processing. A tailored distribution of density across the product may be obtained by building it up in layers, each having an appropriate density. This is possible by compacting together several layers of feedstock to get desired density distribution on sintering. The present work attempts to study shapes made in two layers of different densities using MIM. Gradients in density may be created by design, by co-injecting layers of a number of different feedstocks and sintering them to different densities. The main control variables are a) powder particle size and shape (b) powder loading (c) debinding time and temperature (d) sintering atmosphere, time and temperature. 2. Literature review
The effects of processing variables on product quality at various stages in metal injection moulding have been studied and documented by[1-7],to name a few in particular, the literature places due emphasis on properties of feedstock and its effects on debinding and sintering processes. The injection parameters for different layers should be similar and sintering should be non-isothermal [1, 2]. Height to radius ratio of each layer must be maintained at approximately 0.5 or less [1]. Very thin layers must however be avoided since they are prone to distortion due to interfacial stresses [3]. A small shrinkage strain rate incompatibility between the layers was however found to enable a higher and faster densification in the bilayer [3]. Optimisation of sintering parameters in co-sintering is crucial in minimising interfacial shear strains. These were also found to be higher in vacuum sintering than in hydrogen [3]. Sintering in hydrogen was found to give higher sintered density as compared to vacuum sintering. The constituent layers must have similar sintering characteristics. Sintering rate of feedstock in one layer may be enhanced to match that of adjoining layer by choosing a finer particle size [5].
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The present work aims at studying MIM processing variables for manufacture of products in two layers differing in density. Feedstocks differing in chemical composition, particle size and powder loading were prepared. In the present paper three bilayered geometries, namely gear, a cylinder and a ring were made by MIM using different species of powders and those with different particle sizes. Simultaneously, two directions of injection were studied wherein the interface between the two layers was (a) perpendicular to the axis of axisymmetric product and (b) parallel to the axis. The technological issues involved at each stage in processing of these two configurations are discussed.
3.
Experimental methodology
The feedstocks were prepared using a sigma blade mixer fabricated for the purpose. The injection moulding was performed using AB-200 Metal Injection Moulding machine. While thermal debinding and sintering were performed using a Therelek tubular vacuum sintering furnace. 3.1 Feedstock preparation In the present investigations three commercially produced powders, namely, a) 316L stainless steel powder (SS) of 25 microns mean particle size b) iron powder (CIP- made by the carbonyl method) of 7 microns mean particle size c) iron powder (IP-made by electrolytic method) of 18 microns mean particle size were used to prepare three basic feedstocks. A mixture of small and big irregular particles in Stainless steel (316L) and Iron powders would be expected to provide better interlocking and enable a higher debinding rate. The feedstock consisted of powder, binder (paraffin wax (PW) melting at 58.57 C, Stearic acid (SA) at 68.03 C and HDPE at 131.15 C) and a surfactant like stearic acid HDPE is added to increase strength of green sample. Stearic acid coats surface of powder to enhance adhesion between binder and powder. Paraffin wax is used to reduce viscosity of feedstock, i.e., enhance its flowability for injection mouldability. The feedstock identification in second column in Table 1 refers to the powder species (SS/CIP/IP), the mean particle size and the powder loading in weight percent. For instance, SS2590% would refer to feedstock having 316L stainless steel powder of mean particle size of 25m at 90% powder loading. Similarly, 10% binder (HDPE - 25, SA 5, PW 70 refers to 10% by weight of binder in feedstock, of which 70% is paraffin wax, 5% stearic acid and 25% HDPE. During mixing care was taken to avoid heterogeneous distribution of metal powder in the binder. Table1. Details of feedstock compositions Feedstock Feedstock Feedstock composition Type code (by weight) Feedstock-A SS2590% 90% 316L SS powder 10%Binder(HDPE-25:SA-5:PW-70) Feedstock-B SS2591% 91% 316L SS powder 9%Binder (HDPE-25:SA-5:PW-70) Feedstock-C IP1889% 89%Electrolytic Iron 11%Binder(HDPE-25:SA-5:PW-70) Powder Feedstock-D CIP789% 89% Carbonyl Iron 11%Binder(HDPE-25:SA-5:PW-70) Powder Feedstock-E CIP790% 90% Carbonyl Iron 10%Binder(HDPE-30:SA-5:PW-65) Powder These feedstocks were injected into mould specially prepared for bi-layered samples, each layer having a density different from that of the other. The second layer differed from first in chemical composition of the powder, particle size and powder loading. As the quality of final parts is sensitive to homogeneity of mixture (i.e., no segregation of the powder from the binder), injection temperature is very important. The injection temperature therefore was set at 170C, i.e., slightly higher than feedstock mixing temperature. 3.2 Debinding and sintering The amount of binder extracted during solvent debinding increased with temperature of the solvent (n-heptane). The rate of removal of the binder at a temperature higher than 7080C was found to be excessive and the product disintegrated. Hence, an experimental study using Design of Experiments (DOE) was carried out (as shown in Table 2)to obtain the optimal solvent temperature and time of debinding, together with sintering conditions.
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Expt. Trial
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8* 4.
Table 2. Optimal debinding and sintering conditions for a Co-MIM process Co-MIM process factors Investigation in the experiments in sequential executions Solvent Solven Heating Sinter Success Success Process Temp. t Time Rate Temp. In Sol. In path Debind Sintering Success 70C 2hr <1.5C/min 1250C N -00% 70C 2hr <1.5C/min 1160C N -00% 70C 3.5hr 2C/min 1250C N -00% 70C 3.5hr 2C/min 1160C N -00% 55C 2hr 2C/min 1250C Y N 50% 55C 2hr 2C/min 1160C Y N 50% 55C 3.5hr <1.5C/min 1250C Y N 50% 55C 3.5hr <1.5C/min 1160C Y Y 100% Experimental results and discussion:
Different geometries of injection moulded parts together with different orientations of inter-layer interface are seen in Fig.1 Three geometries were moulded namely, an involute spur gear (having 18 teeth and pitch circle diameter 22.5mm), a bimetallic cylinder (diameter 20mm) with injection perpendicular to axis of product for radial density variation and a ring(outer diameter 20mmwith inside diameter10mm) having the interface between two layers parallel to the axis of ring for axial density variation as illustrated in the figures, show macro sized bilayered products.
a) bilayered involute gear b) bilayered cylinder c) bilayered ring Figure1. bilayered sample productsfor different feedstoks combination
4.1 Thermogravimetric analysis(TGA)
Figure 2. Thermogravimetric analysis sample profile for Feedstock A-SS2590% The thermogravimetric profiles (TGA) in Fig.2 shows that the binder starts degrading at about 180C and degrades completely at about 550C. The TGA curves showed a significant loss of binder between 210C and 470C. HDPE was found to degrade around 470C. This helped to drive the thermal debinding and sintering cycles characteristic from TGA analysis.
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4.2
Microstructure analysis
Fig.3 (a-d) show the microstructures examined under a scanning electron microscope (SEM), of green compacts for the bilayered geometries studied. The interface between layers lies between two parallel lines marked. When two layers were made from same material (e.g. Stainless steel feedstocks SS2590% and SS2591 as in Fig.3-a) the interface is practically invisible since the two layers seem to merge together due to similar particle size, similar uniform distribution porosity and the absence of concentration of defects at the interface. The interface in the green compact is difficult to detect because of uniform distribution of porosity. That in the sintered compact having layers of dissimilar materials is detectable because the two layers have different chemical properties, colour, porosity and particle size.
a)SS2590%&SS2591% feedstocks
b) SS2590%&CIP789% feedstocks
c)SS2590%&IP1889% feedstocks
4.3
d) CIP789%&IP1889% feedstocks
Figure 3. Microstructures of various bi-layered feedstocks combination Density measurements
Density of single layered sintered parts injection moulded from the feedstocks of 316L- SS and IP powders was measured by using a DHONA-200D microanalytical balance of range 0.0001-200gm. The density (and hence the porosity) was determined from the ratio of the dry weight to the difference between the weight of the soaked sample in air and that in water. Here the two layers of a bilayered product would experience identical conditions of sintering. But, each feedstock would however sinter to different levels of porosity and surface finish. Hence post-sintering characteristics of different feedstocks were studied using single layered samples made from the feedstocks prepared. The density comparison of a number of feedstocks sintered to different temperatures is given in Fig.4. In case of 316L- Stainless steel powder it is found that, as sintering temperature increases upto 1300C, simultaneously the density also goes on increasing. In case of the Iron powers feedstocks- CIP789% gives maximum highest desired density upto 81% due to fine powder particle size 4-7 and favourable sintering temperature process characteristics for iron powder, as it starts at 700C and end at1160C, resulting optimum properties.
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SS-Density Meas urement 120

Theoretical Dens % ity
Theoretical Density %
IP-Density Measurement 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 IP CIP789 S tandard (1160C) CIP790 (1160C) IP1889 (1160C) Density% Porosity%
100 80 60 40 20 0 S S S tandard S 2590 S (1160C) S 25 91 S 25 91 S S (1160C) (1250C)

Density% Porosity%
Type of Feeds tock
Type of Feedstock
Figure4. Density comparison for different 316L-SS and IP feedstocks sintered at various temperatures
5. Conclusions
a) Radial and axial density gradients were obtained in three bilayered product geometries using feedstocks of different compositions co-injected into dies designed for the purpose. The orientation of interface (ratio of interface area to the product surface area) is significant in solvent debinding. b) With the Design of Experiment approach, solvent temperature of about 55 C, heating rate of about 1.25C/min in thermal debinding and about 1.5C /min in sintering are recommended for bilayered products. The microstructures after sintering show absence of cracks/ concentration of defects at interface. c) A large particle size and powder loading difference between two layers together with heating rate in sintering caused large interface shear strain and strain rate and consequent interface delamination. d) Post sintering porosity levels of about 50 percent were obtained in coarse grained feedstock. Significant differences in porosity across the interface between layers moulded from dissimilar feedstocks were obtained. Acknowledgements The author would like to gratefully acknowledge Metal Forming Lab. and NanoTechnology Dept. at IIT-Bombay for supporting research work and also thanks to HOGANAS for 316-SS, BASF for carbonyl IP and to Reliance Research Centre, for the supply of MIM materials. References [1] A. Simchi, A. Rota, P. Imgrund, An investigation on the sintering behavior of 316L and 174PH stainless steel powders for graded composites, Materials Science and Engineering, 424, 2006, 282289 [2] Ph. Imgrund, A. Rota, A. Simchi, Microinjection moulding of 316L/17-4PH and 316L/Fe powders for fabrication of magneticnonmagnetic bimetals, Journal of materials processing technology, 200 ,2008, 259 264 [3] D. Ravi, D.Green, Sintering stresses and distortion produced by density differences in bilayer structures, Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 26, 2006, 1725 [4] Th. Barriere, B. Liub, J.C. Gelin, Determination of the optimal process parameters in metal injection molding from experiments and numerical modelling, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 143144 ,2003, 636644 [5] N.H. Loh , R.M. German, Statistical analysis of shrinkage variation for powder injection molding, Journal of Materials Processing Technology ,59 ,1996, 278-284. [6] R. Supati, N.H. Loh, K.A. Khor, S.B. Tor, Mixing and characterization of feedstock for powder injection moulding, Materials Letters, 46 ,2000,109114. [7] D.F. Heaney, Qualification method for powder injection moulded components, P/M Science & Technology Briefs, 6, No.3, 2004, 21-27.
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Effect of Cryogenic Cooling on Machinability of Nimonic C-263 during End Milling

Bikramjit Podder , D.R.Yadav 1 and S. Paul2
1 1*
Defence Research & Development Laboratory, Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad-500058, India 2 Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: bikramjitpodder@yahoo.com) TiN/TiAlN coated carbide inserts were used to study the machinability of Nimonic C-263 under conventional cooling and cryogenic cooling. Water based soluble oil with 6% concentration and liquid Nitrogen (LN2) was used during conventional cooling and cryogenic cooling respectively. Experiments were carried out under different cutting speed and feed conditions to analyze tool life, tool failure modes, surface integrity and chip morphology. Analysis of the test results shows that LN2 cooling produced poor results compared to conventional cooling in terms of tool life and surface integrity. 80% tool life reduction was observed in case of LN2 cooling compared to conventional wet for high speed-feed combinations. This can be attributed to the higher thermal fluctuation in the case of LN2 cooling leading to faster chipping of cutting edge. Level of work hardening was also observed to be on higher side in case of LN2 cooling compared to conventional cooling. Chipping of the cutting was found to be the dominating tool failure mode in all the cases.
1.
Introduction
Advanced engineering materials, such as Nickel based superalloys and Titanium offer unique combination of properties like high strength at elevated temperatures, resistance to chemical degradation and high strength to weight ratio [1]. Machining of these material is accompanied with a number of difficulties. It results in generation of high temperature along with high compressive stresses at cutting edge. This leads to plastic deformation and chipping of cutting edge, notching at depth of cut line [2]. Poor thermal conductivity of such workpiece materials makes the situation worse, resulting in high temperature at tool-chip and tool-workpiece interfaces during machining, thus, accelerating temperature dependent tool wear. Coolants play a significant role in this regard by removing heat from the cutting zone and improving lubrication during machining. Conventional flood cooling, which is effective when machining at low speed condition, is found to be less beneficial when machining under high speed conditions. The coolant has negligible access to the tool-workpiece or tool-chip interfaces which are under seizure in such cases. Moreover, the coolant tends to vaporize at high temperature and looses its effectiveness by formation of a high temperature blanket [3]. Even addition of extreme pressure additives does not ensure penetration of coolant in chip tool interface to improve lubrication and cooling [4]. Some works have been done on cryogenic cooling by LN2 jet in grinding and machining some steels of regular use. Application of cryogenic cooling resulted lower cutting forces, improved surface finish and increased tool life compared to dry machining. Detailed experimental studies on grinding [57] revealed similar benefits with improved surface integrity compared to dry grinding and grinding with soluble oil. Some work of 1960s and 1970s [810] reported that cryogenic cooling significantly reduced cutting force and temperature and improved tool life and surface integrity in continuous as well as interrupted machining. The review of the literature suggests that cryogenic cooling has an edge in machining and grinding compared to conventional cooling. The objective of the present work is to experimentally investigate the influence of cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen jets on tool life, surface integrity and chip morphology during end milling of Nimonic C-263 by TiN/TiAlN coated carbide inserts and compare the effectiveness of cryogenic cooling with that of conventional cooling.
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2.
Experimental procedure
The machining trials were carried out on a conventional universal milling machine with a maximum spindle power of 5.5 KW. Solution treated, vacuum induction melted and electroslag remelted Nimonic C-263 alloy plates were used during the experimental trials. The chemical composition and significant properties of the workpiece are given in Table1 .
Table 1 Nominal chemical composition and significant properties of Nimonic C-263

Nominal chemical composition (wt %) Carbon 0.06 Silicon 0.30 Manganese 0.5 Aluminum 0.5 Cobalt. 19.0 Chromium 20.1 Copper 0.2 Iron 0.7 Molybdenum 5.8 Titanium 2.1 Nickel Balance Properties Tensile strength (MPa) 0.2% Proof stress (MPa) Elastic Modulus (GPa) Average hardness (HV) 3 Density (g/cm ) Melting point ( C) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Elongation at break Specific Heat Capacity (J/g-C) CTE, linear 20C (m/m-C) 993 600 221 215 8.36 1300 11.7 39% 0.461 10.3
Single inserts type end mill cutter of 12 mm diameter was used during the trials. TiN/TiAlN coated, positive rake carbide inserts suitable for light or medium cut during finish machining were used. Water based soluble oil with 6% concentration was used during machining trials under conventional wet environment, whereas, LN2 jet was used during cryogenic cooling. The following cutting conditions were employed during the experimental investigation: Cutting speed (m/min) : 38, 53 Feed rate (mm/rev): 0.08, 0.114 Depth of cut (mm): 0.7 Cutting environment : conventional wet and cryogenic(LN2) cooling Maximum flank wear (VM) 300 m was selected as tool rejection criteria for the present machining trials. Tool wear was measured using stereo optical microscope (Olympus make) at a magnification of 27. LECO micro hardness tester (LM 700) was used for measurement of Vickers micro-hardness during surface integrity study. A self pressurised 180 liters dewar (XL-45) was used for reliable and steady supply of liquid nitrogen during machining trials under cryogenic environment. Suitable nozzle was designed and developed for effective delivery of LN2 during the experimental trials. The pictorial view of the cryogenic setup has been shown in Fig.1. Holding bracket
Nozzle for LN2 delivery
Figure 1 Setup for machining under cryogenic (LN2) environment
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3. 3.1
Results and discussions Wear study
Typical growth of maximum flank wear (VM) with time for TiN/TiAlN coated carbide inserts under both the machining environments for VC=38 m/min, SO=0.08 mm/rev and DOC=0.7 mm has been shown in Fig.2. From the figure, it is evident that machining under LN2 cooling produced worse result and tool life got reduced by 12% for this combination of machining parameters compared to conventional wet. Due to the inherent characteristics of end milling process, the thermal fluctuation in end milling under LN2 cooling became more severe due to substantial reduction in tool temperature during non cutting period. This increased thermal fluctuation along with fluctuating cutting forces lead to thermo-mechanical fatigue failure of the cutting edge at an earlier stage compared to conventional wet [11]. Similar thermo-mechanical fatigue failure of carbide inserts even under dry environment has earlier been reported by some other researchers [12-14]. In addition to that, sudden increase in growth rate of wear land was observed in case of both conventional and LN2 cooling. Chipping of cutting edge being the most dominant failure mode under both the environments, such sudden increase in flank wear is observed. LN2 cooling produced worse tool life for all the investigated process parameters. Especially for high feed conditions (SO = 0.114 mm/rev), the reduction in tool life under LN2 cooling is severe compared to conventional cooling. Bulk cooling of workpiece materials under LN2 cooling results in high dynamic yield shear strength and thus the cutter is subjected to higher intensity of cutting forces which leads to premature failure of the cutter. The deleterious effects of LN2 cooling in terms of tool life have been briefly shown in Fig.3. From the figure, it is well understood that LN2 cooling impairs machinability of Nimonic C-263 for all investigated combinations of process parameters.
Maximum flank wear (VM) (micron)
500
Conventional cooling LN2 cooling
800
400
600
563 s
Tool life(s)
300
495 s
400
200
100
200
0 0 200 400
Cutting time (s)
600
800
0 CC1 CC2 CC3 CC4
Figure 2 Growth of maximum flank wear (VM) with machining time under conventional and cryogenic cooling
(VC=38 m/min, SO=0.08 mm/rev, DOC=0.7 mm)
Figure 3 Observed tool life of coated carbide tool under both the environments
(CC1: VC=38 m/min; SO=0.08 mm/rev; DOC=0.7 mm CC2: VC=53 m/min; SO=0.08 mm/rev; DOC=0.7 mm CC3: VC=38 m/min; SO=0.114 mm/rev; DOC=0.7 mm CC4: VC=53 m/min; SO=0.114 mm/rev; DOC=0.7 mm)
Regression analysis of tool life data was carried out to establish modified Taylors tool life equations (Table 2) for both the cutting environments. Tool lives predicted by modified Taylors tool life equations have been estimated and they are found to be in agreement with the experimental values.
Table 2 Modified Taylors equations and associated r.m.s errors of predictions

Environment Conv. wet LN2 cooling Modified Taylors tool life equation
T= T=
9052VC
1.2981
SO
0.7327
r.m.s error of prediction 9.36 % 11.03%
50.32VC 2.1661 SO 4.0682
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3.2
Surface integrity
Surface integrity study has been carried out to ascertain level of work hardening and plastic deformation of the machined surface. Maximum hardness for conventional wet was found to be 282 HV whereas for cryogenic cooling it was as high as 383 HV. Excessive heat generation during cutting and rapid cooling under LN2 cooling leads to severe hardening of machined surface and creates problem for further machining. For conventional wet higher hardness was observed upto a depth of 250 m from machined surface, whereas for LN2 cooling higher hardness was measured upto a depth of 450 m. The variations of hardness with depth have been shown in Fig.4.
400 375
Microhardness (HV)
350 325 300 275 250 225

BULK HARDNESS
200 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Depth (micron)
Figure 4 Variation of micro-hardness with depth of machined sample

3.3 Chip morphology
Fig.5 shows the chips produced during end milling of Nimonic C-263 with VC=53 m/min, SO=0.114 mm/rev and DOC=0.7 mm under conventional wet and LN2 cooling. Due to small sizes of the chips, only shape and colour of the chips were studied. From the figure, it is evident that machining under conventional cooling produced chip with blackish top surface, whereas for LN2 cooling such change of colour of the chips were not observed. This indicates that temperature of the chips were higher in case of conventional cooling compared to LN2 cooling.
5mm
5mm
Conventional cooling
LN2 cooling
Fig. 9 Chips produced during end milling of Nimonic C-263 with VC=53 m/min, SO=0.114 mm/rev and DOC=0.7 mm
3. Conlusions
Based on the results of the present experimental investigations the following conclusions can be drawn: a) Effect of cryogenic (LN2) cooling found to be detrimental compared to conventional wet for all sets of investigated machining parameters.
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b) Tool life reduction as high as 80% was observed in case of LN2 cooling compared to conventional wet for high speed-feed combinations. Application of LN2 cooling during end milling of Nimonic 263 is therefore not recommended. c) Chipping of principal cutting edge found to be the most predominant failure mode. Chipping of cutting edge is more severe and sudden in case of LN2 cooling compared conventional wet. d) The effect of feed was found to be predominant compared to cutting speed in case of cryogenic cooling indicating significant role of mechanical forces in insert failure. e) Work hardening of machined surface was observed for both machining environments. The degree of work hardening found to be much severe in case of LN2 cooling. Effect of work hardening is evident upto 250 m beneath machined surface for conventional wet, whereas for LN2 cooling increased hardness was found upto a depth of 450 m. Acknowledgement The first author would like to express their sincere gratitude to Mr. A.K Nandi for extending the high pressure cooling set up for the present research work. The authors are also grateful to Director, Defence Research & Development Laboratory, Hyderabad for providing necessary workpiece materials and cutters and to Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur for providing facilities to carry out the experiments. References [1] [2] W. Konig, et al., Machining of New Materials. CIRP Annals, 39 (2),1990, 673681. Ezugwu, E.O.; Bonney, J. Effect of high-pressure coolant supply when machining nickelbase, Inconel 718 alloy with coated carbide tools. Journal of Material Processing Technology, 153- 154, 2004, 1045-1050. Machado, A.R.; Wallbank, J.; Pashby, I.R.; Ezugwu, E.O. Tool Performance And Chip Control When Machining Ti6Al4V and Inconel 901 Using High Pressure Coolant Supply. Machining Science & Technology, 2(1), 1998, 1-12. C. Cassin, G. Boothroyed. Lubrication actions of cutting fluids, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, 7 (1), 1965, 67-81. Paul, S. and Chattopadhyay.A.B. Effects of cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen jet on forces, temperature and surface residual stresses in grinding. Cryogenics, 35,1995,515 523. S. Paul, A.B. Chattopadhyay, The effect of cryogenic cooling on grinding forces, International Journal of Machine Tool Manufacture. 36 (1),1996,6372. S. Paul, A.B. Chattopadhyay. Determination and control of grinding zone temperature under cryogenic cooling, International Journal of Machine Tool Manufacture. 36 (4), 1996, 491 501. K. Uhera, S. Kumagai, Chip formation, surface roughness, cutting forces and tool wear in cryogenic machining. Annals of CIRP, 17 (1), 1968, 409416. K. Uhera, S. Kumagai, Mechanisms of tool wear. Journal of Japanese Society of Precession Engineering, 35 (9), 1969, 4349. A.D. Fillippi, R. Ippolito. Face milling at 180C. Annals of CIRP, 19 (1),1970, 399-405. Podder, B. and Paul, S. Effect of machining environment on machinability of Nimonic 263 during end milling with uncoated carbide tool. International Journal of Machining and Machinability of Materials, 3 (1/2), 104119. Luttervelt, C.A. and Willemse, H.R. Exit failure of cemented carbide face milling cutters-Part II, Annals of CIRP, 33(1), 1984, 51-54. Pekelkaring, A.J. Exit failure of cemented carbide face milling cutters-Part I, Annals of CIRP, 33(1), 1984,47-50. Paul, S.,Sikdar, C. and Chattapadhyay, A.B. Effects of variation in edge geometry on wear and life of coated carbide face milling inserts.Wear,157,1992,111-126..
[3] [4] [5]
[6] [7]
[8] [9] [10] [11]
[12] [13] [14]
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ISO10303 STEP AP224: A Key of CAD CAM Integration Through Automatic Manufacturing Feature Extraction
Borkar B R , Dr. Puri Y M , Hase V J
1 2 1* 2 3
Amrutvahini College of Engineering, Sangamner - 422608, India Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur - 440010, India 3 Amrutvahini College of Engineering, Sangamner - 422608, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: b_bhaskar69@yahoo.com)
From many years research is going on how to bridge the gap between CAD design and manufacturing. Feature extraction research so far has largely focused on finding all or some possible features, and the task of manufacturing analysis is shifted to process planners. To automate planning activities in a computer integrated manufacturing environment, an integrated system of feature extraction and reasoning is essential. An attempt is made to develop such a system for 3D components. Though certain part-modellers use feature-based methodology, they lack the information required for manufacturing and entire feature information is lost when converted to a neutral format such as STEP AP203. The proposed feature extraction identifies manufacturing features in a generic manner, while feature reasoning gives the information required for manufacturing, taking 3D model data in STEP AP224 format as input to the feature extraction system. AP224 covers product data that defines a single piece machined part to be manufactured, product data that covers parts manufactured by milling or turning, product data that is necessary to track down the customer order in the shop floor, product data necessary to identify the status of a part in the manufacturing process, Product data necessary to track raw stock certification, for features that are necessary for defining shapes necessary for manufacturing.
1.
Introduction
In automatic manufacturing feature extraction, a computer application automatically generates a feature model, given a geometric model and some description of all possible features. Automatic manufacturing feature extraction (AMFE), is an important component in knowledge-based machining (KBM), is used to examine a model, determine which features exist, and extract the features for subsequent processing. By using (KBM) concepts to embed machining intelligence into the CAM software, it will be possible for the software to automatically select the machining processes, speeds and feeds, and cutting tools, and then automatically create the final G-code program. Automated feature extraction has been an active research area in solid modeling for many years, and is considered a critical component for CAD/CAM integration. Automatic Feature Extraction done for the integration between CAD and CAM, means that the information contained within the solid model can be easily and reliably transferred from the users CAD system to the CAM system. Once a solid model is loaded into the CAM system, the user can analyze the model topology to optimize or automate the manufacturing process [1]. A major objective of the paper is to develop a new generation CAD/CAM integration system using the latest tools and technologies, and to fully comply with the international standard for exchange of product data (STEP) Application Protocol 224 (AP224) for process planning using machining features.
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2.
ISO 10303: STEP STEP, standing for STandard for the Exchange of Product Model Data, is officially titled ISO 10303 [4]. The International organisation for Standardisation has been working on this project since 1984 which is also one of its largest development efforts ever. The aim of STEP is to provide a representation of product information along with the necessary mechanisms and definitions to enable product data to be exchanged. The exchange of data is intended between different computer systems and environments associated with the complete product lifecycle including design, manufacture, utilisation, maintenance, and disposal. STEP represents an open standard to meet product data requirements over the entire life cycle of a product, including geometry, topology, tolerances, relationships, attributes, assemblies and configuration. To accomplish its ambitious goal, STEP has been constructed as a multipart ISO standard and is organised as a series of parts and each part is published separately. 2.1 Structure of STEP
STEP Structure
The STEP standard is divided into many parts. The STEP parts can be divided Integrated Resources into Description Methods, Information Generic Resources Models, Application Protocols, Implementation Methods, and Conformance Application Resources Tools [2]. The Information Models and Application Protocols describe the data Application Protocols structures and constraints of a complete product model. Each application protocol Implementation Methods combines one or more information models and places additional constraints on those models. For example, the application Figure 1 - STEP structure protocol for 2D drafting combines parts 42 and 46 and restricts part 42 so that it only describes two-dimensional data.
Description Methods EXPRESS Language
Conformance and Testing Methods
2.2
STEP Application Protocols
STEP uses application protocols (APs) to specify the representation of product information for one or more applications. The APs define the scope, the information to be exchanged, the means of testing and a user guide for implementing the application. The nature of this description makes it suitable not only for neutral file exchange, but also forms a basis for implementing and sharing product databases and archiving. It supports design reuse, data retention, and provides access to data across a product's entire life cycle [5]. 3 Scope of AP224
This Part of ISO 10303 specifies the information needed to define product data necessary for manufacturing single piece mechanical parts. The product data is based on existing part designs that have their shapes represented by machining features. This part supports digital representation for computer integrated manufacturing. The following are within the scope of this Part of ISO 10303: A single mechanical part manufactured by machining processes; Products that are to be manufactured by either milling or turning processes; Machining features for defining shapes necessary for manufacturing (Note: The machining feature set is defined in this part of ISO 10303); Machining features definition items necessary for creating machining form features; Customer order administrative data to track receipt of an order for a part to the shop floor, but not including tracking of the order on the shop floor; Requisition administrative data to identify requirements and track the status of materials and equipment needed to manufacture a part;
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3.1
Track the state of raw stock for documenting the manufacturing history of a part; AP224 Edition 2 (ISO 10303-224 (Ed 2):2001 The scope is extended to address the Representation of Manufactured Assemblies. The content of AP224 is expanded to include: Several new machining features (cutout, recess, rib top, and shape profile), The ability to group features. Features, dimensions, and tolerances are harmonized with AP214. AP224 Edition 3 (ISO 10303-224 (Ed 3):2006 Expand the scope of AP224 to include Gears.
3.2
4 4.1
STEP AP224 Manufacturing Suite Features as key elements
Applications are now capable of handling a more semantically rich data set for the product data and require more than just geometric definitions. To meet these requirements features are being used to define more semantically endowed information about the part product information. Features: The geometric elements and orientation that define surface information and volumes without any semantics. Semantics: the meaning or implication associated with the manufacturing process for the removal of a volume of material. Machining feature: is the combination of a feature and semantics. Therefore it is the geometric information about a well defined shape, and the manufacturing semantics that aid in associating manufacturing volume removal process. Manufacturing feature: is the combination of a feature and the implication that material volume has been removed creating a feature. This is the case for the casting feature.
Figure 2 - APs using Machining features 4.2 Machining features
The machining feature design structure is used to create a suite of features that can be machined by machine operations. By combining paths, profiles, tapers, and end conditions a large variety of machining features is defined. A step feature is created by combining a linear path, and a linear profile, a slot feature can be created by using any type of path element, any type of open profile definition, and two slot end shape definitions. A hole feature can be created by a linear path element, complete circular profile element, a hole bottom definition, and optionally a taper definition. A counterbore hole is the combination of two holes, one larger than the other. For cases where shapes can not be well
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defined with implicit feature definitions protrusion and general geometric shape entity have been created. These features are defined by any irregular shape definition. 4.3 Design to Process Planning
As previously mentioned AP224 was the first AP to define and use machining features within ISO 10303 to be published as an ISO Standard. The purpose of AP224 is to bridge the gap between design and manufacturing by providing machine part information that ensures the design information is 100-percent complete, accurate, computer-interpretable and reusable. Many computer-aided process planning (CAPP) systems on the market enable automated process planning from product data in a digital format. The AP224 standard provides the mechanism to define the digital data that contains the information necessary to manufacture a required part [4]. AP224 defines the exchange of information from design to manufacturing; an example of a typical AP224 exchange is shown graphically in Figure 3 AP224, using a typical part drawing as a reference. The AP defines the explicit feature with geometry using boundary representation (B-rep), and implicit feature with the machining feature definitions. AP224 defines the dimensional and geometric tolerances that can reference either the B-rep geometry, or the implicit feature definition. AP224 also defines part, process, material, and surface properties that can reference B-rep geometry or the implicit feature definition. Also defined in this AP is the implicit or explicit base shape of the part, in other words, the starting raw stock definition from which to manufacture the part. The explicit shape may be considered as a cast or forged shape, the implicit shape is defined as a piece of bar stock. The raw stock definitions also reference the machining features that define the material removal.
Figure 3 - AP224 5 Implementing STEP AP224 for Integration The recent development of the STEP standard opens a new era of interfacing design and manufacturing. STEP AP224 provides a good foundation for sharing manufacturing information between design and manufacturing engineering. AP 224, also called Part 224, is an Application Protocol on the external layer which analyzes and utilizes the entities defined in the integrated resources from the viewpoint of a specific application domain. In addition, the application protocols also contain the conformance requirements and the characteristics of implementation methods. Therefore, it is considered sufficient to consult the specific application protocol when developing an application program.
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Two important prerequisites are considered as the key issue to CAD/CAM systems integration. One is a product data representation model common to CAD and CAM systems. The other is the implementation mechanism for data exchange. The product data that CAD and CAM systems deal with is a part of the total product data model, e.g., CAD deals with geometry and topology data. A global product model is needed, which all systems share common definitions. The product data that each system processes can be a part of the global product data model [6]. Figure 4 shows the dimensional and geometric tolerance description part of an illustrative STEP 224 file. 6 Discussion and Conclusions
Product data representation and exchange based on STEP standard are the key answer to CAD/CAM integration. The application protocol AP224 covers most of Figure 4 - Part of a STEP 224 file, the information required during the whole representing dimensional and geometric lifecycle of the product. By using EXPRESS tolerance information. language this information can be represented in an unambiguous format, facilitates software development and provides mapping to a final STEP format. This format can be used as a transfer mechanism between different computer aided systems. Three issues necessary to integrate design and manufacturing engineering have been addressed: extraction of machining features, handling of technical information, and implementation of a neutral interface. References [1] Kumar A., Saha J., Automatic Data Extraction From ISO10303-21 (STEP) For Feature Recognition, ARISER 4 (3). 2008,129-136. [2] David L., Fundamentals of STEP Implementation, STEP Tools Inc., Troy, New York 12180. [3] Kang M., Han J., Moon J.G., An approach for interlinking design and process planning, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 139, 2003, 589-595. [4] STEP Application Handbook ISO 10303, Version 3, 30 June 2006, SCRA, 5300 International Boulevard, North Charleston, SC 29418. [5] Sharma R., Gao J. X., Implementation of STEP 224 in an Automated Manufacturing Planning System, In: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part B Engineering Manufacture, Sep 2002, 216 (9), 1277-1289. th [6] Amaitik S. M., Towards STEP based CAD/CAPP/CAM Systems, In: 6 International DAAAM Conference INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING, 24-26 April 2008, Tallinn, Estonia.
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Evaluation of Efficiency of Flat panel Used in Coal Mining Industry a case study
Bhavesh P. Patel , Kaushik V. Patel , Shailesh J. Patel
1 2,3 1* 2 3
U. V. Patel College of Engineering, Mehsana, Gujarat, India B. S. Patel Polytechnic, Kherva, Mehsana, Gujarat, India. *Corresponding author (email: bppmech@yahoo.co.in)
The efficiency of screening is determined by the degree of perfection of separation of the material into size fractions above or below the governing dimensions of the aperture. There has been no universally accepted method of finding screen (Flat Panel) performance and a number of widely used methods are employed. The most common screen performance criteria are those which state efficiency based on the recovery of material at a given size, or on the mass of misplaced material in each product. This immediately leads to a range of possibilities, such as undersize in the over screen product, oversize in the through-screen product, or a combination of the two. An efficiency equation can be calculated from a mass balance across a screen. Efficiency analysis essentially revolves around comparing how well the screen separates the feed of the screen into the two or more sized products. Currently four methods of efficiency assessment exist and theres no fixed industry standard. Worse still, the same numbers can yield different figures depending upon method used. Clarify which method used before comparing, otherwise the exercise is pointless. This paper emphasize on evolution of the effectiveness (Over all efficiency) of the flat panel in separating the course material from the underflow and the fine material from the overflow, as well as the application of placement method and misplacement method to carry out the efficiency of screen and comparing the results. 1. Introduction
Industrial sizing of materials is extensively used, and the types of equipment are many and varied, screening is generally carried out on relatively coarse material, as the efficiency decreases rapidly with fineness. The main purpose in the mining industries is to make separation or filtration of crushed material from fine dust to oversize [1]. Separation of material is defined as reducing feed material to two (or more) control sizes. Separation also known as sizing, splitting, and cutting, which can be done either by dry or wet separation [5]. Purposes of screening in mining industry: (a) To prevent the entry of undersize into crushing machines, so increasing their capacity and efficiency. (b) To prevent oversize material from passing to the next stage in closed circuit fine crushing and grinding operations. (c) To prepare a closely sized end product. This is important in quarrying, where the final product size is an important part of the specification [1]. 2. Literature review
In India there are 21 coking coal washeries in production both in private and public sectors. Out of existing 21 Indian washeries, 14 were of 1960s or even earlier and 7 of 1970s and 1980s. Most of these washeries are under modernization and are now in various stages of implementation. Modifications relate to rectification in design deficiencies arising out of changed inferior quality raw coal feed to washeries. BCCL (Bharat Coking Coal Limited) has successful install six washeries for coking coal and four for non-coking application up to 1998 [2]. Studies
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carried out at Virginia Tech indicate that a third alternative exists for handling the middlings problem. This option involves the use of a rougher-cleaner configuration in which the middlings from the cleaner spirals are recycled back to the feed of the rougher spirals. Preliminary analyses indicate that this approach can improve separation efficiency (i.e., lower Ep) while simultaneously reducing cut-point. [3] Types of mesh: Depending on the application requirements a type of screen deck and mesh size will need to be selected. Here are few examples of the many possibilities: [4] (1) Plastic Flip Flop mesh (2) Fine Wire mesh (3) Coarse Wire mesh (4) Perforated Steel Plate mesh (5) Wedge wire mesh (6) Woven Wire Square Mesh Wedge wire mesh is used for coal separation in our application and is shown in following figure 1.
Figure 1. Wedge wire mesh Working of flat panel:
Figure 2. Motion of flat panel
Flat panel basically works on the principle of static or dynamic separation of solid materials. In dynamic, vibration or rotation transports materials down the screen, and aids separation. It is usually more efficient and greater throughput than static screens of the same size. The fig. (2) shows the motion and working of flat panel (screen). Flat panel is working in both the motion of circular as well as linear. As shown in fig. (2), the maximum stroke of screen at inner side is of 3 mm and maximum stroke of screen at outer side is of 5 mm. [4] Construction of flat panel:
Fig. 3 T.V of screen Fig. 4 B.V of screen Fig. 5 C/S of screen Fig. 6 C/S of screen The screen is supported on sidewalls of screening machine and screening machine is mounted on a set of springs at each of the four corners. Motion is applied to the screen in order to shake the material along and through the screen. - Profile wire - Support wire - Additional supports in rod direction - Additional supports in slot direction. The following section shows the different views of the flat panel for understanding its geometrical construction. (Ref. Figures 3 6) [6]. There are basically four elements of the flat panel, which are shown in fig. (3 - 6), in which sectional front view, top view and sectional side view are drawn for understanding the type of joints between the various elements of the flat panel.
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Size and operational data of flat panel: Length of Flat Panel = 1245 mm, Width of Flat Panel = 147.5 mm, Mesh size = 0.5 mm, Speed = 480 rpm, Sample length of conveyor belt = 1 m, Speed of belt = 5 m / min.
Performance of screens: Efficiency is simply the indicator of how well its going as a system, or alternatively how well it isnt. [4]. The theoretical concept of performance of screen is taken from Mineral Processing Technology given by Barry A. Wills in 1973 [1]. Screen is a surface having multiplicity of aperture of given dimensions. Material of mixed size presented to that surface will either pass through or be retained, according to whether the particles are smaller or larger than the governing dimensions of the aperture. (Ref. Figure 7).
Figure. 7 Screen performance (Theory aspect)
Figure. 8 Screen performance (Practical setup)
The efficiency of screening is determined by the degree of perfection of separation of the material into size fractions above or below the governing dimensions of the aperture. Recoveries of material at a given size, or the mass of misplaced material in each product are the common criteria for screen performance. So the possibilities are: (a) Undersize in the over screen product (b) Oversize in the through-screen product (c) Combination of two. Consider a screen as shown in fig. (8) on to which is a feed of F t/h; C t/h overflows from the screen, and U t/h is the rate of flow. Let f be the fraction of material above the cut point size in the feed; c be the fraction of material above the cut point size in overflow; and u be the fraction of material above the cut point size in the underflow. f, c and u can be determined by sieving a representative sample of each of the fraction on a laboratory screen of the same aperture size as the industrial screen and assuming to be 100% efficient. The mass balance on screen is, F C U . The mass balance of the oversize material is, Ff Cc Uu . And the mass balance of the undersize
C f u U c f And F c u F c u Cc c f u The recovery of oversize material into the screen overflow, = Ff f c u

material is, F 1 f C 1 c U 1 u . Hence, And the corresponding recovery of undersize material in the screen underflow, =
(1)
U 1 u 1 u 1 f = F 1 f c f c u
or
1 u c f 1 f c u
(2)
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These two relationships (1) and (2), measure the effectiveness of the screen in separating the course material from the underflow and the fine material from the overflow. A combined effectiveness, or overall efficiency, E is then obtained by multiplying the two equations together.
c f u 1 u c f E 2 f c u 1 f
(3)
There are four methods to determine the efficiency of screen is as follows: - The placement method - The misplacement method - % to overflow - Ecart probable mean Here only two efficiency techniques, after seeing theoretical derivation of screen efficiency are discussed. These two techniques of screen efficiency are taken from Vibratory Screen Manuals of Johnson Screens (I) Ltd., 2001. [4] 3. Methodology
The following steps are adapted to carryout the screen efficiency by placement and misplacement methods: Data collection of vibratory screening machine (specifications of m/c). Flat panel data collection Gathering of operational data, i.e. feed, speed of conveyor belt etc. Start the vibratory machine. Load the machine with crushed mining coal. Screen feed and discharge conveyors are all stopped at the same time. Samples are taken off the two belts, in this case an underflow sample and an overflow one. Measure sample length (for this case it is 1 m) and speed of belt. Knowing the sample length, belt speed and the UF/OF sample weights the tonnage rates of the products are then known too. The samples are taken to a laboratory and sieved to give size ranges of the particles in the products. Prepare the table for sample test results. (Ref. Table 1). Efficiency of screen can be find using sample test results, through different methods of efficiency. Methods of Efficiency There are two common practice methods: (1) The placement method In this method basically the ratio of how much lump in the feed made it to the overflow, and how much fines in the feed is to the underflow an indicator of flow well the screen screened. The term misplacements means exactly just that - some of the products have been misplaced; they are not where they should be. Misplacements are not efficiencies. They are a guide used to screen performance, but just that. Efficiency figures take into account misplacements as well as the tonnage rates at which the misplacements occur. Here, Lump Efficiency = [Amount of lump in the o f ] / [Amount of lump in the feed] Fines Efficiency = [Amount of fines in the u f ] / [Amount of fines in the feed] Screen Efficiency = [Lump efficiency] x [Fines efficiency] (2) The misplacement method In this method basically the ratio of how lump is in the overflow, and how much fines there is in the underflow an indicator of how pure the two end products are. Here, Lump Efficiency = [Amount of lump in the o f ] / [Total deck out flow] Fines Efficiency = [Amount of fines in the u f ] / [Total deck under flow] Screen Efficiency = [Lump efficiency] x [Fines efficiency] The following fig. (9) shows the laboratory set-up for coal sizing and the samples are taken from the washery. The table (1) shows the coal sizing results. As we have gone through the basic methodology of misplacement technique to find the efficiency of the screen used in laboratory of mining industry.
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Table 1. Laboratory results of coal sizing

Sieve Size [mm]
Feed Weight [kg]
Deck OF Weight [kg] 30 25 3 0 58
Deck UF Weight [kg] 0 12 10 5 27
% 35.3 43.5 15.3 5.9 100
% 51.7 43 5.1 0 100
% 0 44 37 18.5 100
15-20 10-15 5-10 0-5 Totals
30 37 13 5 85
Fig. 9 Laboratory sieve general arrangement
As we know, In the Placement method: Lump Efficiency = [55] / [67] = 82 %

Fines Efficiency = [15] / [18] = 83.3 % Screen Efficiency= [0.82] x [0.833] = 68.1 % In the Misplacement method: Lump Efficiency = [55] / [58] = 94.8 % Fines Efficiency = [15] / [27] = 55.56 % Screen Efficiency = [0.948] x [0.5556] = 52.67 % This derivation of screen efficiency is used in general practices by laboratories and mining industries. 4. Conclusions The following conclusions are made from the above work: There is 68.1 % screen efficiency got through the placement method and 52.67 % got by misplacement method. There is a 15.43 % variation in results. There has been no universally accepted method of finding screen (Flat Panel) performance and a number of widely used methods are employed. Currently four methods of efficiency assessment exist and theres no fixed industry standard. Worse still, the same numbers can yield different figures depending upon method used. Clarify which method used before comparing, otherwise the exercise is pointless. References [1] Barry A. Wills, Mineral Processing Technology, Great Britain Scot Print Ltd., Musselburgh, 1973. [2] Indian Coking Coal Washeries, Industry over view, Research paper, 2004. [3] Jaisen N. Kohmuench, Improving Efficiencies in Water Based Separators Using Mathematical Analysis Tools, Research Thesis for Doctor of Philosophy, Blacksburg, Virginia, December-2002. [4] Vibratory Screen Manuals, Johnson Screens (I) Ltd., Khatraj- Ahmedabad, 200. [5] Michael E. Coates and Rui F. Afonso, Which Beneficiation Process is Right for your Plant ? (Energy and Environmental Strategies), Shrewsbury, MA 01545, 2002 [6] Pro/ENGINEER Reference Guide, Book-1, CADD Centre, CADD Centre Training Service Pvt. Ltd., Jayaram Press, Chennai, May 2003, Pg. No. 3.
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Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Based Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) Analysis: A Denovo Approach
Dillip Kumar Biswal *, Dr. Samiran Mandal , Dr. Siddhartha Ray , Dr. Bijan Sarkar
1 1 2 2 3
Synergy Institute of Engineering & Technology, Banamaliprasad, Orissa. 2 NITTTR, Kolkata- 700 106. 3 Jadavpur University, Kolkata- 700 032. * Corresponding author (e-mail: dillipkumarbiswal@gmail.com)
To better understand how well a manufacturing area is performing and to identify what factors are preventing to achieve higher effectiveness, Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) of a system, which brings the aspects of availability, performance and quality into one common metric, is calculated. In calculation of OEE equal weightage is assumed for all the three factors, i.e. availability rate, performance rate and quality rate. However this assumption may not represent reality for every organization. In this paper a case study has been taken to determine the OEE, of a Kneader Buss Mixer used to produce Anode paste for the production of molten aluminium. The paper proposes a method for giving different weightage to the different OEE elements through Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), and thereby determines the weighted OEE, which is meaningful for the organization. 1 Introduction To day all customers expect manufacturers to provide excellent quality, reliable delivery and competitive pricing. This demands that the manufacturing machines and process should be highly reliable. In the present business scenario, the aluminium production industries has undergone and experienced a lot of changes due to pressure from customers and competitors. Electrolysis process is used to extract aluminium from Alumina (Al 2O3). Carbon electrode paste also called Anode paste is used as anode in this process. The anode paste is mixture of petroleum coke and pitch. Due to high market demand high capacity specialized equipment are being used for production of carbon electrode paste. Kneader Buss Mixer is the equipment used for continuous production of high quality anode paste with reduced anode cracking rate and it reduces the pitch consumption [1]. For these reason the Kneader Buss Mixer is a critical equipment in an aluminium production industry. In todays process and manufacturing environment, intense pressure to reduce expenses, to achieve zero tolerance, and to optimise resources necessitates a progressive producer to improve and increase the quality and productivity continuously and to measure what prevents to achieve the best in day-to-day basis. Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is a metric that is used in Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) to measure the six big losses that generally occur in a manufacturing process and to reduce / eliminate them for continuous equipment improvement. OEE can be defined as It is a metric used in TPM to measure how well a companys production process or individual piece of equipment performs against its full capacity [5]. In the conventional OEE calculation, as expounded and propounded by S. Nakajima (1988) [2] equal weightage has been given to all the multiplying factors, i.e. availability rate, performance rate and quality rate. This represents a rare situation when a 1 percent down time loss has the same business or financial impact as a 1 percent efficiency loss or a 1 percent quality loss. In practical situation it may not be correct to give equal weightage to all the OEE elements. The weightage factor is expected to vary from one organization to another according to their nature of work. These weightages for the OEE performance elements can be determined by using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). AHP is a mathematical technique for multicriteria decision-making [3, 4]. The AHP is a powerful and flexible decision making process to help
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people set priorities and make the best decision when both qualitative (or subjective) and quantitative aspects of a decision need to be considered by reducing complex decisions to a series of one- to-one paired comparison, then synthesizing the results. AHP not only helps decision makers to arrive at the optimum choice, but also provides a clear rationale that it is the optimum choice. 2. Aim of this paper
As the Kneader Buss Mixer is a critical equipment in this particular aluminium production industry, it is necessary to know the factors affecting the equipment performance and steps to get the best out of it. The aim of the paper is to find out the OEE for a Kneader Buss Mixer, which is used to produce paste for making anodes for aluminium pots. The paper also proposes a method for giving different weightages to different OEE elements through Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and thereby determines a modified OEE, which is most meaningful for the organization. 3. The Case Study
The case study has been done at Indian Aluminium Company Limited (INDAL), Hirakud in its carbon plant division, which was undertaken over a 28- week period, and utilized a number of data collection techniques including observation, document analysis, daily log book analysis and interview.The carbon plant at INDAL, Hirakud smelter manufacture and supply Soderbergelectrode paste for pots. Electrolysis process is used to extract aluminium from Alumina (Al2O3). Carbon electrode paste also called Anode paste is used as anode in this process. In an average for production of 1Kg of molten aluminium, 0.5 Kg Soderberg electrode paste is required. Soderberg electrode paste is a mixture of petroleum coke and pitch. Kneader Buss Mixer is the equipment used for consistently production of high quality anodes with reduced anode cracking rates and it reduces pitch consumption. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of a kneader buss mixer.
Gear Box
Pitch Coke
Exit of Anode Paste from Kneader
Motor Kneader Buss Mixer
Anode Paste Conveyor
Foundation Paste Buckets
Fig.1. Block Diagram of Kneader Buss Mixer
4.
Basis of data collection
INDAL are producing the product for 2 shifts only (8 AM to 4 PM and 4 PM to 12 Night). The shift time is 8 hrs, but they are producing the product for 7 hrs only. So planned down time is taken as 1 hr in calculation. The remaining 7 hrs is the total available time. Planned preventive maintenance (planned shutdown) is not considered as a loss in this calculation. In such instances, however, the OEE calculated figure would still appear low, therefore indicating the need decrease the planned maintenance by applying more effective TPM activities. But here, in
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this case due to some constraints and due to management decision it is not possible to reduce the planned down time. So here the planned down time is not considered in OEE calculation. From data it is found that the running time of the machine is around 6hr 45min to 53 min. So remaining 7 to 15 min they are not producing. But companys intension is to run the machine for 7 hrs in a shift and to produce 70 Tons of paste. According to the agreement with the workers they will produce 20 buckets of paste. To fill-up one bucket it takes around 18 to 23 min. Thats why this 7 to 15 min the machine remains idle. But in calculation this is considered as down time because, the time to fill-up one bucket can be adjusted so that the machine can theoretically run for 7 hrs. When the machine starts, some quantity of dry product comes out from the machine (around 200 to 300 Kg) in each shift. This is the reject from the machine. But it is upgraded by mixing some quantity of pitch in the batch mixer (Batch mixer is a mixer where they are mixing either pitch or coke manually to bring back the paste to the correct proportion). Some times during the production due to more feeding or low mass flow rate of pitch or otherwise dry or wet products are come out from the machine. These are also reject products. These rejects are also upgraded in the batch mixer. For this kind of rejection no records are kept. A questionnaire has been prepared and given to the top executives of the plant to give their views and rating the performance elements according to the Saaty scale. 5. Data Analysis and Results
After analyzing and calculating (Nakijama method) all the available data it was found that: Availability (A): 90.4%, Performance (P): 98.5%, Quality (Q): 99.3% Therefore, as per conventional definition, the OEE = Availability x Performance x Quality = 0.904 x 0.985 x 0.993 = 0.8842 i.e. 88.42 % 6. 6.1 Measuring OEE When the Elements Have Different Weights Determining Weightages using AHP method:
A questionnaire was given to one of the top executives of INDAL, Hirakud who is responsible for all the performance elements, to know his view and rating about the relative importance of the performance elements i.e. availability, performance and quality. The relative importance between pairs of performance elements, as indicated by him according to Saaty scale (Refer Appendix) is shown in Table 1 below: Table 1: The relative importance between pairs of performance elements. Availability Availability Performance Quality Performance 7 Quality 4 8
The weightages of each of the three performance elements can be calculated from this table applying AHP technique. After all the calculations, Table 2 shows the relative weightage of each performance element. Table 2. Relative priority or weightage of each performance element. Availability Availability Performance Quality Total 0.718 0.102 0.180 Performance 0.861 0.123 0.015 Quality 0.307 0.615 0.077 Weightage (w) 0.629 0.28 0.090 0.999
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6.2 (A)
Method of Calculating Weighted OEE: Raoufs Model
Raouf [6] proposed a new method of computing OEE, using different weights. He concluded that: factors affecting OEE are not equally important in all cases and different weights should be established. According to Raouf, if Availability (A) has a weight of K1, Performance (P) has a weight of K2, and Quality (Q) has a weight of K3, where 0 Ki 1. OEE for this case can be calculated as: K K K OEE ( A 1 )(P 2 )(Q 3 ) (1) In conventional OEE calculation proposed by Nakajima equal weights have been given to all the performance elements which are equal to one. From common-sence approach, we can infer the following:(a)If equal weightages are given to all the performance elements the modified OEE value should not change as compared to the conventional OEE value. (b)If more weightage is given to the performance element having highest value and / or less weight to the performance element having lowest value, then the modified OEE value should increase as compared to the conventional OEE value. (c)If more weightage is given to the performance element having lowest value and /or less weight to the performance element having highest value, then the modified OEE value should decrease as compared to the conventional OEE value. But by analyzing Raoufs model [equation (1)], it is found that in each and every case the value of modified OEE is increasing as compared to the conventional OEE. Example: Let us say, Availability (A) = 90.4 %, Performance (P) = 98.5 %, Quality (Q) = 99.3 %
Case 1: Equal weightage given to all the performance elements i.e. 0.333333 OEE conventional = A x P x Q = 0.8842 i.e. 88.42 % But according to equation (1) given by Raouf, OEE = (0.904 0.333333 ) x ( 0.985 0.333333 ) x ( 0.993 0.333333 ) = 0.9597 i.e. 95.97 % It shows that the value OEE is increasing compared to conventional OEE value. In the same manner it can be shown that in each of the above three conditions, OEE value is increasing. In this paper, the authors propose a model for giving different weightage to different OEE performance elements through Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and determine a modified OEE, which satisfies the above three conditions. (B) Proposed Model
W1 X 1
X2
w1 X 3 w2 w3
(2)
(W1 * N ) ( X1 X 2 X 3 )
(3)
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OEEmodified W * OEEconventional
(4)
Where, X 1 , X 2 , X 3 are the observed values of individual performance elements, w1 , w2 , w3 are the weightage of the respective performance elements, W1 = Weightage factor, W = Normalized weightage factor (NWF), N = Number of performance elements. From equation (2) and (3), Weightage factor (W1) = 0.9337, Normalized Overall Weightage (W) = 0.9719. OEE modified = 0.9719 x 0.8842 = 0.8593 i.e.85.93 %. 7. Testing of the Proposed Model
It has been discussed earlier that according to weightage given to performance element the OEE value should also change logically and If equal weightage are given to this proposed model the modified OEE value should remain constant. By putting equal weightage to the performance elements i.e.w1 = w2 = w3 = 0.333333. Weightage factor (W1) = 0.960665, Normalized Overall Weightage (W) = 0.9999 OEE modified = 0.9999 x 0.8842 = 0.88411 0.8842 i.e. 88.42 % We find that the modified OEE value remains unaltered when giving equal weightages to the performance elements, whereas in the case of Raoufs model it is increasing. 8. Conclusion The proposed model may be used for determining modified OEE when different weightages can be attributed to the performance elements. Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the management of Indian Aluminium Company Limited, Hirakud for providing data and necessary facilities for carrying out the study. References [1] Biswal, D.K., Mandal,S., Ray,S.and Sarkar, B. Overall Equipment Effectiveness(OEE) Analusis of Kneader Buss Mixer:A Case Study. Industrial Engineering Journal, XXXVI, 2007, 28-32. [2] Nakajima, S., Introduction to Total Productive Maintenance (TPM), Cambridge /MA, 1988. [3] Saaty, T.L.The Analytic Hierarchy Process, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. [4] Saaty, T.L. Multicriteria Decision Making:The Analytic Hierarchy Process, RWS Publications, 1990. [5] Willmot, P., McCarthy, D.TPM-ARoute to World-Class Performance, Butterworth- Heinemann, Oxford, 2001. [6] Raouf,A. Improving capital productivity through maintenance. International Journal of Operation and Production Management, 14, 1994, 44-52.
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Prediction of Cutting Forces and Surface Roughness during End Milling of CI-25 Using Artificial Neural Network
S. B. Chandgude1*, M. Sadaiah2
2
K. K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nashik, Maharashtra, India. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Vidyavihar, Lonere, Maharashtra, India. * Corresponding author (e-mail: sbchandgude@gmail.com) Milling is one of the most widely used metal removal processes in industry. Cutting force is the most fundamental, and in many cases the most significant parameter in machining operations. It causes part and tool deflections which result in tolerance violation. The prediction of cutting forces in machining is essential to improve reliability, accuracy and productivity in machining. Surface roughness is one of the important attributes of job quality in machining process. It also affects several functional attributes of parts. The experiments were conducted based on factorial design of experiments, to examine the influence of the most predominant process parameter on cutting forces and surface roughness. The experimental results show that cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are the main controlling parameters. There is a close relation between the cutting tool-workpiece interaction, cutting forces and surface quality. The present work focuses on developing an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model for predicting the cutting forces and surface roughness in end milling of CI-25 material. The developed ANN model is then validated with additional experiments.
1.
Introduction
As a basic machining process, milling is one of the most widely used metal removal processes in industry. Milled surfaces are largely used to mate with other parts in die, aerospace, automotive and machinery design as well as in manufacturing industries [5]. Cutting force is the most fundamental, and in many cases the most significant parameter in machining operations. In milling processes also they cause part and tool deflections which may result in tolerance violation [1]. The analysis of cutting forces generated during machining has been a main subject of research over the years and force measurements have shown to be an invaluable output for monitoring the cutting process. The prediction of cutting forces in machining is essential to improve reliability, accuracy and productivity in machining [2]. The cutting forces that are developed during the milling process, can directly or indirectly estimate process parameters such as tool wear, tool life, surface finish, cutter deflection, machine tool chatter etc. In the process planning stage, knowledge of the cutting forces helps the process engineers to select appropriate values for the process parameters [7]. In order to analyze the relation between the cutting forces and surface quality, the cutting forces should be measured accurately [6]. Surface roughness has received serious attention for many years and is one of the important attributes of job quality in machining process. In metal cutting, cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are the main controlling parameters. There is a close relationship between the cutting tool-work piece interaction, cutting forces and surface quality. The present work focuses on developing an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model for predicting the cutting forces and surface roughness in end milling of CI-25 material. 2. Cutting forces in end milling
In milling, more than one cutting edge removes the chips simultaneously from the work piece. The cutting forces developed during the milling operation are variable in nature. The 805
generalized equation for the cutting forces in end milling such as tangential cutting force, radial cutting force and axial cutting force is [8]
dFT , R , A K T , R , A. hb db K T , R , A . f zb . sin B. sin .db
(1)
KT tangential coefficient of material , KR radial coefficient of material, K A axial coefficient of material, dz differential length of axial differential elements, db differential length of cutting
edge, hb chip thickness, B angular position of cutting edge during cutting in the direction of rotation of the milling cutter, 3.
angular position in the direction of Z axis
Surface roughness model
The average roughness (Ra) is the area between the roughness profile and its center line, or the integral of the absolute value of the roughness profile height over the evaluation length as shown in Figure 1.Therefore, the Ra is specified by the following equation
Figure 1. Surface roughness profile
1 Ra Y ( x) dx L0
(2)
When evaluated from digital data, the integral is normally approximated by the trapezoidal rule
Ra
1 n Yi n i 1
(3)
where, Ra is the arithmetic average deviation from the mean line, L is sampling length and Y represents the ordinate of the profile curve [3]. The purpose of developing the mathematical models relating the machining responses and their machining factors was to facilitate a functional relationship between surface roughness and the independent variables (speed, feed and depth of cut). The mathematical model commonly used is represented by
Ra f v, s, d
(4)
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where, Ra is the machining response (surface roughness), f is the response function and
v, s, d are machining variables. Expressed in the first order multiple regression form equation
(4) becomes
Ra b0 b1v b2 s b3 d
where, b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 are the coefficients. 3.1 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
(5)
ANN can be defined as a system of processing units called neurons (or nodes), which are distributed over a finite number of layers and interconnected in a predetermined manner to accomplish a desire task. ANN architecture is made up of an input layer, one or more hidden layers and an output layer. General ANN structure is shown in Figure 2. The hidden and output layers have processing elements and interconnections called neurons and synapses respectively. Each interconnection has an associated connection strength or weight. The number of hidden layers and that of the nodes in each layer have to be decided very carefully, because the system cannot model the given information if it has too few hidden layer units. However, too many hidden units limit the networks ability to generalize the results, so that the resulting model would not work well for new incoming data. Each processing elements first performs a weighted accumulation of the respective input values and then passes the result through an activation function. Except for the input layer nodes where no computation is done, the net input to each node is the sum of the weighted output of the nodes in the previous layer [4].
Figure 2. Typical Neural Network model 4. Experimental set-up and procedure

3
The experimental program was planned using a complete 3 factorial design [9]. The range of values of each factor was set at the three levels, namely low, medium and high, as shown in Table 1. Based on this setting, a total of 27 experiments, each having a combination of different levels of factors were carried out. These experiments were conducted using the hardware listed as follows:

CNC milling machine : Hass make Dynamometer: Kistler make 3-component dynamometer with Dynoware data processing software Surface roughness measurement device: 211 series Mitutoyo make End mill cutter: 10mm, HSS Work material : Grey cast iron, CI-25 grade (C-3.84, Cr-0.032, Ni-0.019, Mo 0.021, Mn0.36, Si-2-11, S-0.026, P-0.056) of size 50 mm X 50 mm X 100 mm Microsoft Excel and Neuro solutions software packages for charting data and analysis 807
Table 1. Cutting parameters and their levels Level Machining Parameter Cutting speed(v) Feed (s) Depth of cut (d) Unit m/min mm/tooth mm 1 37 0.025 0.500 2 44 0.038 1.500 3 55 0.05 2.50
5. 5.1
Results and discussions Development of ANN model
ANNs are non-linear mapping systems. Neuro solutions software has been used for present study. The network selected is a multilayer perceptron (MLP), which consists of at least three layers. The activation function in the neural network used is sigmoid function, which is non-linear function. The ANN is trained using input data with corresponding output data of experimental results. The training error i.e. Mean Square Error (MSE) is the criterion for obtaining optimum training parameter and network performance. The back propagation of error is continued for a number of iterations (Epochs) until an acceptable error level is achieved. A large number of iterations are required to back propagate the error from output to input layer. Such process is carried out to adjust the values of weights to achieve certain estimation accuracy. The average MSE can converge to global or a local minimum. The MSE is the function of iterations. Generally it is seen that the error is too high at low epochs. The error is decreased rapidly with increase in number of epochs. To obtain an acceptable MSE further training experiments should be carried out using different values of training parameters. Table 2. Comparison of the maximal measured and ANN predicted values for few tests
Test Direction of force Measured max. force (N) 0.090 -6.063 -45.224 1.361 1.302 2.470 -0.961 -2.661 -37.368 74.291 -10.272 70.097 65.186 1.121 44.530 5.860 0.587 3.729 Predicted max. force (N) 62.4727 -2.8591 31.6826 26.8689 -5.4392 -27.3211 77.4489 -2.2432 56.3188 77.4454 -2.2432 56.3153 83.1889 -2.5652 65.5388 65.3854 -3.8552 36.0353 Absolute error (N) Surface roughness (Ra) Expt. Values -62.3827 -3.2039 -76.9066 -25.5079 6.7412 29.7911 -78.4099 -0.4178 -93.6868 -3.1544 -8.0288 13.7817 -18.0029 3.6862 -21.0088 -59.5254 4.4422 -32.3063 3.38 Predicted Values 4.090 Absolute error (N) -0.71
13
16
23
27
X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z X Y Z
4.56
4.446
0.114
4.15
3.755
0.395
3.83
4.064
-0.234
3.93
3.383
0.547
4.36
3.864
0.496
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The 3-8-6-4 structure shown in Figure 2, with 0.3 step size and 0.7 momentum parameter is trained with increase of epochs step by step with an increment of 5000 epochs. The results are predicted for cutting forces and surface roughness at 60,000 epochs and the absolute error is computed. Table 2 shows the comparison of the maximal measured and ANN predicted values for few tests. After the development of Neural Network model using 38-6-4 structure from train data, the testing is carried with experimental input conditions and predicted values are compared with experimental values. 5.2 Validation of ANN model
After training the ANN model, additional 12 experiments are conducted and the cutting forces are measured with Kistler dynamometer, surface roughness is measured offline with surftest-211 series. The results obtained were used to test the flexibility of the prediction model. 6. Conclusions
In this paper by means of ANN technique it is possible to predict the cutting forces during end milling process as well as to predict the surface roughness. It can be claimed that the comparison of the results obtained from neural network model and through the experiments confirms the efficiency and accuracy of the model for predicting the cutting forces and surface roughness. This can be used for monitoring and optimization of the machining process- cutting parameters. References [1] [2] [3] Budak, E. Analytical models for high performance milling. Part I: Cutting forces, structural deformations and tolerance integrity, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 46, 2005, 1478-1488. Fontaine, M., Devillez, A., Dudzinski, D. Analytical simulation of milling: Influence of tool design on cutting forces, 12th IFToMM World Congress, 18-21 June, 2007. Besancon, France. Gokkaya, H., Nalbant, M. The effects of cutting tool coating on the surface roughness of AISI 1015 steel depending on cutting parameters, Turkish Journal of Engineering Environment and Sciences, 30, 2005, 307-316. Janardhana, Ranga, G., Nandakumar, P., Kim, S., Kun, Surface roughness prediction in milling using Artificial Neural Networks, National Conference on Advances in Mechanical th Engineering, NCAME-2008, 11 Jan 2008. Julie, Z. Zhang., Joseph, C. Chen., E. Daniel, Kirby. Surface roughness optimization in an end milling operation using the Taguchi design method, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 184, 2006, 233-239. Korkut, I., Donertas, M.A. The influence of feed rate and cutting speed on the cutting forces, surface roughness and tool-chip contact length during face milling, Materials and Design, xxx, 2005, 1-5. Milfelner, M., Kopac, J., Cus, F., Zuperl, U. Genetic equation for the cutting force in ballend milling, 13th International Scientific Conference on Achievements in Mechanical and th Materials Engineering, 18th 19 May, 2005, 433-436. Milfelner, M., Kopac, J., Cus, F., Zuperl, U. Intelligent system for machining and optimization of 3D sculptured surfaces with ball-end milling, Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 14, 2006, 171-177. Montgomery, D.C. Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5th edition, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2001.
[4] [5] [6]
[7] [8]
[9]
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Robust M Estimator for Surface Roughness Estimation Using Machine Vision

Jayesh D Chauhan , Chintan K Modi , Kavindra Jain and Kunal Pithadiya
2 1* 2 3 1
B & B Institute of Technology, V V Nagar, Gujarat, India G H Patel College of Engg and Technology, V V Nagar, Gujarat, India * Corresponding Author (email: jdchauhan@yahoo.co.in)
A machine vision system is used to estimate surface roughness of machined surface after grinding, milling and shaping. The estimated roughness is compared with stylus measurements. The estimation is usually done by linear regression which suffers from outliers and hence the estimation is not robust. In this paper we use robust M estimation for estimation of surface roughness. The results show very good error reduction compared to the methods based on linear regression.
1.
Introduction
To carry out essential quality control processes to ensure that manufactured parts confirm to specify standards surface roughness inspection is used for which stylus type instruments are used. Due to the direct contact requirement of stylus instrument the measurement speed becomes limited one and secondly the measurements are also based on a limited number of line samples, which may not represent the true characteristics of the surface of the machined object. This kind of deviation may cause serious errors in the surface quality assessment especially when the surface profile is periodic. In [2], R. Kumar et al., proposed a method based on machine vision to estimate surface roughness parameter, Ra by first estimating average grey level parameter Ga, of the captured image of the surface under investigation. Ga values have been calibrated with the respective Ra values measured using a stylus profile meter. Multiple linear regression equations are obtained using regression. The problem of linear regression method is that a single outlier value may cause severe error in the estimation value [6]. So we propose to estimate the Ra value using Robust M estimator, which removes the effect of outlier points while estimating Ra. The paper is organized as follows: In section 2 we discuss linear regression and robust M estimation. In section 3, the surface roughness estimation using image processing is discussed. In section 4, we discuss the proposed algorithm while in section 5 results are discussed. Section 6 concludes the paper. 2. linear regression and robust M estimation
For a linear least squares fitting process having n data points (x,y), the first degree polynomial can be given by yi mxi c . To obtain the coefficient estimates, the least squares
2 n 2 n method minimizes the summed square of residuals given by E e y y . i i 1 i i 1 i th The residual for the i data point ei is defined as e i y i y i ,where, yi is predicted value.
2 2 The solution of it is m [ n xi yi xi yi ] [ n xi ( xi ) ] , c [ yi m xi ] n . The
problem of linear regression is that it is not robust towards outliers [6,8]. The estimate may n 2 tend to give erroneous results because its objective function E e increases indefinitely i1 i with the residuals ei. Hence, extreme outliers with arbitrarily large residuals can have an infinitely large influence on resulting estimate. Robust M-estimators attempt to limit the
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influence of outliers by replacing the square of the residuals with a less rapidly increasing loss function of the residuals ei. Out of many loss functions, Tukey biweight objective function is especially resistant to observation on the extreme tails because the derivative function (.) '(.) for Tukey function redescends to zero.
2 e k 1 1 6 B (e ) k 2 k 6
for e k
for e k
(2)
The tuning constant k, is expressed as a multiple of scale of yi, k=CS, where S is the measure of the scale of yi. Since the standard deviation is more influenced by extreme observations we
use the median absolute deviation (MAD), S Median y y . To further normalize the i i median with respect to population we use S MAD / 0.6745 . For Tukey biweight function k=4.685*S produces 95% efficiency. The general M-estimator minimizes the following objective function n n ' ' ( e ) ( y X ) , yi c m xi1 ... mk xik ei X e (3) 1 i i i i1 B i i1 B i
Differentiating the objective function of equation (3) with respect to the coefficients m and c and setting the partial derivatives equal to 0, will result into system of equation given by n ' ' ( y X ) X 0 , (.) '(.) (4) i i i i1 Defining the weight function w(e ) (e) / e , let wi w(ei ) , the estimating equations will be n ' ' w( y X ) X 0 (5) i i i i1
2 2 Solving the estimating equations is a weighted least-squares problem, minimizing wi ei .

The weights depend upon the residuals and residuals depend upon estimated coefficients which again depend upon the weights. An iterative algorithm called as iteratively reweighed least squares, IRLS is required, which is outlined below [7]. (0) 1. Select initial estimates , such as the least squares estimates. (t 1) (t 1) (t 1) 2. At each iteration t, compute ei and weights wi w ei from previous iteration.
(t ) (t 1) 1 (t 1) 3. Solve for new weighted-least-squares estimate [ X W X ] X W y . Where, X (t 1) (t 1) ' is model matrix, with X i as its i th row, and wi is the current weight matrix. dig wi Steps 2. and 3. are repeated until the estimated coefficients converge.
3.
Surface roughness estimation using machine vision
Surface roughness parameter most widely used is the average surface roughness n (Ra).[2], given by Ra yi n where yi is the height of roughness irregularities from the i1 mean value and n is the number of sampling data. The measurement of Ra is generally done by stylus type instrument. In [2], the image of a surface is taken whose surface roughness is to be measured, and then the arithmetic average of the grey level i.e. Ga is estimated. It is used to predict the actual surface roughness of the work piece. The Ga can be expressed as
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1 n m (6) g i, j g k mn i1 j 1 Where, g(i,j) are the grey level values of a surface image along one line and gk is the mean of 1 n m the grey values which can be determined using g g i , j . Ga will be calculated k mn i1 j1 Ga
for all the surfaces after the images of surface were captured. These Ga values will be calibrated with respective Ra values measured using a stylus [2]. Thus during a training phase the following steps are performed. Table 1. Algorithm to estimate coefficients No. 1 2 3 4 5 Steps Measure speed (x1), depth of cut (x2) for the work piece being machined. Measure the surface value Ra, using stylus type instrument. Capture the image of the work piece being machined. Compute Ga (x3) value from the image. Apply multiple linear regression model to estimate the coefficients m11, m12, m13 and, c1 using equation (7). (7)
Ra1 m11 x1 m12 x2 m13 x3 c1
Once the coefficients are estimated during the training phase, the surface roughness, Ra1, can be computed using the equation (7), for which one needs to measure the speed, depth of cut and needs to compute Ga from the image of the work piece being machined. Now there is no need to measure the surface roughness using stylus instrument. Thus the technique based on image processing can remove the need of stylus type measurement. 4. Proposed algorithm
The problem of linear regression methods is that a single outlier value may cause severe error in the estimation of coefficients m1, m2, m3 and, c. So we propose to estimate the Ra value using robust M estimator as outlined in the following algorithm during training phase to remove the effect of outlier points while the coefficients m1, m2, m3 and, c are estimated. Table 2. Propose Algorithm to estimate coefficients No. 1 2 3 4 5 Steps Measure speed (x1), depth of cut (x2) for the work piece being machined. Measure the surface value Ra, using stylus type instrument. Capture the image of the work piece being machined. Compute Ga (x3) value from the image. Apply IRLS algorithm (section 2) to compute robust estimates of coefficients m21, m22, m23 and, c2 using equation (8).
Ra 2 m21 x1 m22 x2 m23 x3 c2 (8) Once the coefficients are estimated during the training phase, the surface roughness, Ra2, can be computed using the equation (8), for which one needs to measure the speed, depth of cut and needs to compute Ga from the image of the work piece being machined.
5. Results and Discussion
We conducted the experiments at two companies at Vithal Udyog Nagar, Anand and got the readings of speed, depth of cut and stylus for a particular job and also captured the images to compute Ga values. We took 7 readings for 7 different settings of speed and depth
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of cut. Table 3 contains the readings of speed, depth of cut and roughness values measured using stylus instrument for 7 different jobs while in Table 4 the images captured are given. Table 3. Measurements for seven jobs Job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Speed (rpm), x1 1050 1250 1000 1100 1200 1200 1100 Depth of cut (microns), x2 100 200 500 300 800 800 200 Ra (microns) Using Stylus, yi 0.66 0.48 0.68 0.59 0.50 0.50 0.59
Table 4. Cropped images for seven jobs JOB 1 JOB 2 JOB 3 JOB 4 JOB 5 JOB 6 JOB 7
From the images captured we compute Ga as discussed in section 4. Table 5 contains the Ga values. Table 5. Ga values computed from images Job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Speed (rpm) x1 1050 1250 1000 1100 1200 1200 1100 Depth of cut (micron), x2 100 200 500 300 800 800 200 Ga, optical parameter, x3 2.044 8.803 4.881 4.038 6.549 4.243 0.836 Ra (micron) Using Stylus, yi 0.66 0.48 0.68 0.59 0.50 0.50 0.59
To estimate the coefficients m11, m12, m13 and, c1 of equation (7) we apply multiple linear regression. We get the final model as 4 5 R 1.563 (8.7 10 ) x (3.3 10 ) x 0.0016 x a1 1 2 3 We apply robust M estimation to estimate the coefficients m21, m22, m23 and, c2 of equation (8) The equation fitted for Tukeys biweight function is 4 5 R 1.561 (8.7 10 ) x (3.2 10 ) x 0.0016 x a2 1 2 3 To check the effectiveness of the model fitted, we compute the surface roughness values using both the models, Ra1 and Ra2. Table 6 contains the roughness values computed using Ra1 and Ra2. The average percentage of errors obtained in Table 6 for regression and robust M estimation methods are 0.8806 % and 0.8632 % respectively, which shows that robust M estimation gives better fitting compared to regression.
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Table 6. Calculation of surface roughness values using different methods Job Speed (rpm) Depth of cut (micron) x2 100 200 500 300 800 800 200 Ga, Optical Parameter x3 2.044 8.803 4.881 4.038 6.549 4.243 0.836 Ra (micron), Using Stylus yi 0.66 0.48 0.68 0.59 0.50 0.50 0.59 Ra1 Estimated (regression) i1 0.6465 0.4796 0.6815 0.5995 0.4996 0.4958 0.5976 % Error Ra & Ra1 2.0863 0.0923 0.2208 1.5765 0.0814 0.8408 1.2637 Ra2 % Error Ra & Ra2 2.1562 0.1021 0.1879 1.5369 0.0433 0.8106 1.2052
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6.
x1 1050 1250 1000 1100 1200 1200 1100
i2 0.6461 0.4795 0.6813 0.5992 0.4998 0.4960 0.5972
Conclusions
The application of robust M estimation for surface roughness estimation resulted in to high percentage of reduction in error compared to actual stylus measurement. Estimated surface roughness Values are more near to stylus type instrument. Thus due to the proposed method one can definitely look forward to replace stylus based measurement by a machine vision system. Acknowledgement We are thankful to Mr. Karularkar of M/s Power Build Ltd and Mr. Kulvish Patel of M/s Ritul Engineering, Vithal Udhyognagar for providing us the work pieces after machining process. References [1] Mike S. Lou, Joseph C. Chen, Caleb M. Li. Surface Roughness Prediction Technique for CNC Milling machines. Journal of Industrial Automation, 15(1), 1999. [2] Rajneesh kumar, P.Kulashekar, B.Dhanasekar, B.Ramamoorthy. Application of digital image magnification for surface roughness evaluation using machine vision. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 45, 2005, 228234. [3] Murad S. Samhouri. Surface roughness in grinding: on-line prediction with adaptive. Transactions of NAMRI/SME 57, 33, 2005. [4] M. Kiran, B. Ramamoorthy, V. Radhakrishnan. Evaluation of surface roughness by vision system, International Journal for Machine Tools and Manufacture, 38, 1998, 685-690. [5] Mandara D. Savage, Multiple Regression-Based Multilevel In-Process Surface Roughness Recognition: System in Milling Operations. The Journal of Technology Studies, 28-34 [6] Victor J. Yohai. Robust Statistics: Theory and Methods. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd ISBN: 0470-01092-4 (2006) [7] Robust regression, Appendix to An R and S-PLUS Companion to Applied regression John Fx,January (2002) [8] Barreiro, J. Surface finish control in machining processes using textural descriptors based on moments. 6th International DAAAM Baltic Conference INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 24-26 April 2008.
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Quality Function Deployment and Value Analysis The Most Powerful Product/Service Development Techniques
P.B .Patel1,D.K. Dave1,S.N.Pandya2 1 L.D.C.E, Ahmadabad, India. 2 Assistant Manager, Biotech Vision care Ltd, Ahmedabad Corresponding author (e-mail: dave_dars@yahoo.co.in) This article describes how two function-oriented techniques compliment each other in Product/Service Development. It shows how they interact to assure you that you are developing the right product/service for your customer in the most efficient manner. In essence providing the customer with maximum value. 1. Introduction
The most critical dimension in product development today - and even more so tomorrow is to develop the products that customers want. What does the customer want - they want value and value is defined as QUALITY/COST. How can you have the highest probability of providing your customer with more value than your competitors? The answer is to integrate Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and Value Analysis (VA) into your product development process. (Please note that my definition of product is a physical product/process or a service). QFD and VA are as applicable to the service sector as to the more commonly used definition. The major reason for QFD is an "honest" discipline - it truly gives you significant benefits. It does something that no other technique can - it provides a specific graphic descriptive method to convert customer expectations (the voice of the customer) into Quantified technical design characteristics (the voice of the designer) and for development of the product plan. Past methods of this conversion process were 70% subjective and 30% objective, QFD/VA reverses this percentage to 30% subjective and 70% objective. This adds a powerful new dimension to the product development process. It greatly increases the probability you will develop the right product for your customer from the very beginning. This greatly reduces downstream changes and prevents doing it right the second time. You may look at these two processes (QFD and VA) as parts of a complete process to achieve "Value" in a product. QFD assures you are developing the "right product" and VA assures you are developing it in the best way. I believe they are an integrated process, which develops the best product/service. Separately they are good techniques. When you integrate them they are extremely powerful and yet easy to use. VA was developed in the U.S. in the late 40's and early 50's. It then migrated to Japan where it was recognized as the truly powerful problem solving technique it really is. VA then migrated back to the U.S. and its use was enhanced by the perception that it was a great "New Japanese Management Technique". QFD was developed in Japan in the seventies to address the need of a better discipline for translating the customer's expectations into design characteristics. I believe it was an off shoot of the VA process due to its "function" orientation and even its background which included cost deployment in addition to functions. It only makes sense then, that integration of these two "function oriented" techniques should occur and that this combination should make them even more powerful. QFD and VA have several features, which provide a very sound basis for their integration: 1) A mixed discipline team for maximum effectiveness. 2) Specific objectives are a key element. 3) A product/service definition is required to scope the project. 4) Both are based on "Function". 5) A job plan guides the work - they add discipline.
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6) Concentrate on the important few rather than the insignificant many. (Pareto's Law). 7) Customer focused. In addition QFD is problem/opportunity identification; VA is problem/opportunity solving - so they are complimentary from this standpoint in most cases, QFD gives you the "what" and VA gives you the "how". This completes the essence of their complimentary natures. I'd like to present a broad overview on integration of these techniques. It is possible to have QFD kick off a VA process or VA kick off a QFD process. However, in this case, I shall use the most common process where QFD initiates the VA process. 2. Market Research
For this article, we shall assume that appropriate market research has been completed and the "customer expectations" have been properly identified in the customer's words. In most cases this is a dangerous assumption. I've never seen a case where all necessary market research had been done and was available for the team when the project started. Also, I believe, that poor market information is the second biggest reason for QFD failures. (I'll tell you what the first one is later.) You need good (not necessarily 100% complete) market information when you start. The QFD process will help you identify the additional information needed for a good product development effort. Then you can focus your requests for specific additional market information instead of asking for the whole marketing story. I have found that the QFD/VA process helps you get cooperation and input from the marketing/sales functions because you were asking for specific customer information. They believe you know more about what you are doing if you can ask for specific customer information rather than asking them to tell you everything about everything. 3. Customer Expectations
We have discussed the market research section; let's continue with the "customer expectation" section of the QFD process (by the way, in this article we will only cover the House of Qualify (HOQ) and not the total QFD process). Customer expectation analysis includes 1. Identify customer expectations (30 to 60 of them), 2. Rate their market importance on a scale of (1 to 10 with 10 being high) and 3. Evaluate their sales importance (3 to 6 should be identified). When this section is complete you convert the customer expectations into functions and generate conceptual ideas on how to meet these functions. Imaging and Visualization is the most powerful tools for this stage. It is best to generate concepts before you get into more detail. The further you go into details of the process - the more you inhibit the creative process. This is the best time to generate ideas with respect to the discipline of the process - but the team members also want to generate concepts now. They have been feeding information to their minds for a significant time and they are Ready to "create". This provides the greatest degree of freedom -total openness and concentrating only on customer expectations. This is the first formal integration of the VA and QFD processes. It is especially important that you describe customer expectations in "function" terms because this assures the greatest potential for exciting quality. 4. Competitive Benchmarking
The second major step in the QFD process is competitive benchmarking. Here you compare your company against the "Best in World Class" of your competitors. You may, at certain times, need to consider competition outside your industry (e.g. television vs. movies vs. sports). Don't fall into the trap of considering too small a scope of competitors. The next activity in
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the competitive area is to develop your planned level of performance against customer expectations. This is your product plan. As you are developing this plan, refer to your conceptual ideas to see if you have successfully impacted all areas where improvement is necessary or new areas that would give you a Real competitive edge. If you haven't, then go back to the VA problem solving approach and generate ideas where improvement is necessary and not yet attained. Also, look for Areas where you can make major breakthroughs or where you can attain exciting quality. This is the second interface of VA and QFD. The use of function is the key to success. 5. Technical/Service Characteristics
The third major stage of QFD is to identify the technical/service characteristics of the project and determine their relationship to the customer expectations. This is done by Team consensus. For best results, you should blast through and come back to refine. Once you have completed this, generate ideas on all areas where there is a strong relationship between the technical/service characteristics and a customer expectation.
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This time it is also best to convert the expectation to a function; this is the third major integration of QFD and VA. As you can see, each time we travel one step farther into the matrix we are getting into more detail and the potential for major change is reduced. This is the same step down in potential scope of solution as when you take a step down in the function diagram. Continue this step with technical/service benchmarking and setting of technical/service targets. Again, as you did in the competitive benchmarking, you must generate ideas on Technical/service characteristics where you don't have ideas, which appear to attain your targets. Converting the technical/service characteristics to function and generating ideas Is the VA integration, and the best way to generate ideas? You may also choose to do technical/service correlation at this time. This analysis is especially important when evaluating trade offs .The key to most of the technical areas is to use Functions -it is the key to VA and also to effective idea generating during the QFD process. 6. Cost/Time Targets
The last major step of the HOQ is setting cost/time targets. You do this by setting targets, which are related to the importance of each technical/service characteristic. These targets are of the same nature as targets set in Quality and Design for Productivity programs. They are somewhat idealistic, but never the less a target which must be striven toward under the context of continuous improvement". Use the VA technique to address Characteristics where cost/time estimates have a major difference from the targets. This may be the area of greatest similarity to V.A. because you are relating cost/time to a function or set of functions. The cost/time targets are very similar to the concept of function worth. 7. HOQ Is Only the First Step
The HOQ is not the end of the QFD process. It is only the first of three or four matrixes. In all of them, you have the same type of relationship and the potential to improve your output. The HOQ is called the planning matrix. The second matrix is the design matrix (used mainly for hardware projects). The third matrix is for process/service development and the last matrix is for Quality aspects. Therefore you can strengthen not only the planning, but also the design, process/service and quality elements of a project by using QFD and VA simultaneously. 8. Conclusions
You should carry this same VA function approach across the design matrix, the process matrix and the quality matrix. Then you will have the full and complete integration of the QFD and VA processes. You generate the ideas on the functions identified in the QFD process and carry them forward through the complete development process. You can see that we have integrated the two techniques to develop a powerful blend of problem (opportunity) identification and opportunity solving. The QFD HOQ helps VA to work on the right, and most important, functions and VA is the most specific method to deal with the issues brought up by QFD. They make each other more powerful. Oh yes, the major reason for failure of the QFD/VA process is failure to implement the plan/proposals identified during the process. YOU must make specific work plans and Commit the necessary resources to avoid dropping the ball. In VA projects, one of the keys to success is implementation of the proposals - QFD is not different. You must also implement the ideas generated in the HOQ and the balance of the QFD process if you are to gain maximum benefit. QFD and VA truly are the most powerful product/service development techniques available today. TRY IT, YOU 'all LIKE IT.
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References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] Belhe and Kusiak. The house of quality in a design process. International Journal of Production Research, 34(8), 1996, 2119-2131. Bhattacharyya and Rahman. Capturing the customer's voice, the centerpiece of strategy making: A case study in banking. European Business Review, 16(2), 2004, 128-138. Bossert, The quality function deployment: A practitioner's approach. ASQC Quality Press, Milwaukee, WI, 1991. Burden, R. PDM: Product data management, Resource Publishing. 2003. Clausing. Total quality development - A step by step guide to world-class concurrent engineering. ASME Press, New York, 1994. Cohen, Quality function deployment: How to make QFD work for you. Addison-Wesley, MA, 1995. CQM. A special issue on Kano's methods for understanding customer-define quality. The Center for Quality of Management Journal, 2, 1993. Day, Quality function deployment linking: A company with its customers Milwaukee. Springer, USA, 1993. Fung et al. Estimating the function relationship for function deployment under uncertainties. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 157 (1), 98-120, 2006.\ Gerson. Develop of customer needs in the QFD using a modified Kano model. Journal of the Academy of Business and Economics, 2003. Gonzalez et al. Customer satisfaction using QFD: An e-banking case. Managing Service Quality, 14 (4), 2004, 317-330. Govers. QFD is not only a tool but also a way of quality management. International Journal Production Economics, 7(1), 2000, 151-159. Grieves. Driving the next generation of lean thinking. McGraw-Hill, 2005. Halbleib et al. Application of quality function deployment to the design of a lithium battery. IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, 16 (8), 1993, 802-807. Hartmann. Technology and best practices, SAP Press, 2005.
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Erosive Wear Behaviour of Laser Cladded Surfaces of Ni & Co Based Alloys

S. Raja kiran , B.K. Gandhi , D.K. Dwivedi *, C.P. Paul , L.M. Kukreja
1 2 1 1 1, 2 2
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee-247667, India Industrial CO2 Laser Section, Laser Materials Processing Division, RRCAT, Indore, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: dkd04fme@iitr.ernet.in) The Cobalt based alloys are not preferred for hardfacing of nuclear power plant components due to its induced high radioactivity. In the present study, Ni based alloy namely Colmonoy-5 has been used to hardface the Austenitic stainless steel (AISI 304L) surface using a 5 kW (CW) CO2 laser. Laser cladding of the Cobalt based alloy namely Stellite-6, was also developed to compare the erosion resistance. The microstructure of Colmonoy-5 clad showed columnar dendritic growth near substrate-cladding interface. The microstructure exhibited primary dendrite phases of Ni solid solution and eutectic mixture in the inter dendrite region. EDAX analysis of Colmonoy-5 cladding revealed that dendrites are composed of Ni solid solution containing Cr, Fe and B as solute elements in nickel matrix. The results of slurry erosion tests of AISI 304L stainless steel substrate, Colmonoy-5 and Stellite-6 surfaces have shown that Colmonoy-5 and Stellite-6 surfaces are subjected to 1.7-4.0 times lower erosion compared to AISI 304L stainless steel substrate. However, the erosion of stellite-6 was approx. 10 to 21% lower than the Colmonoy-5 under identical conditions.
1.
Introduction
Austenitic stainless steels of the 300 series have been widely employed for components of nuclear power plants. For erosive wear, these components are usually protected by cobalt-based coatings (Stellite), processed by surface welding technology. Recently the trend has been towards replacement of cobalt alloys in nuclear applications because of the strategic aspects of these materials and because of their suspected role in contribution of out-of-core radiation fields [1-2]. The cobalt contained in wear particles and corrosion debris may be transformed into cobalt 60 by transmutation in the reactor. This isotope creates critical problems for the safety of nuclear plants owing to its long half-life. Efforts have been made in this field to find alternative materials, mainly nickel alloys, with similar efficiency and less cost eliminating the problems of radioactive contamination. In addition, the development and optimization of technologies for the production of metal powders has made available new nickel-based alloys (like Colmonoy) which provide similar high wear and corrosion resistance at ambient and high temperatures as compared to the cobalt alloys. Furthermore, recent advanced coating techniques provide better performance and reliability. The main objective of the present investigation is to develop two hard facing surfaces using laser cladding. Nickel-based powder namely Colmonoy-5, and Stellite-6 (Cobalt base) are used to form clad layers on AISI 304L stainless steel. Laser processing parameters are optimized for developing the clad surface using 5 kW continuous wave (CW) CO2 laser. The clad geometry, microstructure and micro-hardness of the cladded layer have been examined to ascertain the clad quality. The erosion behavior of the clad is evaluated in the slurry pot tester and compared with that of the substrate material. 2. Experimental Details
Laser cladding has been carried out using an indigenously developed 5 kW CW CO2 laser system. The substrate material namely, AISI 304L is selected for the present investigation. The chemical composition of the substrate is given in Table 1. Two different hardfacing powders namely, Colmonoy-5 and Stellite-6 are used to overlay tracks on AISI 304L steel, using 5 kW CW CO2 laser. The chemical composition and physical properties of
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the hardfacing powders are given in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The powders were procured for the size range of 45-106 m. Table 1. Chemical composition of substrate material used Substrate material AISI 304L steel C (%) 0.017 Cr (%) 18.65 Ni (%) 8.75 Mn (%) 2.1 S (%) 0.011 Si (%) 0.43 P (%) 0.030 Fe (%) Bal.
Table 2. Chemical composition of hardfacing powders Powder Colmonoy-5 Steelite-6 C (%) 0.50 1.2 Fe (%) 4.80 0.3 Si (%) 3.40 1.1 B (%) 2.30 Cr (%) 13.80 28 Co (%) Bal. Ni (%) Bal. 0.3 Mn (%) 1 W (%) 4.5
Table 3. Physical properties of hardfacing powders 3 Powder Density (kg/cm ) Melting temperature (K) Colmonoy-5 Stellite-6 8.24 8.44 1250-1300 1558-1683
Hardness HRC 45-50 36-45
Grain size (m) 45-106 45-106
The range of laser processing parameters for overlaying of Colmonoy-5, Stellite-6 powders on AISI 304L steel using CO2 laser is given in Table 4. In the present investigation the powder feed rate was kept constant as 7.5 g/min with 1.5 mm laser beam diameter. Table 4. Laser processing parameters Laser power Scanning Powder (kW) speed (mm/min) Colmonoy-5 Stellite-6 1.0, 1.3 and 1.6 1.0, 1.3 and 1.6 200-1000 200-1000
Powder feed rate (g/min) 7.5 7.5
Beam dia. (mm) 1.5 1.5
Overlap (%) 60 60
Sand bath temperature (K) 673 -
To investigate the erosion wear behavior of laser clad surfaces, the wear test specimens of size 30mm x 5mm x 2mm were prepared. Erosion tests have been carried out using the mixture of 550m size quartz particles with water. The range of parameters for 0 0 0 erosion testing is given in Table 5. The specimens were oriented at 15 ,30 and 45 angles with respect to the direction of its rotation inside the slurry pot to study the effect of impact angle. Table 5. Range of parameters for erosion testing Type of investigation For both clad layers 0 Impact angles (degree) 15,30 and 45 Mean quartz particle size (m) 550 Solid concentration (% by weight) 10 and 20 Run time (hr) 2 (slurry replacement time 1hr) Speed (m/s) 3 Standard procedure was used to polish the specimens. The polished specimens were etched with 30 ml acetic acid + 30 ml HNO3 + 10 ml glycerin. The geometry of the clad track was examined by an optical microscope. The micro-hardness of the overlapped clad tracks was measured by a micro-hardness tester at 0.981N load. The load was applied for 30 s at the polished surface of clad layers. The clad surface morphology was examined using energy dispersive X-ray (EDAX) analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis.
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3.
The thickness, shape and quality of the clad track depend on the laser power, scanning speed and powder feed rate. The effects of scanning speed and laser power on clad width and clad height are shown in Fig. 1(a, b) for Colmonoy-5.
(a)
(b)
Figure.1 Influence of scanning speed and laser power on (a) the clad width and (b) clad height of Colmonoy-5 coatings. Fig. 1a shows that the width of clad layer is almost equal to beam diameter and decreases linearly with increase in the scanning speed at constant powder flow rate a phenomenon generally reported in literature [3-5]. This can be attributed to availability of less heat through the laser beam at the substrate surface as laser power available per unit length (J/mm) decreases with increase in the scanning speed. Fig. 1b shows that the total clad height increases with decreasing the scanning speed which is in line with the results reported by earlier investigators [3-5]. Further increasing the scanning speed, the clad height decreases because lesser amount of powder goes to the laser generated melt pool. The microhardness of the different sections of the clad layers was measured with microhardness tester with a load of 100 g (0.981N) for 30 sec. The microhardness profile across section of clad layer of two claddings is shown in Fig. 2. The average hardness of colmonoy-5 cladding is 570 VHN where as average hardness of Stellite-6 cladding is 685 VHN. The microstructure of Colmonoy-5 cladding exhibited primary dendrite phases of Ni solid solution and eutectic mixture in the inter-dendrite region. EDAX analysis revealed that the average content of Cr-B-C precipitates is 10 - 15 wt. %, dispersed in a solid solution of CrFe-Ni-B matrix. Chromium, Boron and Carbon segregate as carbides and borides. The cladding material is rich of Chromium, Nickel, Boron and Irons where as Carbon, Phosphorous, Sulphur and Silicon are uniformly distributed in the substrate and clad zone. The microstructure of Stellite-6 claddings shows hypoeutectic structure, containing fine and homogeneous dendrites and the interdendritic eutectics. EDAX analysis revealed that from liquid state Co-rich dendritic phase is first formed. Cr and C become enriched in the remaining liquid in the interdendrite regions and then eutectic carbide structure forms.
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Figure 2.
(a) (b) Micro-hardness (at load 0.981 N) profile across section of clad layer of (a) Colmonoy-5 clad (b) Stellite-6 clad.
(a) (b) Figure. 3 SEM micrograph showing microstructure of (a) Colmonoy-5 and (b) Steliite-6 cladding. The wear behavior of the substrate and both the claddings of Colmonoy-5 and Stellite-6 has been evaluated using slurry pot tester at 3 m/s velocity with quartz-water particulate mixture of 550 m size particles. The solid concentration was kept as 10%, 20% 0 0 0 by weight and the orientation angle was varied as 15 ,30 and 45 . The measurement of mass loss in known time period was used to evaluate the erosion rate in gram per gram of impacting solid particles. The variation of erosion rate (g/g) of Colmonoy-5, Stellite-6 clads and AISI 316L steel presented graphically in Fig. 4 From Fig. 4 (a and b) it is observed that Colmonoy-5 clad shows improvement in erosion wear resistance about 43% compared to the AISI 304L steel substrate at the orientation angle between 150 to 450 and Stellite-6 shows improvement in erosion wear resistance about 57% for the same range of orientation angles. 0 0 Further it is observed that as orientation angle increases from 15 to 45 the erosion rate -8 decreases from 1.52 to 0.81 g/g x 10 for substrate material. Similarly erosion rate decreases -8 -8 from 0.87 to 0.44 g/g x 10 and 0.54 to 0.34 g/g x 10 for Colmonoy-5 and Stellite-6 0 0 claddings respectively as orientation angle increases from 15 to 45 .
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600
1.6
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1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

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1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

(b)
AISI 304L Colmonoy Stellite
Fig. 4 (a) Variation of erosion rate of substrate and clad layer at =300, (b) Variation of erosion of substrate and clad layer at different orientation angles.
4. Conclusions 1. For Laser cladding of AISI 304L steel with Colmonoy-5, Stellite-6 hardfacing powders, the clad width increases with increasing laser power and decrease with increasing scanning speed. The clad height decreases with increasing laser power and decreases with increasing scanning speed. 2. The average microhardness of Colmonoy-5 and Stellite-6 claddings is 570 VHN and 685 VHN respectively. The microstructure of Colmonoy-5 cladding contains primary dendrite phases of Ni solid solution and eutectic mixture in the inter-dendrite region. The microstructure of Stellite-6 claddings contains hypoeutectic structure, containing fine and homogeneous dendrites and the interdendritic eutectics. 3. The Colmonoy-5 clad shows improvement in erosion wear resistance about 43% compared to the AISI 304L steel substrate and Stellite-6 shows improvement in 0 0 erosion wear resistance about 57% for the range of orientation angles from 15 to 45 . References [1] G. L. Goswami, Santosh Kumar, R. Galun and B. L. Mordike, Laser cladding of nickel based Hardfacing materials as an Alternative of Stellite, BARC News Letter, Founders Day Special Issue, Issue No. 249, 1999, 64-70. [2] M. Corchia, P. Delogu and F. Nenci, Microstructural aspects of wear-resistant stellite and colmonoy coatings by laser processing, Wear, 119, 1987, 137-152. [3] S. Sun, Y. Durandet and M. Brandt, Parametric investigation of pulsed Nd: YAG laser cladding of stellite 6 on stainless steel, Surface and Coatings Technology, 194, 2005, 225-231. [4] M. Qian, L.C. Lim, Z.D. Chen and W.L. Chen, Parametric studies of laser cladding processes, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 63, 1997, 590-593. [5] Girish R. Desale, C.P. Paul, B.K. Gandhi and S.C. Jain, Erosion wear behavior of laser clad surfaces of low carbon austenitic steel. Wear, 266, 2009, 975-987.
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Comparison of Single and Multi-Objective Optimization of Quality Responses of Peripheral Milling Process by Taguchi Method
Dhananjay C. Katpatal , S. Rajpal , Dr.Sanjeev Sinha
1* 1* 2 3
Kavikulguru Institute of Technology and Science, Ramtek (M.S) 2 B.N. college of Engg., Pusad, (M.S.) 3 Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad (U.P) * Corresponding author (e-mail: dckatpatal@gmail.com)
This paper outlines the Taguchi optimization methodology, which is applied to optimize cutting parameters in peripheral milling operation, when machining 970En24 steel which is processed by an eight flute high speed steel slab milling cutter. The milling parameters evaluated are cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. An orthogonal array, signal to noise(S/N) ratio and analysis of variance (ANOVA) are employed to analyze the effect of these milling parameters on surface roughness and material removed. A considerable improvement in the surface roughness and material removed has been found by using Taguchi method-based predicted results. Confirmatory experimental results have shown good agreement with predicted results. Further, the Taguchi quality loss function has also been used for multi-objective optimization for milling process. The results of multi-objective optimization are compared with the single-objective optimization. 1. Introduction
With the introduction of high speed machining (HSM), the scope of application of milling is continuously expanding. The economic selection of cutting conditions requires knowledge of technical and cost data, which are not easily available in many cases. Surface roughness is a measure of the technological quality of a product and a factor that greatly influences manufacturing cost. It describes the geometry of the machined surface and combined with the surface texture, which is process dependent, can play an important role to optimize the operational characteristics of the process. As a multi-point machining process, more potential variability makes it even harder to obtain a surface roughness model in milling operations compared with single point machining [1]. Tsai et al. [1] stated that the possible factors affecting surface finish were found to be feed rate, cutting speed, depth of cut, cutter geometry, cutter run out, tool wear, and the cutter force and vibration under dynamic cutting conditions. Using Taguchi design, Fuh and Wu [2] included cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, tool nose radius, and flank as control factors for the creation of a statistical model to predict surface roughness for aluminum parts in end milling operations. Ghani et al., [3] conducted a study to optimize cutting conditions for hardened steel under semi-finish and finish conditions. Applying cutting speed, feed rate, and depth as control factors, they used measured responses (i.e., surface roughness and resultant cutting force) and their calculated signal-to-noise ratio to determine the optimal cutting condition. 2. Taguchi Methodology for single objective optimization
The following are the major steps of implementing the TM: (1) identify the factors/interactions, (2) identify the levels of each factor, (3) select an appropriate orthogonal Array (OA), (4)assign the factors/interactions to column of the OA, (5) conduct the experiments, (6) analyze the data and determine the optimal levels, and (7) conduct the confirmation experiment.[2,3]
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The experiment was performed on a 3-axis horizontal milling machine fitted with high speed spindle which can rotate up to 635RPM. Wet condition is recommended for the experimental work. Three levels of each control factor have been selected without considering the interaction effect. The numerical values of the control factors at different levels are shown in Table 1. For selecting Orthogonal Array (OA) first find the degree of freedom of the process by using formula DOF= [(number of levels-1) for each control factor + (number of levels for A1) x (number of levels for B-1)for each interaction +1] where, A and B are the interacting control factors. Table 1: Factors and level used in experiment Process parameter Speed (RPM) Feed (mm/min) Depth of cut (mm) Parameter designation A B C Levels 1 114 30 0.2 2 160 38 0.4 3 228 48 0.6
Here the degree of freedom comes out to be 7. So here we are selected L9 OA which is given below in Table No.2. Table2: Experimental layout using L9 orthogonal array Surface Roughness C 1 2 3 3 1 2 2 3 1 Error (m) 1.87 2.90 3.14 1.52 2.35 1.25 1.92 2.46 3.37 Material Removed (gm.) 3.0 5.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 2.0 11.0 4.0 6.0
Experiment No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
Factor level B 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Here for calculating S/N ratios Smaller-The Better case for surface roughness and LargerThe Better case for material removed has been used. Calculated S/N ratio ( values) corresponding to each experimental run have been given in Table 3.
Table 3: S/N ratios for surface roughness and material removed

S/N ratio (Surface roughness) (dB) S/N ratio (Material removed) (dB) -5.46 -9.247 -9.938 -3.636 -7.421 1.938 -5.666 -7.818 -10.55
9.542
13.979
16.902
18.061
20.000
6.020
20.827
12.041
15.563
After calculating S/N ratios for each experimental run then calculate average S/N ratio for each level which have been given in Table No.4.From the Table No. 4 we can observed that for getting better surface finish, the optimum parameter are speed at level 2 (160 RPM), feed
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at level 1(30mm/min) and depth of cut at level 1 (0.2mm) i.e.(A2B1C1) and for getting higher material removed, the optimum parameter are speed at level 3 (228 RPM), feed at level 1 (30mm/min) and depth of cut at level 3 (0.6mm) i.e.( A3B1C3) Table 4: S/N response for surface roughness and material removed Mean S/N ratios (dB) Level Level Level 1 2 3 -8.125 -4.920* -5.072* -4.331
*
Symbol
Factors Speed (RPM) Feed

(mm/min)
Mean S/N ratios (dB) Level Level Level 1 2 3 13.475 16.144* 9.29 14.694 15.340 15.868 16.144* 15.868 19.243*
A B C
-8.012 -7.675 -7.675
-8.162 -7.811
Depth of cut (mm)
3. Taguchi methodology for Multi-objective optimizations In multi-objective optimization a single overall S/N ratio for all quality characteristics is computed in place of separate S/N ratios for each of the quality characteristic. This overall S/N ratio is known with the name of multiple S/N ratio (MSNR). The remaining steps are kept same as in single objective optimization. The MSNR is computed with the help of multiple quality loss function. [4] Let Lij be the quality loss for the j
th
quality characteristic at the i
th
trial condition or run in
the experimental design matrix. As each quality characteristic has different units of measurement, it is important to normalize the quality loss. The normalized quality loss can be computed using :
^
l ij lij / l i*
^
Where lij = normalized quality loss for j
th
th
trial condition, and
li * = maximum quality loss for the i th quality characteristic among all the experimental runs.
^
The lij varies from a minimum of zero to a maximum of 1. For computing the total normalized quality loss ( L j ) corresponding to each trial condition, we must assign a weighting factor for each quality characteristic considered in the optimization process. If wi represents the weighting factor for the j
^
th
quality characteristic,
p is the number of quality characteristics and lij is the loss function associated with the j th
p ^
th
trial condition, then
L j can be computed using:
L j wi l ij After the total normalized quality loss ( L j ) corresponding to each trial

i 1
condition has been calculated, the next step is to compute the multiple signal-to-noise ratio
( j ) at each design point. This is given by:
j e 10 log10 ( L j )
4. Multi-objective optimization results The quality loss values for the surface roughness and material removed against different experimental runs have been calculated from observed quality values (Table 1) and are shown in Table 5.
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Table 5: Quality loss values for Surface roughness and Material removed
S/N ratio (Surface roughness) (dB) S/N ratio (Material removed) (dB) 3.515 8.410 9.859 2.310 5.522 1.562 3.686 6.051 11.356
0.111
0.040
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.250
0.008
0.062
0.027
The computed normalized quality loss for Surface roughness and Material removed are given in Table6. Table 6: Normalized loss values for surface roughness and material removed S/N ratio (Surface roughness) S/N ratio (Material removed)
0.309
0.740
0.868
0.203
0.486
0.137
0.324
0.532
1.000
0.444
0.160
0.080
0.062
0.040
1.000
0.032
0.250
0.110
The equal weights ( w1 w2 0.5 ) for surface roughness and material removed have been assumed because material removal using Milling operation is equally important to that of minimizing the surface roughness. The total normalized quality loss (TNQL) and the multiple S/N ratios in each experimental run have been calculated and given in Table 7. Table 7: Total Normalized Quality Loss (TNQL) and Multiple S/N ratio (MSNR)
TNQL 0.376 0.450 0.471 0.132 0.263 0.568 0.178 0.391 0.555 MSNR (dB) 4.4377 3.465 3.265 8.764 5.798 2.451 7.481 4.073 2.553 Mean MSNR =4.6768 The average factor effect have been shown in Table 8. Table 8: Multiple S/N response table (average factor effect at different levels) Symbol A B C Factors Speed (RPM) Feed (mm/min) Depth of cut (mm) Mean S/N ratios (dB) Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 * 3.656 5.671 4.702 6.827* 4.446 2.756 2.365 4.928 5.514*
e
The optimum parameter setting corresponding to maximum average values for minimum surface roughness and maximum material removed is A2B1C3 i.e., speed at 160RPM, feed at 30mm/min, and depth of cut at 0.6mm. The ANOVA given in Table 9 shows the contribution of different factors in decreasing order: feed, speed, and depth of cut. The experimental results of multiple quality optimization and single quality optimization using Taguchi methodology have been compared in Table 10. The results show that the surface roughness in multi-objective optimization is decreased by 23.71% as compared with surface roughness in single-objective optimization, while material removed is decreased by 18.18% in multi optimization. It means the chance of quality loss is always there in shifting from single quality optimization to multiple qualities optimization. Therefore, a careful selection of weighting factor is required in order to minimize the loss in quality
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Table 9: Results of ANOVA in multi-objective optimization

Sum of sq. 6.0952 25.0977 5.8536 2.2637 Contribution Mean sq. 3.0476 12.5488 2.9268 1.1318 19.6550 F 2.692 11.087 2.585 (%) 15.50 63.84 14.89 5.75 100.00
Symbol A B C Error Total
DOF 2 2 2 2 8
Factors Speed Feed Depth of cut
Table10: Comparison of results of single objective and multiple objective optimizations Single quality optimization Surface Material roughness removed (MR) (SR) A2B1C1 A3 B1C3 1.19 ____ ____ 11.00 Multiple-quality optimization SR and Loss in quality MR (Loss in %) A2B1C3 23.71 1.56 9.00 18.18
Responses Level Surface roughness ( m) Material removed (gm)
5.
Conclusions TheTaguchi parameter design was an efficient way of determining the optimal cutting parameters for Surface roughness and Material removed. The surface roughness and material removed achievement of the confirmation runs under the optimal cutting parameters indicated that of the parameter settings used in this study, those identified as optimal through Taguchi parameter design in single and multi-optimization were able to produce the best surface roughness and material removed in this milling operation. This was accomplished with a relatively small number of experimental runs, given the number of control factors, suggesting that Taguchi parameter design is an efficient and effective method for optimizing surface roughness and material removed in a milling operation. The loss which occurred while doing simultaneous optimization of surface roughness and material removed can be improved by taking L27 orthogonal array. Acknowledgement The authors are very thankful to Mr. Vishvas, Bhilai Deisel, Bhilai for supplying the material in proper time and also Workshop superidentant of Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, (U,P),India.for giving permission for conducting the experimental tests in Mechanical Engg. Workshop. References [1] Y.H. Tsai, J.C. Chen, S.J. Lou, In-process surface recognition system based on neural networks in end milling cutting operations, Int. J. Mach. Tool Manuf. 39 (4),1999, 583 605. [2] K.H. Fuh, C.F. Wu, A proposed statistical model for surface quality prediction in endmilling of Al alloy, Int. J. Mach. Tool Manuf. 35 (8),1995, 11871200. [3] J.A. Ghani, I.A. Choudhury, H.H. Hassan, Application of Taguchi method in the optimization of end milling, J. Mater. Process. Tech. 145 (1), 2004, 8492. [4] Jiju Antony, Multi-response optimization in industrial experiments using Taguchis quality loss function, Quality and Reliability Engineering International 2000; 16: 3-8 [5] Madhav S. Phadke, Quality Engineering using Robust Design, Prentice Hall. [6] Indrajit Mukharjee, Pradip Kumar Ray, A review of Optimization techniques in metal cutting processes, Computers and Industrial Engineering, 50 (1), 2006,15-34.
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A Case Study on Implementation of Global Standard Inspection Process GSIP in a Reputed Automobile Company
D. U. Panchal , B. Prajapati ,Rajendra J. Jani
1 1* 1 2
PL. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad, India 2 Govt. Engineering College, Modasa * Corresponding author (e-mail: dhruvautoengg@yahoo.com) A good management at production site can only ensure good products but not their competitiveness. To ensure competitive products, quality must be ensured at all levels starting from planning, development of the product, and implementation to the sales to maximize benefits of the system. It is necessary also to develop and implement a well structured performance evaluation process to assist both the business and its interested parties achieved agreed objectives in a sustainable way. For this, organizations have to be directly linked with the continual improvement of business performance. Many organizations have found in the establishment of management systems, in particular integrated management systems (IMS), based on the ISO 14001:1996, ISO 9001:2000. IMS includes three elements: Global Manufacturing System (GMS), Quality Management System (QMSISO 9001:2000), Environmental Management System (EMS- ISO 14001:2004).This paper considers a case study which provides an example of the Quality Management System embedded in to an Integrated Management System. An implementation of new software called GLOBAL STANDARD INSPECTION PROCESS for performance evaluation of a reputed automobile company. 1. Introduction to IMS The IMS have adopted the following formal definition of integrated management. An Integrated Management System is a single integrated structure used by an organization to manage its processes - or activities that transform inputs of resources into a product or service which meet the organization's objectives and equitably satisfy the stakeholders quality, health, safety, environmental, security, ethical or any other identified requirement.[1] An integrated management system (IMS) is a management system which integrates all components of a business into one coherent system so as to enable the achievement of its purpose and mission. 2. 3. Benefits of Integrated Management System The IMS have following benefits: [2] QMS, EMS , GMS & other Global systems are in focus equally at all times One manual Fewer but more comprehensive audits Common management review Common departmental review at one time Reduces confusion among employees and contractors Reduces the auditing costs ( Internal & External) Online access to IMS manuals, procedures, process flows, WINs...etc
Introduction to Quality Management System (QMS- ISO 9001: 2000) The first two editions of the ISO 9000 series published in 1987 and 1994 had the focus on enabling the firms to produce the same quality every time by specifying the policy, procedures and instructions in a quality handbook. With the revision of ISO 9001:2000 the
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focus on the customers and on continuous improvements has become stronger. The circles and arrows in ISO 9001:2000 symbolize a dynamic and continuous process The standard also focuses more clearly on the customers, their demands and satisfaction, so that the standard makes the company more oriented towards the product chain in which it operates. ISO 9001:2000 has also been aligned with ISO 14001:1996 "in order to enhance the compatibility of the two standards for the benefit of the user community. In December 2002 about 560,000 ISO 9000 certificates had been issued in 159 countries. [3] ISO 9000:2000 - Fundamentals and Vocabulary Provides an introduction to Quality Management Systems (QMS) and vocabulary [2] ISO 9001:2000 - Requirements Specifies requirements for a QMS where capability to provide product that meets customer and regulatory requirements needs to be demonstrated [2] ISO 9004:2000 - Guidelines for Performance Improvement Provides guidance on using an established QMS to further enhance customer satisfaction and product/service quality [2] ISO 14001- Environmental Management System Standard A system that provides an overall frame work for environmental management [5] EMAS - Eco-management and Audit Scheme 4. Introduction to Global Standard Inspection Process GSIP is intended to replace the STABS (System Tracking and Built Status), and other systems currently employed at companys manufacturing facilities to support the Standard Inspection Process (SIP). GSIP collects in-process quality data and facilitates the direct and meaningful feedback of this data to production supervisors, product engineers, quality assurance analysts, and assembly personnel. This data starts with an operator entering discrepancies or defect information into the system and noting whether they have repaired it. The system tracks the defects in two methodsby specific vehicle and by overall count for each type of defect. GSIP can be configured to automatically Alarm when a count goes over a plant specified limit and provide immediate feedback to the responsible department. The Alarms can send a warning or alert to a designated alarm group of people by simultaneously transmitting to pagers, printers, and GSIP terminals/stations when a quality issue is noted in the system. Using GSIP, operators and inspectors on the assembly or production line can enter in-process quality data, as it happens. Designated people, such as Plant Superintendents, Quality Analysts, Production Supervisors, Quality Action Team Members, and Product Engineers, can then extract meaningful and direct feedback from the data in the form of reports. Once recognized, the problems can be remedied which in turn increases quality and efficiency on the plant floor. [4] GSIP can be graded in three elements: Administration Client Defect Entry Client Reporting Client 5. Stabs to GSIP Migration Why Company need to change from STABS to GSIP? Company needs a common global system. One common Defect structure for all plants Data Management in GSIP is better than STABS GSIP comprises Global Defect Structure which is managed by Central Admin Roles & Responsibilities are more clear in GSIP STABS is an outdated system (not supported for all plants) Cannot make enhancements to STABS to drive quality improvements
6.
GSIP Deployment Plan Procurement for GSIP deployment has some plan like
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GSIP Back out Plan includes identifying any workarounds that are available and develop the plan for the work around. GSIP Cutover Plan is for communicate to all involved team members their roles and responsibilities for supporting a smooth and successful system cutover. GSIP Site Training Plan describes the basic training resource and timing requirements. GSIP Site Test Plan is for verifying the successful cutover from the manual operation of quality inspection to GSIP. 7. GSIP Process Flow Company has 13 quality check stations named as SIPs. GSIP input terminals are located at each SIP stations for data entry. [4] The simplified process flow is shown below:
Figure 1. GSIP Process Flow Diagram 8. GSIP Configuration Phase GSIP being an important software and tool of the quality department required proper planning and meticulous care in implementing. The configuration of the GSIP could be done by administrator of the plant using admin client. The following are significant area of configuration. Site Configuration: This menu includes selections to allow the administrator to configure the plant or site specific configuration elements such as Work Schedule and Teams. User Configuration: This menu allows the administrator to configure GSIP system Users, Roles and User Alarms. Station Configuration: This menu includes selections to allow the administrator to configure the stations and station related items. Defect Configuration: This menu allows the administrator to configure Part/Fault structure related items such as Team, Rank, Severity, and GCA. Utilities Configuration: This menu allows the administrator to execute utility functions like Error Recovery, and configuring Plant UI Translation and Vehicle options.
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9.
GSIP Training Phase This phase details the Site Training Plan for the Global Standard Inspection Process (GSIP) project. Two major audiences are addressed in these training requirements: Individuals who will use the product Individuals who will install and provide operations support for the product. Major activities executed during training are listed below A simulation version of GSIP was configured during training sessions. Training sessions were conducted with 6000 dummy vehicles. Solved user end enquiries during training sessions. Simplified Training materials for defect Entry Client and Reporting Client had prepared and trainings were conducted based on the same. GSIP Defect Entry Client Training 100% Completed, 300 people have been trained including Team members, Ass. Team leaders, Team leaders, Area leaders, Group leaders, Shift incharges. GSIP Reporting Training 100% Completed, 100 people have been trained including Team leaders, Area leaders, Group leaders, Shift incharges, Ass. Managers, Managers. Prepared comparative analysis reports of STABS and GSIP. Coordinated with the central data team for error proofing. Generated User IDs according to the privilege. 10. Comparative Study of Reports from STABS and GSIP The basic two terms that are used for comparing and analyzing the quality of the plant are DRR (Direct Run Ratio) and DRL (Direct Run Loss). DIRECT RUN RATE There are three stations considered for DRR calculation. Station A (Repair confirmation), Station B (Underbody inspection) and Station C (CARE). Calculation formula is [2] No. of OK vehicles DRR %= --------------------------------- X 100 No. of Inspected Vehicles DIRECT RUN LOSS Direct run loss is related to the no. of defects found in the vehicles. In company, all buy off station of the lines called DRL station. Like Body DRL, Paint DRL, Chassis DRL, etc [2] Calculation formula is No. of Defects DRL %= ---------------------------------- X 100 No. of inspected vehicles We simulated some dummy vehicle on both STABS and GSIP to check the user compatibility for the new software. For this the equivalence of DRR and DRL values of both software were chosen to be the deciding parameters. 11. Comparative Analysis of STABS and GSIP Since GSIP and STABS are both defect tracking software and since GSIP has phased out STABS a comparative analysis had to be performed to justify the same. We shall first discuss the benefits of GSIP. Benefits of GSIP over STABS: Data Generation & Verification Part- Fault Production Teams Vehicle Tracking Audit Summary Central Reporting Tool
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100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
P a r t - F a u lt P r o d u c t io n T e a m s C o n f ig u r a t io n S t a t u s
User Friendly Graph Generation User Business Functions Color Codes Horizontal Vehicle Lineup Bar Filter Criteria Alarm Escalation
100% 100% 95% 90% 100% 95% 95% 90% 100%
100% 90% 80% 95% 90% 100% 95% 95% 85% 100% 95% 90% 95% 95% 95% 100% 100% 100%
100% 95%
75% 70% 60%
70% 60% 50%
70%
50%
40%
40%
40% 30% 20%
0%
A u d it S u m m a r y
0%
G r a p h G e n e r a t io n C e n t r a l R e p o r t in g Tool U s e r F r ie n d ly
0%
R e g u la r P r o d u c t io n O p t io n s U s e r B u s in e s s F u n c t io n s C o lo r C o d e s
0%
HV LB
GSIP 10% STABS 0%

D efe c t S ta tus A la rm E s c a la t io n F ilt e r C rit e ria
GSIP STABS 0%
R o o t D e fe c t S y m pto m D e fe c t V e rs io n D o w n lo a d in g D is p la y V e h ic le O p t io n
0%
S A P S u p p o rt
0%
G P I C S S u p p o rt D e f e c t E n t e re d B y
DATA
DATA
Figure 2. Data Evaluation with respect to efficiency to perform the task 12. Results After some strenuous sessions and regular and updated training sessions, configurations and continuous issue tracking our effort lead to the successful Go Live launch of GSIP. GSIP having quiet a few benefits and advantages over System Tracking and Built Status which are helpful to effectively continuing the QMS. They are: Less time in report generation Everybody has their own responsibilities No chance of inter departmental misinterpretation and wrangle Easy identification of vehicle color Easy and quick defect identification which leads to further cost reduction during production Easy generation of graphs as per the required time limit and process can be evaluated quickly GSIP have brought about some much needed changes and new features required by the quality department of company. GSIP seems promising to deliver on its expectations. References [1] Ian Dalling. Integrated Management System Definition and Guidance on Structuring. Unified Management Solutions. [2] Tine Herreborg Jorgensen, Marie Dolores Mellado, Arne Remmen. Integrated Management Syste. Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University. [3] Dr Rhys Rowland-Jones. Integrated Management Systems.
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Investigations Into Turning Of Cylindrical Components Using Wire Electrical Discharge Machine
V. Janardhan and G.L. Samuel* Indian institute of Technology Madras, Chennai- 600036, INDIA * Corresponding author (e-mail: samuelgl@iitm.ac.in) In the present work, a setup for WEDT process is developed. The setup consists of a spindle which is designed to meet the accuracy requirements of the process. The experiments are conducted to investigate the characteristics of the WEDT process. A data acquisition system for acquiring the pulse train data during WEDT process has been developed. Pulse train data is collected for both turning and 2D cutting by varying different process parameters. A pulse discrimination algorithm for classifying different pulse types is developed in the present work. The pulse train data is analyzed using the proposed algorithm to find the number of open circuit, short circuit, ignition delay and arc pulses for different parameter settings. Based on this analysis material removal rate for turning and cutting 2D profiles has been compared and the significant parameters influencing the WEDT process are determined. It has been observed that there are more number of arc pulses in turning than in cutting 2D profiles. 1. Introduction
In WEDM material is removed by a series of electrical sparks between the workpiece and the wire flushed by a dielectric and it is effective in manufacturing components with intricate shapes and profiles. Turning with Wire electro discharge machine is one of the emerging areas. A rotary axis is added to the Wire-EDM for generating cylindrical and axisymmetric forms. The idea of using wire EDM to machine cylindrical parts has been reported by Masuzawa and Tonshoff to manufacture small-diameter pins and shafts of diameter 5m [1]. Manufacturing of macro level automobile components like diesel injector plunger with WEDM has been carried out by Qu. et al., [2, 3] and the authors also studied the surface integrity and roundness of the parts turned. Truing of metal bond diamond wheels is also carried out with WEDM by Brian et al [4]. Machining axi-symmetric shapes with WEDM is also carried out by Takayuki et al [5]. Attempts have been made to analyze the influence of the parameters such as power, pulse off time, wire speed, spindle rotational speed on the material removal rate (MRR), surface finish and roundness aspects of the process [3, 6, 7, and 8]. Qu et al mentioned that the maximum MRR in cylindrical wire electro discharge machining was greater than 2D Wire-EDM [2]. The authors have mentioned that the possible cause for this is better flushing conditions. Aminollah et al [7], Haddad et al [8] concluded that MRR was inversely proportional to the rotational speed. From these observations it can be claimed that, the parameters flushing conditions and spindle rotational speed are affecting the discharges occurring at the spark gap which in turn are affecting the MRR. With the help of pulse train analysis at the spark gap, the variation in discharges for WEDT is investigated in the current work. 2. Spindle for WEDT process
Precision spindle is the key subsystem for wire electro discharge turning (WEDT) process. The basic requirements for the spindle are; (i) The components of the spindle need to have good corrosion resistance and should be protected from flushing. (ii) Suitable electrical connectivity for the flow of electrical current from the rotating workpiece to the ground for the spark to occur. (iii) The gap between the wire and workpiece should be consistent for machining to be stable. Spindle rotational accuracy needs to be high for gap consistency. (iv)The spindle should hold workpiece of different diameters and should be capable of rotating at different speeds. The
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spindle consists of a worm gear, a DC motor, an L-section, a casing, two stainless less steel angular contact ball bearings, a spindle shaft, a housing and a work holding device as shown in the Figure 1. The work holding device used is a key less taper drill chuck with JT1 taper. The spindle shaft is machined from SAE 316 steel as it has good corrosion resistance. One end of the shaft is machined to JT1 taper to mount the work holding device. Housing was machined from a round Aluminium block as it has good corrosion resistance.
Figure 1. Spindle for WEDT process
Figure 2. Pulse train data acquisition system
Shaft is first placed inside the housing and bearings are press fit into the shaft and the housing, simultaneously. Bearing inner rings are supported by the shaft and the locknuts and the outer ring is supported by the bearing seats in housing. A worm gear is attached to the spindle shaft through a keyway provided on the shaft. The worm gear is made of plastic to prevent electric current flow to the motor. Helical teeth are provided on the DC motor shaft which acts as a worm wheel for transferring rotation to the spindle shaft through the gear. The bearing and housing assembly is fixed to the vertical face of the L-section. The DC motor is fixed to the base of the Lsection with insulating plates, for preventing electric current to flow through the motor. The entire assembly is mounted on the table of the Wire-EDM. The total spindle is covered with a casing made of acrylic plates as shown in figure 1. Spindle run out is measured using a non contact capacitance sensor with resolution of 0.1m and it is evaluated as 10 m. 3. Pulse train data acquisition
The pulse train data includes both voltage and current waveforms across the spark gap. A block diagram of pulse train data acquisition system to get the spark gap voltage waveform is shown in figure 2. A 75mV/75A shunt which is equivalent to a resistance of 1m is used to acquire current waveform. To connect electrical shunt, the WEDT set up is insulated from the base with acrylic plates and another current conducting path is created from the workpiece to the ground through the electrical shunt. Voltage drop measured across the terminals of the shunt is multiplied with resistance of the shunt to get the current data. Cathode ray oscilloscope probes are used to acquire voltage and current waveforms to the two channel Oscilloscope. The data from the Oscilloscope is transferred to computer with RS-232 cable. Pulse train data is collected during the machining for duration of 10 ms at different parameter settings.
Figure 3. Voltage and current threshold crossing points with different pulse types
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3.1
Pulse Classification Algorithm
An algorithm has been written in MATLAB for classifying the pulses. The pulses are classified into four types open circuit, normal, arc and short circuit pulses. Arc and short circuit pulses come under non ignition delay pulses. The pulse train data, voltage threshold level and current threshold level shown in figure 3 are input to the algorithm. The algorithm gives the number of open circuit, normal discharge, short circuit and arc pulses as the output. The steps followed in preparing the algorithm is as follows: Step1: Finding voltage threshold crossing points. Step2: Finding current threshold crossing points. Step3: Classifying the pulses based on the location, time and magnitude of the threshold crossing points. Based on the observation of different pulse wave forms collected the threshold voltage for classifying the different non ignition delay pulses (arc and short circuit pulses) was chosen as 21V. 4 Experimental results and discussion
Experiments were conducted on ELECTRONICA ECOCUT machine. The process parameters pulse off time, spindle rotational speed, and flushing pressure are varied to study effect on MRR in WEDT. Each parameter is varied at 3- levels keeping the other two parameters constant. The pulse off time is chosen as 42 s, 35 s and 30 s. The flushing pressure is varied at three levels (1-lower, 2-medium and 3-higher). Rotational speeds used are 40, 70 and 100 rpm. A brass workpiece of 10mm diameter is used for WEDT; depth of cut of 0.2 mm is given in each pass. Experimental results for WEDT are shown in the Table 1. To compare the result with 2D profile cutting experiments were on a brass plate of 12 mm thickness. Experimental results of 2D profile cutting with WEDM are shown in Table 2. Table 1. Experimental results of WEDT
S.N Rotational speed (rpm) 40 40 40 40 40 70 100 Flush- Pulse Initial ing off time dia.D1 rate (ms) (mm) (level) 2 42 9.50 2 30 7.45 2 35 7.20 1 42 9.20 3 42 9.60 2 42 8.85 2 42 8.45 Final dia. D2 (mm) 9.10 7.04 6.55 8.85 9.20 8.45 8.11 Wire feed rate (Vf) (mm/min) min 0.8 1.5 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 max 1.00 2.00 1.30 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.30 Average voltage (volts) min max 0.8 1.00 1.5 2.00 1.1 1.30 0.7 0.90 0.8 1.00 0.9 1.10 1.1 1.30 Average current (amps) min max 1.00 1.00 2.00 2.70 1.60 1.70 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Max. MRR 3 (mm /min) 5.85 9.34 9.13 4.47 5.91 5.98 5.75
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Table 2. Experimental results of 2D profile cutting

S.N 1 2 3 4 5 flushing valve level 2 2 2 1 3 pulse off rime (ms) 42 30 35 42 42 Wire feed rate (Vf) (mm/min) Average voltage (volts) Average current (Amps) 1.00 2.00 1.80 1.00 1.00 Maximum material removal rate 3 (mm /min) 7.68 15.84 12.96 7.68 7.68
min
1.5 3.1 2.6 1.5 1.5
max
1.60 3.30 2.70 1.60 1.60
min
48 52 50 47 48
max
50 56 52 51 50
Figure 4 shows the maximum MRR for both the configurations under different parameter settings. It has been observed that by increasing the flushing rate, MRR has increased moderately in WEDT process and no effect in 2D profile cutting. Also it is observed that pulse off time is the dominating parameter that affects the MRR as shown in figure 4 (c). However, the rotational speed has less influence in the material removal as shown in figure 4 (b). The MRR of the WEDT is lesser compared to 2D profile cutting with WEDM. Pulse train analysis is carried out for analyzing the effect of above mentioned parameters on MRR. Proposed algorithm is applied
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to pulse train data to find the number of different types of pulses such as normal, arc, open circuit and short circuit pulses. Table 3 shows the experimental results for the average number of pulses identified using the proposed algorithm at different parameter. It is observed that the arc pulses and normal pulses are dominating in all the machine settings for WEDT and 2D profile cutting with WEDM and the number of short circuit and open circuit pulses is very less.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. Experimental results on effect of (a) Flushing valve level (b) Rotational speed (c) Pulse off time on MRR for WEDT and 2D profile cutting with WEDM Table. 3 Average number of pulses for WEDT and 2D profile cutting with WEDM
Process Process Parameters Types of pulses Normal pulses Arc pulses Short circuit pulses Open circuit pulses Flushing rate (level) 1 76 75 0 0 105 22 3 0 2 78 48 0 0 101 17 4 0 3 79 42 0 0 104 15 3 0 Pulse off time (s) 42 78 48 0 0 101 17 4 0 35 79 94 0 0 120 28 3 0 30 62 150 0 0 150 31 4 0 40 78 48 0 0 Speed (rpm) 70 64 92 0 0 100 65 102 0 0
WEDT
Normal pulses 2D WEDM Arc pulses Short circuit pulses Open circuit pulses
(a) Pulse off time
(b) Flushing rate
Figure 5. Comparison of average number of normal and arc pulses in WEDT and 2D cutting Figure 5 shows the comparison of the average number of the normal and arc pulses for WEDT and 2D profile cutting. It is observed that, arc pulses are more and normal discharge pulses are less in WEDT than 2D profile cutting. Murthy and Philip [9] mentioned that arcing is associated with ineffective deionization of the spark channel between the successive pulses resulting consecutive discharges at the same spot. The author considered the arc pulses under ineffective pulses. Gangadhar et al mentioned that in effective pulses occur in the form of short circuit, open circuit and arcing pulses. Effective/ sparking pulses are responsible for erosion and
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always exhibit an ignition delay [10]. However, in the experimental settings shown in Table 1 for WEDT a fluctuation in the average voltage was noticed. When the voltage reduces, a reduction in the cutting speed is observed and a considerable number of arc pulses are also observed in oscilloscope at that particular period of time. The increase in the arc pulses can be attributed to the reduction in the MRR in WEDT than 2Dprofile cutting. With increase in the flushing rate a slight increase in the MRR is observed as shown in figure 4(a). From figure 5(b) it is observed that with increase in the flushing rate the number of normal pulses is increased slightly and a considerable decrease in the arc pulses because of which the MRR increased. On the other hand, in case of cutting 2D profiles, considerable variation in the normal and arc pulses is not observed with change in flushing rate and MRR is constant as shown figure 4(a). 5 Conclusions
In the present work, a precision spindle with a runout of 10m and a pulse train data acquisition system for WEDT are proposed. An algorithm for classifying the normal, arc, open circuit and short circuit pulses has been demonstrated. MRR study for WEDT with different process parameters is investigated and compared with cutting 2D profiles. MRR increases with decrease in pulse off time. MRR is less in WEDT compared to 2D profile cutting. Pulse train data is collected for WEDT and 2D profile cutting to analyse the effect of process parameters. The number arc pulses are more in WEDT than 2D profile cutting, because of which MRR is reduced compared to 2D profile cutting. Increase in the Flushing rate increased the MRR moderately in WEDT due to reduction in the number of arc pulses and slight increase in the normal discharge pulses. Rotational speed has less influence on MRR in WEDT. References
[1] Masuzawa, T. and Tonshoff, H. K., Three-Dimensional Micromachining by Machine Tools, CIRP Annals, 46, 1997, 621628. [2] Qu, J. Shih, A.J. and Scattergood, R.O., Development of the cylindrical wire electrical discharge machining process: Part1: Concept, design, and material removal rate, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 124 (3), 2002, 702707. [3] Qu, J. Shih, A.J. and Scattergood, R.O., Development of the cylindrical wire electrical discharge machining process: Part 2: surface integrity and roundness, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 124 (3), 2002, 708714. [4] Brian, K. R., Albert, J. Shih. Ronald, O. Scattergood. Jeffery, L. Akemon. Darryl, Gust J. and Marion, B. G, Wire electrical discharge machining of metal bond diamond wheels for ceramic grinding, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 42, 2002, 13551362. [5] Takayuki T, Yasushi F, Naotake M, Nagao S, and Masaaki O, Machining phenomena in WEDM of insulating ceramics, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 149, 2004, 124128. [6] Aminollah M, Alireza F T, Ehsan E, and Davoud K., A new approach to surface roughness and roundness improvement in wire electrical discharge turning based on statistical analyses, International Journal Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 39, 2008, 64-73. [7] Aminollah M, Alireza F. T., Ehsan E., and Davoud K., Statistical analysis of wire electrical discharge turning on material removal rate, Journal of Material Processing Technology, 205, 2008, 283-289. [8] Haddad M.J., and Fadaei A. T., Material removal rate (MRR) study in the cylindrical wire electrical discharge turning (CWEDT) process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 199, 2008, 369-378. [9] Murthy V.S.R., and Philip P.K.. Pulse Train analysis in ultrasonic assisted EDM, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 27(4), 1987, 469-477. [10] Gangadhar A., Shunmugam M.S. and Philip P.K.. Pulse train studies in EDM with controlled pulse relaxation, International Journal Machine Tools and Manufacture, 32(5), 1992, 651-657.
839
Integrating Product Design with an Assembly Line for Maximum Efficiency

S. R. Gangurde1*, M. M. Akarte 2
2
K.K.Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nasik, Maharashtra, India. Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute of Engineering and Technology, Nanded, Maharashtra, India. * Corresponding author (email: gangurdesanjay@rediffmail.com) For quick response to the changes in product design and the market, efficiency of assembly line has to be increased. The designing of an efficient and low cost assembly system for a family of modular products is an important problem. The assembly line should be properly balanced. To absorb the unbalanced flow of the products, the buffer is to be placed between these subassemblies as well as the buffer is to be considered at each stage of subassembly. This paper presents optimisation of buffer stock for maximization of assembly line efficiency using gradient-based search algorithm.
1.
Introduction
The manufacturers must manufacture the product with lowest possible cost to satisfy variety of segments of customers. Customers may have different preferences over a set of multi attribute alternatives. Depending on the nature of the demand, it is necessary to make product differentiation based on multi attributes. The market (customer population) for a product can be segmented according to the attributes preferred i.e. customer segmentation. A firm will develop the new product with preferred attributes to satisfy that particular segment. Product modularity allows producing different products by combining different attributes. For quick response to the changes in product design and the market, efficiency of assembly line has to be increased. The assembly system of modular product is decomposed into two parts i.e. a subassembly line for basic operations for basic attributes and subassembly line for variant operations for variant attributes [8]. Figure 1 shows interaction between attributes of different customer segments and their corresponding product line.
Figure1. Interaction between product attributes of different segments and their corresponding assembly line. Segment 1 preferred the product 1 which is assembly of attributes A1, A2 and A3. Segment 2 preferred the product 2, which is assembly of attributes A1, A2, A4 and A5 whereas Segment 3 prefers the attributes A1, A2, and A6 with the basic model (stripped down or bare bone model). The efficiency of assembly line of each product line can be increased to satisfy the increased demand of each product and for quick response to the market. The assembly line should be properly balanced. In an assembly flow line without internal buffers, the workstations are interdependent. Failure at any station would lead to stoppage of 840
entire assembly line, decreasing the efficiency of the line and hence increasing overall cost of the product. In such cases buffer storages plays an important role by allowing the stages to operate independently. The key parameters of a storage buffer are number of buffers (hence number of stages) and capacity of each buffer. There are two principal reasons for the use of buffer storage zones. The first is to reduce the effect of individual station breakdowns on the line operations. The second reason for using storage buffers on flow lines is to smooth out the effects of variation in the cycle time of each station. Sometimes the reason to provide buffer is to allow for curing time or other required delay. However, the effectiveness of these buffer storages can be realized only when the proper capacity buffers are placed at appropriate locations. In the present work the optimization of capacity of each buffer is carried out using gradient-based search algorithm.
2.
Literature Review
Several studies have proposed methodologies to interact the product design with the assembly line design. Rogers and Bottaci [1] suggested the modular production system (MPS) to simplify automated assembly by eliminating principal assembly task. Yigit et.al, [2] developed a systematic methodology for manufacturing modular products in reconfigurable manufacturing systems (RMS). Zhonghui X. et.al, [3] presented a concurrent approach to the product module selection and assembly line design. According to him assembly line design includes the issues like line balancing, resource selection, storage area design, transportation system and layout. He focused only on two issues of assembly line design i.e. line balancing and resource selection. In this paper the third issue of assembly line i.e. storage area design is considered. Lit P. et.al, [4] developed a new philosophy for product and assembly line design, which is applicable to multi variant products. Rekiek B. et.al, [5] applied a methodology to assembly lines to assign assembly tasks to affixed number of workstations in such a way that the workload on each station is nearly equal. Liu L.,Liu X et.al. [6] developed a multistage inventory-queue model and a job queue decomposition approach to evaluate the performance of a serial manufacturing and supply systems with inventory control at each stage with the objective to minimize overall inventory in the system. Suri R et.al [7] presented a model, which enables efficient analysis of certain types of closed queuing networks with blocking due to limited buffers. He et.al, [8] proposed an approach for design of assembly system for modular products. This work will use buffer stock optimization (storage area design) approach for maximization of assembly line efficiency.
3.
Methodology
The methodology presented here is to optimize the buffer stock capacity to increase an efficiency of the assembly line with minimizing the total cost of the product. 3.1 Simulation of assembly line for buffer capacity: The simulation of assembly will compute the total time for which any machine is off for given number of cycles. The algorithm comprises following modules: 3.1.1 Preprocessor: The input to the software are number of stations (S), cycle time at each station (Tc), Number of buffers (k), probability of breakdown at each station (p), breakdown time (Td) and buffer capacity (C), simulation time (TS), line operating cost (CL) and cost of keeping buffer (CB). 3.1.2 Processor: The OFF time of each station is calculated by applying the suitable conditions specifying the various reasons of machine stoppage such as starving, blocking machine breakdown etc. For all other time the machine is ON. The algorithm thus computes the ON time and OFF time for each station. 3.1.3 Post processor: The graphical output displays the total ON and OFF Time at each station. This data is further utilized to compute the line efficiency and hence cost of operating the line for a buffer of given capacity at each station. The capacity of each buffer is then optimized to get minimum cost of the product. The optimization algorithm is discussed in the next section. 3.2 Optimization of Buffer Capacity Using Gradient Based Search Algorithm: 841
3.2.1 Optimization model: The optimization of the capacity of the buffer storage system can be conducted by using the following non-linear optimization model. Objective function: Minimize CT = CL + CB Where CT is the total production cost. Constraint function: CT MAC; Where MAC is maximum allowable cost. C [k] 0; Where C [k] is capacity of each buffer. 0 k < S; Design variables k, C [k] (k = 1,2,3S). 3.2.2 Gradient based search algorithm: Gradient based search algorithm techniques uses first and second order derivatives which are calculated based on the central difference techniques. f(x)/xi = (f(xi+xi)-f(xi-xi))/2xi By definition, the first derivative at any point represents the direction of the maximum increase of the function value. Any search direction would have smaller function value than that at a current point. Thus the search direction ( d) that satisfies the condition f(x).d 0, is a descent direction. The magnitude of the vector f(x).d, for descent direction specifies how descent the search direction is. The algorithm for gradient based is given below. Step 1: Choose a maximum number of iterations (N) to be performed, and initial point x (0). Step 2: Calculate f (x (i)), the first derivative at the point x (i). Step 3: If ||f (x (i))|| i, Terminate. i is the termination parameter. Else, if i N, Terminate. Else go to step 4. Step 4: Perform a unidirectional search to find the (i) using i, Such that f (x (i+1))= f (x (i)- (i). f (x (i)) is minimum. Step 5: ||x (i +1)-x (i)|| I; || x (i)|| Else set i = i +1; and go to step 2. Since the direction S (i) = - f (x (i)) is a descent direction, the function value f (x (i+1)) is always smaller than f (x (i) for positive values of (i). The efficiency of the corresponding line i for the indicated buffer capacities is the ratio of number of components actually produced (Nactual) and the Number of components corresponding to the maximum efficiency (Nmax). The actual time required is then calculated as (Tactual = Tideal /i.). The objective function f (x (i)) is a function of buffer capacity C and is calculated as the sum of total cost of operating the line and total cost of keeping the buffer. Now, as the objective is to minimize this total cost, for which the gradient based algorithm is used and the gradient is defined as: fi/bi = i/Ci. Where; change in efficiency (i) due to change in capacity (Ci) This derivative is computed at every iteration at the current point and unidirectional search is performed in the negative to this derivative direction, to find the minimum point along that direction. The minimum point becomes the current point and the search is continued from this point. The algorithm continues until a point having small enough gradient vector is found. This algorithm guarantee improvement in function value at every iteration. This algorithm is discussed below. If Yes, Terminate,
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3.2.3
Example
An example is considered to validate and demonstrate the proposed methodology. An illustrative assembly line with three stations and two buffers as shown in Figure 2 is considered for this example. k1 k2
S1
S2
S3
Figure 2. Illustrative assembly line for attribute A1 The data for assembly line shown in Figure 2 is given below: Input: Simulation time (TS) = 80 min. Cost of adding one buffer (CB)=Rs.6.25/min Cost of operating line (CL) = Rs 150/min. The remaining data for each station is shown in Table 1 Table 1: Input parameters for various stations Station No. 1 2 3 Tc (Min) 6 14 10 Td (min) 10 6 8 p 0.33 0.45 0.25
Table 2:Results of proposed methodology Buffer Capacity C1 =0, C2 =0. C1 =1, C2 =1. C1 =2, C2 =1. Station Number 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 ON time 36 62 36 46 66 40 48 70 44 Efficiency () % 45 77 45 58 83 50 60 87.5 55 Parts Produced 6 4 3 7 4 4 8 5 4.4 CL 23070 CB 0 CT 23070
17142
1000
18142
15585
1500
17085
Calculation for total cost

Iteration 1: C1 =0, C2 =0. Assuming with infinite buffer capacity after each station produces the maximum numbers of components, thus making all stations to be operated independently of each other. For 80 minutes of simulation time the maximum number of components produced is 5.71. Efficiency of line = 3/5.71= 0.52. Actual time (Tactual) = 80/0.52 = 153.8 min. Total cost, CT = CL + CB = Rs.23070 Where, CL = 150 x 153.8 = 23070 and CB = 0. (Since buffer capacities are zero) 843
Iteration 2: C1 =1, C2 =1. The increase in buffer capacity results into reduction in the line operating cost but increases the cost of keeping buffer; hence this needs to be optimized. Using gradient based algorithm the initial value is taken as C1=1, C2=1.The gradient is then obtained as; f1/b1 = 1/ C1. = (58-45) + (83-77)/ (1-0) = 19/1=19; f2/b2 = 2 / C2. = (83-77) + (50-45)/ (1-0) = 11/1=11; The derivative at x (0) is found to be (19, 11) The next point is obtained as; x (1) = x (0) - (0).f (x(0)) = (-18 (0), -10 (0) ) To obtain the minimum point along the search direction (0) is selected as 0.1. Thus the next optimum value selected is C1=1.8 2 and C2=1.The simulation run is now carried for these buffer capacities i.e. for case 3.The result for which is shown in Table 2.
4.
Conclusions
It is thus observed that the improvement in the efficiency of the assembly line due to selection of buffer with optimum capacity is 23% and 35% respectively in efficiency and in the total cost, over that of assembly line without buffer. It is also observed that the improvement in productivity due to buffer with optimum capacity is 46%. This improvement is mainly due to use of an efficient optimization technique known as gradient-based algorithm.
References
[1] Rogers, G. and Bottaci, L. Modular Production Systems: A new Manufacturing Paradigm. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 8, 1997, 147-156. [2] Yigit, A.,Ulsoy, A, and Allahverdi, A. Optimizing Modular Product Design for Reconfigurable Manufacturing. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 13, 2002, 309-316. [3] Zhonghui, Xu, Ming, L., Concurrent Optimization of Product Module Selection and Assembly Line Configuration: A Multi-Objective Approach. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 127, 2005, 875-884. [4] Lit, P. Reiek, B., Pellichero, F.Delchamber, A. Danloy, J.,Petit, F.,Leroy, A.,Maree, J.,Spineux, A.,Raucent, B. A New Philosophy for the Design of a Product and its Assembly Line. IEEE, 1999,381-386. [5] Rekiek, B, Lit, P, Pellichero, F., Falkenauer, E., Delchamber, A. Applying the Equal Piles Problem to Balance Assembly Lines. IEEE, 1999, 399-404. [6] Liu, L., Liu, X., Yao, D. Analysis and Optimization of a Multistage Inventory-Queue System. Journal of Management Science, 50(3), 2004, 365-380. [7] Suri, R.,Diehl, G. A Variable Buffer Size Model and its Use in Analyzing Closed Queuing Networks with Blocking. Journal of Management Science, 32(2), 1986, 206-224. [8] He, D.W.,Kusiak, A. Design of Assembly Systems for Modular Products. IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, 13(5), 1997, 646-655. [9] Buzacott, J., Automatic Transfer Lines with Buffer Stocks, International Journal of Production Research, 5(3), 1971, 183-200.
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Tool Wear Prediction Using Artificial Neural Network

M.M.Gor *, Dr. Anurag Verma
1 2 1 2
Parul Institute of Engineering & Technology, Limda , Gujarat, India G.H Patel College of Engineering & Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India *Corresponding author (e-mail:mehulmgor@rediffmail.com) An intelligent supervisory system, which is supported on a model-based approach, is presented herein. This paper is an attempt to predict tool wear for turning operation. A High Speed Steel cutting tool has been used to machine mild steel in a turning process. There are number of factor affecting tool wear. For this analysis, Back Rack Angle, End Relief Angle, End cutting edge angle, Speed, Feed and Depth of cut are varied one by one keeping remaining parameter constant. Flank wear is measured under tool maker microscope. Neural Network is developed in MATLAB for the prediction of the tool wear. The associated data have been used to train an artificial neural network using the back-propagation algorithm. The trained network has been used to predict tool wear for experiments which are not used in training. The developed neural network model predicts tool wear with maximum errors are 8.5% for Mild Steel work pieces. It is felt that these could be improved significantly if more real data was generated for the training of the neural network.
1.
Introduction
Wear is usually undesirable and to be minimized [4]. This is certainly the case with tool wear or when machine surfaces rub together and a loss of material from one or both surfaces results in a change in the desired geometry of the system. When a cutting tool is unable to cut, consuming reasonable energy, and cannot produce an acceptable finish, it is considered to have failed. The failure of a cutting tool [1] may be due to one or a combination of the following modes.(i) Plastic deformation of the tool due to high temperature and large stress (ii) Mechanical breakage of the tool due to large force and insufficient strength and toughness (iii) Blunting of the cutting edge of the tool through process of gradual wear. By proper selection of the cutting tool material, tool geometry, and cutting conditions, plastic deformation and mechanical failure can be prevented. However, the gradual wearing process cannot be totally stopped and ultimately the tool failure through wearing cannot be avoided. This makes the study of wear so very important. The progressive wear of a cutting tool takes place in two distinct ways [5]. (i) Crater wear: Crater wear is characterized by the formation of a crater or depression at the tool-chip interface. Crater wear is caused by the pressure of the chip as it slides up the face of the cutting tool. (ii) Flank Wear: Flank wear means wear on the flank of a cutting tool, and is caused by friction between the newly machined work piece surface and the contact area on the tool flank. Factors affecting tool wear and thus tool life [2] are cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, chip thickness, tool geometry, material of the cutting fluid and rigidity of the machine. In the present work, attempt is made to develop a model which may predict tool wear. For the said analysis we try to vary few parameters affecting tool wear, keeping remaining parameter constant and measured tool wear. Artificial Neural Network is used for prediction of tool wear. Network is generated using back-propagation algorithm & MATLAB neural network toolbox. From the experimental data, 69 experiments are used to train the network and then trained network has been used to predict tool wear of 5 experiments which are not used for training.
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2.
Experimental Set-up
Experiments are performed on Lathe machine available in Parul Institute of Engineering. Long MS rod is taken as work piece and High Speed Steel Tool is taken for the analysis. As many parameters are affecting tool wear, here few parameters are taken for analysis. Back Rack Angle, End Relief Angle, End cutting edge angle, Speed, Feed and Depth of cut are varied one by one keeping remaining parameter constant. At the end of each experiment flank wear is measured under tool maker microscope. 3. Artificial Neural Network
Artificial neural networks (ANN) are one of the artificial intelligence concepts that have proved to be useful for various engineering application. When the prior knowledge of the behaviour of a structure itself is not available or formulation of the model is complicated, the conventional methods cannot be employed. In such situations, an artificial neural network (ANN) is a viable solution. An artificial neural network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as brain, process information. The Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a representation of the computational architecture of the human brain. ANN consists of a number of processing elements called neurons. The ANN is one of the potential tools, which can be used for predicting the properties and optimizing the process parameters. The greatest advantage of ANN is its ability to model complex non-linear, multidimensional function relationships without any prior assumptions about the nature of relationships. Amongst the various architectures of neural networks the back-propagation is the most popular for prediction. The back-propagation (BP) algorithm was developed by Paul Werbos in 1974 and rediscovered independently by Rumelhart and Parket [7]. Since its rediscovery, the back-propagation algorithm has been widely used as a learning algorithm in feed forward multilayer neural network. The back-propagation is applied to feed forward ANNs with one or more number of hidden layers as shown in Fig.1. Based on this algorithm, the network learns a distributed associative map between the input and output layers. What makes this algorithm different than the others is the process by which the weights are calculated during learning phase of the network.
Fig.1 Feedforward Multilayer Perceptron The input layer is used to feed the data in the network. The inputs are subsequently modified based on the interconnection weights between the layers. The net input to each neuron from the preceding layer will be as:
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N i 1 (1) th where, netj is the net input, N is the number of neurons of the inputs to the j neuron in the hidden layer. wij is the interconnected weight from ith neuron in the forward layer to jth neuron in the hidden layer, x i is the input from the i th neuron in the hidden layer and bj is the bias value to the corresponding neuron. The output signal is obtained by applying activations to the net input. In this analysis, multi-layer back-propagation neural network model is developed using MATLAB Neural Network toolbox for the prediction of tool wear in turning of mild steel work-pieces. There is one input vector with seven elements. The values for the first element of the input vector range between 5 and 15, the values of the second element of the input vector range between 5 and 15, the values of third element of the input vector range between 4 and 8, the values of fourth element of the input vector range between 455 and 685, the values of fifth element of the input vector range between 12.285 and 28.35, the values of sixth element of the input vector range between 1 and 2, and the values of seventh element of the input vector range between 100 and 500. There are seven neurons in the hidden layer and one neuron in the output layer. Architecture of the neural network used for tool wear prediction is shown in Fig. 2. The transfer function in the Hidden layer and output layer is tansigmoid. The training function is trainlm which updates weight and bias values according to Levenberg-Marquardt optimization. Network learning function is learngdm which is the gradient descent with momentum weight and bias learning function. For this, complete set of data is divided into 3 subsets viz. training data, target data set and testing data set. Training data & target data are used to train the network. The testing data set used to test the model. Testing set does not participate in the training of the network but is used to test the trained network. Minimum mean squared error (MSE) is the criterion for selecting the best network structure. Mean squared error is measured as 1 Q 2 mse (2) (t (k ) a (k )) Q k 1 Here error is calculated as the difference between the target output and the network output.
net j wij xi b j
Input
Hidden Layer
Output Layer
Fig. 2 Architecture of the neural network used for tool wear prediction 4. Results When trained neural network is simulated for experiments which are not used for training, results obtained is shown in Table 1. Produced neural network predict tool wear with maximum 8.5 % error. The comparative view of experimental data with predicted data is also shown in Fig. 3 Table 1: Validation of developed ANN model
Experiment No Actual Wear (mm) ANN Prediction (mm) Error (mm) Exp. 1 0.91 0.92397 0.01397 Exp. 2 0.68 0.67535 -0.00465 Exp. 3 0.85 0.92306 0.07306 Exp. 4 1.05 1 -0.05 Exp. 5 0.96 1 0.04
% error
1.53516
-0.68382
8.59529
-4.7619
4.16667
847
Fig. 3 Comparative view of experimental tool wear with ANN predicted tool wear 5. Conclusion
The objective of this study is predicting accurately the tool flank wear by artificial neural network model. The neural network model is developed using MATLAB neural network toolbox. The experimental data of measured flank wear are utilized to train the neural network models. Trained neural network models are used for predicting flank wear. The developed system is found to be capable of accurate tool wear prediction for the range it has been trained. The developed neural network model predicts tool wear with maximum errors are 8.5% for Mild Steel work pieces. It is felt that these could be improved significantly if more real data are generated for the training of the neural network. Reference: [1] Amitabh Ghosh & Mallik, Manufacturing Science. Affiliated East-West Press Private Ltd., India, 2005. [2] Choudhury S K, Elements of Workshop Technology, Indian Book Distributing Co. Calcutta, India, 1964. [3] Kishan Mehrotra, Chilukuri Mohan, Sanjay Ranka, Elements of Artificial Neural Networks. Penram International Publishing (India) Pvt. Ltd. of India, 1997. [4] M.C.Shaw. Metal Cutting Principles. CBC Publishers & Distributors India, 1992. [5] O.P.Khanna, Production Technology II, Dhanpat Rai Publication, New Delhi India, 1992. [6] Simon Haykin, Neural Networks A comprehensive Foundation, Pearson Education, Second Edition, India, 2007. [7] Stamatios V. Kartalopoulos. Understanding Neural Networks & Fuzzy Logic. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd of , India, 2000.
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Figure 1. Sapphire Cavity
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Figure 2. Synthetic Sapphire Crystal
850
851
Figure 3. Lapping Tool
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Figure 4. Diamond turned and Lapped sapphire cavity
References
[1] HMT Production Technology 2001, Tata Mc Graw.Hill New Delhi. [2] Edward M trent, paul K Wright. Metal Cutting Fourth Edition. [3] CMTI, Ultra Precision CNC Diamond Turning Machine Model APT-300 manual.
853
Enablers for utilisation of new technologies using ISM approach

Harwinder Singh1*, J S Khamba2
2
Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana-141006, Punjab, India University College of Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala-147002, Punjab, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: harwin75@rediffmail.com)
In this paper, different enablers that help to improve the utilization level of new technologies are identified from the literature review and experts opinion. The objective of this paper is to define the levels of identified enablers based on their driving and dependence power. For this, Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) approach has been employed to develop the structural relationship among different enablers for achieving manufacturing success. It has been observed that industryinstitute interaction; recognition and rewards have highest dependence power, whereas top management support has the highest driving power. 1. Introduction
In the present turbulent times, survival and success of any organization increasingly depends on effective use of resources available in any organization. This phenomenon has inspired manufacturing industry to look for progressive computerized automation in different processes [1]. Advances in technology have moved manufacturing organizations toward a new competitive landscape in terms of improved product market characteristics, improved plant capacity and flexibility. Noori [2] has defined advanced manufacturing technologies (AMTs) as new technologies which are used directly by the firm in the production of a product. Managers in manufacturing organizations are experiencing the emergence of advanced manufacturing technologies such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer aided manufacturing (CAM), computer aided process planning (CAPP), robotics (RO) and soft technologies such as material requirement planning (MRPI/II), KAIZEN, Just in time (JIT) [3]. No country can survive in this global competition without the newly developed technologies. Mere possessing of advanced manufacturing technologies does not give an organization a competitive advantage. To be globally competent, the optimum utilisation of AMTs is needed [4]. Since the world has gone into the globalization phase, the old production paradigm of mass production have been disintegrating a new one, based upon more flexible and advanced manufacturing technologies for competitiveness [5]. There are many factors that adversely affect the success of new technologies in the organizations. The purpose of this paper is to develop the relationships among the different identified enablers such as education and training to employees; team structure; industry-institute interaction and rewards and recognition etc. using interpretive structural modelling (ISM) and classify them depending upon their driving and dependence power. ISM is a well defined process that enables individuals or groups to develop a map of relationships between the different elements involved in any situation. This method was first developed in the 1970s by Warfield [6]. Since then, this methodology has been successfully employed in management research for evaluating interrelationship among variables. For instance, Jharkharia and Shankar [7] developed an ISM model for IT enablers in supply chain; Singh et al. [8] modeled the factors for improving competitiveness of SMEs; Singh et al. [9] investigated into the interrelationships among knowledge management variables; Thakkar et al. [10] developed an ISM model for IT enablers adoption and implementation in SMEs of India. To accomplish this objective, the present study is divided into different sections. The organization of the paper is as follows: - research issues for new technologies utilisation have been reviewed and
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synthesized in the Section 2. Section 3 delivers an ISM methodology. Finally, Section 4 concludes by narrating the contributions of the present research. 2. Critical success factors for utilisation of new technologies In this fast changing environment, the objective should be to keep people up to speed with change and find new ways of offering a competitive advantage. Newer technologies arrive frequently and forcing organizations to change their work culture. In an increasingly globalize and inter-linked world economy, the difficulties of implementing technology acquisition and utilisation programs are important forces driving economic growth. Superior utilisation of newer technology is the most important ingredient of economic success. To manage technology effectively requires a better understanding not only of technology itself, but of the evolution, maturation, and diffusion of technologies [11]. Based on the literature review, the authors have identified the enablers, which shall help in improving the performance of new technologies in Indian manufacturing industry. This is reflected in Table 1. Table 1. Enablers for utilisation of new technologies Enablers Description References [3]; [5]; [12]; [13]. 1 Top management support [4]; [11]; [13]; [14]. 2 Training and education to employees [5]; [14]. 3 Team structure [3]; [5]; [12]. 4 Top-down planning [4]; [5]; [13]. 5 Industry-institute interaction [5]; [12]; [13]. 6 Recognition and rewards 3. Interpretive structural modelling (ISM) approach ISM methodology is structural because an overall structural relationship among the factors is extracted from the complex set of variables. The various steps involved in the ISM approach are as follows [7]; [8]: To identify the relevant elements by literature review and expert opinion. To establish a contextual relationship among the different elements. To develop a structural self-interaction matrix (SSIM) among the elements. To develop a reachability matrix from the SSIM. To do the partitioning of the reachability matrix into different levels. Based on the relationships framed in the reachability matrix, to draw an ISM-based model. 3.1 Development of structural self-interaction matrix Group of experts from different organizations and the academia have been consulted in identifying the natures of contextual relationships among the enablers. Based on the responses obtained, SSIM is made, which is depicted in Table 2. The following legends have been used to denote the direction of relationship between enablers (i and j): O-Enabler i and j are unrelated; XEnablers i and j will help to achieve or exceed each other; Y-Enabler i will help to achieve or exceed enabler j; and Z-Enabler j will help to achieve or exceed enabler i.
Table 2. Development of structural self-interaction matrix

Enablers 1 2 3 4 5 6 Description Top management support Training and education to employees Team structure Top-down planning Industry-institute interaction Recognition and rewards 6 Y Y O Y X X 5 Y Z Y Y X Enablers 4 3 Y Y Y Y Z X X 2 Y X 1 X
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3.2
Formation of reachability matrix
The SSIM has been converted into a binary matrix by substituting O, X, Y, and Z by values 1s and 0s in Table 3, which is known as reachability matrix. The substitution of 1s and 0s have been made as per the following rules: If the (i, j) entry in the SSIM is O, then (i, j) and (j, i) entries in the reachability matrix become 0 for both; if the (i, j) entry in the SSIM is X, then (i, j) and (j, i) entries in the reachability matrix become 1 for both; if the (i, j) entry in the SSIM is Y, then (i, j) and (j, i) entries in the reachability matrix become 1 and 0 respectively; and if the (i, j) entry in the SSIM is Z, then (i, j) and (j, i) entries in the reachability matrix become 0 and 1 respectively. Table 3. Formation of reachability matrix Enablers Driving Rank Enablers Description power 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Top management support 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 I 2 Training and education to 0 1 1 1 0 1 4 II employees 3 Team structure 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 IV 4 Top-down planning 0 0 1 1 1 1 4 II 5 Industry-institute interaction 0 1 0 0 1 1 3 III 6 Recognition and rewards 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 IV Dependence power 1 3 4 3 5 5 21/21 Rank IV III II III I I 3.3 Enablers classification
Different enablers selected for study have been classified into four quadrants (based on driving power and dependence power of each enabler), are known as autonomous, dependent, linkage and driver/independent barriers (as shown in Figure 1). 4th Quadrant 6 5 4
Driving power
2, 4
3rd Quadrant
3 2 1 1 2 3 4 3
5 6 2nd Quadrant
1st Quadrant
Dependence power
Figure 1. Driving power and dependence power matrix

Driver power-dependence power matrix reveals the importance of different enablers. In the classification of different enablers, the first quadrant is of autonomous barriers that have a weak driving power and weak dependence power and are relatively disconnected from the system. The second quadrant consists of dependent elements that have weak driving power and strong dependence power. These are called as dependent variables. The third quadrant consists of linkage variables that have strong driving and dependence power. These are unstable in nature.
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Any action on these results in action on the other elements also. The fourth quadrant includes independent enablers that have strong driving power and weak dependence power. These elements play an important role in strategic decision making. 3.4 Level partitioning From the reachability matrix, the reachability set and antecedent set for each element is determined. The reachability set consists of the element itself and other elements, to which it may reach, whereas the antecedent set consists of the element itself and the other elements, which may reach to it. Then, the intersection of these sets is found out for all elements. The elements for which the reachability and intersection sets are the same, occupy the top level position. This procedure is continued till the levels for all elements have been found out, as depicted in Table 4.
Table 4. Level partition of reachability matrix

Enabler 1 2 3 4 5 6 3.5 Reachability set 1,2,3,4,5,6 2,3,4,6 3,5 3,4,5,6 2,5,6 5,6 Antecedent set 1 1,2,5 1,2,3,4 1,2,4 1,3,4,5,6 1,2,4,5,6 Intersection set 1 2 3 4 5,6 5,6 Level IV III II III I I
Formation of ISM
In the present situation, there are no autonomous elements. The elements 3, 5 and 6 are in the second quadrant, indicates that these have weak driving powers and highest dependence powers. It means these enablers cannot derive themselves but dependent on other barriers. On the other side, variables falling in the third quadrant are linkage variables with strong driver powers and strong dependent powers. These variables are unstable. Any action on these variables will have an effect on the others. In this case, there is no variable lying third quadrant.
Industry-institute interaction
Recognition and rewards
Level I
Team structure
Level II
Training and education to employees
Top-down planning
Level III
Top management support
Level IV
Figure 2. Driving power and dependence power matrix

The fourth quadrant includes independent elements that have strong driving power and weak dependence power. In this case, elements 1, 2 and 4 are in the category of independent barriers. Top management support is the most important element due to its high driving power and low dependence among all the identified enablers. This enabler is positioned at the lowest level in the
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hierarchy of the ISM based model. Industry-institute interaction; recognition and rewards have been placed at the highest level in the ISM model, due to its high dependence power and low driving power. The remaining elements have been positioned at second and third levels in the model, as shown in Figure 2. 4. Conclusions On the basis of above discussions, it has been proved that all the elements are important for the effective utilization of new technologies, although in varying degrees that can be evidenced by the ISM approach. But, top management support has highest driving power and lowest dependence power, which is being positioned at fourth level, plays an important role. Remaining enablers will act as strategic barriers for success of the organizations. References [1] Costa, S.E., Platts, K.W. and Fleury, A. Strategic selection of advanced manufacturing technologies (AMT), based on the manufacturing vision. International Journal of Computer Applications in Technology, 27, 2006, 12-23. [2] Noori, H. Managing the dynamics of new technology, issues in manufacturing management. PrenticeHall, New Jersey, 1990. [3] Dangayach, G.S. and Deshmukh, S.G. Advanced manufacturing technology implementationevidence from Indian SMEs. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 16, 2005, 483-496. [4] Dangayach G.S., Pathak, S.C. and Sharma, A.D. Advanced manufacturing technology: A way of improving technological competitiveness. International Journal of Global Business and Competitiveness, 2, 2006, 1-8. [5] Small, M.H. Planning, justifying and installing advanced manufacturing technology: a managerial framework. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 18, 2007, 513537. [6] Warfield, J.W. Developing interconnected matrices in structural modelling. IEEE Transcriptions on Systems, Men and Cybernetics, 4, 1974, 61-67. [7] Jharkharia, S. and Shankar, R. IT enablement of supply chains: modeling the enablers. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 53, 2004, 700-712. [8] Singh, R.K., Garg, S.K. and Deshmukh, S.G. Interpretive structural modelling of factors for improving competitiveness of SMEs. International Journal of Productivity and Quality Management, 2, 2007, 423-440. [9] Singh, M.D. and Kant, R. Knowledge management barriers: An interpretive structural modeling approach. International Journal of Management Science and Engineering Management, 3, 2008, 141-150. [10] Thakkar, J., Kanda, A. and Deshmukh, S.G. Interpretive structural modeling (ISM) of ITenablers for Indian manufacturing SMEs. Information Management and Computer Security, 16, 2008, 113-136. [11] Oberoi, J.S., Khamba, J.S., Sushil and Kiran, R. An empirical examination of advanced manufacturing technology and sourcing practices in developing manufacturing flexibilities. International Journal of Services and Operations Management, 4, 2008, 652-671. [12] Alp, N., Alp, B. and Omurtag, Y. Technology acquisition and utilization model (TAUM). Computers and Industrial Engineering, 33, 1997, 7-10. [13] Marri, H.B., Gunasekaran, A. and Sohag, R.A. Implementation of advanced manufacturing technology in Pakistani small and medium enterprises: An empirical analysis. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 20, 2007, 726-739. [14] Mital, A., Pennathur, A., Huston, R.L., Thompson, D., Pittman, M., Markle, G., Kaber, D.B., Crumpton, L., Bishu, R.R., Rajurkar, K.P., Rajan, V., Fernandez, J.E., McMulkin, M., Deivanayagam, S., Ray, P.S. and Sule, D. The need for worker training in advanced manufacturing technology (AMT) environments: A white paper. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 24, 1999, 173-184.
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A Review Of Research On Response Parameters In Electric Discharge Machining

Jujhar Singh , Dr. P.S.Satsangi Dr. R.S. Walia Dr. V.P.Singh PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh, India Corresponding author (e-mail: jujharrandhawa@yahoo.com) Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is an electro-thermal non-traditional machining process, where electrical energy is used to generate electrical spark and material removal mainly occurs due to thermal energy of the spark. EDM is particularly used to machine difficult-to-machine electrically conductive materials and high strength temperature resistant alloys. This paper provides a review on the various research activities and developments in the field of die-sinking EDM, Wire EDM and micro or small hole EDM. Researchers have explored a number of ways to improve the performance of response parameters i.e. metal removal rate (MRR), tool wear ratio (TWR), surface integrity and accuracy of cut. Some unique experimental concepts have been developed that depart from the traditional EDM. This paper shares an objective of achieving more efficient metal removal coupled with reduction in tool- wear and improved surface quality by developing a thorough understanding of the techniques evolved by the researchers. In this pursuit, the paper identifies major academic research contributions related to improvement in performance and optimizing process parameters, along with simplifying the electrode design and manufacture. ] 1. Introduction Electric discharge Machining (EDM) is described as a process for eroding and removing material by transient action of electric sparks on electrically conductive materials immersed in a dielectric liquid by mode of erosion caused by the thermal effect of an electrical discharge. The amount of generated heat within the discharge channel is predicted to be as high as 2 1017 W/m and thus, could raise electrode temperatures locally up to 20,000 K even for short pulse durations. The three electric discharge machining methods are; ram, wire, and small hole EDM, all work on the principles of spark erosion [12]. Because EDM is able to create this wide variety of difficult shapes, it has become popular for many different applications. EDM has found widespread use not only in the manufacture of punches and dies, but also in mould making, aerospace applications, making extrusion dies and the production of small holes (larger than 0.015 inch) and micro holes (0.381 mm and smaller). Creating small and deep slots is another important EDM application. The EDM Process is commonly used in the Tool and Die industry for mold-making, however in recent years EDM has become an integral part for making prototype and production parts in the aerospace and electronics industries where production quantities remain low. The paper includes academic research carried out on EDM in the area of material removal mechanism, methods of improving material removal rate, tool wear process, surface quality analysis, methods of improving surface quality and process parameters and lastly the paper provides the future direction of research in the area of EDM. 2. Ram type EDM Conventional EDM, also known as sinker EDM, die sinker, vertical EDM, or plunge EDM is generally used to produce blind cavities. When blind cavities are required, a formed electrode is machined to the desired shape [11]. Then, by means of electrical current the preformed electrode surrounded by dielectric fluid, reproduced its shape in the work piece. A powerful spark causes pitting or erosion of the metal on both the anode (+) and cathode (-). This process is also called spark machining or sparks erosion machining as shown in Fig 1. The EDM process involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the
*
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initiation of rapid and repetitive spark discharges between the electrode and workpiece which is separated by a small gap.
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the EDM process [4] 3. Wire EDM In wire EDM machining, a thin single-strand metal wire, usually brass, is fed through the work piece. The wire, which is constantly fed from a spool, is held between upper and lower guides. Wire EDM is one of the greatest innovations affecting both the tooling and machining industry. This process has brought to industry dramatic improvements in accuracy, quality, productivity and profit. Swiss firm Agie produced the worlds first wire EDM machine in 1946. Typically, these first machines in the early 70s were extremely slow, cutting about 2 2 21mm /min. Their speed went up in the early 80s to 64mm /min. Today, machines are equipped with automatic wire threading and can cut over 20 times faster than the beginning machines. Whether cutting soft aluminium, hot rolled steel, super alloys or tungsten carbide, manufactures are discovering it as less expensive and they receive higher quality with todays high speed wire EDM machines for many production parts. Some machines cut to accuracies of up to 0.0025 mm producing surface finishes (Ra) to 0.037 m and lower. [12] 4. Micro or small-hole EDM Small-hole EDM drilling, also known as fast hole EDM drilling was once relegated to a lat resort method of drilling holes [12]. They have reported that the small hole drilling uses the same principles as Ram type EDM. A spark jumps across a gap and erodes the work piece material. A servo drive maintains a gap between the electrode and the work piece. Now small hole EDM drilling is used for production work. Drilling speeds have been achieved of upto two inches per minute. They found the main advantages of EDM drilling such as drilling on curved and angled surfaces, drilling hardened materials, materials that produce chips that cling to cutters, drilling deep holes, no hole deburring, preventing broken drills, creating straight holes. Table 1 reported the results of small hole EDM drilling with a 1mm drill in D2 tool steel. Depth 25.4 mm 102mm 203mm Straightness +/- 0.0076mm +/-0.025-0.038mm +/-0.038-0.102mm Taper +/-0.013-0.025mm +/-0.0064-0.102mm +/-0.127mm
Table 1 Results of small hole EDM drilling with a 1mm drill in D2 tool steel [12].
It is concluded that small hole EDM drilling has many applications. It is an extremely cost effective method for producing fast and accurate holes into all sorts of conductive metals, whether hard or soft. 5. EDM performance measures A significant number of papers have been focused on ways of yielding optimal EDM performance measures of high MRR, low tool wear ratio (TWR) and satisfactory surface quality. This section reviews a study into each of the performance measures and the methods for their improvement.
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5.1 Material Removal Rate (MRR) Khan [1] concluded that MRR increases sharply with increase in current. In the study, the highest MRR was obtained during machining of aluminium using a brass electrode as compared with machining of steel using a copper electrode. Amir [2] summarised that the material removal rate of the ultrasonic assisted electro-discharge machining was shown to be upto four times higher than the material removal rate of the conventional EDM for small pulse durations and low discharge currents. The general increase in MRR is explained by the gain in better flushing, ease of ionization, high rate of pressure drop at the end of the discharge which causes more violent bulk boiling of the molten crater and also erosion of the workpiece due to cavitations. Nakaoku [3] concluded that there is no significant difference in machining speed between Sintered Diamond and tungsten carbide, when an RC circuit with 103300 pF of discharge capacitance and 0.2 H of residual inductance. Walia [4] concluded that the pumping action created by the vibrating tool electrode gives a higher material removal rate, particularly for finishing operation. Material removal gain ranges from 30% (for roughing operation) to 300% (for finishing operation). Ghoreishi [5] concluded that the effect of highfrequency vibration of the electrode on MRR is noticeable especially in the finishing regime. The difficulty experienced with arcing, short and open circuits and general instability in pure EDM can be overcome by the application of ultrasonic vibration, particularly when the gap is narrow in the finishing regime. Low frequency has much less effect on MRR than high frequency. The combination of low-frequency vibration and rotation of the electrode has no satisfactory effect in any regime. In the semi-finishing regime, vibro-rotary EDM increases MRR by up to 35% of that obtained with vibratory EDM and by upto 100% compared with rotary EDM. Hascalik [6] suggested that the material removal rate is increasing with process parameters for each electrode material except the prolonged pulse duration of 200 s. Graphite electrode gives the highest material removal rate, followed by electrolytic copper and aluminium. Pradhan[15] concluded that Ton is the most influencing factor of micro-EDM process and has the maximum percentage of contribution on MRR. Metal removal rate is found to increase monotonically with the increase in peak current due to higher discharge energy at higher value of Ip. Also MRR is found to increase when Ton increases from 1 to 10 s but with further increase in Ton, MRR is observed to decrease. Flushing pressure and duty factor have no significant effect on MRR. Zhang [16] concluded that the MRR of UEDM in gas is much higher compared with that of EDM in gas and conventional EDM in dielectric liquid. Increase in the open voltage, pulse duration, amplitude of ultrasonic vibration and decrease of wall thickness of the pipe electrode, result in an increase of the MRR. As a medium, oxygen gas can produce a greater MRR than air. 5.2 Tool Wear Ratio (TWR) Tool wear process is similar to Material Removal Mechanism as the tool and workpiece are considered as a set of electrodes in EDM[13]. Electrode Wear increases with increase in current and voltage. Wear of copper electrodes is less than that of brass electrodes. This is due to the higher thermal conductivity and melting point of copper compared to that of brass. During machining of mild steel, electrodes undergo more wear than during machining of aluminium. This is due to the fact that the thermal conductivity of aluminium is higher than that of mild steel, which causes comparatively more heat energy to dissipate into the electrode during machining of mild steel. The WR increases with increase in current and gap voltage Vg. The highest wear ratio was found during machining of steel using a brass electrode [1]. The tool wear ratio of the ultrasonic assisted EDM was more than the tool wear ratio of conventional EDM [2]. The wear ratio for tungsten carbide alloy is smaller than that for sintered diamond [3]. The tool wear rate is significantly influenced by ultrasonic vibration of the workpiece electrode. The better sparking efficiency associated with ultrasonic also results in corresponding higher tool wear. The occasional case of lower tool wear rate with ultrasonic may be attributed to the reduced incidence of arcing. However, the cumulative effect still increases tool wear rate with ultrasonic [4]. Tool wear rate increases with increases in rotational speed, with increase in amplitude of ultrasonic vibration or a combination of both. Greater increase in Tool Wear Ratio is seen to result from an increase in ultrasonic vibration amplitude in comparison with an increase in rotational speed. In fact the better efficiency and flushing associated with ultrasonic vibration and rotation also results in higher tool wear [5]. Electrode wear is increasing with process parameters for each electrode material except the
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prolonged pulse duration of 200 s. Graphite exhibits the lowest wear rate due to higher melting point at all the applied condition. Aluminium electrode exhibits the best performance with regard to surface finish [6]. Harmanpreet [7] found that the tool wear rate is significantly influenced by ultrasonic vibration of the work piece electrode. They suggested that sparking efficiency associated with ultrasonic, also results in corresponding higher tool wear. They found occasional case of lower tool wear rate with ultrasonic, might be attributed to the reduced incidence of arcing. However, the cumulative effect still increases tool wear rate with ultrasonic. Expect in the no wear cycle, electrode have considerable wear. If the portion of the electrode that did not wear retains its shape, the electrode can be redressed and reused. Abbas [8] studied the tool wear during the 3D micro ultrasonic machining. They showed that the tool shape remain unchanged and the tool wear has been compensated by applying the uniform wear method developed for micro EDM and its integration with CAD/ CAM to micro ultrasonic vibration process for generating accurate three-dimensional (3D) micro cavities. Zarepour et al. [9] brings out statistical analysis on electrode wear in EDM of tool steel DIN 1.2714 used in forging dies. They concluded that on-time, current, and pre-EDM roughing as factors along with on-time/current, on-time/pre-EDM roughing, and current/pre-EDM roughing as interactions, were found to have significant effect on electrode wear. Pradhan[15] concluded that Ip has the maximum percentage of contribution on TWR during micro-drilling of titanium alloy by electro discharge phenomenon. Tool-wear rate is found to increase monotically with the increase in peak current due to higher discharge energy at higher value of Ip. Also TWR is found to increase when Ton increases from 1 to 10 s. Flushing pressure and duty factor have no significant effect on TWR. 5.3 Surface Quality Surface roughness value of the ultrasonic assisted EDM was slightly higher than the surface roughness value for pure EDM. Efficiency of ultrasonic assisted EDM had a higher improvement in finishing regimes than in roughing regimes. Present investigations proved that, the ultrasonic assisted EDM is very efficient for machining of metallic composite materials with high percentage of carbon content and different component compositions with different melting points [2]. A surface roughness of approximately 0.13m(Ra) was achieved for trench machining. Surface with craters similar to that of metals was produced when the diamond particles were small. On the other hand, flat diamond surface with indentations on cobalt binder was obtained when the diamond particles were large [3]. A pronounced effect of applied ultrasonic vibrations is seen for high value of amplitude. At 8m amplitude, an increase in both Ra and Rmax, is noticed. This is attributed to the fact that more metal get ejected by every discharge and the craters formed are deeper. The 5 to 15% increase in surface roughness so produced is quite compensated by the gain on rate of electrode feed. Test results indicate that decreasing the value of pulse duration can bring surface roughness back to a good value [4]. In the roughing regime, pure EDM does not require other combinations of motion in order to improve flushing or energy discharge [5]. Surface integrity of EDMed Ti6Al4V includes roughening because of decomposition of recast layer on the surface, surface microcracks, debris and melted drops. Below the recast layer a slightly soften or tempered layer is occurring due to the low thermal conductivity of Ti6Al4V [6]. Amir [10] proved that ultrasonic vibration of the tool could significantly improve the surface integrity of cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co10%) in the EDM process. Surface roughness achieved by ultrasonic-assisted EDM is slightly higher than the roughness achieved by the conventional pure EDM process. Ultrasonic vibration of the tool, applied especially to finishing mode machining, decreases the thickness of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and recast layer, and by this way reduces the numbers, size and depth of normal and transverse cracks appearing on the machined surface. The surface obtained with ultrasonic-assisted EDM has a higher hardness compared with pure EDM under high-energy conditions. The micro-hardness of the surface layer of work piece was not clearly affected when using UEDM and hence the research proved that ultrasonic vibration of the tool could significantly improve the surface integrity of cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co10%) in the EDM process [14]. The Ton is most influencing factor of micro-EDM process and has the maximum percentage of contribution on Over Cut and taper. Overcut of the machined micro-hole is mostly affected by the peak current and on-time and increased with increase in Ip and Ton. Also, like MRR, taperness of the machined hole is influenced.[15]
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6. Conclusion Hence, even after 65 years, a continuous research is required to explore effective means of improving the performance of the EDM process. CNC in EDM improves MRR and facilitates simple tooling to generate complex 3D cavity without employing a costly 3D profile electrode. This results in reduction of cost for producing the electrode used in EDM process, which is approximately more than 50% of the total machining cost. The ultrasonic vibration method is suitable for micro machining. EDM in water is introduced for safe and conducive working environment. EDM with powder additives is concerning more on increasing SQ, MRR and tool wear using dielectric oil and EDM modeling is introduced to predict the output parameters which leads towards the development of precise and accurate EDM performance. However, several means of improving the machining performance commonly measured in terms of MRR, TWR and SR have been made with an overwhelming research interest being paid to the metallurgical properties of EDMed part. 7 References [1] Khan, Electrode wear and material removal rate during EDM of aluminum and mild steel copper and brass electrodes; Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 39, 2008, 482487 [2] Amir Abdullah & Mohammad R. Shabgard Effect of ultrasonic vibration of tool on electrical discharge machining of cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co); Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 38, 2008, 11371147. [3] H. Nakaokua, T. Masuzawa , M. Fujino Micro-EDM of sintered diamond; Journal of Materials Processing Technology 187188, 2007, 274278. [4] Walia R.S, Shan H.S, Kumar P, , Enhancing material removal in EDM by applying th ultrasonic vibrations; 13 National conference of Indian society of mechanical engineers, IIT Roorkee, 2003, India. [5] M. Ghoreishi, J. Atkinson, A comparative experimental study of machining characteristics in vibratory, rotary and vibro-rotary electro-discharge machining; Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 120, 2002, 374-384. [6] Ahmet Hascalik, Ulas Caydas, Electric Discharge machining of titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V); Jounal of Applied surface science. [7] Harmanpreet and Walia R.S. Electric discharge machining process- A Review; NITJINDIA,CPIE-2007,22-24 March. [8] Norliana Mohd Abbas,Darius G. Solomon, Fuad Bahari ,A review on current research trends in Electric Discharge Machining [EDM]; Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 47, 2007, 1214-1218. [9] H. Zarepour a, A. Fadaei Tehrani b, D. Karimi c, S. Amini a Statistical analysis on electrode wear in EDM of tool steel DIN 1.2714 used in forging dies; Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 187188, 2007, 711714. [10] Amir Abdullah & Mohammad R. Shabgard & A. Ivanov & Mohammad T. Shervanyi-Tabar Effect of ultrasonic-assisted EDM on the surface integrity of cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co); Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 2008 [11] Pandey P.C. and Shan H.S, , Modern Machining Processes, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, (20th reprint).2003 [12] www.Reliableedm.com, EDM hand book. [13] Navdeep Malhotra and Sona Rani. Improvements in Performance of EDM-A Review 2008 IEEE, 599-603 [14] Amir Abdullah & Mohammad R. Shabgard & A. Ivanov & Mohammad T. ShervanyiTabar, Effect of ultrasonic-assisted EDM on the surface integrity of cemented tungsten carbide (WC-Co); Int J Adv Manuf Technology (2008) DOI 10.1007/s00170-008-1476-7 [15] B. B. Pradhan & M. Masanta & B. R. Sarkar & B. Bhattacharyya Investigation of electrodischarge micro-machining of titanium super alloy; Int J Adv Manuf Technol, DOI 10.1007/s00170-008-1561-y [16] Q. H. Zang, J. H. Zang, J. X. Deng, Y. Qin, Z.W. Niu, Ultrasonic Vibration Electric Discharge Machining in Gas; Journal of Material Processing Technology 129, 2002, 135138.
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Effect of Heat Distribution Parameters on Weld Thermal Cycles -A Finite Difference Analysis
Joy Varghese V M 1*, Suresh M R2 and Siva Kumar D2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering SCT College of Engineering, Thiruvananthapuram *Corresponding author, (e-mail mailtojoy2@yahoo.com) 2 Vikram Sarabhai Space Center, ISRO Thiruvananthapuram The thermal cycles during welding have wide influence on the HAZ o o microstructure especially during cooling from 800 C to 500 C which is having high industrial interest. In this study a two dimensional theoretical analysis using finite difference approach is attempted to find out the effect of welding parameters like speed and current on thermal cycles in HAZ during TIG welding of low carbon steel. A finite difference model is generated to predict the heat transfer during welding. The weld heat input is represented by Goldak double ellipsoidal distribution. The effect of different heat distribution parameters on thermal cycles is also analyzed. The predicted temperature variations are compared with experimental results available in literature.
1.
Introduction
Fusion welding is widely used in the manufacturing industry for many decades; especially Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) has important applications in areas such as the automobile manufacturing, shipbuilding, and aerospace industry. Heat transfer during fusion welding has been of much interest to researchers for a very long time. According to Goldak et.al [1] the first technical paper published in this field is by Rosenthal in 1946, but still the modeling of welding heat transfer is not complete. This is because of the highly transient behavior of the problem. For predicting the weld pool geometry and the metallographic structure, the accurate information about the welding arc is necessary. Modeling of welding arc includes the interaction of electric, magnetic, thermal and fluid dynamics effects and it depends on the thermodynamic and transport properties of plasma, which renders the same quite difficult. The problem can be simplified by considering some heat source models that represent the net thermal input from welding arc to work piece along its spatial distribution. The importance of the heat source model cannot be underestimated since its application dictates the magnitude and distribution of the temperature in and around the weld. 2. Heat distribution models
Only a fraction of the power dissipation in the arc causes the heating of the work piece and the formation of the weld pool. Usually, an empirical value is selected for the welding efficiency (defined as the ratio of the net thermal input to the plate to the net dissipation by the welding power source), which allows the determination of the net thermal input to the work piece. This heat is then distributed on the work piece surface, often in a Gaussian form. Different authors proposed and used different approaches to model the spatial distribution of heat input when simulating welding processes. A detailed chronological survey of heat source models for different welding processes is presented by Goldak et al. [13]. According to Goldak et al. [1] Rosenthal was the first who applied the principles of Fouriers theory of heat flow for solving welding problem. He assumed material properties independent of temperature and no heat exchange between the plate and its surroundings. Furthermore, he used these simplifying assumptions to make the problem linear and analytically solvable. Pavelic et al. [7] first suggested a distributed heat source and used a Gaussian distribution. According to Kolbcar et al.[4] the Gaussian heat distribution, with the centre at (0,0,0) and semi-axes a, b, c, parallel to coordinate axes x, y, z, respectively, can be written as:
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q ( x, y , z , t )
2 2 x 2 UI 6 3 y z ( t ) exp 3 3 3 c abc b a
(1)
Figure [1] Geometry of Goldak double ellipsoidal model Kolbcar et al.[4]
where - welding speed and t time, U - Voltage, I - welding current and welding efficiency. This heat source model is useful for simple simulations. Goldak proposed double ellipsoidal heat source model shown in figure [1] .The proposed heat source is composed of two ellipsoidal heat sources where one defines the heat input in the front and the other in the rear part of the ellipsoid. The equation for Goldak heat source in (x; y; z; t) coordinates is given by Kolbcar et al.[4]:
2 x 2 y 2 z ( t ) q ( x, y , z , t ) exp 3 3 3 ci abci b a
f iUI 6 3
(2)
This equation differs from equation (1) in the term ci which represents the heat-source depth, and the term f i which represents energy distribution at the front and at the back section of the ellipsoid. In case i = 1, the parameters for the front section of the ellipsoid are valid, but when i = 2 they are valid for the back section of the double ellipsoidal heat source. A schematic representation of the geometrical form of the Goldak heat-source distribution is shown in figure (1). Goldak heat-source provides a good description of energy distribution at the two sections of the ellipsoid. In the present analysis Goldak distribution is selected and a C++ computer program is developed to generate the heat flux at the surface of work piece at time t when the welding torch travels with velocity . 3. Physical model and mathematical formulation. The analysis is carried out for a low carbon steel plate of dimension 0.3x0.1x.012m.
Table 1.Thermal properties of Low Carbon steel

Property Thermal conductivity 0 (Cal/cm Sec C) Density, Heat
o
Relation T < 700 C

0
Reference
-5
k = 0.121-0.7x10 T Argyris et al.[5] Argyris et al.[5]
700 o C T 830 o C k 0.1474 1.077 x10 4 T T 830 k 0.025 4.0 x10 5

T 700 o C
Specific
(cal/cm3 C ) Surface heat transfer coefficient (cal/cm sec C )

3
600 C T 630 C 630 o C T 800 o C

T 800 o C
5
c 0.88 7.833x10 4 T c 2.85 7.0 x10 3 T c 2.85 7.0 x10 3 T c 0.79 3.6 x10 3 T
10
h 1.3472 x10 2.6106 x10
T 1.872 x10
12
Beer and Meek [6]
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The thermo physical properties and the heat transfer coefficients are calculated based on relations in the table 1.The latent heat of fusion is taken as 285000 Jkg-1 .The solidus 0 0 temperature is taken as 1415 C and liquidus temperature is 1477 C. The analysis is done for an ungrooved plate for travel of welding torch in the direction of length with a welding speed of 2mm/sec. Welding voltage is taken as 15V and welding current is 150A with a weld efficiency of 0.71. The effects of radiation and metal vaporization, etc are assumed to be negligible. 3. Solution technique
The governing equation of heat transfer during welding is as below, 2 f T T T . k k L L C 2 2 t x y

2
(3)
Where k is thermal conductivity of material, density, L the latent heat of fusion and C the specific heat of material. In above equation latent heat of fusion is included by employing time derivative of liquid fraction f L , which is defined as
fL
= 1 for T > TL = 0 for T< TS, =

T TS TL TS
fL fL
for
TS T TL .where TL and TS are the liquidus and solidus temperature, respectively.

4. Results and discussions
A finite difference model is created, for the above governing equation. A C++ program is generated for solving the finite difference model; the temperature dependent properties are also generated. The surface heat distribution is created using Goldak model. The model is solved by back substitution method using a 0.001x0.001m mesh size.
The distribution of heat flux over the plate is governed by equation (2). The heat flux variation at a point on the weld line is plotted based on the same. The figure (2) shows the variation of heat flux with time for a point in the weld line. It describes the importance of f i the fraction of energy distribution of energy at front and back section of the ellipsoid.
Heat Flux
Time
Figure 2. Variation of Heat flux with time (Goldlak Heat flux Distribution)
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The total energy input to the plate will be same in both cases but the distribution and peak temperate are determined by the fraction of heat distributed in the front and back sections of the ellipsoid.
Temperature (oC)
Time (Seconds)
Figure 3. Variation of temperature with time for different values of welding current The thermal cycles during welding are determined using the finite difference approach. The variation of temperature with time during welding is plotted for different values of welding current. Figure (3) shows the thermal cycles for different welding currents. For values of current more than 100 A it shows almost similar temperature gradient. But low for low values(?) of current, the behavior is comparatively different. The peak temperature increases with current, but rate of increase is comparatively less for higher currents. The post weld cooling rate is found to be independent of welding current.
Temperature (oC)
Time (Seconds)
Figure 4. Variation of temperature with time for different values of heat distribution parameter Figure (4) shows the thermal cycles during welding for different values of heat distribution parameter a. The other parameters are also showing the same variation. It is observed that the variation in welding current mainly alters the peak temperature, thereby the o depth of weld pool. For a 2 mm change in the parameter there is 100 C change in the peak temperature. The change in heat distribution parameters has least effect on the cooling time form 800 oC to 500 oC.
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5.
Conclusions
From the above analysis it can be concluded that for proper welding modeling, the accurate determination of heat distribution parameters are necessary, especially for determination of depth of weld. It needs further investigation for determination of heat distribution parameters from the weld parameters like voltage and current. References [1] J Goldak, A. Chakravarti, M. Bibby, A new finite element model for welding heat sources, Metallurgical Transactions, B15B(2), 1984, 299305. [2] J. Goldak, M. Bibby, D. Downey, M. Gu, Heat and fluid flow in welds, in: T.H. North (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Institute of Welding Congress on Joining Research, Advanced Joining Technologies, Chapman and Hall, July 1990, 6982. [3] J. Goldak, M. Gu, L. Karlsson, Numerical Aspects of Modeling Welds, ASM Handbook, 6Welding, Brazing in Soldering, Materials Park, OH, 2000. [4] D. Klob_car , J. Tu_sek , B. Taljat Finite element modeling of GTA weld surfacingapplied to hot-work tooling Computational Materials Science,31, 2004, 368378. [5] J. H. Argyris, J. Szimmat and K. J. Willam, Computational aspects of welding stress analysis. Comput. Meth. appl. Mech. Eng., 33, 1982, 635-666. [6] G. Beer and J. L. Meek, Transient heat flow in solids. Finite Element Methods in Engineering, The University of New South Wales, pp. 7299740 (1974). [7] V. Paveli_C, R. Tanbakuchi, O.A. Uyehara, P.S. Mayers. Experimental and computed temperature histories in gas tungsten-arc welding of thin plates. Welding Journal Research Supplement, 48, 1969, 295305.
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Proc. Of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of technology, Surat, 395 007 Gujarat, India
A Comparative Experimental study on the Reuse type Wire Electric Discharge Machining (RWEDM)
J. B. Valaki1*, G. R. Khunt 2
1 2
L.D.College of Engineering, Ahmedabad- 380 015, Gujarat, India Government Polytechnic, Surendranagar- 360 030, Gujarat, India * Corresponding Author (E-mail: janakvalaki@gmail.com)
Since last decade, WEDM has gained rapid acceptance for the manufacture of various Dies, Moulds and Cutting tools because of its capability to cut conductive materials of any hardness and ability to generate excellent dimensional and geometrical accuracies. As dies and tools are to be manufactured with stringent tolerances, kerf produced should be minimal at the same time Surface roughness generated should be minimum to reduce the wear of the die and tools and to make the manufacturing economical, material removal rate should be maximum possible. With the new materials being developed at rapid pace, various wire materials have been tried out with a target to achieve the desired results. Maximisation of the process performance and selection of best WireWorkpiece combination are the major concerns to economise the WEDM process.Authors in this paper have used reuse type Wire electric discharge machining to investigate and compare various process parameters using Brass and Molybdenum wires. Also efforts have been made to define the criterions for the selection of the Wire-Workpiece combination. A special Additive mixed Deionised water is used to provide better lubrication on wire surface to get stable sparking phenomenon resulting in controlled and uniform erosion of wire. Various materials are machined and MRR, surface finish and Kerf have been observed and studied. 1. Introduction
Wire Electrical Discharge Machining process is a specialized variant of Die sinking EDM, where a continuously moving wire instead of steady electrode, is used to generate electrical discharges between wire and Workpiece material gap known as sparking gap. As the sparking takes place from wire surface, some amount of wire material also gets eroded due to the inherent tendency of the EDM process. As wire starts eroding, dimensional tolerance and geometrical accuracy of it gets altered and hence the same will be reflected on the work piece surface hence Normal practice is to use wire only once and then throw away as waste. This aspect makes the process uneconomical. To generate the geometrical profiles accurately on the work piece surface, erosion of wire should be as minimal as possible. To make this process more economical, emphasis is being given on maximizing Material Removal Rate while minimizing surface roughness and kerf [1]. To achieve these objectives, Novel ideas have been conceived like introducing ultrasonic vibrations to wire and work piece [2], use of powder mixed dielectric fluid [3,4,5] , special dielectric fluids[6], optimization of process parameters to achieve the best response values[1,7,8] etc. but for all the experiment and as common practice, wire electrode is used one time only. As far as knowledge of authors is concerned, no work has been reported on reusing of wire in WEDM. If a viscous fluid is supplied it provides a fresh layer on the wire surface which helps in maintaining wire profile accuracy, stable sparking also wire erosion rate and pattern can be controlled to a large extent.
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Reuse of wire material helps to reduce the production cost which is the major cost factor in WEDM. The purpose this paper is to investigate the effect of wire material, Workpiece material and current on MRR, surface finish and Kerf produced for various materials by reusing wire. Also attempts have been made to define criterions to select wire-Workpiece material combination. 2. Experimental Plan Machine Mechanism The experimental studies were performed on a Reuse type CNC wire EDM machine. The machine is having inbuilt mechanism for the recirculation of wire wounded on bidirectional drum. Winding and unwinding length of wire can be controlled by sensors. 30 meters long wire was wounded on the drum for three consecutive experimental runs as per the run order derived by using randomization with MINITAB 13.0 Statistical analysis software. Control parameters and its levels The control parameters for the experiments are wire material, work piece material and current. Brass and Molybdenum as wire materials, Aluminium Alloy AA6351, AISI D3 Die Steel and M10 grade cemented Carbide as Workpiece materials and 1,3,5 Amp as current values are selected for the Experiments. Deionised water mixed with a special additive is used as electric fluid. Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Wire and Workpiece materials used in the experiments are given in table no.1.
Table No.1: Thermal and Mechanical properties of wire materials

Wire material Molybdenum Brass AA 6351 AISI D3 steel M10 2.3 Thermal conductivity (W/m.K) 145 113 180 51.9 71 Melting point (0C) 2600 900 660 1440 2640 Density (gms/cc) 10.22 8.5 2.7 7.8 3.3
Response parameters & its measurements
Response parameters selected for the experimental purpose are Material Removal Rate (mm3/min.), Surface Roughness (microns) and Kerf (mm). The Centre Line Average (CLA) surface roughness parameter, Ra has been used to quantify the surface roughness of the machined surface. Ra (JIS 2001 standard) has been measured using a contact type stylus based surface roughness tester, Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-301. The cut-off length and traveling length were set as 0.8 mm and 4 mm respectively. Ra is measured along two different lines on the surface and the average value is considered for further analysis. The kerf is measured using the Mitutoyo Tools Makers Microscope (100). The kerf values given in the study are the mathematical average of three measurements made from the Workpiece along the cut length. MRR is calculated by using the following formula: MRR = K*h*V* (1)
Here, K is the kerf, h is the thickness of Workpiece, V is cutting speed and is the density of Workpiece material.
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3. 3.1.
Results & Discussions Influence of machining parameters on MRR

EFFECT OF WIRE MATERIAL ON MRR
4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 CURRENT(AMP) 4 5 6
MRR(MM3/MIN)
AL-M AL-B STEEL-M STEEL-B M10-M M10-B
Figure 1, influence of wire and Workpiece material on MRR

Figure no.1 shows influence of various control parameters like Workpiece materials, Current and Wire materials on Material Removal Rate. According to this figure, as current increases, MRR increases which is due to availability of more discharge energy for prolonged phenomenon of melting and vaporization of work piece material [10].Also as thermal conductivity of Aluminium is more, the discharge energy will be dissipated in the large volume of Workpiece results in evaporation of more material volume hence higher material removal rate is obtained. In addition, Aluminium due to its lower melting and boiling points, reaches to melting and vaporization states earlier compared to Steel and Cemented carbide, so more volume will be eroded and flushed away from the Workpiece surface. As can be seen from the figure, no considerable difference is seen in machining of Steel with either molybdenum or brass wire as compared to machining of Aluminum alloy and cemented Carbide with both the wire materials. The reason could be the narrow difference in thermal conductivities and densities of the Wire-Workpiece material combination in case of Steel compared to Aluminium and Cemented carbide. So heat penetration and thermal barrier would be same for both wire materials. 3.2 Influence of machining parameters on Kerf/Overcut
EFFECT OF WIRE MATERIAL ON OVERCUT
0.014 0.012
OVERCUT (MM)
0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 0 1 2 3 CURRENT(AMP) 4 5 6
Figure 2, influence of wire and Workpiece material on Kerf/ Overcut
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Figure no.2 shows influence of various machining parameters on Kerf/Overcut. It is clear that the Kerf/Overcut is considerably lower for cemented Carbide compared to the Aluminum alloy and AISI D3 die steel. This may be because of the poor thermal conductivity and low density of Cemented Carbide which provides thermal resistance for spark penetration in the Workpiece volume. With increase in current, as the energy available for the sparks increases, the penetration increases by overcoming the thermal barrier which can be seen as higher kerf/Overcut at 5A current. For a Workpiece material, lower is the difference in thermal conductivities, lower is the Overcut achieved with the Wire-Workpiece combination. This is due to poor thermal gradient and hence thermal inertia due to which spark penetration would be restricted leading to lower crater depth resulting in narrow kerf/Overcut. It can be seen that thermal conductivity difference between Wire-Workpiece materials controls the kerf/Overcut in the machining process. Lower difference leads to narrower kerf and vice-versa. 3.3 Influence of machining parameters on Surface Roughness
EFFECT OF WIRE MATERIAL ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS
0.014 0.012 0.01
SR (MM)
0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 0 1 2 3 CURRENT (AMP) 4 5 6
Figure 3, influence of wire and Workpiece material on Surface roughness Figure no.3 Shows influence of various machining parameters on Surface roughness. It is seen that surface quality deteriorates for high current value. The reason is with increase in current, large volume of the material will be eroded leaving behind larger and deeper crater for each spark [10] resulting in comparatively rough surface. Same reason can be sited for various materials also i.e. because of lower melting and boiling points of Aluminium, size of crater would be large leaving rough surface on the Workpiece and higher melting and Boiling points with lower thermal conductivities of the steel and Cemented Carbide restricts the crater size hence shallow and small crater forms which in turn results in better surface quality than Aluminium. One interesting fact which can be pointed out is that machining Aluminium with Molybdenum wire generates superior surface quality and machining Cemented carbide with Brass wire produce better surface quality. This very well supports criterions i.e. higher Melting temperature difference between Wire-Workpiece combinations allows heat to be penetrated in the Workpiece material up to greater depth and the large material volume would be evaporated leaving behind deeper and wider crater. Also lower thermal conductivity difference between WireWorkpiece combinations provides poor thermal gradient for the heat to penetrate and dissipate in to the material volume. Due to these reasons different MRR, Kerf and Surface roughness values are observed for various materials. It is observed that melting temp.difference between wire and Workpiece materials governs the surface roughness, thermal conductivity difference governs the Kerf/Overcut and thermal conductivity & Density difference governs the MRR in WEDM process.
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4.
Conclusions
1) From MRR and Surface roughness point of view, no considerable difference is found in cutting steel with either Molybdenum or Brass wire. But Brass wire is better from Kerf point of view. 2) Molybdenum wire is preferable for cutting aluminium from Kerf and Surface roughness point of view. 3) Brass wire is preferable for cutting Cemented carbide from MRR, Kerf and Surface roughness point of view. 4) To select proper Wire-Workpiece combination, difference between thermal conductivity, Density and Melting temperature play major role. 5) Lower difference of thermal conductivities & densities between wire-Workpiece materials results in maximum MRR, lower difference in thermal conductivities produces lower kerf and higher difference between melting temperature generates lower surface roughness. 5. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Prof. P.D. Solanki, Head, Mechanical Engg. Deptt. and Mr. D.J. Bavaniya and Mr. N.B. Patel, laboratory Assistants at Manufacturing Technology Laboratory of L.D.College of Engineering, for providing their valuable support in conducting the experiments. References (1) Mahapatra, S.S. & Patnaik Amar. Optimization of wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) process parameters using Taguchi method. International journal of Advanced manufacturing Technology, 4, 2006, 36-41. (2) Guo, Lee, Yue & lau. Study on the machining mechanism of WEDM with ultrasonic vibration of wire. Journal of materials processing technology, 69, 1997, 212-221. (3) Jeswani M.L. Effect of addition of graphite powder to kerosene used as the dielectric fluid in Electric Discharge Machining. Wear, 70, 1981, 133-139. (4) Ming & He. Powder Suspension dielectric fluid for EDM. Journal of materials processing technology, 52, 1995, 44-54. (5) Zhao W.S., Meng, Wang Z.N. The application of research on powder mixed EDM in rough machining. Journal of materials Processing Technology, 129, 30-33. (6) Leao, F.N., and Pashby,I.R. A review on the environmental friendly dielectric fluids in the electrical discharge machining. Journal of materials processing technology, 149, 2004, 341346. (7) Scott, D., Bovina, S,, Rajurkar, K.P. Analysis and optimization of parameter combinations in wire electrical discharge machining. International journal of Production Research, 29(11), 1991, 1892207. (8) Spedding, .A. Wang, Z.G. Parametric optimization and surface characteristic of wire electrical discharge machining process. Precision Engineering, 20, 1997, 5-15 (9) Byrne D.M., Taguchi S. The Taguchi Design Approach to parameter design. Quality progress, 19-26, (10) Phadake M.S. Quality Engineering using robust design. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,New Jersey,1989 (11) Han, Jiang, Yu. Influence of machining parameters on the surface roughness in finish cut of WEDM. International journal of advanced manufacturing technology,34, 2007, 538-546
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Parametric Study on Surface Finish in Roller Burnishing of En8 material using Taguchi Techniques
Jawalkar. C.S* and Dr. R.S. Walia
*
Punjab Engineering College Chandigarh-160012, India Corresponding author (e-mail: csjawalkar@rediffmail.com)
Roller Burnishing is a superior process of finishing. It is a cold forming process super finishing. This process is used on previously machined or ground surfaces of cylindrical or conical in nature for both external and internal surfaces. It involves rubbing a smooth, hard object over the minute surface irregularities that are produced during machining or shearing. The hardened rolls of the tool press against the surface and deform the protrusions to a more nearly flat geometry. The burnishing process is an attractive technique which improves the work-piece surface integrity, i.e. surface finish and microhardness in a single process. This improvement in the surface integrity mainly serves to increase fatigue behaviour of work-pieces under dynamic loading. Through this paper an attempt is being made to study roller burnishing processes in terms of surface roughness on hard material i.e, En-8 work pieces. Taguchi's parameter design strategy has been applied to investigate the effect of process parameters (spindle speed, work-feed, number of passes and lubricants) on surface roughness on the roller burnishing process. The standard orthogonal array L-9 has been used and the results of the study are improvement in surface finish and micro-hardness with no appreciable change in surface micro-structure of the material. 1. Introduction
In the roller burnishing process the increase in surface finish is achieved by flattening the rough peaks by compressive force of the rollers. It resembles metal forming or cold working in contrast to micro metal abrasion in the finishing processes like honing, lapping and super finishing. Two phenomena have been generally associated in the analysis of burnishing. One is flattening by plastic flow of roughness peaks and the second is their displacement into the adjacent valleys [1, 2, 3]. The latter appears to be an erroneous presumption due to the differential scaling of roughness heights and spacing as well. Doubts arise if this type of cold working is the only mechanism associated with these processes in view of the fact, that the brittle materials like C.I. also have been successfully burnished [4,5,6]. Keeping these factors in view, the major thrust in these investigations has been directed towards comprehensive analysis of surface integrity. The roughness heights distribution of normal engineering surfaces strongly suggest that different strata of the surfaces reflect in some way the results of different formative processes. A suitable analysis of their roughness size is therefore highly important in the analysis of mechanism of the formative processes [7. 8, 9]. In another finding, the effect of burnishing parameters (Speed, depth, feed, burnishing radius and lathe) on surface roughness and waviness of non-ferrous components were studied experimentally along with theoretical analysis using self- developed cylindrical Polycrystalline Diamond resulting in different optimum burnishing parameters at different conditions. The Ra value observed was as low as 0.08 mtrs with a tool radius of 1.33mm. All parameters including lubrication were significant [10]. In another finding, the microhardness is reported to increase in the burnishing process for En-8 materials [11]. In this current research paper, an effort is being made to understand the underlying mechanism of improvement in the surface finish of burnished surfaces in En-8 material, which is commonly used in shafts, press-rods and actuators.
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2.
Plan of the experiment
A properly planned and executed experiment can provide highly reduced, reliable and accurate results instead of large experimentations. In this work, the fundamental mechanism of the process is being analyzed rather than developing any regression models.In the present Process Parameter Level Rotational speed Raw Data 0.263 0.236 0.198 -0.027 S/N Data 11.69 12.79 13.95 1.09 Feed-rate Raw Data 0.19 0.248 0.26 0.058 S/N Data 14.37 12.11 11.97 -2.26 No of pieces Raw Data 0.23 0.188 0.281 -0.042 S/N Data 12.71 14.6 11.14 1.89 Lubricants Raw Data 0.226 0.236 0.238 0.010 S/N Data 12.994 12.54 12.9 -0.44
Types of data Average Values Main Effects L1 L2 L3 L2-L1
study Taguchi L9 orthogonal array has been used for discussing the results of various process parameters. Table 1 shows the process parameters selected for Taguchi L9 orthogonal array. The study involves roller burnishing process (done on HMT lathe).
Work piece
Burnishing tool
Figure 1. Sample & burnishing tool on lathe.
Figure 2. Turned and burnished sample
Table 1. Process parameters and their range

Process Parameters Levels Spindle speed (RPM) Work feed (mm/rev) No of passes Lubricant 1 450 0.04 1 Kerosene Roller Burnishing Process 2 3 715 1050 0.07 0.10 2 3 Diesel Soluble Oil
Table 2. Experimental Observations

Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sum Trial I 0.28 0.25 0.37 0.14 0.34 0.25 0.16 0.23 0.21 2.23 Ra Values (m) Roller Burnishing Process Trial II Trial III 0.17 0.18 0.23 0.32 0.14 0.26 0.28 0.21 0.24 0.13 1.98 0.23 0.34 0.18 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.18 0.18 2.08 S/N Ratio 13.3192 12.5104 9.27015 16.2221 10.5948 11.5802 13.5589 13.2209 15.0677 115.344
Table 3.
Main effects of surface roughness
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Schematic and practical setup for burnishing is shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the specimen prepared for this study. The specimens were prepared on HMT NH-26 lathe to represent the conditions for roller burnishing. The work pieces were cut from bar stocks of En-8 material of 25 mm diameter initially turned and then burnished on the same specimen adjacently. To measure the surface roughness a standard Talysurf was used and average readings were taken from randomly machined surfaces, duly cleaned by acetone. The results of experimental observations are as plotted in Table 2. Table 3 depicts the average values and main effects of surface roughness in En-8 burnishing at the three chosen levels as per table 1.
0.27
Raw data S/N
Surface Rougness
13.6
S/N Ratio (dB)
0.25
0.23 12.6 0.21
0.19 450 715 Speed (rpm) 1050
11.6
0.27
Surface Roughness
14.5
Raw data S/N
13.5
0.23 12.5 0.21
0.19 0.04 0.07 Feed(mm/rev ) 0.1
11.5
Figure 3. Effect of speed on surface roughness. Roughness

0 .3
Sur fa c e 0 .2 7 Ro ug hn 0 .2 4 ess
Figure 4. Effect of Feed on Surf.

15 14 S / N Ra 1 3 tio (d B) 12 11
R aw data S /N
0 .2 1 0 .1 8 1
Passes
Figure 5. Effect of Passes on surf. Roughness
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S/N Ratio (dB)
0.25
Raw Data
0.237
Surface Roughness
S/N Ratio
13 12.9
0.234 12.8 0.231 0.228 0.225 kerosene diesel Lubrication soluble-oil 12.7 12.6 12.5
Figure 6.Effect of Lubricant on surf. Roughness In case of En-8 burnishing, it can be concluded through the Figure: 3 that with an increase in spindle speed, the surface roughness value decreases. In conventional material removal processes too, this is a commonly observed phenomenon. Figure 4 depicts that at lower values of feed rate the surface finish is much more better. At higher values, due to fast rubbing action, the Ra values are found to be increasing. Figure 5 depicts that at intermediate values of passes, the surface roughness is best, whereas at lower and higher passes, it is found to increase. The reason could be that in intermediate passes, at an optimum level the peaks get flattened. Figure 6 depicts that the overall effect of lubricant is negligible and amongst them, kerosene is found to give less surface roughness. The ANOVA results of raw and S/N data are shown in table 4 and 5 respectively. Table 3. Main Effects of surface roughness in Roller Burnishing
SOURCE Speed (rpm) Feed No of Passes Lubricant Error T SS 0.019 0.025 0.039 0.0007 0.0233 0.1076 DOF 2 2 2 2 18 26 V 0.0094 0.0127 0.0196 0.0003 0.0013 * F-Ratio 7.833 10.572 16.317 In-significant SS' 0.0163 0.0229 0.0367 * 0.0319 0.1078 P% 15.109 21.233 34.08 * 29.578 100
Table 4. Pooled ANOVA (Raw Data)

SOURCE Speed (rpm) Feed No of Passes Lubricant Error T SS 7.59 10.85 17.99 0.331 0.31 36.77 DOF 2 2 2 * 2 8 V 3.795 5.424 8.99 * 0.165 F-Ratio 22.931 32.776 54.376 Insignificant SS' 7.259 10.518 17.667 * 1.323 36.768 P% 19.743 28.606 48.051 * 3.601 100
Table 5. Pooled ANOVA ( S/N Data)
Figure 7. SEM photographs in Burnishing at 100 and 400X
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S/N Ratio (dB)
Partial surface integrity study conducted through SEM photographs of the EN-8 burnished surfaces (fig-7) reveal that there is no change in the micro-structures of these specimens. The surface consists of uniformly dispersed, fine equiaxed grains of pearlite and ferrite and no segregation is seen. The grain size number is 8. The test reference is as per reports of the NABL accredited Lab(as per: IS: 7739 (PART V)- 1976 (RA 1996)). 3. Conclusions Roller burnishing process for which the results are reported in this paper can be considered as one of the important processes for machining of precision components. Within the range of test conditions employed, the following conclusions can be drawn. 1. Roller burnishing produces superior surface finish with absence of tool feed marks. The average (m Ra) value observed is 0.21and the finest is 0.13 (Table-2). 2. Number of passes, feed and spindle speed contribute maximum for surface roughness in grinding and burnishing for En-8. 3. Burnishing set up can be done on the same lathe where the turning is done, thereby reducing the setting time to a great extent. 4. The above experimental observations reveal that burnishing can be successfully done for harder materials like En-8 also. 5. There is no change in the surface integrity reported. 6. The excellent surface finish along with the increase in micro-hardness [11] makes the burnishing process superior over the others. The end conclusion is that for precise engineering applications involving better surface finish and higher surface integrity burnishing can be used as a suitable alternative to get added benefits. Normally the burnishing is applied to dynamically loaded components which have to undergo fatigue loading and require long service life. Naturally tough materials fall in these categories. References [1] Black A.J, Oxely P.L.B. Analysis and experimental investigation of a simplified burnishing process. Int. Jl. Mech.sci. Res, 39,1997, 629-641. [2] Lin. Y.C., Wang S.W., Lai H.Y. The relationship between surface roughness and burnishing factor in the burnishing process. Int. J. Adv. Manufacturing Technology, 23, 2004, 666-671. [3] Morimoto T. & Tamamura K. Burnishing process using a rotating bal-toll-effect of tool material on the burnishing process. Wear, 147, 1991,185-193. [4] Hassan A.M, Maqablesh A. M. The effects of initial burnishing parameters on nonferrous components. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 102, 2000, 115-121. [5] Hassan A.M. An investigation into the surface characteristics of burnished cast Al-Cu alloys. Int. J. Mach. Manufact. 37, 1997, 813-821. [6] Rajesham S., Jem Cheong Tak. A study of the surface characteristics of burnished components. Journal of Mechanical Working Technology, 20, 1989, 1289-138. [7] Fattouh M., MH. El-Axir, Serage S.M. Investigations into the burnishing of external cylindrical surfaces of 70/30 Cu-Zn alloy. Wear, 127, 1988, 113-137. [8] Lin Y.C., Yan B.H., Huang F.Y. Surface improvement using a combination of electrical discharge machining with ball burnish machining based on the Taguchi method. In. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol, 18, 2001, 673-682. [9] El-Khabeery M.M., El-Axir M.H. Experimental techniques for studying the effects of milling roller-burnishing parameters on surface integrity. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 42, 2001, 1705-1719. [10] Hongyun Luo, Jiangying Liu, Lijiyang Wang, Qunpeng Zhong. Investigation of the burnishing process using PCD tool on non-ferrous metals. Int. Journal of Adv. Manufacturing Technology, 25, 2005, 454-459 [11] Jawalkar. C.S and Walia R.S. Experimental Investigations into Micro-hardness in Roller Burnishing processes on EN-8 and Aluminium specimens, using design of experiments. Proc. of the 2nd Intl & 23rd AIMTDR Conf. 2008, IIT Chennai, 733-739.
878
Development and Evaluation of Electrical Property of Short Carbon Fiber Reinforced Aluminium Metal Matrix Composite
K.S. Sridhar1*, B. K. Muralidhara2, C.K. Umesh2, V.K. Basalalli3
2 1
PES Institute of Technology, Bangalore-560085, Karnataka, India. University Visveswaraya College of Engineering, Bangalore-560001, Karnataka, India. 3 Sir.M. Visveswaraya Institute of Technology, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. * Corresponding Author (e-mail: shridhar_ks@yahoo.com )
Aluminium-carbon fiber composites have attractive properties for a variety of automotive and aerospace applications Particular attention has been paid to the unidirectional carbon fibers reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs) due to their high mechanical properties, low thermal expansion coefficient in the fiber direction, good electrical and thermal conductivity and potential of high damping capacity. However, the widespread acceptance of carbon fiber-reinforced aluminium composite has been limited due to the various problems encountered during the fabrication of the composites. It has been reported that carbon fibers are difficult to be wetted by molten aluminium and its alloys. By applying suitable fiber coatings, the wetting characteristics of the fiber with the metal matrix can be improved. In this investigation, carbon fibers coated with copper and cut to size have been used as reinforcements to develop their composite with aluminium. Further, the composite developed has been subjected to a wire drawing operation. The electrical conductivity of as cast and wire drawn composites were determined. Experimental results have indicated an improvement in electrical conductivity of as cast and wire drawn composites as compared with base aluminium metal. 1. Introduction
Aluminium and its alloys are engineering materials with many desirable characteristics and are commonly used in aeronautical and automotive sectors. Aluminium is a good conductor of electricity and is being extensively used as conductor material for overhead electric transmission. Over the years carbon fibers have been considered as very important reinforcements for aluminium and its alloys in fabricating advanced composite materials. Carbon fiber reinforcement / aluminium matrix composites are of great importance because of their high specific strength and stiffness, low coefficient of thermal expansion and high thermal/electrical conductivity. The main problems encountered in the development of carbon fiber aluminium composites are the reactivity of carbon with aluminium and poor wetting characteristics of carbon by liquid aluminium. This is because aluminium wets carbon only at temperatures around 10000C [1] and also because above 5500C aluminium reacts with carbon rapidly to form aluminium carbide and results in fiber degradation and reduction in strength of the composite [24]. In order to promote wetting between carbon fibers and molten aluminium thin layers of various metals like copper [5], silver [5,6] nickel [7,8] have been deposited on the fiber surface. Such coatings may serve multiple purposes during the fabrication of the composite. Firstly the coating layer may form a low melting point eutectic at the interface and thus improve the wettability of the matrix on the fiber. Secondly the coating may protect the fibers from being damaged or contaminated during processing [2]. Several investigators have tried using carbon fibers as reinforcement to study its effect on electrical conductivity of matrix metal. Shoukai Wang and Chung [9] have observed negative electrical resistance in interfaces between layers of carbon fibers in composite material in a
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direction perpendicular to the fiber layer. Lerner [10] found that oxidized PAN fibers subjected to heat treatment temperatures of 715-945 K are semiconductors. The electrical properties of pitch based semiconductive carbon fibers have been determined by Okubo et al [11]. Gerteisen [12] examined carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastics with controlled surface resistivity. Agari et al [13] determined the influence of carbon fiber form and fiber loading on the electrical conductivity of polyethylene composites. This paper presents the details of developing carbon short fiber aluminium MMC as an engineering material by the most commonly adopted liquid metallurgy technique viz stir casting, subjecting the as cast composite to a wire drawing operation, evaluating the electrical conductivity of as cast and wire drawn composites. 2. 2 .1 2.1.1 Experimental Procedure Composite fabrication Preparation of As cast composite
3kg of 99.6% pure aluminium was charged into a graphite crucible and placed inside an electric resistance furnace. The melt temperature was adjusted to 8000C. An impeller shaft with blades driven by a variable AC motor was lowered into the melt. In its position the impeller had a clearance of approximately 20mm from the bottom of the crucible. The impeller was rotated at a speed of 400rpm and a vortex was created. The preheated copper coated and chopped fibers were introduced into the vortex and mixed with the molten metal by stirring and was carried out for a duration of 3-4 minutes after which the impeller was quickly withdrawn. The composite melt was poured at the predetermined temperature of 8000C into preheated cylindrical metal moulds. 2.1.2 Preparation of wire drawn composite
The as cast MMC cylindrical rods of diameter 20mm was preheated to 3500C and passed through a rolling mill in which the rod was reduced from the original diameter to a diameter of 9.5mm. Further the rod was passed through a series of dies in a wire drawing machine to obtain a final diameter of 6mm. 2.2 2.2.1 Electrical conductivity test Procedure for measuring electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity test was carried out using the digital micro ohm meter. The electrical conductivity of the composites developed is obtained by conducting the resistance test in accordance with BIS specifications and IS 398 standard applicable to aluminium conductors for overhead transmission purposes. Initially the size of the composite rod (both as cast and wire drawn) was checked at three different locations and the average value was taken. The digital micro ohm meter was set for the required range and was allowed to warm up for a duration of ten to fifteen minutes. Prior to measurement, the probes were shorted to set the multimeter to zero reading using the adjusting screws. The aluminium rod was fixed on the resistance measuring stand and the probes were connected to it for a straightened length of 50 cm. The electrical resistance was measured at room temperature and was corrected to the value at 20 o C using equation (1)
R20 = RT
(1)
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R20 = resistance corrected at 20 C RT = resistance measured at T C = constant mass temperature co efficient of resistance, 0.004 T = ambient temperature during measurement. The conductivity of the rod was obtained as follows Conductivity, in %IACS = 0.017241/Resistivity x 100 where, Resistivity = cross sectional area of the rod in mm2 x R20 3. Results and Discussion
The electrical conductivity reported in percentage International Annealed Copper Standard (% IACS) of as cast and wire drawn composites having different wt. % additions of carbon fiber is listed in tables 1 and 2 along with the histogram representation in figures 1 and 2. The electrical conductivity values show an improvement in comparison with the base metal. This may be attributed to the fibres contributing to the electron gas cloud of aluminium as carbon fibres are believed to increase the valence electron density which aids in increasing the electrical conductivity of the composite. Further the wire drawing operation reduces the micro porosity of the composite and facilitating the free flow of electrons in the metal. Table 1. Effect of carbon fibers on electrical conductivity of as cast carbon fiber reinforced aluminium MMC.
Wt% addition of carbon fiber 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Electrical conductivity in as cast condition (% IACS)* 61.4 61.6 61.9 62.3 62.7 62.8
% increase in electrical conductivity w.r.t base metal -0.325 0.814 1.465 2.111 2.280
* International annealed copper standard
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Figure 1 Effect of different wt% additions of carbon fiber on electrical conductivity of as cast carbon fiber reinforced aluminium MMC. Table 2 Effect of carbon fibers on electrical conductivity of extruded carbon fiber reinforced aluminium MMC.
Wt% addition of carbon fiber Electrical conductivity in as cast condition (% IACS)* 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 61.4 61.6 61.9 62.3 62.7 62.8 61.4 62.0 62.9 63.2 63.5 64.0 0.649 1.615 1.445 1.276 1.910 Electrical conductivity in extruded condition (%IACS)* % increase in electrical conductivity after extrusion w.r.t as cast condition
* International annealed copper standard
Figure 2 Effect of different wt% additions of carbon fiber on electrical conductivity of extruded carbon fiber reinforced aluminium MMC.
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4.
Conclusions
It is possible to develop a composite of aluminium reinforced with short carbon fibers. The composite developed can be successfully wire drawn. The electrical conductivity of the as cast and wire drawn composites are better when compared with base metal. Electrical conductivity values of as cast and wire drawn composite improves with the increase in carbon fiber content in the metal. Acknowledgement The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the staff of M/s Mohan Aluminium Bangalore and High voltage division of CPRI Bangalore for their help and support. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] N.Eustathopoulos.J.C.Joud, P.Desre and J.M.Hicter, Journal of Materials Science, 9, 1974, 1233 S.G.Warrier, C.A.Blue and R.Y.Lin, ibid, 28,1993,760. M.F.Amateau.Journal of Composite Materials, 10, 1976,279 I.H.Khan, Metall. Trans. 7A, 1976,1281 R.V.Sara, Integrated Research on Carbon Composite Materials, AFML-TR-66-310 (Wright Patterson AFB, Dayton, Ohio, 1966,193 H.M.Cheng, B.L.Zhou, Z.G.Zheng, Z.M.Wang and C.X.Shi, Plating Surf, Finishing, 77(5), 1990, 130. A.A.Baker, C.Shipman and P.W.Jackson, Fiber Sci.Technol., 5, 1972, 213. E.De.Lomotte, K.Philips, A.J.Perry and H.R.Killias, J.Mater.Sci., 7, 1972, 346. Wang.S, Chung DDL, Apparent negative electrical resistance in carbon fibre composites, Composites, 30, 1999, 579-590 Lerner NR, Electrical conductivity and electron-spin resonance in oxidatively stabilised polyacrylo nitrile subjected to elevated temperature, Journal of Applied Physics, 52(11), 1981, 6757-6762. Okubo.A, Miya yama M, Yanagida.H, Electrical properties of pitch based semi-conducting carbon fibres, Journal of ceramic society, Japan, 103(9), 1995, 954-959 Gerteisen S R, Carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastics with controlled surface resistivity Agari A, Ueda A, Nagai.S, Journal of Applied polym Sci, 52, 1994, 1223-1231
[11] [12] [13]
883
Lateral Extrusion of Some Complex Form: A Threedimensional Analysis

L.N.Patra1*, S.K. Sahoo1, U. C. Paltasingh2, B. Sahoo3 and P.R.Samantaray4 National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769 008, Orissa, India Padmanava College of Engineering, Rourkela 769002, Orissa, India 3 I.G.I.T., Sarang 759 146, Orissa, India 4 BOSE, Cuttack 753007, Orissa, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: lnpatra@gmail.com, laxmip@nitrkl.ac.in)
2 1
The aim of this study is to investigate the lateral extrusion of some complex form. An UBET(Upper Bound Elemental Technique) for lateral extrusion of square, hexagon, spline and tracoidal forms has been developed. A KAVF(kinematically admissible velocity field) is proposed to determine the forming load. Experiments are carried out with the commercially available lead for different product shapes. The theoretical predication of forming load is compare with experiment result. 1. Introduction
In lateral extrusion operation, the prediction of metal flow is a very important consideration, since it will greatly influence the deformed configuration, mechanical properties, surface defects etc of the work piece. A large number of research works in upsetting have been made mainly on the analysis of the forging of circular disk or forging of rectangular strip in the condition of plane-strain [1-3]. The problem of bar forging with a pair of flat dies has been analyzed by many researchers with the help of triangular velocity field technique [4-6]. They have also analyzed the case when the dies completely cover the specimen. Their solution assumes that the velocity field is discontinuous. Tranovaski [7] has studied experimentally the spread and elongation in forging of rectangular plates. For the compression of circular plates and for plane strain compressions, Avitzure [8] has analyzed the barreling effect. Juneja [9,10] has given upper bound solutions for the compression of polygonal disks and rhombus shaped discs, taking into account the bulging of lateral sides. In these solutions, the shapes of compressed specimens as predicted by the solutions are similar to those obtained experimentally. Recently the finite element method came to be in use for the upsetting analysis of noncircular block [11,12]. In this present work an UBET(Upper Bound Elemental Technique ) analysis for lateral extrusion of square, hexagon, spline and tracoidal forms has been developed. A KAVF (kinematically admissible velocity field) is proposed to determine the forming load. Experiments are carried out with the commercially available lead for different product shapes. The theoretical predication of forming load is compare with experiment result. 2. Theoretical analysis
The UBET begins with promulgation of kinematically admissible element velocity fields. These fields apply to specific element shapes (e.g., triangular or rectangular). These fields meet the incompressibility condition and imposition of boundary conditions such as constraint by solid walls or flows from adjacent elements. When an element is adjacent to another element, normal velocity at the interface is made continuous. Analyses are made for all square, hexagonal, tracoidal and spline section head lateral extrusion processes. As an illustration application of the UBET to spline section head is explained (Fig. 1). The following postulations are taken. 1. No metal can cross shear along a plane of symmetry. 2. The center of cylindrical coordinate r, , z is taken at the center of the bottom surface. 3. The deformation zone is divided into four regions. 4. It is assumed that the velocity discontinuity surfaces between region 1 and 2, region 1 and 3 are of conical surfaces.
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5. is a multiplying factor (one of the optimizing parameter) with height of head which separate the rigid region with deforming zone.
Z
U rp
R
Region 1 h 9
7, 8
6 4 Region 2
10 Region 4 Region 3
0
2
43
Plane of Symmetry Figure 1. Lateral Extrusion for spline with four teeth
2.1 Analysis of spline with four teeth
The cylindrical coordinate are taken in such a way that the origin lies at the center of the bottom surface. As the punch proceeds, the metals flow into the cavity to deform radially. A radially extruded part having N protrusions around the cylindrical billet can be divided into 2N similar segment (For an illustration a head of 4 spline is taken). Each segment is divided into four segments. 2.2 Derivation of kinematically admissible velocity field Rigid block moving downward with constant velocity,
Ur=0, U=0 Uz=-U0 U0
Region 1: Region 2:
Ur=0
U
z
No radial flow,
U 0 z 2h
Uz= 0 at z=0,
(1) U= 0, at = (plane of symmetry) (2) (3)
r
r
r 0 ( 1 ) (1 r ) (1 b )
U 1 U r z
z
0 ,
Applying continuity condition

U r U r r
(4)
and boundary condition, we have

U
U 0 [ r 0 ( 1 )] r ( ) 2h [ r p ( 1 r ) ( 1 b )]
(5)
Region 3: We assume,
Uz= 0 at z=0, U= 0, at = 0 (plane of symmetry), Ur=0 at r=0

U
r
U 0 [ r 0 (1 d )] r 2h [ r p ( 1) 2 ]
(6)
U 0 [ r 0 (1 e )] r ( ) 2h [ r p ( 1) 2 ]
(7)
Applying continuity condition and boundary condition,

U
z
U 0z 1 [ 2{ r 0 (1 d )} ( ){ r 0 (1 e )}] 2 h [ r p ( 1) 2 ]
(8)
Region 4:
Uz= 0
U= 0
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U 0 2h
(1
z ) r 0 (1 c ) r [ r p ( 1) 2 ]
(9)
Where, h= maximum thickness of the head; r= maximum diameter of the head without spline R= maximum diameter of the head with spline; rp= diameter of the billet or container = is a multiplying factor (one of the optimizing parameter) with height of head, which separate the rigid region with deforming zone. b,c,d,e= optimizing parameters;, r, , z = axis of the cylindrical coordinate system = angle made by one symmetrical part (zone of consideration) at center = angle made by one half of the spline at center Applying the upper bound elemental method, the expression for total power consumption, J*, should be minimized to find the actual velocity distribution, where (10) Wi is the internal power of deformation, Ws is the power expended at the surfaces of velocity discontinuities between the elements and W f is the power utilized to overcome frictional resistance at billet-die interfaces.
i s f
Wi
2 3
0
1 2 rr zz 2 2 2 2 2 2 z 2 z 2 z dV 2
W s
U dS
U dS
For cylindrical coordinate, strain rates for all zones can be derived by the following equations:
rr
r rz
U r , r U U 1 1 U r 2 r r r 1 U r U z 2 z r
1 U , U U r zz z r 1 U 1 U z z 2 z r r
For an illustration, for element 3:

zz
rr
U0 2h
U0 1 [2{r0 (1 d )} ( ){r0 (1 e)}] 2 h [ rp ( 1) 2 ]
{ r 0 (1 e )} { r 0 (1 d )} ( ) 2 { r p ( 1) } { r p ( 1) 2 }
U 0 [ r 0 ( 1 d )] 2 h [ r p ( 1) 2 ]
r z rz 0
Total power dissipation, J*, for all of the regions is obtained by summing up all the power components in the four regions. Externally supplied power is PavAUo, where, Pav is the average extrusion pressure, A is the cross sectional area of the billet and Uo is the ram velocity. Equating external energy supplied during upsetting with total upper bound energy, J* the non-dimensional forging pressure, P av , is equal to After minimizing the upper
*
o
o AU o
bound on power, J , with respect to the optimizing parameters, the coordinates of the deformed work piece can be determined. 3. Experimental investigation:
Commercially available tellurium lead was chosen as the working material for the experiments. Different shapes of headed bars (square, hexagonal, splines, and tracoidal) with different head thickness (15.5,14.7,13.8, and 12.6mm) were produced. The friction factor was
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found to be 0.38 for the lubricated using ring compression test. Cylinders with a 20 mm 30 mm (H/D = 1.5) are used to obtain the stress-strain curve by a compression test at room temperature. The compression rate is maintained same as that adapted for the experiments. The average flow stress of the used material is found to be 0.225 Tons/cm2. Experiments for lateral extrusion of different polygon head bolts were carried out in a 60 ton UTM at room temperature. Commonly available lead was chosen as the working material with specimen diameter of 20 mm & 90 mm length cylindrical specimen. The speed of UTM is maintained uniform approximately at 2mm per minute to minimize rate effect. The billets were compressed up to reduction of about fifty percent in height continuously. Load was measured with stroke and the nature of variation is observed. Different shapes after extrusion are shown in photographs (Fig. 3). The experimental investigation shows that the lateral extrusion process consists of five stages: 1. Initial compression stage, in which load increase linearly. 2. Initiation of flow of metal stage, in which load remains constant. 3. Obstruction of flow stage, in which load increases depending on head shape. 4. Smooth flow stage inside obstruction, in which load remains approximately constant. 5. Final closing stage, in which load increases steeply as the head cavity filled up.
Figure.2. Assembly setup and Different parts setup
Figure.3. Photographs of Products 4. Result and discussion
The proposed formulation for the assumed kinematically admissible velocity field is applied to lateral extrusion of bars with different shape of heads (square, hexagon, tracoidal and spline) with calculations have been made for different heights of head. Each term of the upper bound equation for four regions is solved numerically and a total upper bound equation is optimized with respect to a parameters, , b, c, d and e. defines the shape of shear surface between the body region and the spline region in region 2 and region 3. The influence of the billet diameter and thickness of the head on the relative punch pressure are investigated. Forming load according to the punch stroke at different heights is shown in Figure 4. It is seen that as h/rp increases the relative punch pressure decreases. An increase in head thickness for constant rp causes a decrease in the h/rp ratio. Therefore, a thinner head at
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same friction condition and same number of sides needs a higher forming load because metal flow through a narrow gap is more difficult.
Non-dimensional Extrusion Pressure, P o av
6
6
h=15.41 h=15.02 h=13.87 h=13.21 h=12.62

4
Non-dimensional Extrusion Pressure, P av o
h=15.71 h=14.92 h=14.27 h=13.42 h=12.66

4
h=15.66 h=15.06 h=13.75 h=12.91 h=12.65

4
h=15.41 h=15.02 h=13.87 h=13.21 h=12.62

4
0 0 4 8 12 16 20
0 0 4 8 12 16 20
0 0 4 8 12 16 20
0 0 4 8 12 16 20
Stroke, mm
Stroke, mm
Stroke, mm
Stroke, mm
Figure.4. Variation of extrusion pressure with stroke, square, hexagon, Tracoidal, Spline head 5. Conclusions
1 Decreasing thickness of the head with a constant billet diameter and friction factor causes a higher relative extrusion pressure. 2.The proposed simple kinematically admissible velocity fields to describe the threedimensional deformation have a qualitative agreement with the experimental results. 3.The proposed velocity field gives higher load values than the values experimentally obtained within 25 percent. 4.The velocity field proposed in the present investigation can be used conveniently with short computational time for the prediction of extrusion loads & deformations in heading of different shapes. 5.A higher order polynomial velocity field can be tested to get better results for different section. References [1] Kudo, H. Some analytical and experimental studies of axisymmetric cold forging and extrusion. International Journal of Mechanical Science, 3, 1961, 91-117. [2] Kobayashi, S. Upper bound solutions of axisymmetric forming problems I. Journal of Engineering for Industry, TRANS. ASME, Series B, 86, No 2, May 1964, 122-126. [3] Kobayashi, S. Upper bound solutions of axisymmetric forming problems II. Journal of Engineering for Industry, TRANS. ASME, Series B, 86, No 2, May 1964, 326-332. [4] Nagpal, V. General kinematically admissible velocity fields for some axisymmetric metal forming problems. J. of Engg. for Industry, TRANS. ASME, 101, 1974, 1197 1201. [5] Chen, P.C.T. and Ling, F.F. Upper bound solutions to axisymmetric extrusion problems. Int. Journal of Mech. Sci., 10, 1968, 863-871. [6] Yang, Y.D. and Kim, H.J. An analysis of three dimensional upset forging of elliptical disks. Int. J. of MTDR, 26, No 2, 1986, 147 156. [7] Tranovskii, I., Ya Podeyev, A. A.;and Lyashkov, V.B. Deformation of Metals During Rolling. Pergamon Press, New York, 1965. [8] Avitzur, B. Matal Forming Process & Analysis. MC Graw - Hill Book Company; 1968. [9] Juneja, B.L. Forging of polygonal disks with barreling, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 13 ,1973, 87-97. [10] Juneja, B.L. Forging of rhombus shaped disks, Int. J.Mach. Tool Des. Res. 13, 1973, 99110. [11] Conor McCormack and John Monaghan. A finite element analysis of cold-forging dies using two-and three-dimensional models. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 118 (1-3), 2001, 286-292. [12] Guoqun Zhao, Guangchun Wang and Ramana V. Grandhi. Die cavity design of near flashless forging process using fem-based backward simulation. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 121 (2-3), 2002, 173-181. [13] Ou, H., Lan, J., Armstrong, C. G. and Price, M. A. An FE simulation and optimisation approach for the forging of aero-engine components. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 151 (1-3), 2004, 208-216.
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Comparative Analysis of Various Parameters in Near Dry EDM for Nickel Based Alloy
S.P.Lathkar *, Rajiv B ., G.S.Lathkar , B.B.Ahuja , S.K.Basu 1 College of Engineering, Pune-5 2 M.G.M Nanded-431604 * corresponding author:(email: s_lathkar@yahoo.com)
1 1 2 1 1
The paper deals with the high-strength-temperature-resistant (HSTR) nickel based alloys are extensively used in aerospace industries such as gas turbines, rocket motors and spacecraft as well as nuclear reactors, pumps and hard tools. These materials are difficult to machine because high hardness, high hardening rate, presence of highly abrasive carbide particles and strong tendency to weld to tool to form built-up edge.Advance machining process (AMP) are capable of drilling macro or micro holes with high aspect ratio in difficult to cut materials. Among the various AMPs the electrical discharge machining (EDM) is quite common for processing small holes. Dry EDM or near dry EDM is new EDM process in which pure gas or gas fill liquid in mist form is used in place of high pressure dielectric. In above process the machining characteristic are remarkably influence by assist gas. In particular material removal rate increases significantly when oxygen gas is used due to thermally activated oxidation of workpiece material. The process is also characterized by low tool wear (TWR) high surface quality a better accuracy. The experiments are conducted to establish the fact.Regression analysis and ANOVA have been used to develop in-depth equations. 1. Introduction In conventional electric discharge machining [EDM], it is generally accepted that the main removal mechanism is based on a thermal conduction process. Similar thermal models are also used in macro/micro EDM to describe MRR, but according to detailed studies it is proved that, there is a difference when machined with discharge energies below certain input values [1-6]. Wong et al [7] found that at lower energies discharges [i.e < 50 J], the energy required to remove unit volume of material defined as the specific energy is found to be much less than that at higher energy discharges. Additionally, ratio of the standard deviation to the measured micro-crater size is found to be lower at lower discharge energies indicating greater consistency in shape and size. The fundamental erosion mechanism of material is discussed by considering melting and evaporation phenomena using theoretical models. The average efficiency of erosion, when estimated is due to, primarily by melting or evaporation is found to be higher at lower discharge than higher discharge. 1 1 1 1 Input Energy TWR M.R.R. Cater Size erosion Wear Ratio For machining with discharge energies below [100 J] researcher found that the boiling point of the electrode material plays important role in wear mechanism. They introduced new function where latent heats are taken into account as a modified type of the temperature model. Their experimental data obtained shows that there is a strong relation in micro-EDM with the new index. Ivanov et. Al. [9] proposed a simple thermal model of material removal, which is based on latent heats. They assumed that in macro/micro EDM the removal mechanism of material is purely due to evaporation. MRR, TWR, Total MRR and ratio of MRR/ TWR or Anode wear/ cathode wear [] depend on materials used and energies supplied to anode and cathode. When the dielectric was used with oxygen or air, it shows that there is significant decrease in TWR. With
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the use of dielectric & gases, there is a significant improvement in all EDM outputs like MRR, TWR, , crater size (surface finish), of machine. 2. Experimental set up The machine used Electronica made EDM type drill machine (model SD52-3E), The material of work piece used Hard alloy steel with l/d ratio and electrode used brass of 1 mm (OD-1 mm, ID-0.4 mm), dielectric medium water, water+air, water+oxygen at 2 MPa. Machine is extensively used in drilling macro holes (0.2 mm-3mm) on extra hard steel alloys, carbides and for metals, where ordinary drill machine cannot work. Material removed is measured after each operation on weighing machine (before and after weight) on electronic weighing machine, 0.005 g accuracy, time is recorded on stop watch in seconds and time is recorded on stop watch in seconds, and consumption of electrode in ( 0.001 mm accuracy) by taking difference in movement of Z axis. 2.1 Design of Experiment As micro EDM mainly depends on the Gap Voltage, Gap current and pulse on time and dielectric used. These three factors were taken into account for experimentation and full factorial design (i.e 2n) method is used to design set up of experiments and 12 set up of experiments were performed. A comparative study of material for through hole with dielectric medium being water, water + air and water + O2.
Table 1 Level of Coding

Level Voltage Current Ton +1 40 5 5 0 30 4 4 -1 20 3 3 2.2 Influence of Input energy on Surface Quality When using normal EDM to do mold machining, it is very difficult for surface quality to satisfy its requirement. Polish is necessary as following work, procedure, but fine polish is always the biggest problem (bottleneck) for the whole mold machining industry. An attempt has been done with lower working voltage to overcome such bottleneck. In EDM intense heat is generated between the workpiece and tool electrode through discharging, so the crater is formed on the surface. The geometry of crater just like isothermal surface, Fig. 1 shows its cross section diagram. Many studies have been conducted through heat conduction theories and models by great deal of experiments. The experimental formula for the diameter crater is given in equation:
D 0.151 I 0.4V 0.4To0.4 10 6 = 0.151( V U Ton 10 6 = ( E in ) 0.4 19.9

Where, D = diameter of crater in m; I = discharge current in amp, Ton = Pulse on time or discharge time (sec) , V = discharge voltage in gap volts. From above we can calculate discharge energy and corresponding crater size. 2.3 Efficiency of macro EDM The following assumption are made to evaluate the efficiency through a simple theoretical modelling using the experiment data: i) The maximum amount of energy stored in capacitor is assumed to be completely discharged. ii) The energy is transformed in the form of heat. iii) The duration time of the single discharge is approximately equal to a single R-C pulse time (Ton) and very short i.e. in s. iv) Enthalpies of phase transformation (solid-liquid & liquid vapour interface) are neglected. v) The thermo physical properties of materials are constant and equal in all 3-phases from solid to liquid to vapour which apply on the over the whole temperature range.
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vi) 2.4
Material of workpiece is homogenous & isotropic. Observations & Analysis
Table 2 Observations while experimenting

EXPT I/P N0 uj/sec 1 2 1 88.889 2 63.158 3 53.333 4 37.895 5 44.444 6 31.579 7 26.667 8 18.947 9 45 10 45 11 45 12 45 W1 g/mm 3 205.5 205.3 205.1 204.9 204.7 204.5 204.4 204.2 204 203.8 203.6 203.4 W2 g/mm 4 205.3 205.1 204.9 204.7 204.5 204.4 204.2 204 203.8 203.6 203.4 203.2 W1W2 mm 5 0.19 0.2 0.2 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.2 0.18 0.21 0.2 0.2 0.2 Z1 mm Z2 mm 6 7 0 21.84 21.84 55.695 55.7 72.365 72.37 88.8 88.8 111.26 111.3 130.41 130.4 144.64 144.6 158.37 158.4 176.66 176.7 197.93 197.9 216.55 216.6 234.35 Z2-Z1 WT IN TIME WT/mm mm gm sec 8 9 10 11 0.00555 21.84 0.121 65 0.00555 33.855 0.188 94 0.00555 16.67 0.093 190 0.00555 16.435 0.091 179 0.00555 22.455 0.125 48 0.00555 19.155 0.106 58 0.00555 14.23 0.079 114 0.00555 13.73 0.076 118 0.00555 18.285 0.101 68 0.00555 21.275 0.118 80 0.00555 18.62 0.103 82 0.00555 17.8 0.099 90
gm/sec mrr gm/sec twr Total mrr g/s 12 13 14 0.003 0.0019 0.00486 0.0021 0.002 0.00413 0.0011 0.0005 0.00154 0.001 0.0005 0.00154 0.004 0.0026 0.00655 0.0033 0.0018 0.00511 0.0018 0.0007 0.00245 0.0015 0.0006 0.00217 0.0031 0.0015 0.00458 0.0025 0.0015 0.00398 0.0024 0.0013 0.0037 0.0022 0.0011 0.00326
-3
Crater MRR/TWR Size um 15 16 1.60875161 2.64 1.06442286 2.10 2.16172982 2.15 2.02819187 1.71 1.52457066 2.00 1.78722183 1.59 2.53239888 1.63 2.36215823 1.29 2.06933759 1.92 1.69382073 1.92 1.93534028 1.92 1.973884 1.92
-0.087341 0.181788 0.0375
efficiency 17 3.425625 3.41932624 2.00328947 2.76825341 9.03984375 10.5291667 6.67763158 8.17161017 6.96568627 5.63888889 5.50135501 4.88703704
MRR = 2.51x10 V I Ton TWR = 0.21409 V-0.04526 I0.27544Ton 0.01647
Table 3 Comparison of indices of MRR & TWR for water, air & oxygen
DIELECTRIC WATER W+A W+O2 MRR TWR INTERCEPT Power v Power I Power Ton INTERCEPT Power v Power I Power Ton -2.66728077 -0.0873 0.18172 0.03751228 -0.6794453 -0.04526 0.2754 0.01647985 -0.77620952 -0.0994 0.2708 0.00507741 0.192984029 -0.04438 0.1123 0.00442458 -2.89762634 0.06143 0.21 -0.0362102 -0.79744157 0.12362 0.4457 0.13295568
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Table 4 a Comparative studies for MRR, TWR, wear ratio, total wear, crater size & efficiency
EXPT IN PUT NO ENERGY 1 2 U J/SEC 1 88.888889 2 63.157895 3 53.333333 4 37.894737 5 44.444444 6 31.578947 7 26.666667 8 18.947368 9 45 10 45 11 45 12 45 Material Removal Rate 3 water air oxygen 0.003 0.0028 0.002564103 0.00213 0.00225806 0.000890688 0.00105 0.00093182 0.000712121 0.00103 0.00105 0.000977273 0.00396 0.00386792 0.004363636 0.00328 0.004 0.000461538 0.00175 0.00176991 0.000623342 0.00153 0.00186957 0.000867925 0.00309 0.00205882 0.001073171 0.0025 0.00209524 0.001375 0.00244 0.00205607 0.001 0.00217 0.00210784 0.001075 Tool Wear Rate 4 water air oxygen 0.00186 0.0015 0.00166927 0.002 0.0013 0.00341909 0.00049 0.0004 0.0003425 0.00051 0.0004 0.00036327 0.0026 0.0021 0.0029531 0.00183 0.0021 0.00081825 0.00069 0.0006 0.00045835 0.00065 0.0006 0.00078883 0.00149 0.001 0.000715 0.00148 0.001 0.00076104 0.00126 0.0009 0.00063636 0.0011 0.001 0.00155053 wear ratio 5 water air oxygen 1.6088 1.89 1.536 1.0644 1.771 0.261 2.1617 2.471 2.079 2.0282 2.651 2.69 1.5246 1.811 1.478 1.7872 1.89 0.564 2.5324 2.859 1.36 2.3622 2.971 1.1 2.0693 2.095 1.501 1.6938 2.194 1.807 1.9353 2.231 1.571 1.9739 2.19 0.693
Table 4 b Comparative studies for MRR, TWR, wear ratio, total wear, crater size & efficiency
Total wear Crater Size um Erosion Efficiency 6 7 8 water Air Oxygen water Air Oxygen Water Air 0xygen 0.0049 0.0043 0.00423 2.6383054 2.638305 2.6383054 3.425625 3.19725 3.19725 0.0041 0.0035 0.00431 2.09591698 2.095917 2.095917 3.419326241 3.62889785 3.62889785 0.0015 0.0013 0.00105 2.15072838 2.150728 2.1507284 2.003289474 1.77336648 1.77336648 0.0015 0.0014 0.00134 1.70857708 1.708577 1.7085771 2.768253414 2.81239583 2.81239583 0.0066 0.006 0.00732 1.9994616 1.999462 1.9994616 9.03984375 8.83337264 8.83337264 0.0051 0.0061 0.00128 1.58840805 1.588408 1.588408 10.52916667 12.8566667 12.8566667 0.0024 0.0024 0.00108 1.62994732 1.629947 1.6299473 6.677631579 6.73672566 6.73672566 0.0022 0.0025 0.00166 1.29485929 1.294859 1.2948593 8.171610169 10.015157 10.015157 0.0046 0.003 0.00179 1.91694685 1.916947 1.9169468 6.965686275 4.64379085 4.64379085 0.004 0.0031 0.00214 1.91694685 1.916947 1.9169468 5.638888889 4.72592593 4.72592593 0.0037 0.003 0.00164 1.91694685 1.916947 1.9169468 5.501355014 4.63759086 4.63759086 0.0033 0.0031 0.00263 1.91694685 1.916947 1.9169468 4.887037037 4.7543573 4.7543573
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Comparative study of anode & cath ode wear

MRR/TWR ratio
MRR/TWR ratio comparison

3 2 MRR/TWR 1 0
1 3 5 7 9 11
D d
W.S
H h
c e 0.005 s 0.004 / 0.003 m 0.002 g 0.001 r 0 w t & r r m
9 11
gm/sec mrr gm/sec t wr
expt no
expt no
Figure 1
Total mrr coparision Tot al mrr g/s
0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 11 1 0 2 e xp t n o
Figure 2
c a te rsize a nd inp ut e n e rg y
1 00.00 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00 0.00 IP E UJ/sec 1 .size 0*c
Figure 3
input enrgy & % effieciency
IP E U J/sec 5*ef ficincy
y c1 0 0 n e 90 i 80 c i f f 70 e 60 % 50 & c 40 e s / 30 j 20 u y 10 g r e 0 n e t u p expt no n i
10
11
1 2
Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Conclusion The following important conclusions are drawn from the experimentation and its analysis for MRR & TWR. (i) The volume & size of the macro crater are found to be more consistent at lower energy discharges and specific energy required to remove the material is found to be significantly less at lower input energies. (ii) Using the simple theoretical model, the estimated erosion efficiency of material at lower discharge energies is much higher than that at higher energies. (iii) The MRR on anode (work material) and cathode (electrode) depends on input energies (Fig. 2,3,4). (iv) The MRR/TWR ratio & EDM efficiency when machining with lower input energies is much higher than that at higher energies (fig. 5,6). (v) When comparative studies were done by using water alone, water + pressurized air and water + oxygen at 2Mpa, it is found that all EDM patterns shows improving trends in the given order of dielectric. (vi) We also get smoother surface when we use water + air and water +oxygen than water alone. 3. References [1] F. van Dijck. Physicomathematical analysis of the electro discharge machining process, Katholieke universiteit te Leuven, 1973, Belgium. [2] D.D. DiBitonto, P.T. Eubank, M.R. Patel and M.A. Barrufet. Theoretical models of the electrical discharge machining process. I. A simple cathode erosion model, Journal of Applied Physics, 66(9), 1989, 4095-4103. [3] M.R. Patel, M.A. Barrufet, P.T. Eubank and D.D. Dibitonto. Theoretical models of the electrical discharge machining process. II. A simple anode erosion model. Journal of Applied Physics, 66(9), 1989, 4104-411. [4] P.T. Eubank and M.R. Patel and M.A. Barrufet and B. Bozkurt. Theoretical models of the electrical discharge machining process. III. The variable mass, cylindrical plasma model. J. Appl. Phys., 73(11), 1993, 7900-7909. [5] Z.L. WangJ.Z. Cui, X.F. Lui and W.S. Zhao. Mechanism of electrode removal in short pulse time electric discharge machining. Materials Science Forums, 471-472, 2004, 784-789. [6] P. Allena and X. Chen. Process simulation of micro electro-discharge machining on molybdenum. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 186 (1-3), 2007, 346-355. [7] Y.S Wong, M Rahman, H.S Lim, H Han and N Ravi. Investigation of micro-EDM material removal characteristics using single RC-pulse discharges. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 140 (1-3), 2003, 303-307.
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Control Chart Pattern Recognition using CART Analysis

Monark Bag , Susanta Kumar Gauri , Shankar Chakraborty
1 2 1 2 1,*
Jadavpur University, Kolkata - 700032, India Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata - 700108, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: s_chakraborty00@yahoo.co.in) Pattern recognition of quality control charts is an important issue in statistical process control (SPC) because unnatural patterns displayed by those charts can be associated with specific causes that adversely impact on the manufacturing processes. A common problem of various approaches to control chart pattern (CCP) recognition is the false classification of different types of CCPs that share similar features in a real time process-monitoring scenario, in which only limited pattern points are available for recognition. Feature-based approach for pattern recognition is quite promising because it is easily comprehendable to the practitioners. However, the existing feature-based approaches available in the literature can recognize only eight main types of CCPs. In this paper, a new feature-based algorithm is proposed that can recognize nine main types of patterns including mixture which often occurs due to over control by the operators. The performance of the algorithm is extensively studied using simulated pattern data. The results show that it can be very effective in recognizing all the nine main types of CCPs. 1. Introduction Due to an increasing competition in products, consumers have become more critical in choosing the products. Statistical process control (SPC) charts are widely used to assess the quality of products being manufactured. Control charts, primarily in the form of chart, developed by Shewhart in 1924, are widely used to identify the potential process problems in manufacturing industries. The chart usually exhibits various types of patterns [1], e.g. normal (NOR), stratification (STA), systematic (SYS), increasing trend (UT), decreasing trend (DT), upward shift (US), downward shift (DS), cyclic (CYC) and mixture (MIX), as shown in Fig.1. Only the normal pattern is indicative that the process is operating normally, i.e. under statistical control. The remaining patterns are unnatural and are associated with impending problems requiring pre-emptive actions. All the unnatural CCPs except the mixture pattern arise from a single type of unnatural variation, but in case of mixture pattern, at least two types of unnatural variations simultaneously exist within the manufacturing environment. Identification of the unnatural patterns can greatly minimize the efforts towards troubleshooting and ensure early corrective action(s).
(a) Normal
(b) Stratification (c) Systemetic (d) Increasing trend (e) Decreasing trend
(f) Upward shift
(g) Downward shift
(h) Cyclic
(i) Mixture
Figure 1. Nine types of CCPs
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The task of control chart pattern (CCP) recognition methodology is basically associated to accurately identify the unnatural CCP so as to alert the operator regarding the process problems. Traditionally, pattern recognition has been based on the visual judgment of the users. Over the years, numerous supplementary rules, like zone tests or run rules have been developed to assist the users for detection of unnatural patterns [2]. A number of works aiming automated recognition of CCPs have also been reported in the literature. Some researchers [3-4] have developed expert systems for CCP recognition. Many researchers [57] have successfully applied artificial neural networks (ANN) for CCP recognition task. Pham and Wani [8] and Gauri and Chakraborty [9] have highlighted that each control chart pattern has its own geometric shape and various related features can represent this shape. Different patterns can, therefore, be efficiently discriminated based on these shape features extracted from the control chart plot. Pham and Wani [8] and Gauri and Chakraborty [9] have demonstrated that both the properly developed heuristics based on the extracted features and appropriately designed ANN trained using the extracted features as input vector representation can efficiently differentiate various CCPs. Whereas Pham and Wani [8] have selected the features for CCP recognition on adhoc basis, Gauri and Chakraborty [9] have used classification and regression tree (CART) analysis [10] for selection of the optimal heuristic rules. In this paper, potentially useful six shape features are identified systematically. Then using CART algorithm, the decision rules for identification of the various CCPs based on these shape features are determined that can efficiently recognize all the nine types of CCPs. For extraction of the selected features, no input data from the practitioner is required and therefore, the developed CCP recognizer is truly automated. 2. Sample patterns
Ideally, sample patterns for developing/validating a CCP recognizer should be collected from a real process. Since, a large number of patterns are required for developing/validating a CCP recognizer and as those are not economically available, simulated data are often used. This is a common approach adopted by other researchers also. Various control chart patterns are generated considering different pattern parameters as shown in Table 1. The window size (N) is taken to be 32, i.e., each observation window consists of 32 data points. The values of different pattern parameters are varied randomly in a uniform manner between the limits shown. 3. Shape features and their extraction The stability (or consistency) of the recognition performance of a feature-based CCP recognizer will be poor if the selected features are highly correlated [11]. Lower is the association among the features, higher will be the prediction stability. Keeping this in mind, a set of six features which are having fairly low correlation among them is chosen here. These features along with the mathematical expressions for their extraction are provided below: a) Absolute slope of the least square (LS) line representing the overall pattern (AB):
(1) where, is the distance of the time point of observation from the origin, c is a constant linear distance used to represent a given sampling interval on the control chart plot, is the observed value of a quality characteristics at time point, is the size of the observation window and . b) Sign of slope of the LS line representing the overall pattern (SB): The can be viewed as a categorical variable, which is 0 if the value of the expression, is negative and 1 otherwise. c) Area between the overall pattern and LS line per interval in terms of : , (2)
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where, is the area between the pattern and fitted LS line. The value of ALS can be computed easily by summing the areas of the triangles and trapeziums that are formed by the LS line and overall pattern. d) Proportion of the sum of number of crossovers to mean line and LS line ( ): (3) where, if points, and if estimate of th data point.
Control chart pattern NOR STA SYS UT DT US
; otherwise and ; otherwise
is the mean value of data and is the least square
Table 1. Parameters for simulating control chart patterns

Pattern parameters Mean () Standard deviation () Random noise ( ) Systematic departure (d) Gradient (g) Gradient (g) Shift magnitude (s) Shift position (P) Shift magnitude (s) Shift position (P) Amplitude (a) Period (T) Process mean (m) A random number (b) Parameter values 80 5 0.2 to 0.4 1 to 3 0.05 to 0.1 0.1 to 0.05 1.5 to 2.5 9, 17, 25 2.5 to 1.5 9, 17, 25 1.5 to 2.5 8 and 16 1.5 to 2.5 0 to 1 =0 if b<0.4 , =1 if b 0.4 ; =1 if i P, else k=0 ; =1 if i P, else k=0 Pattern equation
DS CYC MIX
Note: i = discrete time point at which the pattern is sampled (i = 1,,32), th = random value of a standard normal variate at i time point, and th = sample value at i time point. e) Range of slopes of straight lines passing through six pair-wise combinations of midpoints of four equal segments ( ): ; (4) The feature SRANGE is extracted after predefined segmentation of the observation window into four equal segments. The behavior of the process in a segment is represented by the midpoint of the segment. Then six straight lines are drawn passing through the midpoints of
4 these four segments in C2 ways. In the above equation s jk represents the slope of the
straight line passing through the midpoints of j and k segments. f) Ratio of mean sum of square of errors of the LS line fitted to overall data and average of the LS lines fitted to six subsets of data points : ; (5) The feature REAE is extracted after fitting LS lines to the combination of N/2 data points obtained from the four segments in 6 ways. In the above equation, is the mean sum of squares of errors of the LS line fitted to the observations in and segments. A set of 9000 (1000 x 9) sample patterns containing nine CCPs is generated from 1000 time series of standard normal data and the selected six features are extracted. Then the pair-wise correlation coefficients among these six features are estimated. These estimated correlation coefficients are shown in Table 2. It can be noted that the pair-wise correlation among the selected features are fairly low. 4. CCP recognizer The CART algorithm uses an exhaustive grid search of all the possible univariate splits of the predictor variables (features) to find out the optimal split for a classification tree.
th
th
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As differential base rates are reflected in the class sizes, prior probabilities are estimated by the class proportions in the sample. The CART program allows automatic selection of the right-sized tree that has the optimal predictive accuracy. The procedures for the right-sized tree selection are not foolproof, but at least, they take the subjective judgment out of the process of selecting the right-sized tree and thus avoid over fitting and under fitting of the data. Table 2. Pair-wise correlation coefficients among the selected features Selected feature AB SB ALSPI PSMLSC SRANGE REAE AB 1.00 -0.06 -0.44 -0.45 0.33 0.32 SB -0.06 1.00 -0.00 0.24 -0.16 -0.15 ALSPI -0.44 -0.00 1.00 -0.04 -0.33 -0.01 PSMLSC -0.45 0.24 -0.04 1.00 -0.43 -0.42 SRANGE 0.33 -0.16 -0.33 -0.43 1.00 0.63 REAE 0.32 -0.15 -0.01 -0.42 0.63 1.00
The same set of 9000 (1000 X 9) sample patterns are subjected to CART analysis using the following specifications: (a) misclassification cost of a pattern equal for all the patterns, (b) measure of goodness of fit for a split Gini measure, (c) value of n for Minimum n rule = 1, (d) pruning (recombining) minimal cost-complexity cross-validation pruning, and (d) value of d for d standard error rule = 0.1. The resulting right-sized classification tree is shown in Figure 2, which leads to 5.89% misclassification in the learning samples.
Figure 2. Classification tree for control chart patterns Table 3. Confusion matrix for the developed pattern recognizer
True pattern class NOR STA SYS UT DT US DS CYC MIX NOR 92.60 0.00 0.60 1.60 1.00 1.00 1.60 1.80 0.00 STA 0.20 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 SYS 0.00 0.00 98.80 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 UT 2.60 0.00 0.20 90.40 0.00 9.60 0.00 0.20 0.00 Identified pattern class DT US 2.40 0.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.80 90.00 0.00 0.00 89.40 7.20 0.00 0.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 DS 0.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.20 0.00 90.00 1.40 0.00 CYC 0.60 0.00 0.40 0.00 0.80 0.00 1.20 96.00 0.20 MIX 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 99.80
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5. Results and discussions A new set of test samples of size 9000 is generated using the pattern equations given in Table 1 and then is subjected to classification using the developed decision (classification) tree shown in Figure 2. It is found that 94.11% patterns are classified correctly. With the aim to identify the scope for the improvement, the confusion matrix is prepared. The confusion matrix is a table summarizing the tendency of the recognizer to classify a pattern into a correct class or into any of the other eight possible (wrong) classes. The confusion matrix is shown in Table 3. It can be observed that shift patterns are often interpreted as trend patterns and vice versa, and these patterns are the hardest to be classified correctly. Normal patterns confused with stratification, shift, trend and cyclic patterns. Cyclic patterns are also confused with downward shift and decreasing trend patterns. Stratification patterns are the easiest to be classified (100%), followed by mixture (99.80%) and systematic (98.80%) patterns. The analysis of the confusion matrix reveals that the performance of the recognizer can still be improved by the identification of new features that will be more useful in discriminating shift and trend patterns. 6. Conclusions In this paper, a set of six most useful features is selected and based on these features, heuristic rules for classification of the nine main types of patterns are developed using CART analysis. The proposed approach has a simple mechanism for recognizing the unnatural patterns in control charts by which practitioners can clearly understand how a particular pattern is identified with the help of relevant shape features. Simulation studies reveal that the performance of the developed CCP recognizer is quite satisfactory. Analysis of the confusion matrix shows that identification of a new feature that can discriminate shift and trend patterns more efficiently may be quite useful. References [1] Western Electric. Statistical Quality Control Handbook. American Telephone and Telegraph Company, Chicago, IL, 1958. [2] Nelson, L.S. The Shewhart control chart test for special causes. Journal of Quality Technology, 16, 1984, 237-239. [3] Evans, J.R. and Lindsay, W.M. A framework for expert system development in statistical quality control. Computers and Industrial Engineering, 14, 1988, 335-343. [4] Swift, J.A and Mize, J.H. Out-of-control pattern recognition and analysis for quality control charts using LISP-based systems. Computers and Industrial Engineering, 28, 1995, 8191. [5] Hwang, H.B. and Hubele, N.F. Back-propagation pattern recognizers for control charts; methodology and performance. Computer and Industrial Engineering, 24, 1993, 219-235. [6] Cheng, C.S. A neural network approach for the analysis of control chart patterns. Int. J. of Production Research, 35, 1997, 667-697. [7] Guh, R.S. and Shine, Y.R. On-line identification of control chart patterns using selforganizing approaches. Int. J. of Production Research, 43, 2005, 1225-1254. [8] Pham, D.T. and Wani, M.A. Feature-based control chart pattern recognition, Int. J. of Production Research, 35, 1997, 1875-1890. [9] Gauri, S.K. and Chakraborty, S. Feature-based recognition of control chart patterns. Computers and Industrial Engineering, 51, 2006, 726-742. [10] Breiman, L., Friedman, J.H., Olshen, R.A. and Stone, C.J. Classification and Regression Trees, Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole Advanced Books & Software, Monterey, CA, 1984. [11] Gauri, S.K. and Chakraborty, S. Improved recognition of control chart patterns using artificial neural networks. Int. J. of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 26, 2008, 11911201.
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Prediction of Material Removal Rate using Recurrent Elman Networks in Electrical Discharge Machining of D2 steel
Raja Das , M K Pradhan * and C K Biswas
1
2
National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, India
Purushottam Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rourkela, India

*
Corresponding author (e-mail: mohanrkl@gmail.com)
In this research, Elman Networks is used for the prediction of Material Removal Rate (MRR) in Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM). This network is a dynamic recurrent neural network (RNN) capable of representing arbitrary non linear dynamic systems. Training of the models was carried out with data from series of EDM experiments on AISI D2 steel from finishing, semi-finish to roughing operations. In the development of predictive models, machining parameters of discharge current, pulse duration and duty cycle were considered as model input variables. The developed model is validated with a new set of experimental data, previously not used for the training and predictive behavior of models is analyzed. The reported results indicate that the proposed model can satisfactorily predict the MRR in EDM. Moreover, the model can be considered as valuable tools for the planning of process parameter for EDMachining. 1. Introduction
Electric discharge machining is a non- traditional manufacturing process which uses the energy of spark discharges to machine electrically conductive materials. In today's manufacturing scenario, EDM is a significant process particularly in the manufacture of intricate shaped dies, molds and critical parts used in automobile, aerospace and other industrial applications. At its beginning, it was developed as a precision machining method for hard materials, and it was regarded as the last resort technique. Latter on it had undergone rapid improvements in capability, economical operation, speed and flexibility. New applications are continually emerging and enhancing the advantages of this process, and thus it is no longer considered as non-conventional or non-standard machining. EDM process is very demanding but the mechanism of process is complex and far from utterly understood. Therefore, it is hard to establish a model that can exactly predict the performance by correlating the process parameter. The optimal processing parameters are very essential to be established to enhance the production rate largely and shrink the machining time, since the materials, which are processed by EDM, are generally costly and even the processing cost is very high [1]. Artificial neural networks are simplified models of the central nervous system. They are networks of highly interconnected neural computing elements. In the recent past, neural networks have been shown to be the highly flexible modeling tools surely due to their well known characteristics of adaptability and non-linear universal mapping approximations. It has the capability to handle problems such as modeling, estimating, prediction, optimization, diagnosis and adaptive control in complex non-linear systems. It is observed that the ANN applications play a very important role in predicting surface roughness in EDM. RNN are useful for storing information about time and particularly suitable for time series prediction [2] Many researches attempted the neural network for the prediction of responses in EDM. Tsai and Wang [3] applied different neural network architectures for the prediction of the surface roughness (Ra) and MRR in EDM and agreed to the predictions based upon the models. Indurkhya and Rajurkar [4] endeavoured to model using 9-9-2 size back propagation neural network for the prediction of Ra and MRR and validated with the experimental findings. Machining depth, tool radius, orbital radius, radial step, vertical step, offset depth, pulse on time, pulse off time and discharge current are selected as input parameters. The model is later compared with the multiple regressions model and found to be faster and more
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accurate. Panda and Bhoi [5] developed an artificial feed forward neural network to predict MRR of D2 grade steel. This model performs well under the stochastic environment of actual machining conditions without understanding the complex physical phenomena exhibited in EDM, and provides faster and more accurate results. They found that the 3-4-3-1 neural architecture has the highest correlation coefficient and used it for the analysis. Wang et al. [6] combined the capabilities of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and genetic algorithm to find an integrated solution to the existing problem of modeling and optimisation of EDM processes. Markopoulos et al. [7] proposed ANN models for the prediction of Ra of EDMed surfaces. The experiments were conducted on five steel grades, namely a mild steel, a carbon steel, and three alloyed steels, were tested while pulse current (Ip) and the pulse duration (Ton) varied over a wide range. Results reveled that proposed ANNs models can satisfactorily predict the response. Pradhan and Biswas [8] presented a neuro-fuzzy and regression model to predict MRR of AISI D2 tool steel with different process parameter such as Ip, Ton and duty cycle (), and the model predictions were found to be in good agreement with the experimental results. However, former model is better in prediction with average prediction error of 2.45% than that of latter of 15.62 %. Pradhan et al. [9] applied the neural network models namely backpropagation and radial basis function for the prediction of Ra. Using Ip, Ton and as input parameters, experiments are conducted on D2 steel. It is reported that former shows slightly better performance than the latter, however latter model is faster. It is found that neural network is used in EDM process for the prediction, by many researchers; however RNN is not used yet for the same. In this study, RNN approach, which is named as Elmans net [10], is used for the prediction of the MRR. It is a powerful network to extract the informative feature related to the dynamic system in its hidden layer. This property of the Elman type RNN provides very important advantage, especially, in real time applications to follow the dynamical change in the considered system. Consequently, this study considers one application of Elmans neural network to show its computational power. Elman network is a simple extension to standard feedforward networks. The training is done by standard backpropagation. They are often used if a problem seems to require some memory of the past. Experiments were conducted to study the effects of various machining parameters; Ip, Ton and V on MRR of workpiece material AISI D2 (DIN 1.2379) tool steel on die sinking electro discharge machine (make Electronica Electraplus PS 50ZNC). An electrolytic pure copper with a diameter of 30 mm was used as a tool electrode (positive polarity) and workpiece material used was steel plates of diameter 100mm and of thickness 4 mm. Commercial grade EDM oil (specific gravity = 0.763, freezing point= 94C) was used as 2 dielectric fluid. Lateral flushing with a pressure of 0.3 kgf /cm was used. Number of experiments was conducted to investigate the effects of Ip, Ton and V on MRR, where is defined the ratio of pulse on time to total cycle time.The experimental conditions and the levels of the input parameters are shown in Table 1. Machining was carried out for 15 min for each experimental run and the weight loss was measured on a precision electronics balance with an accuracy of 1 mg. The calculated weight loss was converted to volumetric loss (MRR) in mm3/min.
Table 1 Experimental Contortions
Sparking voltage in V Current (Ip), in A Pulse on Time in s Duty Cycle () Electrode polarity Work material polarity 40 50 1 5 10 20 30 50 5 10 20 30 50 100150 200 500 750 1 12 Positive Negative
2.
Elmans Network Models for Material Removal Rate Recurrent networks are a special type of the dynamic neural nets.The Elman network is a recurrent feed-forward neural network. RNN allows to model dynamic mappings according to which the input and output variables change over time and time is not represented explicitly but by the effect it has on processing and not as an additional dimension of the input. This class of neural networks are well suited, among all, for times series prediction [6]. This architecture is standard feedforward architecture with layers of
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inputs, hidden units, and output units. The Elman network differs from a classical feedforward neural network structure for a further layer placed at the same level of the input layer, called context unit layer, whose task is to hold memory of the hidden layer output at the previous time instant. It is a single hidden layer feedforward neural network. All neurons in one layer are connected with all neurons in the next layer. The outputs of the hidden layer are allowed to feed back to the context layer, and to augment additional units at the input level. Therefore, the input layer is constituted by the input nodes plus these context nodes. The context unit is fully connected with all the hidden units in a forward manner. The neurons in the context layer hold a copy of the output of the hidden neurons. The output of each hidden neuron is copied into a specific neuron in the context layer. The value of the context neuron is used as an extra input for all the neurons in the hidden layer one-time step later. Therefore, the Elman network has an explicit memory of one time lag. Therefore, when the input is fed to te network at time t, its output is computed also on the base of the hidden layer neuron activations at time t 1. The structure of an Elman recurrent neural network is illustrated in
1 Fig. 1. Here I , H , O and z are input layer vector, hidden layer vector, context layer
vector, output layer vector and unit delay element respectively. The weight matrix between input layer and hidden layer is W 1 , the weight matrix between context layer and hidden layer is W 2 and the weight matrix between hidden layer and output layer is W 3 . At tth iteration,
xi t I ,
i 1,, n , zk t O,
k 1, , l y j t H , c j t C
j 1,, m
where i and k are the number of nodes of input layer and output layer respectively and j is the number of nodes of hidden layer and context layer. Considering the activation function
f for jth hidden node, the outputs of the neurons in the hidden layer and output layer for t
th iteration are can be given by
m n y j (t ) f w1ij xi t w 2 ij y j t 1 j 1 i 1 ,
c j t y j t 1
where
m z k t f w 3 j 1 and
jk
w1ij W 1, w2ij W 2
and
w3 jk W 3
y 0 0 c 1 0 . For initial step, j . The context layer input at t 1 leads to i The weights are updated according to
wt 1 wt wt is the learning rate. where

That minimizes the approximation error E in the output layer is given by 1 p 1 l 2 E w 1 2 1 T k t z k t p t k where
Tk t
is the target value at t th iteration and
p is the length of the training sequence.
Weight coefficient matrix W 1 and W 3 can be updated using any of the back-propagation algorithms as done in feedforward neural network. But weight coefficient matrix W 2 can be adjusted using derivative chain rule [11]. 3. Result and Discussion In this study, four input parameters (Ip, Ton, and V) and one output parameter MRR is considered. The same are considered while designing the architecture and the topology of the networks, thus there are four input nodes and one output node. The variation of process parameters for different experimental set (Run) is as presented in the Table1. There are 50 training, 20 testing and 9 validation data sets for the Elmans neural networks. RNN was
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trained with data sets to reach the error goal. The performance of the neural network model is observed with the special attention to their generalization ability. To find an optimal configuration of Elman network is always a difficult task. There is not exact rule for setting the proper number of neurons in the hidden layer to avoid over fitting or under fitting and hopefully, to make the learning phase convergent. We experimented with a varying no of number of neurons in the hidden layers. It was observed that the network performed well with 300 neurons. However, convergence was achieved after 479 epochs for an error goal of 0.01 and the resulting learning curve is shown in Fig2.
Figure 1 Architecture of the Elman Network
Figure 2. 500 iteration in the learning process
Figure 3 Errors_ Epochs_ Nodes at hidden layer Elman network is observed separately with results obtained by experiments and the average error obtained for the networks. The test result accuracy measured in terms of mean absolute error (MAE) for 9 validation data are found to be 0.6147. The experimental results and predicted results of MRR by the RNN were plotted, as shown in Fig 4. The variations of prediction error (calculated as the difference between the experimental findings and predicted values) plotted against run for testing and validation sets for Elemans model is shown also in the figure 5. It is asserted that a tendency to have runs of positive and negative residuals indicate the existence of certain correlation with the linear model. The residuals of the model is very close to zero and exhibit randomness with run. Except an outlier the validation set exhibit very accurate prediction. However, the absolute percentage prediction error is tabulated in Table.2.
4 3 2 1
Residue
0 -1 0 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
10
15
20
25
30
Expt. Run
Figure4.Comparison between expt. and predicted data
Figure 5 Residual plot vs. Run
Figure 6 Scatter plots of predicted and expt. MRR
The plot of Experimental and predicted output is presented in Fig.6, Since all the points on plot come close to form a straight line, it implies that the data are normal. Therefore, the Elmans network can be used to attain a function that maps input parameters to the desired process outputs in EDM. The predicted values are quite close for most of the data points.
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Table 2 Results from production data sets for MRR model

Sl. no Expt MRR predicted Ra % error Sl. no Expt MRR predicted Ra % error
1 2 3 4 4.
34.1169 16.7922 0.3221 70.5714
33.0835 16.5982 0.2952 70.208
3.03 1.16 8.35 0.51
5 6 7 8
28.2078 19.0779 0.4000 21.7403
28.5244 20.1466 0.4745 19.8996
-1.12 -5.60 -18.63 8.47
Conclusions In the research a methodology based on using Elman neural networks is proposed for the prediction of MRR in EDMaching. Amongst the various architectures proposed previously, recurrent Elman networks is simple, well-organized structure and able to process temporal sequences. The training data set was developed through experiments. The model analysis was performed by generating the comparison plots, residual plot and correlation plot .A confirmation experiments has been conducted, to access the performance, which shows that network can predict MRR quite accurately. Therefore, this model can be useful to operators, researchers and experimenters in predicting the random process performance. This leads to reduce, the lengthy and time-consuming experimentation in EDM. Thus, Elman neural network can be used as a valuable tool in manufacturing system, as well as other areas in modern manufacturing industry, so that the development tasks can be performed rapidly and efficiently with an increase of productivity, consistency and quality. References [1] Mandal, D., Pal, S.K. & Saha, P. Modeling of electrical discharge machining process using back propagation neural network and multi-objective optimization using nondominating sorting genetic algorithm-II, J. of Mat. Proc. Tech., 186, 1-3, 2007, 154-162. [2] Elman, J. Finding structure in time. Cognitive Science, 14, 1990, 179211. [3] Tsai, K. M., and Wang, P. J. Predictions on surface finish in electrical discharge machining based upon neural network models. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 41, 2001, 13851403 [4] I. Gopal and K.P. Rajurkar, Artificial Neural Network approach in modelling of EDM process, Intelligent Engg Systems Through Artificial Neural Networks, 2 ,1992, 845850. [5] Panda, D.K., Bhoi, R. K.: Artificial neural network prediction of material removal rate in electro- discharge machining. Materials and Manuf. Processes, 20, 2005, 645672. [6] Wang, K., Gelgele, H.L., Wang, Y., Yuan, Q., Fang, M.: A hybrid intelligent method for modelling the EDM process. Int. Journal of Machine Tools and Manuf. 43, 2003,995 999 [7] Markopoulos, A. P., Manolakos, D. E., and Vaxevanidis, N. M. Artificial neural network models for the prediction of surface roughness in electrical discharge machining. J. Intel. Manuf.,19(3), 2008, 283-292 [8] Pradhan, M. K. and Biswas, C. K. Neuro-fuzzy model and Regression model a comparison study of MRR in electrical discharge machining in AISI D2 steel, International Journal of Mechanical Systems Science and Engineering, 3(1) 2009, 2429. [9] Pradhan, M. K, Das R., Biswas C, K., Comparisons of neural network models on surface roughness in Electrical Discharge Machining, Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture,(in press) 2009. [10] Jordan, M., I., From Proceeding of Eighth Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Attractor dynamics and parallelism in a connectionist sequential machine. Cognitive Science Society, 1986, 531-546. [11] eker S., Ayaz E., Trkcan E., Elmans Recurrent Neural Network Applications to Condition Monitoring in Nuclear Power Plant and Rotating Machinery, Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 16 (7-8), 2003, 647656.
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Spray Forming and Characterization of Al-Graphite Alloys

Manish* and Devendra singh Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee-247667, India. *Corresponding author (e-mail: hasinam66@gmail.com ) Spray forming, also called spray casting or spray deposition, is the inert gas atomization of a liquid metal stream into variously sized droplets which are then propelled away from the region of atomization by the fast flowing, atomizing gas. The droplet trajectories are interrupted by a substrate which collects and solidifies the droplets into a coherent, near fully dense preform. This method has many advantages over conventional techniques like casting, powder metallurgy etc. Aluminum is used for spray forming because aluminum alloys are difficult to prepare by other methods like powder metallurgy and casting. In spray forming technique, a molten metal stream of Aluminum is disintegrated by the energetic gas field created by an atomizer. The resulting droplets and graphite particles which are injected from other source are collected on the substrate to produce preforms. The present work concerns with this technique. This technique can be employed to produce a near net-shape of preform. Aluminum alloys are used in a wide variety of applications because of their attractive properties, such as a high strength to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity, a low wear rate and good response to various finishing processes. Thus, these alloys are widely used in automotive and aerospace applications. Since graphite immensely improves the wear resistance of these alloys because of its high hardness, it has been concluded that higher graphite content leads to better wear resistance. Amongst several Al-alloys, aluminum graphite alloys has created interest for several applications in aerospace, automobile used as a bearing material and electrical equipment industries due to their low density to weight ratio, high specific stiffness, high thermal conductivity, high wearresistance and low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). 1. Introduction
Aluminum alloys are used in a wide variety of applications because of their attractive properties, such as a high strength to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity, a low wear rate and good response to various finishing processes. Therefore, these alloys are widely used in automotive and aerospace applications. Although aluminium-silicon alloys meet many of the service requirements, such as high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent corrosion resistance, good bearing qualities and lower expansion characteristics , their poor resistance to seizure makes them vulnerable under poor lubricating conditions, especially during starting or warming-up of engines. In recent years, to overcome this problem, there has been an increasing trend to use solid lubricants over a broad range of applications. Suitable techniques have been also developed to disperse such solid lubricants in aluminum matrix. Self-lubricating materials offer many improvements over the materials to which lubricant needs to be applied periodically. Among these materials, considerable work has been done on aluminiumgraphite alloys. It has been shown that these light weight alloys exhibit improvement in mechanical properties in hardness, low friction and wear reduced temperature rise at the wearing contact surface excellent antiseizure effects, improved machinability low thermal expansion and high damping capacity [1]. These characteristics have made the Al-Graphite system a potential candidate for automotive and general engineering applications. It has been
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documented that the production method has a strong influence on the mechanical and tribological properties of the alloy via its effects on the matrix grain size, porosity, the distribution of graphite particles and the interfacial properties of the Al-Graphite couple [2] .
2.
2.1
Experimental Procedure and Setup

Initial setup and sample preparation
A cylindrical chamber of height 2 meters is installed having stainless steel sheet wall. The chamber as a gate which can be shut during the powder formation. An electric furnace with roof opening which is capable of attaining 1000 C is used for this purpose. The furnace has in built thermocouple which measures the temperature inside the furnace and this temperature reading is displayed on a digital display. A relay is also connected in the circuit. This controls the temperature. In our experiment we have heated the sample to 906 C. This has been done to ensure superheating of Aluminum melt. It is noteworthy that melting point of aluminum is 660.2 C.Weighed samples of 700gms were taken in a crucible and the crucible was lowered into the furnace. This melted aluminum was heated to 906 C. After the temperature is attained, the molten sample is poured in a preheated crucible. This preheated crucible has a hole at center of bottom. A delivery tube passes through this hole all the way from center of crucible, heating plate and atomizer. This delivery tubes ensures the flow of metal directly from crucible to tip of atomizer. Hence is the name delivery tube.This is a tube with tapered top to be held in crucible. Whole of tube is a hollow concentric tube. The thickness of tube ensures the rate flow rate of molten metal i.e. it controls the feed rate of metal. In the first run, the tube was heated bare in a crucible to melt any low melting
Figure1. Schematic diagram of the spray forming process point impurities which could melt otherwise during powder production. Hot plate is separately heated by electricity. This ensures that the poured molten metal does not get chilled as soon as it is poured. It also helps is maintaining temperature of wall of crucible where heat losses are maximum.Pressure of gas is supplied by a gas chamber. The chamber can sustain up to 30bars of
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pressure. We in our experiments have used 10 -15 bar. A thermocouple was used to measure the temperature of feed metal. This temperature was around 700 degrees C which is slightly above melting point of aluminum.
3.
3.1

HARDNESS
One half of the sample strip was analyzed under Vickerss Hardness machine. Hardness values at different points were taken as shown in figure 2. Table 1 gives the value of Vickers hardness at different points shown in figure. Hardness values were taken at 15 points. Only one half of the strip was analyzed as the other half will have similar hardness profile. Load of 5 kg was applied while calculating measuring the Vickers hardness.
Figure 2.Hardness values taken at different points As we can see in Table 1 hardness value of preform formed vary in range of 26VHN to 40VHN. Point Location Average HARDNESS (From fig. 2) Diagonal (VHN) 1 0.491 38.5 2 0.479 40.4 3 0.492 37.1 4 0.485 39.1 5 0.512 34.12 6 0.509 36.0 7 0.551 30.0 8 0.531 32.6 9 0.512 34.12 10 0.578 28.11 11 0.552 30.2 12 0.531 32.6 13 0.596 26.3 14 0.584 27.14 15 0.576 28.15 TABLE 1: Vickers Hardness under load of 5 kg As we can see from the above table and figure that as we move along the radial direction, hardness of preform increases. Same is the case when we move along the radial direction. A general trend of increase in hardness is seen as we move away from the centre. This can be explained by cooling rate. As cooling rate at centre is slower as compared to that at edges of disc
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formed so grains formed at centre are coarser and those at edges are finer. Thus hardness at centre is lesser around 26 VHN. 3.2 SEM ANALYSIS
The gas atomized particles obtained were observed under SEM. SEM characterization is done to calculate the average particle size from the lot obtained. Agglomerated particles are neglected because their formation is an undesirable phenomenon which makes our derivation of Solidification Rate complex unnecessarily. So, we concentrate on un-agglomerated particles and obtain its particle size range.
4. Conclusions
Figure 3. Different Shapes of Atomized Particles
Figure 4. Distortion in particle shape due to large stresses
Figure 5. Polished surface of spray deposited sample
4.
Conclusions
The hardness obtained at the center of the spray formed preform is lower than that at the periphery. This occurs because of the rapid cooling of the liquid droplets at the periphery because of thin crust and because of the faster rate of cooling, we get fine grained structure which results
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in high hardness. Spray forming provides a considerable micro structural modification in Al Graphite. The primary phase exhibits equiaxed grain morphology with dispersion of Graphite particles in the matrix phase.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] M. Gupta, S.C. Lim, W.B. Ng, Mater. Sci. Technol. 13, 1997, 584589. D. Ge, M. Gu, Mater. Lett. 49, 2001, 334339. S.F. Mustafa, Metall. Q. 33 (3), 1994, 259264. W. Carter et al. Progress in Clean Metal Spray Forming. P. Mathur, S. Annavarapu, D. Apelian, A. Lawley. Mater. Sci. Eng., 142A, 1991, 261. X. Fang, Z. Fan; Rheo-diecasting of AlSiPb immiscible alloys; Brunel Centre for Advanced Solidification Technology (BCAST), Brunel University, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK. P. S. Grant, SPRAY FORMING, Oxford centre for Advanced Materials and Composites, Department of Materials, Oxford University. Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, U.K. G. Leatham, J.S. Coombs, J. B. Forrest and S. Ahn; Advanced Materials and Processing; Kyongju, Korea (1995). V.C. Srivastava, R.K. Mandal, S.N. Ojha; Microstructure and mechanical properties of AlSi alloys produced by spray forming process; Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Centre of Advanced Study, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University. F. Yu, E.S. Dwarakadasa, S. Ranganathan, in: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spray Forming, Cardiff, UK, 1996, p. 313
[7] [8] [9]
[10]
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Quality Function Deployment for a Hospital in an Urban Area: A Case Study

Avanish Dhongade, Pooja Doke, Mohan Khond
* *
College of Engineering, Pune, Maharashtra, India. Corresponding author (e-mail: mpk_1967@yahoo.com)
Quality function deployment is a team based management tool in which customer expectations are used to derive the product development cycle. This paper highlights a case study of hospital in urban area. The results of the QFD analysis give the hospital immediate solutions to be implemented as well as long term solutions. It also gives the hospitals the relative effect each of the solution will have on the hospital standing. Thus, the hospital tries to consolidate its position in the intense competition while also fulfilling the greater goal of serving the patients by understanding their expectations 1. Introduction
Quality function deployment (QFD) is the systematic and continuous process of determining what the best performance and underlying skills of leading organizations are, in strive for excellence, and based on this, stimulate the organizations own strive for excellent performances at all organizational levels. 2. Case study
Sacred Heart Hospital was built in a urban area of a large metropolis. Even after a few and months, it failed to attract customers. Hence it is indispensable to improve the quality by identifying the lacunas and lapses of existing hospital working. The Hospital decided to carry out QFD analysis. Following objectives had been decided: a) To promote the unit under study to the comparable level of excellence to that of best unit. b) To inject new skills and facilities and improve existing facilities in the unit to make it more competitive. c) To identify training needs of personnel at all levels to enhance their technical competence at par with the best of the units. d) To promote welfare facilities on par with other units to keep personnel motivated. e) Creation of infrastructure to improve scale and scope of operations to get fame as one of the best hospital in service. 3. Applied methodology of Quality function deployment
Step-1 Identification of Customer Expectations (Whats) QFD starts with a list of goal .This list is always referred as whats that customer needs or expect in particular product or service. A survey was conducted in the town through questionnaire and online and customer expectations were evaluated for cleanliness in the hospital, ambulance service, hospitality, availability of treatment for small and regular diseases and availability of treatment for rare and complicated ailments. Another point was later added from customer suggestions which was one is to one attention from doctors The results of the survey were: As it was a posh area, cleanliness was rated highly. Most people had their own family doctors whom they used to refer to for common ailments and thus went to hospitals only in case of major diseases. As the lifestyle was high, people expected to be kept in private rooms and demanded extra care and attention
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Step-2 Identification of Technical Descriptors (Hows) The management along with the technical team first evaluated all the major as well as minor factors affecting these customer expectations. The factors or engineering characteristics which directly affect the customer requirement is called technical descriptor. The identified technical descriptor and its current status in (How much) is given in table -1 Table 1 Technical Descriptors (Hows) S.N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Technical Descriptor Support Staff Nurses General Physicians Specialists: Regular Equipment Specialised Equipment Ambulances General Wards: Private Rooms Current status in studied Hospital 20 35 10 2 8 1 4 8 (With 20 capacities in each) 25
Step-3 Develop the relationship matrix between Whats and Hows Relationship between the customer expectations and the technical descriptors was drawn up as follow (a) Number of Support staff: Maintaining Cleanliness, Ensuring one to one attention and Hospitality are directly dependent on the number of non-medical personnel in the Hospital. Thus the relationship is strong. The quality of the Ambulance service does depend on the number of support staff but the Ambulance service can function with any number of people. Thus the relationship is weak. (b) No. of nurses: For the treatment of regular diseases such as colds, coughs etc the attention of a doctor is not required. A nurse with basic training can perform the function and ensure quality just the same. Thus the relationship between No. of Nurses and Treatment of regular diseases is Strong. For the treatment of rare diseases in-depth and specialized knowledge is required while nurses are required to help the doctor. Thus the relationship is weak. (c) No. of General Physicians: Most general physicians are qualified to deal with regular or common diseases. Thus the relationship is strong. For the treatment of rare diseases, specialist doctors are needed to provide efficient diagnosis while general physicians are required to perform standard tests etc which cannot be performed by nurses. Here the relationship is thus medium. (d) No. of Specialist Doctors: In the case of common diseases, General Physicians can deal with most situations but in the case of common diseases developing complex secondary characteristics a specialist Doctor is required. Since the chances of this happening are reasonably low, the relationship here is medium. Rare diseases require attention of Specialist doctors as the General Physicians dont have as deep an understanding of particular parts of the body as Specialist doctors do. (e) Regular Equipment: Diagnoses of most common diseases involve basic tests which are carried out using Standard equipment. Thus the relationship here is strong. Rare diseases require regular as well as exotic tests due to which the relationship here is Medium. (f) Specialised Equipment: Common diseases generally do not require exotic tests due to which the relationship here is weak. Most rare diseases require exotic tests which can be carried out only by Specialised Equipment. Thus the relationship is strong. (g) Number of Ambulances: The quality of the Ambulance service largely depends on the no. of Ambulances. Thus the relationship is thus strong. (h) Number of General Wards: The no. of general wards would determine how many people would be able to work for a given number of patients. This would affect cleanliness and hospitality. The relationship here is medium as both can be assured for any number of general wards but the same also plays an important role. Also the individual attention the
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doctors and staff can give the patients would be largely dependent on the no. of General wards. Thus the relationship is strong. (i) Number of Private rooms: The no. of Private rooms would greatly affect the hospitality and would have a huge impact on the individual attention given. Thus the relationship is strong. Cleanliness would also be marginally affected, thus the relationship is weak. (j) Total Patient Capacity: The number of patients would not have too much of an impact while dealing with common diseases, thus the relationship is weak. However if the number of patients is too much then the attention given to rare diseases will reduce, thus the relationship is medium. Similarly hospitality and individual attention will also be affected if large number of patients are admitted, thus relationship is medium. The number of patients will have a direct impact on waste, no of medicines etc due to which the relationship between capacity and cleanliness is medium. The number of patients has a very small connection with number of ambulances thus the relationship is weak. Step -4 Develop an co relationship matrix The technical team evaluated the correlations between the different technical descriptors. The findings were: General Physicians and Specialists: Weak Negative: An increase in number of specialists implied a small decrease in the number of general physicians needed. Regular Equipment and Specialised Equipment: Weak Positive: An increase in specialized equipment had to be followed up by a slight increase in regular equipment which served as accessory to the former. This was also necessary to avoid bottle-necking. Specialist Equipment and specialist Doctors: Weak Positive: Doctors need the necessary equipment to treat the diseases. General Wards and Private rooms: Strong Negative: Increase in private rooms meant lesser general wards General Wards and Patient capacity: Strong Positive: More patients (upto 20) could be kept in a small space thus increasing patient capacity Private rooms and Patient capacity: Strong Negative: More private rooms led to large reduction in patient capacity. Thus a compromise has to be made with the patient capacity and its direction of improvement comes downwards. Step-5 Competitive assessment -Benchmarking Two other competitors were chosen for Benchmarking. The points came up both in the customer survey as well as an independent study by the technical team. Hospital A Hospital A was among the top ranked hospitals in the country. It was a very well equipped hospital and reputed for its specialists. It had earned the Best hospital award whose major criteria were customer satisfaction, hospitality, hygiene and technical support. It was also the recipient of the Quality award given by the particular state and had adhered to international Quality norms. Hospital B Hospital B was one of the prime specialized centres in the city. It had much of the equipment needed and had many visiting specialists. However, being an old structure it was not the best in cleanliness. It was in the centre of the city which limited its patient capacity. It always had a large rush which prevented it from tending to regular ailments effectively and also made the staff overworked and irritable. Step-6 Organisational Difficulty (i) Number of Support Staff: Getting new support staff is very easy as there a large amount of labour available in the market. (ii) Number of nurses: Nurses require a certain minimum training due to which hiring more nurses is more difficult. (iii) Number of General Physicians: General Physicians need specialized training. They cannot be hired unless they have the minimum qualification of MBBS. Thus hiring new
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doctors is more difficult than hiring nurses. Also, in the current scenario of reducing existing doctors, it will prove difficult as they themselves have further potential to be specialists. (iv) Number of Specialist Doctors: Specialist doctors have a degree in a particular field of specialization in addition to their MBBS degree. They are thus lower in number than general physicians. Due to this is more difficult to get specialist doctors than general physicians. (v) Regular Equipment: Most of the regular equipment in the hospital has already been used by the hospital for a certain amount of time due to which it is second hand. Most hospitals would not want to buy second hand equipment as safety of human beings is involved. Thus reducing the standard equipments will be very difficult. (vi) Specialised Equipment: Buying new specialized equipment requires large amounts of money. The machine also has to be available. This leads to a bit of difficulty. (vii) Number of Ambulances: Ambulances are generally in large supply, due to which the only difficulty involved is in making parking space available and putting together the capital required to buy the ambulance. (viii) Number of General Wards: Reducing the number of general wards means reducing the number of patients the hospital can accommodate. This leads to a reduction in revenue which can affect the capability to purchase various equipment, supplies etc. Thus reducing the general wards is not an easy option. (ix) Number of Private rooms: Increasing number of private rooms will mean lowering the capacity of hospital. Also more capital investment will be made in furnishing the rooms. Thus it too is difficult choice to make. (x) Total Patient capacity: Reducing total patient capacity would involve converting general wards into private rooms which would entail large amount of expenditure due to construction of walls etc. A large amount of work would have to be put in to convert this which may lead to stoppage of other work in the hospital. Thus, it is a very hard choice to make. Step-7 Target values and Absolute weight These were set by the management and the technical team together. These were set after a careful of the competitor rating and customer expectation, correlation matrix, direction improvement, organizational difficulty of implementation and the strategy and policy of the management. How the image and reputation of the hospital was to be built was also taken into consideration. As always the economic feasibility was given prime importance. The reasoning behind the values was The management wants to increase the support staff to increase hygiene and cleanliness By increasing the number of specialists and nurses, the hospitality and one to one attention and treatment will increase. Improving the ambulance service by increasing the number of hospitals Catering to the rich patients demands of private rooms and reducing the number of general wards. Increasing slightly the number of daily-use of machines and also importing new specialised machines. Absolute weights are decided accordingly. Scale-up factors are decided as per priority. Step-8 Absolute and Relative Importance The absolute and relative importances are calculated as per the formulae for the QFD matrix. Absolute Weight= (Importance to customer)(Scale-up Factor)(Sales Point) The relative weight for each technical descriptor is determined by taking the dot product of the column in the relationship matrix and the column for absolute weight in the prioritized customer requirements. 4. Results and conclusion
The QFD yields the following results from the absolute and relative importance values: Increasing the support staff is one of the easiest solutions towards customer satisfaction
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The total patient capacity has to be compromised. General wards are to be converted into private rooms. This is top on the priority list in spite of the organisational difficulty involved. There is no alternative to increasing the number of attached specialty. The hospital may consider making some deals with the other clinics in the town. Increasing number of ambulances should be low on the priority list There is a case for increasing the number of nurses General physicians and matters dealing with equipment are again low priority. However, specialists may not be attracted to a hospital with less equipment. The QFD has given vital insights into the steps necessary to increase customer satisfaction and consequently improve the profit and reputation of the hospital. QFD is an orderly way of obtaining information and presenting it. Table-2 House of Quality
Reference
[1] Dale H. Besterfield, Carol Besterfield-Michna, Glen H. Besterfield, Mary Besterfield-Sacre. Total Quality Management. Pearson Education , 1999.
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Rapid Prototyping: Application in Defence Projects

P. K. Verma, D.R. Makwana*, Umesh Kumar, A. A. Tapkire Vehicles Research and Development Establishment, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India. *Corresponding author (email: drmakwana@vrde.drdo.in) In this paper the case studies of application of Rapid Prototyping (Fused Deposition Modeling) for the concept model development of defence vehicle system components has been presented. The components were complicated and difficult to make by conventional methods. The following three components were produced using RP modeling. (a) A full scale RP model of firing port to be used in Armoured vehicles was developed and assessed for the concept design and overall functional requirements. The model was initially developed in three pieces and finally assembled for its functional requirements. (b) Impeller of water pump is one of the critical components of liquid cooling system of Rotary Engine. Impeller has a complex geometry and is difficult to manufacture. Using FDM, the component was manufactured within a short duration and was utilized directly into an engine water pump for design and functional testing. (c) The bobbin of Cable Payout System, which lays down the cable as well as winds under operation of Unmanned Ground Vehicle a RP model, was evaluated for its functionality. The tasks of concept design were made easier and in a short duration and the number of prototypes required for design verification was reduced. The RP is a tool that reduces the complexity and enables the designer to optimize the design within a short duration of time. 1. Introduction
Rapid prototyping plays a vital role in the new product development cycle. It produces accurate parts directly from CAD model and helps in rapid design and testing of new products. Defence projects require development of number of complex parts and components within a short period. The time given from design to development stage is very less hence any error at any stage of product cycle may delay the project considerably. With the help of Rapid prototyping a prototype can be made at the design stage and the functionality or other details can be checked and accordingly the designer can make changes in the design. This approach helps in the optimal designing of a product in minimum time. The Rapid Prototyping can be used for. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Design verification Fit form and functional testing. Concept model development Product Research Pattern making and Tool and die making.
The RP machine consists of two cartridges which consists of model material and support material in the form of filament. The filament material from the cartridges goes to the nozzle from where it is extruded and deposited layer by layer to form a 3D model. The 3D model of the part to be built is converted into STL file and loaded into the computer. The computer has a pre-processing software which converts the model into a number of planner sections. The thickness of each planner section is as small a few thousands of an inch. In the software the tool paths and supports are generated for the overhanging sections. Once the tool path are generated for all the layers the file is sent into the RP machine.The
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filament into the RP machine is extruded through the nozzle and deposited layer by layer to form a 3D model. Within a few hours a strong, durable and functional prototype is ready. This paper deals with the case studies where in Rapid Prototyping has been used for the design and development of some important components in defence vehicles. Some of the components developed with the help of RP are Firing Port of armoured vehicle, Impeller of water pump for development of Rotary Engine, Bobbin for development of Cable Payout System of Unmanned Ground Vehicle. Based on the RP model, the prototype has been realized and has been successfully implemented in the vehicle in a very short time. 2. Development of firing port
VRDE has developed the armored vehicles for Army and para-military forces. In earlier design the firing port was of sliding type and was not suitable because of safety point of view and the firing port had only lateral opening. So, keeping the safety requirement of the occupant/soldier the new design has been incorporated. This design is unique and has the ability to provide full protection to the operator and also it gives 360 deg of rotation to the gun. This swiveling type firing port provides a full protection against small arms. A model was developed by using rapid prototyping to assess the overall functional requirement of the firing port. The actual firing port is designed to withstand level-III protection. The overall size of the port is 120 mm x 120 mm. The size of the view port is 35mm x 55 mm. A bullet proof glass is fitted in the view port, which is suitable to give protection.
Firing Port of Armoured Vehicle

3. Development of impeller for water pump
RP Model of Firing Port of Armoured
Water pump is one of the crucial components of Liquid cooling system of Rotary Engine and impeller is an important part of a water pump. It directs the flow of Water glycol mixture i.e. coolant towards the Housings of the rotary engine to cool the Housings. The design of the impeller consists of several critical parameters to maintain the flow in a proper discharge and with a particular velocity in order to achieve required cooling effect. On the basis of which efficiency of the engine depends. It consists of blades with a reducing crosssectional area with a particular inlet and outlet blade angles. During manufacturing it is very important to maintain these blade angles in order to obtain proper relative velocities. After solid modeling within few hours component was manufactured and was utilized directly into an engine water pump for design and functional testing. 4. Development of bobbin for cable payout system
The Cable Payout System has been developed to provide a link for the control and communication between the Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV) and the control station using Fiber Optic Cable. Design of bobbin in the system was based on many factors; first is type of cable (fiber optic) used which has to lie down on the ground as well wind back to bobbin; whenever required. To check the functionality and concept design of the cable pay out system
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a RP model of the bobbin was made. Plastic bobbin also avoided the cable damage due to repeated winding and unwinding over the surface and rusting of bobbin material due to rubbing over the surface. Second is weight of the bobbin.
Impeller for Water Pump
RP of Impeller for Water Pump
The cable used requires some minimum-bending radius to wind over bobbin results into to very big size and weight gain. A RP material ABS (Acrylo nitryle Butadiene Styrene) used instead of aluminum alloy for the same size and shape make the bobbin lighter by 50%. Third is Isolation from twisting of the cable between rotating bobbin and fixed part of the system control. As the Fiber Optic cable has to be laid down on the ground while UGV is moving away from remote station as well as sending the signals from the controller installed on the UGV to remote control station. This process results into twisting of cable between Bobbin and controller. To avoid the twisting a Fiber Optic Rotary Joint is to be integrated on bobbin. This rotary joint is having two parts: one is integrated with stationary controller and second to the rotating bobbin while sending the signals without losses and twisting of cable. The RP makes the installation and alignment of this rotary joint between bobbin and controller with ease and fast without going for complex drilling, machining of the typical mounting
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brackets. These three limitations i.e. type of cable, big size of bobbin and isolation of cable from twisting led to use prototyping which made the task of concept design easy and less time consuming and made the functionality check of components easy at design and development phase.
Bobbin for Cable Payout System
5.
Conclusions
All the three components developed were of different projects and application. The main objective of developing the prototype using RP was verification of concept design and form, fit and functional testing. The various testing were done on the RP models for design and functional requirements. Necessary modifications were made in the design from the feedback obtained from the testing. Thus the design cycle was very rapid which led to the saving of time and money. References [1] I Gibson. Rapid Prototyping to Rapid Manufacturing. Proceedings of Work Shop, Feb.2006. [2] I Gibson. RP- A Global Perspective. Conference on Rapid Product Development, Oct 2004 [3] B Ravi, D.K.Pal, Nagahanmunaiah. Rapid Casting Development, Proceedings of Work Shop, Feb.2006 [4] Nagahanmunaiah, B Ravi, D. K. Pal, Rapid Tooling Application in Functional Prototype Production, Proceedings of Work Shop, Feb.2006
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Manufacturing of Rocket Motor Skirt

Manish Malpani, G. Gopi, Dr. Ramesh Kumar Defense Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad, India. Corresponding author (email: malpani15@gmail.com) Aerospace systems typically employ components with high strength to weight ratio. This necessitates use of thin walled airframe structures. Skirt under discussion is one of such thin walled airframe structural member with high geometrical and dimensional accuracies, joined to the rocket motor casing. It has many complex internal features for mounting control system hardware, which makes the manufacturing more complex. The paper discusses the criticalities in the manufacturing of skirt due to design requirements and the manufacturability improvements carried out to achieve the required dimensional accuracies, form tolerances, and angular orientation of different internal and external features. 1. Introduction
Skirt is an airframe structural member, joined at aft end of the rocket motor casing. This is a thin walled cylindrical shell made of AISI 4130 steel, having Diameter to Thickness (D/T) ratio of about 170, with complex stiffening and mounting feature to accommodate aerodynamic and thrust vector control elements that are subjected to severe loads. Minimum wall thickness of the skirt is 1.3mm, with features like fastener holes, circular and rectangular slots and an external projection for mounting control system and servo mechanism hardware as shown in fig-1. Intermittent, asymmetric external and internal mounting features on the shell add to the manufacturing complexity. It requires close geometric and dimensional accuracies as shown is figure.2. Thickness of 1.3mm is to be maintained within 50m tolerance. Position and symmetry accuracies are maintained within 100 m. 2. Material
AISI 4130 Steel is low in cost and has good weldability, fracture toughness, strength and elongation after hardening. AISI 4130 is a low alloy steel containing molybdenum and chromium as strengthening agents. It has 0.30% carbon which is a cut off value for weldability. This alloy is readily machined by conventional methods. Machinability is best with the alloy in normalized and tempered condition (18-21 HRc). Although the alloy may be machined in the fully heat treated condition, machinability becomes more difficult with increasing strength (hardness 46-48 HRc) of the alloy. 2 It has a tensile strength of 62 kg/mm in the normalized condition and can be heat 2 treated to achieve 130 kg/mm . In normalized condition 4130 has good toughness and excellent elongation. It has relatively low hardenability, because of which, uniform mechanical properties can be obtained only in section thickness that are small enough (3 mm) to throughharden when quenched.
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FE end
External Projection
AE end
Figure1. Skirt 3D Model with Projections, Slots and Holes 3. Process Sequence for Component Realization
The skirt is manufactured from a tube with wall thickness of 14 mm to accommodate the internal and external mounting features and distortion and scaling expected at various stages of manufacturing process. Distortions arising because of relaxation or redistribution of internal stresses built up during heat treatment and machining are to be controlled and removed at various stages. Mechanical stress relieving and multi stage machining are the two techniques employed to reduce these stresses. Sequence of machining operations is shown is figure.3. Maximum material removal prior to heat treatment due to good machinability and minimization of resultant distortion after heat treatment are the two aspects which have to be balanced. Keeping this in view, first stage machining is carried out to keep the part axisymmetric. Though this keeps more material to be removed leaving the external projection, results in less distortion and residual stresses. Due consideration was given to the low hardenability of the material; hence section thickness was kept sufficiently low enough at the joining end to ensure the desired strength. Skirt is designed for 90kg/mm2 yield strength at weld joint with maraging steel motor casing. The strength is to be achieved at the joint with out post weld heat treatment as the two materials differ in their response. Hence, the parts are to be heat treated to the desired strength prior to joining. Skirt is the lower strength part compared to its mating motor casing. The strength drops further at the joint owing to the welding. It is required that the material strength should be high enough to compensate for the fall of strength at the joint. Several trials were carried out to establish the required strength prior to welding and; hardening and tempering is carried out accordingly. Mechanical stress relieving is carried out after heat treatment to reduce the internal stresses. Scaling is removed by machining and internal and surface cracks evaluation of material was carried out by non-destructive evaluation. Machining allowances that was kept to maintain the axi-symmetry was removed from outer diameter leaving external projection. Wire EDM process was chosen considering the hardness, amount of the material to be removed and cutting forces in milling operation. However, additional machining allowance is left to accommodate the further distortions after EDM process to distribute internal stresses.
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Stage-1 turning with allowance
Quench hardening followed by tempering
Turning to remove scaling followed by mechanical stress relieving
MPI to detect quenching cracks
External projection machining
Stage-2 Turning
Stage-1 milling followed by mechanical stress relieving
Stage-3 Turning
Stage-2 milling followed by mechanical stress relieving
Stage-4 Turning
Figure 2. Skirt showing form tolerance requirements for Projections, Slots and Holes
Slot milling, hole drilling, deburring
Figure 3. Flow chart showing machining sequence Milling of inner projections is not easy, as it requires machining of material at high hardness, using a long milling cutter. An end mill with overhang of 140mm was needed for the operation. Vibration and chattering were minimized by controlling the cutting parameters. Material removal by internal turning operations was maximized as rigid tooling can be used. Due to complex inner geometry, only half the length of the part can be turned. Mean inner diameter of the skirt at the weld joint end is to be maintained with in 0.02mm to limit the weld mismatch with in 10 percent of 1.3mm wall thickness. Higher wall thickness is maintained for a short length at this end to provide rigidity to the shell during milling operations and to ensure the dimensional accuracy on the final part. Mechanical stress relieving was repeated before finish turning operation. Slotting and hole making operations are sequenced as the last operation as their orientation and position are critical. 920
Free end of the skirt has 4 axial slots leaving the minimum wall thickness. Few interface features at this end are to be machined after assembly with the motor casing to achieve the desired co-axiality of the interfacing system with respect to the lengthy motor casing. Higher wall thickness is left on this end as well, so that it can be finished in the assembly machining. 4. Manufacturability
In view of the asymmetry of the external projection and the consequent machining requirements in hardened condition, an alternate manufacturing process was worked out in consultation with the design team. In the alternate method the external projection is machined separately (refer Figure 4 &5) and joined to the skirt by welding, before finish machining of the skirt. Welding fixtures and parameters were established to keep the resulting distortion with in tolerable limits. This adds an additional welding process and necessary non-destructive evaluation and stress relieving operation. Despite additional operations, it saved expensive internal and external milling operations, thereby time and cost.
Figure 5. External Projection
Figure 4. Skirt Without External Projection 5. Conclusions
The process for skirt manufacturing is established successfully. The skirts were manufactured with the required dimensional accuracy and form tolerances. Proper heat treatment cycle was established to obtain required hardness. Tensile test were carried out and it is found that yield strength at weld joint is obtain more than 90 kg/mm2. Part simplification approach is made as alternate process has resulted in reducing the lead time and machining cost. References [1] ASM Hand Book Vol.10, Materials characterization, American Society for Metals. [2] Alan Bramley, Advances in integrated design and manufacturing in mechanical engineering, Springer [3] Thomas childs, Katsuhiro Maekawa Toshiyuki Obikawa, Yasuo Yamane, Metal machining: Theory and applications, Thomas Childs, Wiley Pub.
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Effect of ISR Cycle on Mechanical Properties of CrMoV Welded Steel

S.B.Maurya , A.J.Lewis , M.K.Ghosh , J.V.Menghani , S. A. Channiwala 1 SVNIT, Surat,. 2 Larsen & Toubro Ltd, Hazira, Surat, Gujrat, India. *Corresponding author (e-mail: maurya_sunil23@yahoo.co.in)
1* 2 2 1 1
The material used for Hydroprocessing reactor is subjected to high o temperature about 482 C and high hydrogen partial pressure about 20.7 MPa. The 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V steel has been newly developed for the fabrication of Hydroprocessing reactor used at very high temperature (about 482oC) and high hydrogen partial pressure (about 20.7 MPa).CrMoV steel is air hardenable resulting in low as welded toughness. Because of this, CrMoV steel has to be stress relieved before it is sent for the final PWHT. During fabrication and repair in service, pressure vessels are submitted to various Intermediate Stress Relieving (ISR). In some cases these requirements have appeared too stringent (ISR in place of Dehydrogenation Treatment DHT) for restraint joints such as nozzle weld in shells or heads, internal beam support weld build up and for other joint which are highly stressed during fabrication.In the present investigation Submerged Arc Welding of 2.25Cr1Mo-0.25V steel is carried out. After welding the welded plates is stress o relieved at two ISR (Intermediate Stress Relieving) cycle as 650-670 C for 4 o hrs and 670-690 C for 2 hrs. Further, the Mechanical Properties like impact toughness using Charpy v-notch and hardness using Vickers hardness of weldment and HAZ are determined before and after ISR. Based on the results, the temperature and time for ISR is optimized. 1. Introduction
Thick walled reactor vessels are a significant and critical part of petroleum refinery hydroprocessing plants. Conventional low-alloy chromium-molybdenum 2.25Cr-1Mo steel has been extensively used for hydroprocessing reactor vessel. The reactors generally have been o operated at temperatures lower than 454 C with hydrogen partial pressure above 10 MPa. However to improve the operating efficiency, there have been demand to operate plants at higher temperature about 482C and higher hydrogen pressure about 20 MPa. These severe condition calls for bigger and heavier reactors if made of the conventional 2.25Cr-1Mo steel, which may cause difficulty in handling, transportation and also become expensive. To meet stringent design requirement at such a high temperature of 482oC and 20 MPa, a new generation Vanadium modified Cr-Mo steel known as 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V steel was developed in early 90s. This new material has got distinct advantages over conventional 2.25Cr-1Mo steel and subsequently developed 3Cr-1Mo-0.25V steel in terms of: Higher tensile properties at room and high temperature (450C) that means a reduction of the equipment thickness and weight, Greater resistance to hydrogen embrittlement, Greater creep resistance, both in air and hydrogen environments [5] During pressure vessel fabrication, some hydrogen can be introduced in welds through the weld deposit. Besides residual stresses are generated by the local heat treatment due to welding, involving local expansion and contraction. Heavy pressure vessels are sensitive to these problems due to high thickness. In consequence they have to be heat treated to reduce hydrogen content and/or residual stresses. Two types of heat treatments are used: (1) Dehydrogenation Heat treatment (DHT) or sometimes Post-Heating typically below 400C to insure the diffusion of hydrogen outside the sensitive areas.
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(2) Intermediate Stress Relieving (ISR) typically between 600C and 680C to insure a partial removal of the residual stresses in the weld. [7] 2. Experimental Detail: 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V, low alloy steel (LAS), was selected for the experiment because it is the most widely used material for pressure vessel industry. In this experimental work single wire narrow gap submerged arc welding process has been employed. 2.1 Narrow Gap Welding Using SAW Process The desire to increase welding productivity is especially important in today's competitive world economy. However it is even more important today to increase weld completion time and reduce the amount of welding consumables needed. The increasing demand for more efficient welding process, mainly when heavy section have to be welded, has more and more favored the application of narrow gap welding. The large wall thickness of hydro crackers can jut be regarded as an invitation to use this efficient process. Process characteristics: -Narrow, almost parallel weld edges. The small preparation angle has the function to compensate the distortion of the joining members -Multipass technique where the weld build-up is a constant 2 or 3 beads per pass -Usually very small heat affected zone (HAZ) caused by low energy input Detail of welding process is as follows. (1) Welding process: Narrow gap SAW (2) Base Metal: Low alloy steel 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V (SA 542 Type D Class 4a), 149 mm thk. (3) Welding Consumable: Filler metal: UNION S1 CrMo2V, 4 mm & Flux for SAW: UV430TTRW (4)Welding Parameter Current: 450-550 Amp Voltage: 28-33 V Travel speed: 490-550 mm/min Max. heat input: 2.03kj/mm Preheat/ Interpass temperature: 200/275 deg C DHT (Post Heating): 350-400 deg C for 4 hrs 2.2 Intermediate Stress Relieving The welded specimens were subjected Intermediate Stress Relieving heat treatment after radiography inspection. An ISR soak in a furnace should be performed at the following metal temperature: 1200oF, (650oC) minimum for 4 hours minimum, or 1250oF (680oC) minimum for 2 hours minimum. [2] o o 1. Loading Temperature: 300 C 3. Rate of Cooling: 50 C/Hrs o o 2. Rate of heating: 50 C/Hrs 4. Unloading Temperature: 300 C Cooling from unloading temperature: outside furnace in still air
Table 1. ISR soaking temperature and soaking time

Test plate I.D. ISR-0 ISR-1 ISR-2 2.3 Soaking Temperature As welded 650-670C 670-690C Soaking Time 4 2 LMP 19222 19347
Mechanical Testing Impact testing was performed using Charpy V-notch. Charpy impact specimens were machined at the location T/2 for weld metal of welded coupons 149 mm thick.
Table 2. Impact toughness result at different temperature for different ISR cycle
Average Impact Toughness (J) Heat Treatment Condition As Welded 650-670C X 4Hrs 670-690C X 2Hrs (- 30 C) 5 12 17
o
Testing Temperature o o o o (-10 C) 0C 10 C 18 C 7 11 9 8 19 28 26 59 44 50 64 90
R.T.(30 C) 6 66 120
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Hardness is a measure of the weld metals resistance to localized plastic deformation. Hardness testing was conducted according to Vickers method using a 10 kg load. The advantages of using Vickers hardness test was smaller indentation mark and continuous scale. The Hardness was measured in base metal, HAZ and weld metal for all the samples.
Table 3. Hardness test result at different temperature for different ISR cycle
Heat Treatment As Welded ISR 0 650-670C X 4Hrs 670-690C X 2Hrs Location 1.5 Top T/2 1.5 Top T/2 1.5 Top T/2 216 215 207 197 212 209 BM 219 222 220 224 217 216 330 383 311 330 299 314 HAZ 342 397 327 333 297 322 351 348 319 309 287 276
WM
WM 333 351 304 302 266 290
3. Result and Discussion 3.1 Macrograph of the weld The purpose of macrograph was to determine presence of weld defects. The various structures across weldment i.e. base metal, HAZ and weld metal were examined. Figure shows the weldment macrostructure of the as welded specimen. The images specify the weld geometry, the absence of weld defects, the width of the HAZ and location of the weld runs.
HAZ BM
Figure 1 Weld macrograph showing WM, HAZ and BM
3.2
% BM WM
Chemical Analysis: Table 4. Chemical Analysis Result

C 0.15 0.069 Si 0.09 0.08 Mn 0.52 1.16 P 0.004 0.005 S 0.001 0.001 Cr 2.24 2.27 Mo 1.08 1.03 V 0.29 0.24 As 0.002 0.001 Sb 0.002 0.002 Sn 0.001 0.002
Chemical composition of the base metals shall be limited as follows in order to minimize susceptibility to temper embrittlement. 4 J factor = (P + Sn) (Mn + Si) x 10 100 = 30.5 Bruscato developed a correlation factor for weld metals to predict embrittlement susceptibility. X-factor = (10P + 5Sb + 4Sn + As)/100 10 ppm = 6.9 ppm 3.3 Weld metal microstructure The weld metal microstructure of 2.25Cr-1Mo-0.25V steel was observed by using optical microscopy.
1200X
ISR-0 ISR-1
1200X
ISR-2
1200X
Figure 2. Weld metal microstructure at various ISR cycle

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Impact Testing- Charpy V-notch Charpy impact test was used to measure the impact toughness for as welded and after various ISR cycle. Impact toughness was measured at different temperature to obtain transition curve.
Transition curve for different ISR cycle
ISR0 150 Impact Energy, J ISR1 ISR2
3.4
100
50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 Test Temperature, oC 0 10 20 30 40
Figure 3. Transition curve for different ISR cycle

3.5 Hardness Test Results
Hardness Profile at 1.5 mm from Top
ISR-0 ISR-1 ISR-2
Hardness Profile at T/2

ISR-0 ISR-1 ISR-2
400
500
Hardness (VHN)
Hardness (VHN)
300 200 100 0 BM HAZ WM
400 300 200 100 0 BM HAZ WM
Location
Location
Figure 4. Hardness Profile at 1.5 mm from top

3.6
Figure 5. Hardness Profile at T/2
XRD Results X-ray Diffraction (XRD) is a powerful nondestructive technique for characterizing crystalline materials. It provides information on structures, phases, preferred crystal orientations (texture). X-ray diffraction peaks are produced by constructive interference of a monochromatic beam of x-rays scattered at specific angles from each set of lattice planes in a sample. X-rays are diffracted at specific angles unique to a particular compound. Software compares the experimental diffraction pattern to standard reference patterns for nearly 90,000 compounds stored in a database. Weld metal of various ISR cycle were tested with Rigaku made Miniflex X-ray Diffractometer. Results of as welded and after ISR1 & ISR 2 were taken. the Xrd results indicates that after ISR there is precipitation of VCrFe8 and Fe9.7Mo0.3 which results in increase impact toughness & lowering in hardness.
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Figure 6. compound result for ISR-0

4. Discussion The impact test result reveals that for the as welded specimen the impact value shows very low impact toughness (<10J) at all testing temperature, as the samples are tested without being subjected to any heat treatment. The impact test result for ISR 1 From table 2 shows that the impact toughness values are o o o o o very low at -30 C, -10 C, 0 C and 10 C, while at 18 C and R.T. it shows somewhat good impact toughness. The ductile to brittle transition temperature found from figure 3 for ISRo 1 is 16 C.
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The impact test result for ISR 2 from table 2 shows that the impact toughness values are o o o o o very low at -30 C, -10 C, 0 C. Impact toughness at 10 C, 18 C and R.T. shows improved values in excess of 64J. The ductile to brittle transition temperature found from figure 3 for ISR-2 is 4oC. From figure 2 microstructure in the as welded condition reveals Bainite/Martensitic structure while the microstructures of welds with different ISR condition in general appears to be tempered Bainitic/ Martensitic structure with some amount of ferrite which is responsible for decrease in hardness. Conclusions Increasing the LMP from 19222 to 19854 significantly increases the impact toughness values. This shows that an ISR treatment is a must for all Cr-Mo-V welds due to its poor impact toughness property in as welded condition. An ISR treatment of 670-690oC for 2 hrs (LMP 19347) is capable of achieving the o minimum impact toughness value of 47J at 0 C. Increase in the LMP, decreases the weld metal and HAZ hardness. Hardness in excess of 350 VHN found in the weld & HAZ in as welded condition, drop down to almost 300 o VHN after an ISR of 670-690 C for 2 hrs. Microstructure and XRD analysis also reveals some carbide precipitation, which is responsible for the increase in notch toughness after ISR.
5.
References [1] K. Ichikawa. Toughness and creep strength of V modified steel weld metal. Welding Journal, 7, 1995, 230-238. [2] Materials and Fabrication Requirements for 2.25Cr-1Mo & 3Cr-1Mo Steel Heavy Wall Pressure Vessels for High Temperature, High Pressure Hydrogen Service, API Recommended Practice 934 Second Edition December 2008 [3] American petroleum institute (API) Technical Report 934-B First Edition, Fabrication Consideration for Vanadium Modified Cr- Mo Steel Heavy Wall Pressure Vessels. [4] G. D. Pigrova. Kinetics Of Carbide Reactions In Cr-Mo-V Steel. Metal Science and Heat Treatment, 38 (7- 8), 1996. [5] R. L. Klueh, R. W. Swindeman. Mechanical Properties of a Modified 2.25Cr-lMo Steel for Pressure Vessel Applications. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, December, 1983. [6] A. Bertoni and C. Bonnet. Characterization of 2.25Cr-1MoV Weld Metal at Different Steps during Manufacturing Process of a Pressure Vessel, Pressure Vessel and Piping: Manufacturing and Performance. Narosa Publishing house, New Delhi, India [7] Joanna Hucinska. Advanced Vanadium Modified Steels for High Pressure Hydrogen Reactors. Advances In Materials Science, 4,2 (4), 2003. [8] M Clerge, C Boucher, S Pillot, P Balladon, PH Bourges, A Bertoni. Optimization of intermediate heat treatments and stress relief of CrMoV steels. Welding International 19(11), 2005, 888-893.
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V.National Institute of Technology, Surat-395007, Gujarat,India
An Experimental Investigation to Find the Optimum Process Parameters in EDM

Navdeep Malhotra1*, and Hari Singh2 Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Kakrial, Jammu, J&K, India. National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India. *Corresponding author (e-mail: navdeep_malhotra2001@yahoo.com).
2 1
Electrical Discharge machining (EDM) is being extensively used by the industries due to its ability to process hard materials and produce complex shapes. The exact correlation between Material Removal Rate (MRR) and process parameters is the subject of interest of many researchers. Even after 66 years of EDM, still researchers are struggling to achieve more and more material removal rate to meet the industrial demand. In this research, Experiments were conducted on EN -31 die steel harden to 60HRC with copper electrode to investigate the effect of six control variables namely current voltage, spark gap, Ton, Duty cycle, Flushing pressure on material removal rate (MRR) in Electrical Discharge machining (EDM). The response is modeled using Taguchi technique on analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance. It is found that discharge current, pulse on time (Ton), voltage, spark gap, & flushing pressure and few of their interactions have significant effect on MRR. 1. Introduction
Even after 66 years of EDM, still researchers are struggling to achieve more and more material removal rate to meat the industrial demand. Electric discharge machining (EDM) is a manufacturing method, which could be used to machine hard materials in complex shapes with high precision., EDM has drawn a great deal of researchers attention because of its broad industrial applications [1]. Moreover higher level necessities such as better surface finish , higher production rate, small tolerance, dimensionally accurate are making the task still difficult for conventional machining methods.[2] To meet such demands the conventional machining methods are replaced by advance machining process like ECM, EDM, USM etc. EDM is extensively used in machining hard, high strength and temperature-resistant materials like high strength steel, tungsten carbide, hardened steel and alloys which are widely used in aerospace, automotive and die industries. EDM process is very demanding but the mechanism of process is complex and far form completely understood. Since it is costly process, optimal setting of the process parameters are up most important to reduce the machining time to enhance the productivity. [3] In EDM process material is removed by a succession of electrical discharges occurring between an electrode and work-piece that are both submerged in a dielectric bath, such as kerosene or distilled water [4]. In this process material is removed by controlled erosion through a series of electric spark discharges across the gap between electrode (tool) and the work-piece as shown in Figure 1. In a complete EDM process, machining stages that include rough cut, middle cut and finish cut are carried out sequentially. The thermal energy of the sparks leads to intense heat conditions on the work-piece causing melting and vaporization of work-piece material [5]. Due to high temperature of sparks, not only work-piece material is melted and vaporized, but electrode material is also melted and vaporized, which is known as electrode wear (EW). The EW process is quite similar to the material removal mechanism as electrode in EDM [6], Many process parameters that can be varied in the different machining stages of EDM process greatly affect the machining performances. Subsequently, it becomes important to select properly the process parameter set for different machining stages in order to promote efficiency [7]. In recent years, many attempts have been made for modeling the EDM process and investigation of the process performance to obtain better MRR [3, 8 - 10]. Improving the MRR
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and surface quality are still challenging problems that restrict the expanded application of the technology [9]. Semi-empirical models of MRR for various work-piece and electrode combinations have been presented by Wang and Tsai[10] Usually the desired process parameters are determined based on experience or hand-data-book values. However, it is undoubtedly a challenge to ensure that the selected process parameters result in optimal or near optimal machining performance for that particular EDM and environment. To achieve high material removal rate in EDM, a stable machining process is required, which is partly influenced by the contamination of the gap between the work-piece and the electrode [7].
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of EDM The prime advantage of employing Taguchi technique is to reduce the number of experimental runs required to generate sufficient information for statistically adequate result. Many researchers have applied successfully to manufacturing environments. Analytical models of the sink EDM are known from literature [11-13]. The paper is organized as follows. The introduction was given in the first section and Taguchi approach of design of experiments and methods of analyzing are discussed in second section. Experimental set up is introduced in third section. Results and discussion is given in for the section. Finally in the last in fifth section, the conclusions are drawn. 2. Taguchi approach Design of experiments (DOE) is a statistical technique that made it possible to analyse the effect of more than one factor at the same time. Taguchi Method is a new engineering design optimization methodology that improves the quality of existing products and processes and simultaneously reduces their costs very rapidly, with minimum engineering resources and development man-hours. Taguchi method or Taguchi approach is a DOE technique with new experimental strategy where the quality is defined in general terms. The Taguchi Method achieves this by making the product or process performance "insensitive" to variations in factors such as materials, manufacturing equipment, workmanship and operating conditions Experimental design methods [14] were developed originally by Fisher [15]. However, classical experimental design methods are too complex and not easy to use. Furthermore, a large number of experiments have to be carried out as the number of the process parameters increases. To solve this important task, the Taguchi method uses a special design of orthogonal array to study the entire parameter space with only a small number of experiments. The experimental results are then transformed into a signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. The S/N ratio can be used to measure the deviation of the performance characteristics from the desired values. Usually, there are three categories of performance characteristics in the analysis of the S/N ratio: the lower-the-better, the higher-the-better, and the nominal-thebetter. Regardless of the category of the performance characteristic, a larger S/N ratio corresponds to better performance characteristic. Therefore, the optimal level of the process parameters is the level with the highest S/N ratio. Table 1 shows different control variables and their levels for experimentation
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Table 1 value of the machining parameters on all three levels Control factors Units Representation Range Level 1 Level 2 Current Ton Spark Gap Voltage Duty Cycle Flushing Pressure 3. Kgf/cm2 A Sec mm V A B C D E F 6--12 100--200 0.3--0.7 35--55 7--11 0.4--0.8 6 100 0.3 35 7 0.4 9 150 0.5 45 9 0.6
Level 3 12 200 0.7 55 11 0.8
Experimental setup The electric discharge machine used in this investigation was Electra R 50 Model die sinking machine. kerosene dielectric was used in the experiment. Figure 2 shows a machining setup used for the study. The basic parts of the Electra R 50 EDM machine consists ram, a work table, a servo control system, a power supply and dielectric supply system. The Electra R 50 allows the operator to choose input parameters according to the material. The pulse power supply uses a transistor controlled RC circuit. The discharge energy is determined by the value of the capacitor that is parallel to the machining gap. EN-31 steel was used as workpiece of diameter 22mm & length 30mmwere cut from a bar, both the surfaces of the specimen were made parallel & ground and harden to HRC 60 using salt bath hardening method.
Figure 2 Experimental Set up Results and discussion Work piece removal rate is generally expressed by MRR and can be calculated by ratio of volumetric material removal from the work piece to machining time. It is expressed as MRR = VW / tm (1) and the S/N ratio can be calculated as a logarithmic transformation of the loss function as shown below. S/N ratio for MRR= -10log 10(LHB) (2) The S/N ratio for MRR is computed using Eqs. (2) for each treatment. as Then, overall mean for S/N ratio of MRR is calculated as average of all treatment responses. The overall mean for S/N ratio of MRR is found to be -16.43 db. Before any attempt is made to use this simple model as a predictor for the measures of performance, the possible interactions between the factors must be considered. The factorial design incorporates a simple means of testing for the presence of interaction effects. The S/N ratio response tables for MRR shown in Table2. The purpose of the analysis is to determine the factors and their interactions that have strong effects on the machining performance. It is evident that factor A, and B can be treated as significant factors whereas factor C, D E and F are less significant factors for maximization of MRR. To get more appropriate results polling must be done as shown in Table 3.. So, for maximization of MRR, the significant effects observed for factors A, 4.
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and B along with interactions are A*B. Analysis of the results leads to conclusion that factors at level A3, and B1 can be set for maximization of MRR. Table 2 S/N ratio response table for MRR Activity Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Max Min Diff Average 1 A
-18.20
2 B
-15.21
-16.28 -14.32 -14.32 -18.20 3.89 -16.26
-17.06 -16.52 -15.21 -17.06 1.85 -16.26
3 A*B -17.23 -15.10 -16.46 -15.10 -17.23 2.13 -16.26
4 A*B -17.16 -17.39 -14.14 -14.14 -17.39 3.25 -16.23
5 C -16.41 -16.02 -16.36 -16.02 -16.41 0.39 -16.26
6 B*C -16.36 -16.06 -16.38 -16.06 -16.38 0.32 -16.26
7 B*C -15.81 -16.84 -16.14 -15.81 -16.84 1.03 -16.26
8 A*C -16.42 -16.18 -16.20 -16.18 -16.42 0.24 -16.26
9 D -15.92 -15.79 -17.09 -15.79 -17.09 1.30 -16.26
10 E -16.24 -16.64 -15.91 -15.91 -16.64 0.73 -16.26
11 A*C -16.53 -15.76 -16.50 -15.76 -16.53 0.77 -16.26
12 F -16.06 -16.15 -16.58 -16.06 -16.58 0.52 -16.26
Table 3 S/N Ratio ANOVA after pooling Source A B C D E F A*B A*C B*C T ep 5. SS 45.55 6.57 1.82 3.22 0.19 1.97 40.01 2.87 4.42 106.85 14.72 DOF 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 26.00 18.00 0.82 15.66 V 22.78 3.29 Pooled Pooled Pooled Pooled 10.00 Pooled Pooled F-Ratio 27.85 4.02 Pooled Pooled Pooled Pooled 12.23 Pooled Pooled SS' 45.32 6.34 Pooled Pooled Pooled Pooled 39.54 Pooled Pooled P 42.41 5.93 Pooled Pooled Pooled Pooled 37.00 Pooled Pooled 100.00 14.65
Confirmation experiment The confirmation experiment is the final step in any design of experiment process. The purpose of the confirmation experiment is to validate the conclusions drawn during the analysis phase. The confirmation experiment is performed by conducting a test with specific combination of the factors and levels previously evaluated. In this study, a new experiment was designed with combinations of control factors A2, B1 to obtain MRR. An experiment was conducted with new combination of factors and the result was noted down. The estimated S/N ratio is calculated with the help of the prediction equation shown below:
Where
is predicted Average is overall experimental average , Mean response for factors and interactions at designated levels
= -14.588db Table 4 show the comparison of the predicted value with the new experimental value for the selected combinations of the machining parameters. As shown in these tables, the experimental values agree reasonably well with predictions because an error of 3.65 % for the S/N ratio of MRR is observed when predicted results are compared with experimental values. Hence, the experimental result confirms the optimization of the machining parameters using Taguchi method for enhancing the machining performance. The resulting model seems to be
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capable of predicting the MRR to a reasonable accuracy. However, the error in MRR can be further expected to reduce if the number of measurements is increased. Table 4 Results of confirmation experiments for MRR
Optimal Machining Parameter Prediction Experimental Level A3 , B1 A3 , B1 S/N ratio for MRR (db) -14.588 -15.079
6. Conclusions In this study an attempt was made to study the effect of machining parameters like current. Ton, spark gap, voltage, duty cycle and flushing pressure for performance like MRR in sink EDM. Taguchi method is used to determine the factors and their interactions to obtain maximum MRR. . The analysis shows that factors like discharge current (A), Ton (B), and interactions A*B has been found to play significant role in machining. Analysis of the results leads to conclude that factors at level A3, B1 can be set for maximization of MRR. . In any process, few interactions play vital role in defining the optimal performance measures. A study without considering interaction effects seems to lack in-depth analysis. Hence, in this study, not only the factor but also few selected interactions have been considered. The results of confirmation experiment agree well the predicted optimal settings as an error of 3.65% is found with MRR. References [1] Zarepour H, Tehrani AF, Karimi D, Amini S. Statistical Analysis on electrode wear in EDM of tool steel DIN 1.2714 used in forging dies. J Mater Process Technol,187-188, 2007, 711-714. [2] R. snoeys, F Van Dijck. investigations of EDM operations by means of thermo mathematical models. Annals of CIRP, 35, 1986, 467-480. [3] D Mandal, S.K Pal and P Saha. Modeling of electrical discharge machining process using back propagation neural network and multi-objective optimization using non dominating sorting genetic algorithm-II. Journal of Material Processing Technology. 86, 2007, 154162. [4] Shu KM, Tu GC. Study of electric discharge grinding using metal matrix composite electrode. Int J Mach Tool Manuf, 43, 2003, 845-854. [5] Yan BH, Tsai HC, Huang FY (). The effect of EDM of dielectric of a urea solution in water on modified surface of titanium. Int J Mach Manuf 45(2), 2005, 194-200. [6] Ho KH, Newman S. T. State of art electric discharge machining (EDM). Int J Mach Manuf, 43(13), 2003, 1287-1300. [7] McGeough J.A. Advanced Methods of machining. Chapman and Hall, 1988, New York . [8] V. Josko and M junkar. On-line selection of rough machining parameters. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 149, 2004, 256-262. [9] Wang K, et. al. A hybrid intelligent method for modeling the EDM process. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 43, 2003, 995-999. [10] Wang P. J , Tsai K M . Semi-empirical model on work removal and tool wear in electrical discharge machining , Journal of Material processing Technology . 114(1), 2001, 1-17. [11] Phillip T E, Mukund RP and Maria AB. Theoretical models of electrical discharge machining process. Part I A simple cathode erosion model. J Appl. Phys. 1989. [12] Phillip T E, Mukund RP and Maria AB, (), Theoretical models of electrical discharge machining process. Part II The anode erosion model. J Appl. Phys, 1989. [13] Van-D, Physico-mathematical analysis of the electro-discharge machining process, PhD thesis Katholic universiteit te Leuven, 1971. [14] R.A. Fisher, Statistical Methods for Research Worker, Oliver & Boyd, London, 1925. [15] J.A. Sanchez, L.N. Lopez de Lacalle, A. Lamikiz, U. Bravo. Dimensional accuracy optimization of multi-stage planetary EDM. Int. J. of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 42, 2002, 1643-1648.
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The Effect of FSW Process Parameters on Tensile strength of AA5083-H321 Aluminium alloy
N. Shanmuga Sundaram , N. Murugan
1 2 1* 2
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore-641004, India Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore-641014, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: nss.mechanical@gmail.com)
The aluminium alloy AA5083-H321 (AlMg alloy) has been widely used in the fabrication of structures with moderate strength and in marine construction requiring a high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. Fusion welding of Aluminium alloy forms brittle dentritic structure and drastic decease in mechanical properties. On the other hand Friction Stir Welding (FSW) process is an emerging solid state joining process especially suitable for joining of such alloys. The welding parameters such as tool rotational speed, welding speed, tool pin diameter, axial force and tool pin profile are significantly influence the mechanical properties of the FS welded joint. Mathematical model to predict the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of the friction stir welded AA5083-H321 aluminium alloy were developed. BoxBehnken design was used to conduct the experiments and Response surface method (RSM) was employed to develop the model. The developed model was validated using the statistical tool analysis of variance (ANOVA). The effect of the above process parameters on tensile behavior of the friction welded joints are discussed in detail. 1. Introduction
Friction Stir (FS) welding is a relatively new joining technique developed by TWI, Cambridge, in 1991 [1] and offers a number of advantages over conventional fusion welding techniques, such as no need for expensive consumables such as filler wire and gas shields, good mechanical properties of the resultant joint, and low distortion [2]. Aluminium alloys with magnesium as the major alloying element constitute a group of non-heat treatable alloys with medium strength, high ductility, excellent corrosion resistance. Wrought AlMg alloys are used as structural materials in marine, automotive, aircraft and cryogenic applications while the cast forms are used mainly for their corrosion resistance in dairy, food handling and chemical processing applications. Al-Mg alloys have processing challenges due to their increased susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking [3]. The Aluminium alloy AA5083 are typically used in the marine, automotive and construction industries [4]. Friction stir welding of AA5083 and their characterization were reported by very few authors. Lombard et al [5] investigated the effect of tool rotational speed and welding speed and found that the tool rotational speed is the key parameter governing welding temperature, frictional power and hence the tensile strength of the FS welded Aluminium alloy AA5083-H321. Nandan et al [6] reported that there was a significant drop in hardness within the TMAZ, and the defects were dominated on the advancing side where an abrupt microstructural transition occurs from highly refined nugget zone to the TMAZ, in FS welded Aluminium alloy AA5083-O. In most of the reported research works on FS welding of AA5083, it is observed that very few are discussing the effect of FSW process parameters on tensile strength. The present research was carried out with a newly designed hexagonal cross section pinned tool with three different diameters. It is aimed to evaluate the effects of four process parameters viz., tool rotational speed (N), welding speed (S), tool pin diameter (D) and tool axial plunging force (F) on the tensile strength of FS welded AA5083-H321 joints fabricated using the newly developed tool. Response Surface Method (RSM) was employed to develop the regression model, to correlate the FSW process parameters with tensile strength and to evaluate the effect of process parameters.
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2.
Experimental work
The experimental set up shown in figure 1 consists of a special purpose machine having dedicated arrangements designed for the friction stir welding. The profile and dimensions of the three newly developed HSS tools are shown in Figure 2. Aluminium alloy AA5083-H321 is non heat treatable and H321 denotes strain hardened and stabilized condition, with the alloy approximating the quarter-hard state after the thermal stabilisation treatment. The mechanical properties of the AA5083-H321 aluminium alloy are given in Table 1. The longitudinal direction of the FSW was perpendicular to the rolling direction, and single pass butt welding procedure was followed to fabricate the joints. The operating parameters and their working range for FSW of AA5083-H321 are tabulated in Table 2. Four factors, three levels Box-Behnken experimental design shown in Table 3 was selected for conducting the experiments. Two tensile specimens from each welded plate were prepared as per the American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM E8M-04) standards. The average values of UTS of the tensile specimens and joint efficiency were calculated and presented in Table 3.
Figure 1. Photograph view of the Friction Stir Welding machine used to fabricate the joint
Figure 2. Friction Stir welding tools and their dimensions
Table 1. Mechanical properties of the base metal AA5083-H321 Yield strength (MPa) 300.0 Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS (MPa) 355.0 Percentage of elongation (%) 18.0 Micro hardness (VHN) 125.0
Table 2. FSW operating parameters and their levels selected S. No. 1 2 3 4 3.1. Operating Parameter Tool rotational speed Welding speed Tool pin diameter Tool axial force Symbol N S D F Unit rpm mm/min mm kN -1 1000 40 4 14.72 Levels 0 1 1300 1600 60 80 5 6 24.53 34.33
Developing mathematical models
The regression model [7] used to predict the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the FS welded AA5083-H321 is developed using statistical software SYSTAT-12 and it is given below. UTS = 306.267 + 1.483 N 3.142 S + 2.25 D 8.954 N2 18.092 S2 22.629 D2 15.267 F2 + 16.0 NS 7.775 NF (1)
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Table 3. Design matrix with experimental and predicted Tensile strength

UTS, MPa FSW Process Joint Error** Parameters Efficiency* % Estimated Predicted % N S D F 1 -1 -1 0 0 297.0 296.88 0.04 83.66 2 +1 -1 0 0 271.5 267.85 1.36 76.48 3 -1 +1 0 0 258.3 258.60 -0.11 72.76 4 +1 +1 0 0 296.8 293.56 1.10 83.61 5 0 0 -1 -1 274.8 271.21 1.32 77.41 6 0 0 +1 -1 270.8 266.71 1.53 76.28 7 0 0 -1 +1 269.8 270.03 -0.08 76.00 8 0 0 +1 +1 264.8 265.53 -0.27 74.59 9 -1 0 0 -1 277.4 273.38 1.47 78.14 10 +1 0 0 -1 288.7 291.90 -1.09 81.32 11 -1 0 0 +1 290.3 287.75 0.89 81.77 12 +1 0 0 +1 270.5 275.16 -1.69 76.20 13 0 -1 -1 0 270.2 270.94 -0.27 76.11 14 0 +1 -1 0 263.3 264.65 -0.51 74.17 15 0 -1 +1 0 267.1 266.44 0.25 75.24 16 0 +1 +1 0 260.3 260.15 0.06 73.32 17 -1 0 -1 0 272.8 275.45 -0.96 76.85 18 +1 0 -1 0 279.8 278.42 0.50 78.82 19 -1 0 +1 0 267.2 270.95 -1.38 75.27 20 +1 0 +1 0 273.5 273.92 -0.15 77.04 21 0 -1 0 -1 271.6 276.64 -1.82 76.51 22 0 +1 0 -1 266.9 270.36 -1.28 75.18 23 0 -1 0 +1 276.8 275.46 0.49 77.97 24 0 +1 0 +1 270.9 269.17 0.64 76.31 25 0 0 0 0 305.8 306.27 -0.15 86.14 26 0 0 0 0 308.2 306.27 0.63 86.82 27 0 0 0 0 304.8 306.27 -0.48 85.86 UTS- Ultimate Tensile Strength, * - Based on Estimated UTS, **- Based on predicted value Trial Run
3.2
Validation of the developed model 2 The ANOVA results of the model are tabulated in Table 4. The value of R = 0.964 indicates that the model explains 96.4 % of the total variability. To test the accuracy of the model in actual applications, conformity test runs were conducted by assigning different values for process variables within their working limit but different from that of design matrix. These results indicated that the developed model best fits to find the UTS of FS welded AA5083-H321 aluminium alloy. Table 4. ANOVA results of the model Source Regression 4. Sum of squares 5069.26 df 9 Mean square 563.25 F-ratio 51.15 Multiple R 0.982 Squared multiple R 0.964
Adjusted squared multiple R
0.946
Results and discussions
It is found from the results that the ultimate tensile strength of FS welded joints was lower than the base metal irrespective of the operating parameters used to fabricate the joints. The four operating parameters considered are directly affecting the magnitude of frictional heat generated and extend of plastic flow of material and hence the tensile strength of the FS welded joints. Figure 4 reveals the effect of N on UTS. The lower tensile strength at N=1000 rpm, is due to the insufficient frictional heat generated. Tensile strength decreases above 1300 rpm which is due to the high temperature experienced by the material [8]. The effect of welding
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speed on UTS is represented in Figure 5. Higher welding speeds are associated with low heat inputs, and faster cooling rates and reduced metallurgical transformations of the welded joint [8]. The lower tensile strengths observed, when S is 40 mm/min and 80 mm/min are due to higher friction heat generated and poor material flow respectively. The effect of tool pin diameter on UTS is shown in Figure 6. The diameter of the tool pin mainly determines the width of Weld nugget (WN) and Heat affected zone (HAZ) and the frictional heat generated. Tool with 4 mm diameter pin produces lower frictional heat and poor material flow and lower tensile strength is observed.
Figure 4. Effect of Tool rotational speed (N) on UTS (S=60mm/min, D=5mm, F= 24.5kN)
Figure 5. Effect of Welding speed (S) on UTS (N= 1300 rpm, D= 5mm, F= 24.5 kN)
Figure 6. Effect of tool pin diameter (D) on UTS (N=1300rpm, S=60mm/min, F=24.5kN)
Figure 7. Effect of tool axial force (F) on UTS (N=1300rpm, S=60mm/min, D=5mm)
Figure 8. Interaction effect of Tool rotational speed (N) and welding speed (S) on UTS (D= 5 mm, F= 24.5 kN)
Figure 9. Interaction effect of Tool rotational speed (N) and tool axial force (F) on UTS (S= 60 mm/min, D= 5 mm)
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The 6 mm diameter pin creates material over flow from the weld nugget and leads to the lower tensile strength. FS welded joints made with 5 mm diameter pinned tool have highest tensile strength. The effect of tool axial force on UTS is represented in Figure 7. The axial force decides the coefficient of friction between the tool and work pieces [9]. The lower axial force of 14.7 kN creates less friction between the tool and the work pieces. When F is at 34.3 kN, the plunge depth of the tool is higher and material overflows from the WN, and that leads to the lower tensile strength of the joints. The highest tensile strength is observed when the axial force is at 24.5 kN. The interaction effect of N and S on UTS is and N and F on UTS are plotted in Figure 8 and Figure 9 respectively. 5. Conclusions
Aluminium alloy AA5083-H321 was successfully friction stir welded using the newly developed HSS tool and regression model to predict the tensile strength of the FS welded joints were developed and validated. The effect of operating parameters viz. Tool rotational speed (N), Welding speed (S), Tool pin diameter (D), Tool axial force (F) are found to be significant. Increase in welding speed with increase in tool rotational speed within their operating range produce higher tensile strength joints. Most of the joints fabricated with smallest and largest diameter pinned tool exhibited lower tensile strength. Joints fabricated with 5 mm diameter pinned tool have highest tensile strength. Both higher and lower level of axial force produces lower tensile strength joints. References [1] W.M. Thomas, E.D. Nicholas, J.C. Needham, M.G. Murch, P.Temple-Smith, and C.J. Dawes. Friction Stir Butt Welding. 1991, International Patent No. PCT/GB92/02203. [2] M.J. Peel, A. Steuwer, P.J. Withers, T. Dickerson, Q. Shi, and H. Shercliff, Dissimilar Friction Stir Welds in AA5083-AA6082, Part I: Process Parameter Effects on Thermal History and Weld Properties. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 37A, July 2006, 2183-2193. [3] S. Lathabai, P.G. Lloyd. The effect of scandium on the microstructure, mechanical properties and weldability of a cast AlMg alloy. Acta Materialia, 50, 2002, 4275-4292. [4] T.L. Dickerson, J. Przydatek. Fatigue of friction stir welds in aluminium alloys that contain root flaws. International Journal of Fatigue, 25, 2003, 1399-1409. [5] H. Lombard, D.G. Hattingh, A. Steuwer, M.N. James. Optimising FSW process parameters to minimise defects and maximise fatigue life in 5083-H321 aluminium alloy. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 75, 2008, 341-354. [6] R. Nandan, T. DebRoy, H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Recent advances in friction stir welding. Progress in Materials Science, 53, 2008, 980-1023. [7] Manonmani, K., Murugan, N. and Bhuvanasekaran, G. Effect of process parameters on the weld bead geometry of laser beam welded stainless steel sheets. International Journal of Joining Materials, 17/4, 2005, 103-109. [8] Sunggon Lim, Sangshik Kim, Chang-Gil Lee, and Sungjoon Kim. Tensile behavior of Friction-Stir-Welded Al6061-T651. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 35A, September 2004, 2829-2835. [9] Colligan J, Paul J, Konkol, James J, Fisher, Pickens Joseph R. Friction stir welding demonstrated for combat vehicle construction. Welding Journal, 2002, 1-6.
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August, 3-5, 2008 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
Cost effective selection of process parameters in multi-pass milling operation

P.J. Pawar1, R. V. Rao2*
1
K.K.Wagh Institute of Engineering Education and Research, Nasik, Maharashtra, India 2 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: ravipudirao@yahoo.com)
Machining economics of multi-pass machining operations is of significant practical importance due to advent of computer numerically controlled machines, which require large capital investment. This paper presents optimization aspects of multi-pass milling operation for minimization of total cost of operation considering the process parameters as number of passes, depth of cut for each pass, cutting speed, and feed. The optimization is carried out using recently developed optimization algorithm namely, artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm. An application example is presented and solved to illustrate the effectiveness of the presented algorithms. The results of the presented algorithm are compared with the previously published results obtained by using other optimization techniques.
1.
Introduction
The selection of efficient machining parameters is of great concern in manufacturing industries with the introduction of flexible automation, where economy of machining operation plays a key role in the competitive market. Determination of optimal cutting parameters like number of passes, depth of cut for each pass, speed, and feed is considered as a crucial stage of multi-pass machining as in case of all chip removal processes and especially in process planning. The effective optimization of these parameters affects dramatically the cost, production time, and quality of final product. Due to the complicated nature of optimization problem of determining process parameters in manufacturing operation, the conventional optimization techniques fails to give the desired efficient solutions. This has encouraged the use of evolutionary techniques for optimization of manufacturing operations for further economic gain. Evolutionary computation consists of a variety of methods including optimization paradigms that are based on evolution mechanisms such as biological genetics and natural selection. These methods use the fitness information instead of the functional derivatives making them more robust and effective. Most commonly used non-traditional optimization techniques are genetic algorithm (GA), particle swarm optimization (PSO) and simulated annealing (SA). However, determination of optimum controlling parameters for these algorithms is a difficult task. Also, genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimization algorithms do not guarantee optimal solution and provides a near optimal solution for a complex problem having large number of variables and constraints. Therefore, the efforts are continuing to use more recent optimization algorithms, which are more powerful, robust and able to provide accurate solution. Milling operation can be performed in a single pass or in multiple passes. Multi-pass operations are often preferred to single pass operations for economic reasons and are generally used to machine stocks that cannot be removed in a single pass. Various investigators have proposed optimization techniques, both traditional like dynamic programming [1], method of feasible direction [2], dynamic programming [3] and non-traditional like genetic algorithm [4], harmony search [5], hybrid algorithm [6, 7, 8], memetic algorithm [9], and Tribes [10] for optimization of multi-pass milling operation. In this paper an attempt is made to optimize the process parameters of multi-pass milling operations considering the objective function as to minimization of production cost with constraints such as cutting force, cutting power, surface roughness, and tool life. Feed per tooth, speed and depth of cut are considered as process variables. The next section provides optimization model of milling process.
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2.
Optimization model of milling process
The optimization model for milling process formulated in the present work is based on the analysis given by Shunmugam et al. [4]. The decision variables considered for this model are feed per tooth (s), cutting speed (V) and depth of cut (a). 2.1 Objective function The objective function in this model is to minimize the total cost (Ut) as given by the equation (1).
n
U t U f U ri ko .t p
i 1
(1)
Where, Uf and Ur is the cost per pass (U) for finish and roughing operation respectively as given by equation (2).
U ko .t m (kt z ).
z.t tm k o .t m e ko ( L.h1 h2 ) T TR R
(2)
tm = Machining time given by equation: t m workpiece; ap is approach distance;
Lt ; Lt = L+ ap (for roughing operation); L=length of z.s.N
Lt = L+ D (for finishing operation); D is cutter diameter; z is number
of teeth;, kt is cost of cutting edge;, TR is tool replacement life;, te is Tool-exchange time = 1.5 min/cut edge; h1 is tool returns time; h2 is rapid tool advance/return time;, ko is overhead cost; tp is tool preparation time; N is spindle speed expressed as: N =
V . 0.16
2.2
Constraints The four practical constraints are considered in this optimization model are expressed as below:
t p Pp FmaxDqFwF xp y p B .z (1)Cutting force constraint: s a (2)Cutting power constraint: V .Cp .a .S k Pmax qp p CF BtF z pF kF D
yF xF
2 2 (3) Surface roughness constraint: 0. 0321s 25 10 3 (for roughing); 0 . 0321 s 2 .5 10 3 (for finishing) re re
qv C K D qv (4) Tool life constraint: C v K v D s y v a xv mv v tv p v t v pv m T R V max B z T R V min B z In the above equations, Fmax is maximum cutting force; is the effect of rotational frequency of the
spindle; B is the Width of the workpiece =100 (mm). CF and KF are constants with regard to the tool and workpiece material. xF, yF, tF, wF, qF, pF, Cv, m, xv, yv, pv, qv, tv, kv CP, xP, yp, tP, pP, qP, kP and kF are exponents. Pmax is maximum cutting power; are exponents, re = nose radius. Variable bounds are: 1 a 4; 0.1 s 0.6; 50 V 300. The next section describes the mechanism of artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm.
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3.
Artificial bee colony algorithm
Artificial bee colony algorithm is developed to model the intelligent behaviors of honeybee swarms [11]. The honeybee swarms consists of two essential components: food sources and foragers, and defines two leading modes of the behavior: recruitment to a nectar source and abandonment of a source. The value of a food source depends on different parameters such as its proximity to the nest, richness of energy and ease of extracting this energy. Foragers can be unemployed, employed or experienced. There are two possibilities for an unemployed forager: (1) Scout Bee: If the bee starts searching spontaneously without any knowledge and (2) Recruit: If the unemployed forager attends to a waggle dance done by some other bee, the bee will start searching by using the knowledge from waggle dance. When the recruit bee finds and exploits the food source, it will raise to be an employed forager who memorizes the location of the food source. Experienced foragers use their historical memories for the location and quality of food sources. It can be an inspector, which controls the recent status of food source already discovered. There is a greater probability of onlookers choosing more profitable sources since more information is circulating about the more profit able sources. Employed foragers share their information with a probability, which is proportional to the profitability of the food source, and the sharing of this information through waggle dancing is longer in duration. Hence, the recruitment is proportional to profitability of a food source. An example is discussed in next section. 4. Example
Now to demonstrate and validate the proposed artificial bee colony algorithm an application example is considered for optimization of process parameters of the multi-pass milling operation, based on model developed by Shunmugam et al. [4]. Specifications of the required parameters and values of the constants used in the present example are given as follows: L=240 mm; B=100 mm; D=160 mm; z=16; ko= 0.5 ($/min); kt =2.5 ($/cutting edge); te =1.5 (min/cutting edge); tp = 0.75 (min/piece); h1= 7x10-4 (min/mm); h2 = 0.3(mm); TR = 240(min); Fmax=8000 N; Pmax = 8 kW. Now, the proposed artificial bee colony algorithm is applied to solve the above optimization problem using following steps: Step 1 Parameter selection Following parameters of optimization are selected. Number of employed bees=5; Number of onlookers bees (m) = 11; Number of scout bees=1; Maximum number of iterations= 150 Step 2 Calculate the nectar amount of each food source The employed bees are moved to the food sources and the nectar amount of these food sources is evaluated based on their fitness value as defined by the objective function given by equation (1). Step 3 Determine the probabilities by using the nectar amount If the nectar amount of a food source i is Fi, then the probability (Pi) of choosing this food source by an onlooker bee is expressed as:
S (1 / f k ) Pi k 1 fi
(3)
where, S is the number of food sources.
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Step 4 Calculate the number of onlookers bees, which will be sent to food sources Based on the probabilities calculated in step 3, the number (N) of onlookers bees sent to food source i is calculated as: N Pi m Step 5 Calculate the fitness value of each onlooker bee The position of the selected neighbor food source is calculated as i (c+1) = i ( c) i (c).Where, c is number of generation. i (c) is a randomly produced step to find a food source with a more nectar around i' Step 6 Evaluate the best solution Position of the best onlooker bee is identified for each food source. The global best of the honeybee swarm in each generation is obtained and may replace the global best at previous generation if it has better fitness value. Step 7 Update the scout bee The worst employed bees, as many as the number of scout bees in the population, are respectively compared with the scout solutions. If the scout solution is better than employed solution, employed solution is replaced with scout solution. Else employed solution is transferred to the next generation without any change. For the selected values of operating parameters of the ABC as discussed above the convergence of the ABC algorithm is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Convergence of ABC algorithm for rough milling
The results of optimization obtained by using artificial bee colony algorithm along with those reported in literature by using various other non-traditional optimization techniques are shown in Table 1. Table 1.
Method Genetic algorithm (GA) [4]
Optimal combination of process parameter for total stock removal of a =8 mm

S(mm/tooth) 0.100 0.307 0.279 V(m/min) 141.7 115.3 119.2 Ra (m) 0.321 3.021 2.5 P (kW) 7.99 7.99 7.69 F(N) 3387.5 4163.3 3878.8 Total cost Cost (US$) 0.6589 0.4089 0.5047 1.5725 0.4446 0.4446 0.5047 1.3939 0.4460 0.4460 0.4941 1.3861
a(mm) 4 (rough) 2 (rough) 2(finish)
Harmony search algorithm (HS) [5]
3(rough) 3(rough) 2(finish)
0.453 0.453 0.279
60.75 60.75 119.2
6.59 6.59 2.50
8 8 8
8000 8000 3879 Total cost
Artificial bee colony algorithm (ABC)
3(rough) 3(rough) 2(finish)
0.452 0.452 0.278
60.371 60.371 124.05
6.56 6.56 2.48
8 8 7.98
7984 7984 3868 Total cost
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As shown in Table 1, results of optimization using ABC algorithm shows significant improvement of 13.45% in objective function over that of GA [4]. Although the results obtained by using harmony search algorithm are almost same as that of ABC algorithm, the ABC algorithm provides better accuracy of solution than HS algorithm. 5. Conclusion
It is observed that for the present example, the ABC algorithm outperform the GA and HS algorithms in terms of accuracy of solution and convergence rate. It is also observed that ABC algorithm shows about 13.45% improvement in objective function over that of GA [4]. This improvement is mainly due to the fact that the ABC algorithm combines both, the stochastic selection scheme carried out by onlooker bees, and greedy selection scheme used by onlookers and employed bees to update the source position. Also the neighbor source production mechanism in ABC is similar to the mutation process, which is self-adapting. The random selection process carried out by the scout bees maintains diversity in the solution. The convergence rate of ABC algorithm is also very high and the algorithm requires only 100150 iterations for convergence to the optimal solution. References [1] Shin, Y.C., Joo, Y.S. Optimization of machining conditions with practical constraints. International Journal of Production research. 30(12), 1992, 2907-2919. [2] Tolouei-Rad, M., Bidhendi, IM. On the optimization of machining parameters for milling operations. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 37(1), 1997, 116. [3] Sonmez, A. I., Baykasoglu, A., Dereli,T., Filiz, I.H. Dynamic optimization of multipass milling operations via geometric programming. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 39 (2), 1999, 29732. [4] Shunmugam, M.S., Reddy, S.V.B., Narendran, A.A. Selection of optimal conditions in multi-pass facemilling using a genetic algorithm. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 40(3), 2000, 401414. [5] Zarei, O., Fesanghary, M., Farshi, B., Jalili R., Razfar M.R. Optimization of multi-pass face-milling via harmony search algorithm. Journal of Material Processing Technology, doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec, 2008.05.029 [6] Lui Y.M., Wang C.J. A modified genetic algorithm based optimization of milling parameters. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 1999, 15(11), 796-809. [7] Wang Z.G., Rahman M., Wong Y.S., Sun J. Optimization of multi-pass milling using parallel genetic algorithm and parallel genetic simulated annealing. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 45(15), 2005, 172634. [8] Yildiz, A.R. A novel hybrid immune algorithm for optimization of machining parameters in milling operations. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing. 25(2), 2009, 261-270. [9] Baskar N., Asokan P., Saravanan R., Prabhaharan G. Selection of optimal machining parameters for multi-tool milling operations using a memetic algorithm. Journal of Material Processing Technology, 174, 2006, 239-249. [10] Onwubolu G.C. Performance-based optimization of multi-pass face milling operations using Tribes. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 46, 2006, 717727. [11] Karaboga, D. and Basturk B., On the performance of artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm. Applied soft computing, 8, 2008, 687-697.
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A Simple Approach for Minimization of Burr Formation Using Edge Beveling of Alloy Steel Workpieces
P.P. Saha1 and Santunu Das2*
2 1
Eastern Railway Workshop, Kanchrapara 743145, West Bengal, India Kalyani Government Engineering College, Kalyani 741 235, West Bengal, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: sdas_me@rediffmail.com) A burr is a undesirable projection of plastically deformed material adhered to the exit edge of the machined surface. To overcome problems caused by burrs formed in machining, reduction and control of burr size is needed, although a wide variety of deburring techniques are available. Prevention of milling burr formation, or deburring of milled surface is a major problem in railways and other industries. The present work demonstrates an approach for burr minimization by beveling exit edge of the job. A number of experiments are performed on nickel chrome alloy steel (En 25 Steel) block to observe the effect on exit burr formation by providing exit edge bevel on the workpiece. Encouraging results are obtained at 150 edge bevel angle, when minimum quantity of burr is observed.
1.
Introduction
Machining burrs are often found along the edges of a workpiece. The existence of burr may cause problem in assembly of parts, work handling, or product malfunction during operation. Hence, machining burrs need be removed. Minimizing the formation of burrs during the machining operation may reduce the expensive deburring operation. To understand the burr formation mechanism, and then to reduce burr formation, several studies were made. Nakayama and Arai 1 observed that burrs cause groove wear and accelerates the growth of burr. Gillespie 2, 3 found out that deburring and edge finishing might constitute as much as 30% of the part cost while making precision components. The shape of burr is highly related 4 to the particular manufacturing operation used; in orthogonal cutting, either burr or edge breakout, i.e. negative burr, may be formed when the tool exits the workpiece, depending on the material condition and exit geometry. Olvera and Barrow 5 did experiments on the formation of burrs in square shoulder face milling to study the influence of cutting parameters. They also discussed about the exit burr in the cutting direction, exit burr in the feed direction and burr formed at the top edge through their extensive experimental investigation. Shefelbine 6 did experiments on face milling of aluminium-silicon alloys and cast iron; he concluded that old worn-out tool inserts form larger burrs than new tools. Coolant reduces size of a burr, and in cast iron, naturally the burr size is negligible. Chu and Dornfeld 7 designed the special tool path scheme to avoid tool exiting, and suitable tool geometry for minimization of burrs. Mechanism of burr formation and foot formation were studied in detail by many investigators 8, 9, 10, and they formulated the basic cause of burr formation. Saha et al. 11 did experiments on burr formation in face milling under different machining conditions by exit edge beveling of the work faces. 2. Experimental investigations
Details of the experimental set up to perform milling tests on En-25 steels with a 128.6mm diameter cutter (Figure 1) are given in Table 1. Experimental details regarding machining conditions are shown in the Table 2. Experiment set I has been performed with 3mm depth of cut, high cutting velocity, Vc (452 m/min) and high feed, Sz (0.036 mm/tooth), 0 maintaining in-plane exit angle, =120 (Figure 2(a)) and varying exit edge angle, () (Figure 0 0 2(b)). Without bevel and with eight exit edge bevel angles from 10 to 45 , burrs have been observed, and qualitatively classified using Table 3. Results of the experiment set I are shown 0 in Figure 3. It is seen that burr is negligible at exit edge angle, of 15 , and it is gradually
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increasing with the increase in edge bevel angle. At = 30 , burr is significant, whereas at 10 and without edge bevel, burrs are of medium to large size. Following the observation of experiment set I, experiment set II is designed when exit-edge bevel angles are varied from 150 to 300 at an interval of 50 at different Vc and Sz. A full factorial experimental design is used to choose velocity and feed to perform these tests as detailed in Table 2 with constant depth of cut of 3mm in dry condition. At the exit edge of the workpiece, an edge bevel of height 3mm was made. Table 1. Experimental set up
Machine Tool Tool Holder Cutting Tool Job Material Job Size
5.5 KW Knee type milling machine, FN 2V Group, HMT Ltd. (India) Cutter diameter : 128.6 mm. Holder type : R/L 265.2-125 ME- 20 AL (Sandvik). SPKN 1203 ED R, SM30 (HW) - P30 uncoated insert (Sandvik). Nickel Chromium Alloy steel (En 25), (C (0.3%), Mn (0.6%). Si (0.25%), S (0.03%), P (0.03%), Cr (0.60%), Ni (2.6%), Mo (0.55%)), Hardness (BHN) : 350 100 mm x 75 mm x 50 mm.
Table 2. Experimental conditions in milling for set-I and Set-II

Exp. Set No. I 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cutting Velocity, Vc (m/min) 452(high) 452(high) 452(high) 363(medium) 363(medium) 286(low) 286(low) Feed, Sz (mm/ tooth) 0.036(high) 0.036(high) 0.022(low) 0.027(medium) 0.027(medium) 0.036(high) 0.022(low) Different edge bevel angles, (degree) undertaken 0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45
II
0, 15, 20, 25, 30
Cutting tool insert

Figure 1. Pictorial view of milling cutter with one insert fitted
width
= speed of the cutter, Vt = cutting velocity at exit edge, t = depth of cut, or height of bevel edge, Vf = feed velocity = exit edge bevel angle Vr = resultant velocity (a) (b)
Figure 2 (a) Definition of in-plane exit angle, in milling operation, (b) Sketch of the job with the exit edge bevelled
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9 8 8 7 7 6
Quantity of burr, Q
6 5
6 5 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Exit edge bevel angle, degree
Workpiece : En 25. Tool : Uncoated Carbide. Vc : 452 m/min. Sz : 0.036 mm/tooth. t : 3 mm. Environment : Dry.
Figure 3 : Plot of variation of burr formed with exit edge bevel for experiment set-I Table 3. Qualitative assessment of amount of burr in 10-point scale
Scale value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Qualitative amount of burr observed Negligible burr Tiny burr, not visible through naked eye Very small visible burr Small burr Significant burr Medium size burr Large burr up to 0.25 mm in height Large burr having height from 0.25 mm to less than 0.5 mm Large burr having height from 0.5 mm to less than 1 mm Very large burr having height greater than 1mm.
o o
Experimental findings for set-I show that amount of burr is increasing from 15 to 45 exit edge bevel angle () as shown in Figure 3. Intense burr has been occurred without edge beveling in this condition that may be due to very less back up material at the exit portion of the workpiece, similar to the previous work reported by Pekelharing 10. Gradual reduction in depth of cut with small edge bevel angle results in considerable decrease in burr formation. Following the above, at 150 exit edge bevel angle, negligible burr is found. Less radial engagement, involved in the vertical milling operation, is expectedly showing no foot formation. The data obtained in milling experiments for set-II have been cited in Figure 4.
9 8 8 7
Quantityof burr,Q
Workpiece : En 25. Tool : Uncoated Carbide. Vc : 452 m/min. Sz : 0.036 mm/tooth. t : 3 mm. Environment : Dry. 5
6 5 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 15 20 Exit edge bevel angle, degree 25 30
(a)
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8 7 7
Q uantity of burr, Q
6 5 5 4 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 15 20 25 30
(b)
8 7 7 6
Q uantity of burr, Q
5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 15 20 25 30
(c)
8 7 7 6
Q an o b Q u tity f urr,
5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 15 20 25 30
(d)
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7 6 6
5
Quantity of burr, Q
4 3 3 2 2 1 1 3
0 0 15 20
25
30
(e)
7 6 6 5
Q tity of burr, Q uan
4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 15 20 25 30 Exit edge bevel angle, degree 2
(f) Figure 4. Plot of variation of burr formed with different exit edge bevel angles for experiment set-II
For all the six tests of experiment set II, negligible burr is observed at 15 exit edge bevel angle, and medium to large size burrs are seen without any edge bevel, similar to that at experiment set I. At high cutting velocity, Vc of 452 m/min, large burr formation is seen as shown in Figure 4(a) and 4(b) that may be due to thermal softening effect resulting in high plastic deformation compared to other conditions with less speeds. Under medium speed 363 m/min and medium feed 0.027 mm/tooth condition with two repeated experiments, similar results have been obtained as shown in Figure 4(c) and Figure 4(d). With the low speed (286 m/min) conditions with both low and high feed conditions, less burr is seen at exit edge bevel angles from 20 to 30 as shown in Figure 4(e) and Figure 4(f) respectively. This may be due to lesser thermal softening effect at this less cutting velocity. At all machining conditions, burr has been formed to be intense at no exit edge bevel angle. This is evidently due to the absence of back-up support material. In general, when exit edge bevel angle is less, the need of back-up material will be gradually decreasing due to decreasing depth of cut and burr formation is expected to be less. This is also seen in the experimental results with minimum burr seen at 15 exit edge bevel angle. In the experiments set - II, no foot formation has been observed similar to the experiment set-I. Less radial engagement may be the possible reason behind it. Hence, within the range of experimental
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conditions, a 15 exit edge bevel angle is recommended for minimizing exit edge burr formation. 3. Conclusions
The following conclusions may be drawn based on the present experimental investigation on burr formation at the exit edge of En 25 steel specimens in vertical axis milling operation under dry condition: i) Exit edge bevel of the workpiece shows substantial effect on reducing the formation of burr. ii) Minimum burr at 15 exit edge bevel has been observed under all cutting conditions. It may be due to decreasing need of back-up support material at the beveled exit edge of the test piece causing gradual reduction in depth of cut at the bevel portion. iii) The amount of burr has been observed higher at high cutting velocity than the other conditions. This may be due to thermal softening effect at higher cutting velocity resulting in high plastic deformation. iv) No foot formation is observed in the present investigation. It is possible due to less radial engagement in vertical axis milling. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Nakayama, K. and Arai, M. Burr formation in metal cutting. Annals of the CIRP, 36 (1), 1987, 33-36. Gillespie, L.K. The academic challenge of burr technology. Allied bendix aerospace, KC division, 1985, SME paper no. BDX 613-3151. Gillespie, L.K . Deburring precision miniature parts. Precision Engineering, 1 (4) 1979, 189-198. Chern, G.L. and Dornfeld, D.A. Burr/ Breakout model development and experimental verification. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, ASME, 118, 1996, 201206. Olvera, O. and Barrow, G. An experimental study of burr formation in square shoulder face milling. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 36 (9), 1996, 1005-1020. Shefelbine, W. Influences on burr size during face milling of aluminium silicon alloys and cast iron. LMA Research Reports, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, 2003, California. Chu, C.H. and Dornfeld, D.A. Tool Path planning for Avoiding Exit Burrs. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 2, 2000, 116-123. Gillespie, L.K. and Bolter, P.T. The formation and properties of machining burr. Journal of Engineering of Industry, ASME, 98 (1), 1976, 66-74. Ko, S. L. and Dornfeld, D.A. Study on burr formation mechanism. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, ASME, 113, 1991, 75-87. Pekelharing, A.J. The Exit failure of cemented carbide face milling cutters Part 1fundamentals and phenomena. Annals of the CIRP, 33 (1), 1984, 47-50. Saha, P.P., Das, D. and Das, S. Effect of Edge beveling on burr formation in face th milling. Proceedings of 35 International MATADOR Conference, 2007, Taipei, Taiwan, 199-202.
[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat-395 007, Gujarat, India
Analysis of Roundness in Straight Turning Using Response Surface Method

P. S. Kalos , K. N. Nandurkar , B. B. Ahuja and L. G. Navale
1 1* 1 2 3
K.K.Wagh Institute of Engg. Edu. & Research, Nashik-422 003, Maharashtra, India 2 College of Engg., Pune- 411 005, Maharashtra, India 3 Modern Education Societys College of Engg.,Pune-411 005, Maharashtra, India * Corresponding author (e-mail:preetam02@rediffmail.com) The use of response surface methodology (RSM) for minimizing the roundness on turned cylindrical components of En-8 alloy steel has been discussed in this paper. The roundness model has been developed in terms of cutting parameters such as cutting speed and feed. Machining tests have been carried out using CNMG-WF 120404 carbide inserts with chip breaker IC9025 using Taguchis L27 orthogonal array. The experimental results have been investigated using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results indicated that the cutting speed is the main influencing factor on roundness. Roundness increased with increasing cutting speed, but decreased with increasing feed rate. The predicted results are fairly close to experimental values and hence, the developed models can be used for prediction satisfactorily.
1.
Introduction
Machining is one of the most fundamental and indispensable processes of metal removal in industry. Numerous and varied factors of high-speed machining influence the quality of the final part and its manufacturing economy. Among these factors are the part and tool materials, the shape of the tool and the tool holder, the cutting conditions, the behaviour of the machine tool and the control performance, the type of interpolation used in generating CNC programmes and the use of refrigerant [1,2]. Individually analyzing the effect of each of these factors on the final result has generated much interest. Dry turning is now of great interest and actually, it met with success in the field of eco-friendly manufacturing [3]. Looking into the wide applications of turned parts and the number of factors affecting the turning process, making the study of turning process more interesting. It is also important that the measurement and evaluation of geometric errors should be carried out keeping in mind the functional requirement. Now a days, response surface methodology is used for modelling and optimization of roundness in machining. Response surface methodology is more practical and simple. Optimal machining parameters can be easily observed using response surface methodology. 2. Response surface methodology
In Response Surface Methodology (RSM), the factors that are considered as most important are used to build a polynomial model in which the independent variable is the experiments response. The geometrical deviations of machined parts are important in manufacturing engineering applications and hence must be taken care of. So many geometrical tolerances like circularity, cylindricity, concentricity, co-axiality, parallelism, flatness, surface finish are checked by metal cutting industry. These all geometrical deviations are affected by number of factors. The factors influencing geometrical deviations can be grouped into five major classes. The Ishikawa cause-and-effect diagram illustrating the relationship of the influencing factors with geometrical deviations produced is shown in Fig. 1. While machining, quality of the parts can be achieved only through proper cutting conditions. In order to know the surface quality and dimensional properties in advance, it is necessary to employ theoretical models, making it feasible to do prediction of operation
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conditions. RSM is the collection of mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for the modeling and analysis of problems in which a response of interest is inuenced by several variables and the objective is to optimize this response.
In many engineering fields, there is a relationship between an output variable y of interest and a set of controllable input variables {x1,x2,. xn}. In some systems, the nature of the relationship between y and x values may be known. Then, a model can be written in the form
y f ( x1 , x 2 ,....., x n ) ,
(1)
where represents noise or error observed in the response y. If we denote the expected response as
E ( y ) f ( x1 , x 2 ,....., x n ) y,
then the surface represented by (2) is called response surface[4]. In most of the RSM problems, the form of relationship between the response and the independent variable is unknown. Thus the first step in RSM is to find a suitable approximation for the true functional relationship between y and set of independent variables employed. Usually a second order model is utilized in RSM. The coefficients used in the model below can be calculated by means of least square method:
k i 1 k i 1 k
y f ( x1 , x2 ,....., x n )
y 0 i xi ij xi2 ij xi x j
i 1
(3)
The second-order model is normally used when the response function is not known or nonlinear. In this study, an attempt is made to experimentally analyse the influence of factors such as cutting speed, feed rate on roundness-error of the dry turned En-8 cylindrical bars. Thus the factors selected are cutting speed and feed rate and the response variable is roundness-error. 3. Experimental details
Experimental design methods are used to conduct experiments with less number of observations. They constitute a systematic method concerning the planning of experiments, collection, and analysis of data with near-optimum use of available resources. In this work, the workpieces used in the turning tests are cylindrical bars of BS 970-1955 Gr.En8 alloy steel each of length 40 mm. Chemical composition of work material is shown in Table 1.Turning tests in absence of cutting fluids were conducted on a CNC lathe. The turning tests have been carried out without lubrication or cooling on the basis of the recent environmental
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ISO 14000 standard. Because of this standard, many companies have been obliged to redesign their manufacturing systems in order to use more environmentally friendly production processes. All tests are performed using a fixed cutting depth of 0.8mm for rough turning and 0.4mm for finish turning. Experiments have been designed and conducted so as to obtain a mathematical model that relates the mentioned factors with the dimensional accuracy. Table 2 presents the specifications of machine tool and turning tool applied in turning tests. Cutting speed, feed rates are selected based on the machine constraints on maximum cutting speed (3000rpm) as well as tool manufacturers (Iscar) recommendations for workpiece material and tool combination [5]. Selected factors and their levels are shown in Table 3. Taguchis L27 orthogonal array is considered for experimentation and input parameters are assigned to columns. Roundness of cylindrical components have been measured on CMM. The condition with real values, coded values of parameters, and experimental results are presented in Table 4. Table1.Chemical composition of En-8 alloy steel Element %C %Mn %Si %S Observed value 0.36 0.84 0.17 0.018
%P 0.020
Table 2. Specifications of Machine tool and Turning tool Machine tool Turning tool Lathe Machine: Ace Designers Ltd., (I) Cutting tool (insert): Carbide, Model: LT-2 XL CNMG-WF 120408(roughing) Main Spindle power(cont./30 min rating) : CNMG-WF 120404(finishing) 7.5/11KW Nose radius: 0.8mm(roughing) Controller: Fanuc, Chuck size: 200 mm, :0.4mm(finishing) Max. turning Dia.: 290mm Chip breaker: IC9025 Max. Turning Length : 400 mm Tool holder: PCLNL 2020K-12 Table 3. Selected factors and their levels Factors Cutting Speed Feed rate Bar Dia. [d] Levels [v] (m/min) [f] (mm/rev) (mm) 1 150 012 26 2 175 0.2 34 3 200 0.27 42 4. Results and discussion
Roundness plays an important role in cylindrical bars and is a factor of great importance in the evaluation of machining accuracy of turned components. Although many factors affect the roundness, machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed have a signicant inuence on it for a given machine tool and work piece set-up. 4.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to check the adequacy of the proposed quadratic model. Table 5 shows the ANOVA table for response surface quadratic model for roundness. It is clear that bar diameter is not a significant factor at 95% level of confidence and hence can be eliminated. Table 6 shows the ANOVA table neglecting the third factor i.e. bar diameter. The p-value in Table 6 for model is less than 0.05, which indicates that the model is adequately significant at 95% confidence level, which is desirable as it indicates that the terms in the model have a significant effect on the response. The main effect of cutting speed (v) is the most significant factor associated with roundness.
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4.2
Response Surface Model The two-factor interaction model developed for roundness (R) in terms of coded variables and neglecting the effect of bar diameter (d) during the machining of En-8 alloy is given below: R = 5.25 + 4.5* v+3.5*f + 4.5* v*f (4)
Table 4.Coded & real values of parameters and measured Roundness

Trial No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Cutting Speed [v] (m/min) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Feed rate [f] (mm/rev) 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 Bar Dia.[d] (mm) 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 v (m/min) 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 f (mm/rev) 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.27 0.27 0.27 d (mm) 26 34 42 26 34 42 26 34 42 26 34 42 26 34 42 26 34 42 26 34 42 26 34 42 26 34 42 Roundness (m) 8 4 3 4 5 6 4 5 3 1 5 4 2 4 6 3 1 2 4 3 1 1 3 1 2 3 4
Table 5.Analysis of Variance

Source Model v f d vf vd fd residual Sum of Df Mean F-Ratio PSquares Square Value 3879.03 3 1293.01 2.34 0.1001 23.4074 2 11.7037 3.75 0.0709 2.2963 2 1.14815 0.37 0.7033 0.96296 2 0.48148 0.15 0.8595 8.81481 4 2.2037 0.71 0.6097 9.48148 4 2.37037 0.76 0.5796 10.5926 4 2.64815 0.85 0.5325 24.963 8 3.12037
Table 6. Analysis of Variance (neglecting d)

Source Model v f vf residual Sum of Df Mean FP-Value Squares Square Ratio 24.1605 2 12.0803 5.14 0.0138 23.4074 2 11.7037 4.58 0.0247 2.2963 2 1.14815 0.45 0.6451 8.8148 4 2.2037 0.86 0.5052 46.0 18 2.55556
All F-ratios are based on the residual mean square error.
A mathematical model for roundness of turned components in terms of cutting speed and feed rate has been developed. The 3D response surface plot and corresponding contour is shown in Fig.2 and Fig.3 respectively. For the required roundness, the response surface plot gives the optimum cutting parameters to be selected for turning process. Fig.4 is a plot of residuals vs. predicted roundness. The plot is satisfactory. The cutting parameters for obtaining the desired roundness are obtained from the models developed and the deviations in roundness are controlled by finding necessary deviations, which are required to be made in cutting speed and feed.
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20 18 ro 16 un dn 14 es s 12 err or 10 (m i cro me 8 ter ) 6 4
0.8
8
0.6
8
0.4
0.2
cutting speed
-0.2
-0.4
2 0 1 -1 0.8 0.6 -0.5 0.4 0.2 0 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 0.5 -0.8 -1 1 feed rate mm /rev cutting speed m/min
-1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 feed rate 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 -0.8
8
-0.6
0
-4
Figure 2. 3-D plot for finish turning

Residual Plot for Col_6 3 2 1
residual
Figure 3.Contour for finish turning
0 -1 -2 -3 0 2 4 predicted 6 8
Figure 4. Residuals vs. Predicted roundness

5. Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the experimental results obtained in machining of BS 970-1955 Gr.En8 alloy steel bars using CNMG-WF 120404 carbide inserts with chip breaker IC9025 under specified cutting conditions: 1. The two-factor interaction model for roundness has been developed using response surface methodology. 2. The established equations clearly show that the cutting speed is the factor which influences roundness followed by feed. The roundness increases with increasing cutting speed but decreases with increasing feed. 3. The variance analysis for the two factor interaction model shows that the bar diameter is the least significant parameter. 4. The predicted and the measured values are satisfactorily close to each other which indicates that the developed roundness prediction model can be effectively used for predicting the roundness during the machining of En-8 alloy with 95% confident level. References [1] S. Ramesh, L. Karunamoorthy, and K. Palanikumar, Surface Roughness Analysis in Machining of Titanium Alloy, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 23 , 2008,174181. [2] N. R. Dhar and M. Kamruzzaman, Cutting temperature, tool wear, surface finish and dimensional deviation in turning AISI 4037 steel under cryogenic condition, Int. Journal of Machine Tools and Mfg., 47,2007, 754-758. [3] M. Marcos-Barcena, M.A. Sebastian-Perez, J.P. Contreras-Samper, et. al., Study of roundness on cylindrical bars turned of aluminumcopper alloys UNS A92024,Journal of Materials Processing Technology,162163, 2005,644648. [4] Montgomery D.C., Design and Analysis of Experiments, John Wiley & sons INC, 2006. [5] Complete Machining Solutions Turning Tools,Iscar Ltd, 2007, C-12.
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NRBFN Based Modeling of EDMed Job Surface Integrity

Konda. L. K. , Saha. P*, Dey. P. P Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, Howrah 711103, INDIA * Corresponding author (e-mail: probir78@rediffmail.com) The focus of the present work is to develop a soft computing model, based on normalized radial basis function network (NRBFN) to correlate the higher order influences of major electro-discharge machining (EDM) parameters like peak current (Ip), and pulse on-duration (Ton) with different aspects of surface integrity such as white layer thickness (WLT), and surface roughness (SR) while machining M2 die steel. The process has also been modelled by conventional response surface methodology (RSM) to see the effectiveness of the developed soft computing model. The work also includes the detail parametric study on the material removal rate, and surface integrity based on the developed models. 1. Introduction
Electro discharge machining (EDM) is a thermoelectric process that erodes workpiece material by series of discrete but controlled electrical sparks between the workpiece and electrode immersed in a dielectric fluid. It is now one of the basic methods used in die production and has good accuracy and precision with no direct physical contact between tool and workpiece. During EDming of M2 die steel it has been observed that the machined surface is characterized by so many unwanted features like formation of poor surface roughness, white layer, and generation of cracks, which cause failure of the materials ultimately [1]. Therefore, it is very much essential to minimize the possible failures arising from the surface defects of EDMED components, and hence, an adequate understanding of the nature and extent of surface damage imparted under various machining conditions is required. It is obvious that to improve the quality of EDMED product, it is essential to set the optimal machining parameters. A proper modelling technique, correlating the input process parameters with that of the EDMED job surface integrity may help to obtain optimal machining parameters to get machined surface as good as possible. Due to complicated stochastic process mechanism of EDM process, it is very difficult to correlate the input parameters like peak current and pulse on-duration to the surface integrity by explicit mathematical model based on the physics of the process. As artificial neural network (ANN) is a highly flexible modelling tool with the ability to learn the mapping between input and output without knowing a prior relationship between them, it could be an good alternative for modelling of such random and complex process while machining M2 die steel. In the present work, an ANN technique called, normalized radial basis function network (NRBFN) has been implemented for mapping the input and output variables while machining M2 die steel. There is no work available on the modelling of the EDM process for M2 die steel by this ANN technique. 2. Planning for experimentation
Keeping in view of the present research objectives, experimental investigation and analysis were carried out in different parametric combinations, for deriving effective parametric combination. The experimental scheme has been designed in such a way that the objectives of the study can be fulfilled satisfactorily. The job material was typical Die Steel (M2-hardened and annealed) with following composition: 0.85% C, 4% Cr, 6.25% W, 5% Mo, 2% V and rest Fe. The size of each work sample is 12mm12mm12mm. In order to study the influences of various EDM process parameters on material removal rate, surface roughness, and average white layer thickness a tool diameter of 6mm was selected for drilling a blind hole of 2mm depth on Die Steel work samples. Copper was considered as electrode material for the present experimental studies since it worked better in combination with Die steel workpiece as compared to other tool materials. Castrol oil (ILO CUT-400) was
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selected as dielectric because of its high flash point, good dielectric strength, transparent characteristics and low viscosity and specific gravity. Variable pulsed DC supply was used for experimentation. Peak current and pulse on-duration were varied from 1 to 12A and 2 to 520 s, respectively. Central composite rotatable design of experiment (CCD) has been used to perform the experimentation. The levels of peak currents (Ip) were set at 3, 3.5, 5, 6.5 and 7A while that of pulse on-durations (Ton) were set at 42, 104, 252, 400 and 462s for various experiments. Each experiment was conducted at fixed gap voltage (Vg) of 135V. Machining was performed using EDM machine (model: T3822, make: Electronica, India). In order to calculate the MRR, the work sample was cleaned with acetone and then the weight of the sample at dry condition was measured before and after the machining. The calculation of the average white layer thickness was carried out by using optical microscope. Surface roughness in terms of CLA values (Ra) of each work sample was measured with the help of a surface texture measuring instrument at different positions and then average surface roughness has been calculated. The workpiece after machining has been shown in Figure 1. The experimental results have been shown in Table 1.
Figure 1. Workpiece after EDM machining Table 1. Experimental results

Expt No. Coded values Original values of machining parameters Pulse onPeak current time (Ton) (Ip) A s 400 3.5 400 6.5 252 5.0 462 5.0 104 3.5 252 5.0 252 7.0 252 5.0 104 6.5 252 5.0 252 5.0 252 3.0 42 5.0 42 3.0 462 7.0 400 7.0 42 7.0 462 3.0 462 6.5 104 3.0 42 3.5 42 6.5 104 5.0 252 3.5 400 5.0 252 6.5 400 3.0 462 3.5 104 7.0 MRR 3 mm /min Surface roughness (Ra) m 3.978 4.41 3.574 4.314 2.576 3.624 3.844 3.37 2.804 3.356 3.376 3.056 2.66 2.168 4.736 4.382 2.808 3.386 4.534 2.464 2.448 2.776 2.684 3.126 4.112 3.544 3.368 3.732 2.98 WLT (m)
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 +1 +1 0 +1.414 -1 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 -1.414 -1.414 +1.414 +1 -1.414 +1.414 +1.414 -1 -1.414 -1.414 -1 0 +1 0 +1 +1.414 -1
2 -1 +1 0 0 -1 0 +1.414 0 +1 0 0 -1.414 0 -1.414 +1.414 +1.414 +1.414 -1.414 +1 -1.414 -1 +1 0 -1 0 +1 -1.414 -1 +1.414
10.15 14.072 13.5 11.49 10.881 12.26 17.84 9.957 14.63 13.156 9.893 13.248 11.2 6.154 13.194 14.91 14.274 7.0971 13.761 9.687 10.104 12.322 13.42 15.527 11.6 17.12 8.209 10 15.214
16.6 20.6 13.98 20.39 7.41 9.51 17.91 12.47 9.13 11.21 10.6 10.1 5.95 4.51 20.44 20.6 6.2 13.11 21.95 6.05 5 6.64 8.53 13.64 19.38 16.84 11.96 15.41 11.05
3 Results and discussions
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3.1 Effect of pulse on-duration and peak current on MRR, SR and WLT The effect of pulse on-duration on MRR has been shown in figure 2. From the plot it is clear that the MRR increases with the increase of pulse on-duration. Further, it is noted that a continuous lengthening of the pulse on-duration does not improve the MRR. This is particularly evident for pulse duration of 252s to 462s, where the MRR is dramatically decreases. This phenomenon is attributed to the extension of the electric plasma channel associated with an excessive pulse on-duration. When the plasma channel becomes larger,
Material removal rate Vs pulse duration
Material removal rate (MRR)
Average surface roughness Vs pulse onduration

3 Amp 3.5 Amp 5 Amp 6.5 Amp 7 Amp
20 15
mm3/min
Average surface roughness (Ra) m
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Pulse on-duration (Ton ) s 3 Amp 3.5 Amp 5 Amp 6.5 Amp 7 Amp
10 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 pulse dura tion(Ton ) s
Figure. 2 Effect of Ton on MRR
Figure. 3 Effect of Ton on Ra
its energy density decreases. Thus, the energy provided by the plasma channel melts the material, but is insufficient to produce a high exploding pressure of dielectric which can spray the molten metal away from the EDM surface. Consequently, the debris formed from the molten metal is not swept away by the circulative dielectric system, and hence the MRR decreases [2]. Figure. 3 clearly indicates that the surface roughness continues to increase with increase in pulse on-duration. This phenomenon is attributed to the transmission of high pulse energy, which accelerates severe cracking of dielectric. The resulting pyrolysis products, which keep on piling up on the machined surface, are not entirely swept away by the dielectric giving rise to poorer surface finish [3]. The effect of pulse on-duration and peak
White layer thicknes Vs pulse on-duration
White layer thickness m
White layer thickness m
White layer thicknes Vs peak current

25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 Peak current (Ip ) Amp 6 8 42 s 104 s 252 s 400 s 462 s
25 20 15 10 5 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Pulse on-duration (T on ) s 3 Amp 3.5 Amp 5 Amp 6.5 Amp 7 Amp
Figure. 4 Effect of Ton on WLT
Figure. 5 Effect of IP on WLT
Figure. 6 Optical micrographs of white layer at Figure. 7 Optical micrographs of white layer at (a) 42s/7A (b) 104s/7A (c) 252s/7A (a) 3A/462s (b) 3.5A/462s (c) 5A/462s (d) 400s/7A (e) 462s/7A (Ton/Ip) (d) 6.5A/462s (e) 7A/462s (Ip/Ton)
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current on WLT have been shown in Figure 4 and 5, respectively. It is seen from the plots that the WLT increases as the pulse duration and peak current increases. The larger pulse on-duration allows the electro-discharge energy to penetrate deeper into the material, as a consequence the thickness of the molten metal increases, which do not get sprayed away by the insufficient exploding pressure of the dielectric. This ultimately results in greater white layer thickness. The reason is also applicable for effect of peak current on WLT. The white layer images at different pulse on-duration and peak current have been shown in Figure 6 and 7 respectively. It is seen that at high energy level the thickness of the white layer is greater than the low energy level. 4. 4.1 Modelling of the process Development of models based on RSM
Response surface methodology is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for the modelling and analysis of problems. Using MINITAB software, the values of the regression coefficients of the second order equations have been calculated for material removal rate (MRR), surface roughness (SR), and white layer thickness (WLT). The models are as follows:
MRR = 11.781 0.155X1 + 2.434X2 1.019X1 + 3.103X2 + 0.082X1X2 SR = 3.461 + 0.947X1 + 0.302X2 + 0.014X12 0.024X22 + 0.096X1X2 2 2 WLT = 11.561 + 7.274X1 + 2.847X2 + 1.469X1 + 2.286X2 + 1.078X1X2
2
2 2
(1) (2) (3)
The values of R have been calculated to test the adequacy of the models. These values are 2 96.2% for SR, 94.07% for WLT and 75.1% for MRR. So far as R are concerned the models could be accepted. 4.2 Modelling by normalized radial basis function network [4] Normalized radial basis function network is a special type of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) which consists of only one layer of hidden neurons having radial basis functions as the transfer functions. The structure of a typical NRBFN has been shown in Figure 8.
Figure. 8 The structure of a NRBFN An NRBFN consists of an input layer, one hidden layer, and an output layer contains an array of nonlinear radial basis function, which are generally Gaussian functions. The output th of the k hidden node is obtained by the following expression. x ck 2 (4) exp
k
2 k2
2
xc exp 2 2k k 1 k
n

th
where, x is the input vector, ck is the center vector of k hidden node having same dimension as that of the input vector, and k is the Gaussian width of the kth hidden neuron. The value of the jth unit of the output layer is obtained through a linear combination of the nonlinear outputs from the hidden layer and is given by the following expression n (5) s w
j
k 1
kj
where, wkj is the synaptic weight between the k hidden node and j output neuron, and n is the number of neurons in the hidden layer.
th
th
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5.
Comparison between two proposed models for SR, WLT, and MRR
Once the models have been developed they have validated by the nine testing patterns. The validation of the models has been listed in Table 2. The overall mean prediction error has been shown in Table 3. The overall prediction error has been calculated by adding all average prediction error and then dividing with the number of process measure. Table 2. Validation of the proposed models
No. of test pattern Expt value of Ra m Expt value of WLT m 5.95 20.44 15.41 11.05 13.98 20.39 7.41 17.91 9.13 Expt value of MRR m 11.2 13.194 10 15.214 13.5 11.49 10.881 17.84 14.63 Predicted values of SR Ra m RSM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2.66 4.736 3.732 2.98 3.574 4.314 2.576 3.844 2.804 2.15085 5.39926 2.18955 2.7704 3.46057 4.82787 2.70955 3.83904 2.29877 NRBFN 2.571779 4.586399 3.914399 3.197578 3.388165 4.20175 2.525846 3.772714 Predicted values of WLT m Predicted values of 3 MRR mm /min
RSM 4.21267 35.5351 22.6982 12.8279 11.561 24.7835 6.273 20.1572 9.811
NRBFN 5.86571 21.34236 16.79293 10.3741 12.31282 18.73808 5.82726 14.91617 9.722288
RSM 9.96278 19.3342 10.0775 20.4468 11.781 9.52444 11.668 11.781 16.372
NRBFN 11.9978 14.6175 10.2780 14.5000 12.0675 12.1350 10.1625 14.5493 13.8789
3.10129
Table 3. Overall mean prediction error

Process measures Average surface roughness (Ra) white layer thickness (WLT) Material removal rate (MRR) Overall 0verall prediction error for Model (%) RSM NRBFN 8.962466 4.541086 26.73748 9.501348 17.16305 7.977039 17.62099 7.339824
6.
Conclusions
Both the models are capable of predicting the response parameters as function of pulse on- duration and peak current. The testing results demonstrate the models are suitable for predicting the response parameters very well for machining of M2 die steel. In compared to RSM model, NRBFN model fits the experimental data more accurately giving minimum average prediction errors. But in case of response surface methodology (RSM), the overall mean prediction error (%) is 17.62099 which are higher than that of normalized radial basis function network (NRBFN) which is 7.339824; therefore NRBFN model is better than the RSM model. In the experimental part of this work, the optimal parametric combination based on experimental results for achieving the minimum surface roughness at 2A/42s, white layer thickness at 2A/42s and maximum material removal rate at 5A/252s. References [1] B. Bhattacharyya, S. Gangopadhyay and B.R. Sarkar. Modelling and analysis of EDMED job surface integrity, Journal of material processing technology, 2007 doi:10.1016/j.jmat protect. 2007.01.018. [2] H.T. Lee, F. C. Hsu, and T. Y. Tai., Study of surface integrity using the small area EDM process with a coppertungsten electrode, Materials Science and Engineering, A364 (2004) 346356. [3] S.H. Lee and X. Li. Study of the surface integrity of the machined work piece in the EDM of the tungsten carbide. Journal of material processing technology, 139, 2003, 315-321. [4] P. Saha, D. Tarafdar, S.K. Pal, P. Saha, Ashok K. Srivastava and Karabi Das. Modelling of wire electro discharge machining of TiC/Fe in situ metal matrix composite using normalized RBFN with enhanced K-means clustering technique. International journal of advanced manufacturing technology, 2008, DOI 10. 1007/s00170-008-1679-y.
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Implementation of ZSS as a Poka Yoke Device to Reduce Breakdowns in Bucket Elevator of Food Processing Industry
Vishal J. Pandya , J. H. Mistry M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India. Corresponding author(email:pandyavj@yahoo.com)
*
In todays cut throat competitive scenario the fundamental management task is to give right direction and take right decisions for better productivity in organization for the sustain and existence. This can be accomplished through the better management system, yet many organizations never invest their time to understand how their management system really works. To stay in todays globalize competitive market the implementation of Poka Yoke devices are very much essential.This paper discusses the application of Zero Speed Switch (ZSS) as a Poka-Yoke device to reduce breakdown in bucket elevator of food processing industry. Subsequently, it presents Poka-yoke as one of the basic heuristic approaches to implement this principle in practice. In this sense, there is great scope for developing mechanic and electronic mistake-proof devices to adapt into existing construction machinery. Construction suppliers should reflect on the idea of building Poka-yoke devices in their products in order to guarantee the correct use of their products on site.This paper addresses the application of Poka Yoke concepts to the continuous process sector with a focus on the pulse mill. The aim of this paper is to investigate how & when Poka Yoke devices can be adopted & helpful to the continuous process industry and evaluates their benefits on a specific application instance. 1. Introduction
Poka-yoke is a combination of two Japanese words, Poka meanings inadvertent errors and Yoke (derived from Japanese word Yokerie) meaning to avoid and together they translate as error / mistake proofing or fool proofing or Faisafing a work process system to eliminate inadvertent errors. It pronounced as POH-kah YOH-kay. It is discrimination between mistake and defects. Poka-Yoke is a powerful and comprehensive tool for identification, measurement and analysis of mistakes / defects at the Gemba (real place of work) and implementation of measures that prevent the activity from being incorrectly performed, thereby ensuring production of quality goods and services. Poka yoke has two statuses: The fault will happen or The fault is happened and has three functions: stop or check or alarm. 2. Poka yoke devices
Poka yoke may be designed either to help the operator to recognize the defect before it is about to occur called prevention type Poka-Yoke or to help the operator to know immediately on occurrence of the defect called detection type Poka-Yoke. Some of the Poka-Yoke devices, which can help to avoid defects, are Guided pins / Locators Errors detection buzzers / alarms and blinking lights Limit switches / indicators Counters Colour coding Check list etc.
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3. 4.
Characteristics of Poka Yoke devices Simple and cheap Part of the process, permitting 100% inspection Placed closer to where the mistakes occur, providing quick feedback Designed to stop a particular mistake A detection device cannot provide a complete error proof solution Necessary and not a sufficient solution What is ZSS?
The Zero Speed Switch is designed to monitor the starting and stopping of critical rotating shafts. Zero speed switches have a non contact sensor and is supplied with a magnetic target. The sensor signal is not impaired by the buildup of dust or any other foreign material on the magnetic target or sensor. This switch is designed to detect zero speed (speeds less than 1 RPM) of the monitored shaft. The Zero Speed Switch detects the absence or presence of motion of rotating, reciprocating or conveying equipment. This noncontacting unit provides cost effective equipment protection even in the harshest conditions. Typical applications include tail pulley shafts, driven pulleys, motor shaft sensing, and screw conveyor flights.
Figure 1. Mountings of ZSS This rugged unit is impervious to dust, dirt, build-up and moisture, and is ideal for such primary industries as mining, aggregate and cement plants. Operating where other systems are prone to failure, the non-contacting design eliminates the need for lubricating, cleaning and part replacement. Downtime and clean-up expenses associated with conveying equipment failure are reduced by the ZSS. It alarms to minimize spillage, prevent extensive damage and even fire caused by belt slippage at the head pulley, and warn against conveyor malfunction. The ZSS has built-in selectable start delays, and one form C relay contact. With a phenol body, it operates from -40 to 60C (-40 to 140F). 5. Principle of operation Zero Speed Switch has two relay contacts. The relay is energized as soon as one magnet passes in front of the sensor and remains energized until the monitored shaft speed drops below 1 RPM for more than approximately 3.8 seconds. The relay re-energizes as soon as the monitored shaft starts to rotate. The switch is designed fail safe and in the event of a power failure, loss of signal, component failure etc. the relay will de-energize. The ZSS probe should be mounted, using the supplied mounting flange, onto a vibration free structure. The gap between the probe and the target should be sufficient such that there is no danger of the target damaging the probe. The maximum allowable gap is 38 mm (1.5") from the face of the target to the face of the probe for target dimensions of 25 x 25 x 50 mm (1 x 1 x 2"). The Zero Speed Switch is sensitive to lateral disturbances to its magnetic field. If the Zero Speed Switch is responding to motion from an interfering target, move the Zero Speed Switch or install a ferrous plate (steel) as a shield between the Zero
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Speed Switch and the interfering target. Where possible, the probe should be mounted such that the conduit entry is pointing downward to avoid accumulation of condensate in the casing. Connection of the probe should be made via flexible conduit for easier removal or adjustment of the probe.
Figure 2: Detailed Drawing of ZSS

The inverse of this principle we can use as a boot level indicator. In which, when boot of B.E. filled up with pulses, the belt comes in to contact with them and due to friction, chances of failure is increases, so that our B.L.I. responds when level of pulses in boot increases up to certain limit and motor of driven shaft automatically stopped. 6. 7. Advantages Over speed, under speed and zero speed sensing Self contained unit incorporates sensor and relay Use outdoors or in wash down areas Easy interface to existing systems Helps prevent equipment damage and material spoilage Case Study Problem Statement: Here, in food processing industry the main transportation media is bucket elevator to transfer the material(pulses). When the boot of bucket elevator is filled up by the pulses, the belt at driven pulley comes in contact with the pulses, so that due to friction between pulses and the running belt chances of belt failure increases. We observe that this happens very frequently so we implement the ZSS as a Poka Yoke device to reduce the breakdown. All the calculations of Expenses are listed below:
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Total Number of Bucket Elevator : 27 Failure Rate of Belt : 3 months (2 times/year) Cost of Belt : Rs. 1,000 Time Required for Replacement : 4 hrs. Labor Required for Replacement : 5 Labor Cost : Rs. 10 /labor/hr. Number of ZSS required : 54 (27 Bucket Elevator, 2 ZSS/Bucket Elevator) Cost of ZSS = Rs. 750 Calculation of Labor Cost:
Labor Cost = Labor Required x Total hrs. required for replacement x Labor Charge / hr. x 54 = 5 x 4 x 10 x 54(Total Belt Changes)
= 10,800 Rs.
Calculation of Material/Equipment Cost:
Existing Material/Equipment Cost = Cost of Belt = 1,000 x 54 = 54,000 Rs. Proposed Material/Equipment Cost = Cost of ZSS = 750 x 54 = 40,500 Rs. Conclusions Existing labor cost includes the cost incurred due to manpower requirement for changing the Bucket Elevator belt. Existing material handling equipment cost includes the cost of Bucket Elevator belt for all Bucket elevators and proposed cost includes the cost of ZSS for all Bucket Elevators. From Table 1, we can conclude that by the implementation of ZSS, we can save the considerable Amount of Rupees.
8.
Table 1: Calculation of Expenses Existing Expenses Proposed Expenses Labour Cost (in Rs.) 10,800 0 Material/Equipment Cost (in Rs.) 54,000 40,500 Total Cost (in Rs.) 64,800 40,500
References [1] Rakesh Ambre & L. Sundaravalli. Poka Yoke, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Bombay, 2004 [2] Martand Telsang. Industrial Engineering and Production Management, S. Chand & Co. Ltd. 2007. [3] P. Hines & N. Rich. The Seven Value Stream Mapping Tools. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 1997. [4] Grout, J. R. and Downs, B. T. A Brief Tutorial on Mistake-proofing, Poka-Yoke and ZQC. www.mistakeproofing.com. [5] Chase, R. B. and Stewart, D. M. Make Your Service Fail-safe. Sloan Management Review, 35(3), 1994. [6] Foster, S. T. Managing Quality an Integrative Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001.
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Optimization of Weld Bead Geometry for Pulsed GTA Welding Process for Aluminium Alloy 6061 by Taguchi Method
Pawan Kumar , Kishor P Kolhe , Som Ashutosh , C K Datta
1 1 2 1 1
Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi 110042 India. 2 Agricultural University, Dapoli- Ratnagiri India Corresponding author (e-mail: pks_munesh@yahoo.com)
The pulsed gas tungsten arc welding (pulsed GTAW) process is employed for a high rate of current rise and decay at a high pulse repetitive rate which is widely used in the joining of precision parts. The main aim of pulsing is to achieve maximum penetration without excessive heat built-up. The use of high current pulses is to penetrate deeply and allow the weld pool to dissipate some of the heat during a proportionately of longer arc period at a lower current. In this paper, optimization of pulsed GTAW process parameters are carried out to obtain the optimum weld bead geometry with full penetration in welding of AA6061 using various Ar + He (Argon + Helium) mixtures as a shielding gas with sinusoidal AC wave. The Taguchi method is used to formulate the experimental layout, to analyse the effect of each process parameter on the bead geometry, and to predict the optimum setting for each welding process parameter. 1. Introduction
AA6061 aluminium alloy (Al-Mg-Si alloy) has gathered wide acceptance in fabrication of food equipments, chemical containers, passenger cars, road tankers and railway transportation systems [1]. Pulsed GTAW process is frequently used in welding of aluminium alloys, because of its possible heat input control. This control can be utilized through a good selection of the pulse process variables, which in turn results in optimizing the bead dimensions [2]. Also pulse GTAW process is strongly characterised by the bead geometry because the bead geometry plays a very important role in determining the mechanical properties of the weld [3]. The important process parameters which affects the bead profile are pulse current, secondary current (back ground current), pulse frequency, pulse duty cycle, welding voltage welding speed and gas flow rate. The thermal behaviour of weld governed by arc characteristics and the behaviour of metal transfer significantly influences the geometry, chemistry, microstructure and stresses of weld [4, 5]. Deep penetration in pulsed current welding is produced manly by arc pressure at peak duration and significantly long peak duration is needed for deep penetration [6]. Argon helium mixtures are used to take advantages of optimum operating characteristics of each gas, superior arc ignition and stable arc characteristics of argon and higher thermal conductivity of helium. These mixtures are used to increase the heat input of the arc. Helium rich mixtures are preferred in order to achieve good cleaning action with high heat input & arc stability [7]. The linear relationship exists between the heat input of a weld and the maximum temperature at a given distance from weld centre line shows that pulsed arc welds would be cooler and therefore exhibit less thermal distortion than conventional GTA welds of the same penetration [8]. The heat input is typically calculated as follows: H = [60EI] / 1000 S, Where H = Heat Input (kJ/mm), E = Arc Voltage (Volts), I = Current (Amps) & S = Travel Speed (mm/min). Table 1: Chemical & Physical properties of Base Metal Al = 95.8 98.6 % Mg = 0.8 1.2 % Si = 0.40 0.80% Density = 2.70 g/cc Melting Point = 582 651.7 C Hardness, Vickers = 75 Ultimate Tensile Strength = 310 MPa
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To study the entire process parameter with a small number of experiments, a taguchi technique is used. In fact taguchi technique has been designed to optimize a single quality characteristic. To consider several quality characteristics together in the selection of process parameters, the modified taguchi method (MTM) is used [3]. 2. Experimental Procedure
The 5mm thick samples of AA6061 were cut into the standard sizes for bead on plate by power hacksaw cutting and milling machine. Weld beads along the length were deposited using 3.15mm diameter filler wires of aluminium alloy 5183 (Al-5%Mg) with the help of the GTAW process. A non-consumable tungsten electrode of 2.4 mm diameter was used with Ar + % He mixtures as shielded gas. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of base metal are tabulated in Table 1. The quality of weld is based on the process parameters such as peak current in the range of 150-210 A, the base current in the range of 75-135 A, the pulse frequency in the range of 50-150 Hz, the pulse on time in a range of 30-90% and the helium %age in Ar+He gas mixture ranges 10-50%. After polishing and etching of transverse cross sections of each sample, measurement of bead penetration p, bead width w and bead height were carried out with the help of digital varnier calliper equipped with magnifying glasses.
3.
Selection of Process Parameter and Their Limits
A large number of trial runs were carried out using 5mm-thick AA6061 samples to find out the feasible working limits of pulsed current GTAW parameters. Different combinations of pulse current parameters were used to conduct the trial runs. The bead contour, bead appearance and weld quality were inspected to identify the welding parameters. From the above analysis, following observations are made: 1. If the peak current (P) < 150 A, incomplete penetration and lack of fusion were observed. At the same time, if the P > 210 A, under cut, spatters and overheating were observed. 2. If background current (B) < 75 A, arc length was found to be very short. On the other hand, B > 135 A, arc became unstable and arc length was increased. 3. If the pulse frequency (F) < 50 Hz, the bead contour and bead appearance was not of good quality. However, if the F > 150 Hz, there was a harsh sound in welding machine. 4. If the pulse duty cycle (T) < 30%, the heat input was very low which was not sufficient to melt the base metal. On the contrary, if the T > 90%, over melting of the base & filler metal and overheating of tungsten electrode was noticed. 5. If the %age of helium in Ar + He gas mixture (X) < 10%, the arc stability, bead penetration and bead appearance were poor. On the other hand if G > 50%, gas consumption gas mixture per kg weld deposition was very high. The problems were overcome by choosing appropriate process parameters to have good quality welds. Process parameters & their experimental limiting values are tabulated in Table 2. 4. Optimal Selection of Process Parameter by MTM
Modified taguchi method (MTM) is used to find out the optimal process parameter mix to enhance the bead geometry by conducting minimal experiments.
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4.1
Orthogonal array In the study, five levels were chosen four the five factors. The limiting values of the factors are tabulated in Table 2. There is 20 degree of freedom and hence L25 orthogonal array was used. The experimental layout for the experimentation is detailed in Table 3. Table 2: Process Parameters and their limiting Values Process parameter Unit Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Pulse/Peak Current A 150 165 180 195 Secondary Current A 75 90 105 120 Pulse Frequency Hz 50 75 100 125 Pulse Duty Cycle % 30 45 60 75 %age of He in Ar % 10 20 30 40
Symbol P B F T X
Level 5 210 135 150 90 50
Expt No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4.2
Table 3: Process Parameters and their limiting Values Levels of Process Parameters Expt Levels of Process Parameters No P B F T X P B F T X 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 3 5 14 1 2 2 2 2 3 5 2 4 1 15 1 3 3 3 3 4 1 4 2 5 16 1 4 4 4 4 4 2 5 3 1 17 1 5 5 5 5 4 3 1 4 2 18 2 1 2 3 4 4 4 2 5 3 19 2 2 3 4 5 4 5 3 1 4 20 2 3 4 5 1 5 1 5 4 3 21 2 4 5 1 2 22 5 2 1 5 4 2 5 1 2 3 5 3 2 1 5 23 3 1 3 5 2 5 4 3 2 1 24 3 2 4 1 3 5 5 4 3 2 25 3 3 5 2 4 Experimental results Table 4: Experimental results for the bead geometry Penetration Width Height S. Penetration Width (p) mm (b) mm (h) mm No (p) mm (b) mm 0.64 8.51 1.97 1.15 7.81 14. 0.71 7.13 1.23 1.10 9.30 15. 0.92 6.22 2.00 16. 0.44 6.81 1.52 8.76 1.80 1.71 7.62 17. 1.31 9.28 1.13 2.20 9.68 18. 1.27 8.14 1.79 1.02 8.91 19. 1.17 9.50 2.14 1.58 7.76 20. 1.04 8.81 1.69 1.05 7.81 21. 0.71 8.08 1.37 1.75 9.84 22. 0.89 8.24 1.56 0.82 7.44 23. 1.57 9.67 2.21 24. 1.29 8.63 0.41 7.01 1.96 1.34 8.24 25. 1.21 8.67 1.98
S. No 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Height (h) mm 2.06 1.79 1.68 1.80 2.39 2.24 2.03 1.86 2.17 2.01 2.16 1.82
The experiments were conducted as per the orthogonal array and the results were tabulated in table 4. For optimizing the process parameters, four quality characteristics have to be considered for a single characteristic. The weighted response of bead geometry properties is obtained by adding weights to the responses as a single quality characteristic. In
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this optimisation, the weights for bead penetration, bead width and bead height are selected as 1/3 (assuming equal weightage).The weightage response is tabulated in Table 5. Table 5: Weighted response for the bead geometry
Expt No Weighted Response Expt No Weighted Response Expt No Weighted Response Expt No Weighted Response Expt No Weighted Response
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 4.3
3.71 3.02 3.05 4.03 3.91
6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
3.73 4.27 3.85 3.39 3.56
11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
4.48 3.13 3.95 3.67 4.06
16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
2.98 3.71 4.76 4.06 3.79
21. 22. 23. 24. 25
3.57 4.59 3.42 4.03 3.80
Analysis of variance
Analysis of variance is the most important tool for calculating the responsible factors which significantly affects the bead geometry properties. For determining the significant affecting process parameters, F-test was performed. The results of ANOVA are tabulated in Table 6 and response graph in Fig 2 indicates that pulse current, background current, pulse frequency, pulse duty cycle and %age of He in (Ar + He) gas mixtures are the significant welding process parameters affecting the weld bead qualities. The %age contribution by each of the process parameters are presented in Table 6. Response graph are drawn from response Table 7, to identify the significant levels of each factor. Table 6: Results of analysis of variance
Symbol Welding parameter Deg of freedom Sum of square Mean square F Contributed %age
P B F T X Error Total
Pulse Current Base Current Pulse Frequency Pulse Duty Cycle %age of He in Argon
4 4 4 4 4 4 24
0.5467 0.3874 1.0252 0.8811 1.5702 0.8405 5.2511
0.1367 0.0969 0.2563 0.2203 0.3926 0.2101
0.6504 0.4609 1.2197 1.0483 1.8681
10.41 07.38 19.52 16.78 29.90 16.01
Symbol P B F T X
Table 7: Response table for the weld bead properties Welding parameter Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Pulse Current 3.54 3.76 3.86 3.86 Base Current 3.69 3.74 3.81 3.84 Pulse Frequency 3.66 3.92 3.56 4.06 Pulse Duty Cycle 3.49 3.51 3.59 4.14 %age of He in 3.87 3.89 3.47 4.01 Argon
Level 5 3.88 3.82 3.71 4.18 3.65
4.4
Confirmation Test
The optimal level of process parameters were predicted by using the response graph and ANOVA. The process parameters and their levels which affect the weld bead geometry are pulse current at level 5, background current at level 4, pulse frequency at level 5, pulse duty cycle at level 5 and %age of He at level 3. The obtained result was verified by conducting a confirmation test based on results obtained in table 8.
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Average Response 3.5 4 4.5
Fig 2: Response graph for Bead Geometry Properties P B F T X Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Parameters Level Level 5
Level 1
Optimum Response Predicted Experiment 5.
Table 8: Confirmation test results Optimal level of Bead penetration Bead width process parameters (p) mm (b) mm P5 - B4 F1 - T5 X4 P5 - B4 F1 - T5 X4 2.29 10.43
Bead height (h) mm 2.39
Conclusions
This experimental study has been conducted to understand the effect of process parameters of pulsed GTAW on AA6061. On the basis of the above results it had been observed that pulse current, background current, pulse frequency and pulse duty cycle plays an important role for optimising the weld bead geometries but the parameter, %age of He in Ar+He gas mixture had the maximum contribution i.e. 29.90%. In this investigation, the pulse current of 210 A, background current of 120 A, pulse frequency of 50 Hz, pulse duty cycle of 90% and 40% of He in Ar+He gas mixture resulted the maximum values of bead geometry. The confirmation test conducted with predicted levels of factors proved to be effective and worthy. References [1] Senthil. Kumar. T, Balasubramanian. V, Babu. S and Sanavullah, M. Y. Effect of pulsed current GTAW parameters on fusion zone microstructure of AA6061. International Journal of Metals & Materials, 13 (4), 2007, 345 351. [2] Mohamed, A.A. Optimisation of weld bead dimensions in GTAW of Al-Mg alloy. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 16 (5), 2001, 725 736. [3] Balasubramanian, M. and Balasubramanain, V. Process parameter optimisation of the Pulsed GTAW of Titanium alloy. Journal of Material Science and Technology, 24(3), 2008, 423 426. [4] Ko, S. H. and Yoo, C.D. Effects of surface depression on poll convention & geometry in stationary GTAW. Welding journal, 80(2), 2001, 39-s to 45-s. [5] Reichelt, W. R. and Hoy, M.G. Effect of shielding gas on GMA welding. Welding Journal, 59(5), 1980, 147-s to 155-s. [6] Leitner, R.E., Mcelhinney, H. and Pruitt, E.I. An investigation of Pulsed welding variables. Welding Journal, 52(9), 1973, 405-s to 410-s. th [7] Jenney, C. L. and OBrien, A. AWS welding handbook. 1, 2001, 9 Ed. [8] Radaj, Dieter. Heat effects of welding, Springer-Verlag. Berlin, 1992, 1st Ed.
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Comparison of the performance of Ti-Al-N coated cermet tool with the Ti[C,N] mixed alumina cutting tool and the uncoated cermet cutting tool
A. Poomari1, B. Mohan1, A. Rajadurai1, A. Senthil Kumar2 and M. Adam Khan2
2
MIT Campus, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. Sethu institute of Technology, Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu, India. Corresponding author (E-mail: poovu@rediffmail.com)
Machining studies on AISI D2 die steel was performed with different cutting tool for comparison of wear study. The purpose of the experimental work is to compare the tool wear of Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool with Ti[C,N] mixed alumina based ceramic cutting tool and uncoated cermet cutting tool. Coating of Ti-Al-N was made on titanium carbide based cermet cutting tool using PVD process to ensure tool wear resistance. Tool performance evaluation was based on flank wear and surface finish. Cutting tool flank wear was measured with the help of Metzer tool makers microscope. Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool has near most tool wear to Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool and better than that of uncoated cermet cutting tool. From SEM observation, Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool has smooth wear land compared to uncoated cermet cutting tool; thermal fracture and grooves were also observed on the edge of uncoated cermet cutting tools. Surface roughness of machined AISI D2 die steel is comparable between Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool and Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool, however uncoated cermet cutting tool produce more rough surface at minimum speed. The performance of Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool is compared with the Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool and it proves that TiAl-N coated cermet cutting tool has comparable performance to Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool.
1.
Introduction
The development of machine tools and cutting tool materials achieved over a past few decades have shown the way to use higher cutting speed associated with conventional machine tools. Final finishing operation is reduced in these combinations or some time it might be eliminated. The main draw back in the anatomy of the cutting tool is the tool wear caused due to high temperature generated in cutting zone while machining at higher cutting speed. Paulo Davim et al (2007) statistically proved that cutting velocity plays a major role on machining AISI D2 steel with alumina based ceramic cutting tool. Alumina (Al2O3) based cutting tools are suitable for high speed cutting operation. It is due to high hot hardness, wear resistance and chemical inertness of Al2O3 based cutting tool [Camuscu (2006)]. Consequently, machining studies on ceramic cutting tool is considered to be one of the most important areas for research. These alumina cutting tools are wide used to machine hard to machine materials. While machining hard materials, tool wear of alumina cutting tool are caused due to the interaction of abrasive wear, adhesive wear and micro chipping [Li et al (2002)]. Tool wear mechanisms are based on the stress and temperature on the rake face of the cutting tool. It is generally attributed to rubbing of tool with work materials. Tool wear also increase in case of hard inclusion or when there is debris in work piece materials [Senthil Kumar et al (2006)]. In the field of machining science a novel cutting tool namely cermet was developed in the combination of ceramic and metal. Cermet cutting insert represents the most common and
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important cutting tool in this field. Compared to cemented carbide cutting tool, cermet has high temperature hardness, resistance to oxidation and better chemical stability [Ning Liu (2005), Won Tae Kwon (2005)]. Because of these characteristics, cermet cutting tools are used for high cutting speed machining operations. The most important application of cermet cutting tool is for finish machining process. Cermets are most fairly composed of hard phase, namely TiC and TiN or Ti[C,N] bonded by metallic binders. On the other hands the metallic binders represents a tough, ductility and conductivity phase which helps in mitigating in inherent brittleness of the ceramic fraction and supplies the liquid phase that is necessary for sintering [Errico (1998)]. While evaluating the performance of ceramic tool materials, minimum in production cost, best for high speed finishing operation and it is outperformed to other cutting tool materials like CBN and PCD. However ceramic performs better than the cermets [Errico (2001)]. A question of recent interest is to review whether the resistance of cermet cutting tools to wear has improved by the use of appropriate hard coatings. Research in this area is concentrated on new composite gradient coating, multi component and multilayer coating and adding new elements to coating combination like silicon or vanadium to Ti-Al-N [Dobrzanski (2005)]. In this paper, it is attempted to compare the performance of tool wear of Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool with Ti[C,N] mixed alumina based ceramic cutting tool and uncoated cermet cutting tool. A thin layer of PVD coatings was made on cermet cutting tool machining trial was made to perform on AISI D2 die steel. 2. 2.1 Experimental Procedure Materials
The investigation on continuous machining study was performed on AISI D2 die steel (52 HRC). In order to calculate and assure that the chuck / work material / cutting tool, it should have required strength with respect to Length to Diameter (L/D) ratio (Lima et al., 2005). Geometry of AISI D2 steel is 50 mm in diameter and machining length of 300 mm and it has L/D ratio of 6. At the end of machining studies, the L/D ratio will be approximately 8 which ensure that the required stiffness can be attained in chuck / work material / cutting tool system. Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool and TiC based cermet of uncoated and Ti-Al-N coated wear resisting cutting tool were used to machine the work material. Details of cutting tool are given in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1: Details of Cutting tools Density Composition (g/cm3) Al2O3 - 70%, TiN - 22.5% 4.26 TiC - 7.5% TiC - 56 %, VC - 10%, Ni 4.9 - 20%, Co -14%
Details of Tool Material Ti[C,N] mixed alumina TiC based Cermet
Hardness 1800 (HV10) 1680 (HV18)
Youngs Modulus (GPa) 400 439.4
Cutting tools Tool 1, Tool 2 and Tool 3
Table 2: Details of tool geometry of the cutting tools rake clearance inclination plan Included angle angle angle approach angle angle (er) () () () () -6 6 -6 95 80
nose radius (re) 0.8 mm
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2.2
Machining Studies
Machining studies were carried out to machine AISI D2 Die steel material in precision lathe using uncoated cermet cutting tool (Tool 1) and Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool (Tool 2) along with Ti[C,N] mixed alumina cutting tool (Tool 3). Machining process was performed by varying cutting speeds at constant feed rate (0.06 mm/rev) and depth of cut (0.2 mm). Flank wear of the cutting tools and surface finish were observed while machining AISI D2 die steel. Flank wear is measured using Metzer Toolmakers microscope. And the tool wear of each cutting tool was interpreted to compare the performance of each machining process. Surface roughness of machined AISI D2 die steel was measured using TR200 Series roughness meter with respect to machining time and cutting velocity. 3. 3.1 Results and Discussions Tool Wear mechanism
While machining work material, cutting tool undergoes gradual or rapid deformation from its original shape till some criterion is met. That is measured to calculate the tool life of cutting tool. To retain maximum tool life of the cutting tool, some of the processes are take in consideration. In recent machining studies the cutting tools have dealt with titanium based nitride coatings. Ti-Al-N coatings were composed of the Titanium Aluminum Nitrogen elements [Zheng et al (2009)]. SEM Micrograph of Ti-Al-N coated layer of cermet cutting tool was shown in Figure 1. The coating has dense homogeneous microstructure of approximately 4 microns and its effective adhesiveness with the substrate. Ti-Al-N coating provides excellent wear and oxidation resistance which enables the improved machinability at dry cutting conditions. During high temperature applications of the cutting tool, thermal tool failure occurs. This is due to the cyclic change in temperature variation with cutting tool edge and atmosphere temperature. It was clearly observed from the SEM micrograph of uncoated cermet cutting tool (Figure 2). Thermal fatigue leads to tool fracture at minimum cutting speed itself and leading to lower tool life. At the same cutting condition the cutting tool wear appears with ridge and seam on uncoated cermet insert. However these can be avoided on Ti-Al-N coated cermet tool. A strong and very dense Al203 film is formed by Al atoms diffusion to surface on preventing further oxidation. It shows the metastable phase of age hardened effect on the cutting tool. The coated cutting tool was able to withstand the thermal fatigue and there was no appearance of thermal crack as shown in figure 3. It was also found that the cutting tool edge deformation of Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting is very less compared to that uncoated cermet cutting tool. In uncoated cermet cutting tool, the wear tracks in worn blocks suggest the abrasive wear mechanism with plastic deformation is responsible for tool wear. It is also found to be very smooth and small in wear land. During the wear process between the Ti-al-N coated cermet tool and AISI D2 steel, the wear mechanism was adhesive wear combined with abrasive wear at maximum cutting velocity. 3.2 Flank wear
Flank wear of cutting tool are set based on the finish machining with a maximum flank wear of 0.3mm. Moderate range of machining was good on Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool than that of uncoated cermet cutting tool. It was already clearly explained in the above sections with the help of SEM micrograph. Cutting tool edge wear land on flank region was measured and plotted on Figure 4 and Figure 5. It clearly explains the cutting tool behavior with respect to cutting speed and machining time. As the cutting speed increase the tool wear also gradually increase with respect to machining time.
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Figure 1: SEM micrograph of Ti-Al-N coating on cermet cutting tool
Figure 2: SEM micrograph of uncoated cermet cutting tool wear
Figure 3: SEM micrograph of Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool wear

0.35 0.3
Flank Wear(mm)
0.35 0.3
Flank Wear(mm)
Tool 1 Tool 2 Tool 3
0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0
0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 Tool 1 Tool 2 Tool 3 0 2 4 6 8 Machining Tim e (m in) 10
50 100 Cutting Spe ed (m/min)
150
Figure 4: Flank Wear of cutting tools with respect to cutting velocity at 9 minutes 971
Figure 5: Flank Wear of cutting tools with respect to machining time at 118 m/min
From the observations made on flank wear, the Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool (tool 2) has gradual increase in tool wear as like as in Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool (tool 3). Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool has marginal flank wear of 0.3 mm at a cutting velocity of 118 m/min after 9 minutes. Which is slightly close to the flank wear of Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool (0.25mm) at the same cutting velocity. However, uncoated cermet cutting tool (tool 1) has a flank wear of 0.34mm at the same cutting condition and it has been tailed to cause tool failure before reaching 9 minutes. with respect to the machining time, uncoated cermet cutting tool (tool 1) reaches the tool failure criterion very fast than that of Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool (tool 2) and Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool (tool 3). Comparably Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool can able to machine hard metals at moderate cutting velocity than uncoated cermet cutting tool. It is due to the hard coatings of Ti-Al-N layered compounds, where as Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool will produce acceptable tool wear at moderate cutting velocity. 3.3 Surface Roughness
Surface roughness of machined AISI D2 die steel using uncoated cermet cutting tool (tool 1), Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool (tool 2) and Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool (tool 3) was plotted in figure 6 & figure 7. Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool has produced comparable surface finish than that of Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool. This is due to the high resistive coating of Ti-Al-N coating on cermet cutting tool which leads in less spalling on cutting tool edge. At higher cutting velocity (118 m/min), surface finish of unworn cutting tools are very less; at the same cutting condition rapid increase in roughness was observed. Uncoated cermet cutting tool produce poor surface finish on machined surface after prolonged machining due to increased tool-workpiece contact area, with increased flank wear. However, plastic deformation of the cutting tool edge of the coated cermet tool tends to reduce the machining operation. Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool has undergone very less deformation and produced better surface finish than that of the uncoated cermet cutting tool. Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool provides better cutting performance than uncoated cermet cutting tool and it is comparable to that of Ti[C,N] mixed alumina cutting tool.
4.5
5
Tool 1
Surface Roughness ( m)
Surface Roughness ( m)
Tool 2 Tool 3 4
4.5
Tool 1 Tool 2 Tool 3
3.5 70 90 110 130 Cutting Velocity (m /m in)
3.5 0 2 4 6 8 10 Machining Tim e (m in)
Figure 6: Surface roughness m) of cutting tools with respect to cutting velocity at 9 minutes
Figure 7: Surface roughness ( m) of cutting tools with respect to machining time at 118 m/min
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4.
Conclusion
On machining AISI D2 die steel, Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool performed satisfactorily than that of uncoated cermet cutting tool and produced comparable performance with Ti[C,N] based alumina cutting tool. Ti-Al-N coated cermet cutting tool has less edge deformation than uncoated cermet cutting tool. Wear land was also found to be very smooth in TiAlN coated cermet tool than that of others. Fine surface finish was also found in alumina and TiAl-N coated cermet cutting tool, however at the worn out stage, surface finish of uncoated cermet cutting tool has poor finish. In conclusion, Ti-Al-N coated cermet tool can also be used to machine AISI D2 die steel it produces comparable performance with Ti[C,N] mixed alumina cutting tool and shows better performance than uncoated cermet cutting tool. Reference [1] Camuscu. N. Effect of cutting speed on the performance of Al2O3 based ceramic tools in turning nodular cast iron. Materials and Design, 27, 2006, 9971006. [2] J. Paulo Davim, Lus Figueira, Machinability evaluation in hard turning of cold work tool steel (D2) with ceramic tools using statistical techniques, Materials and Design, 28, 2007, 1186 1191. [3] L. Li, N. He, M. Wang, Z.G. Wang, () High speed cutting of inconel 718 with coated carbide and ceramic inserts Jr of Material Processing Tech. 129, 2002, 127 130. [4] Senthil Kumara, A. Raja Durai, T. Sornakumar. The effect of tool wear on tool life of aluminabased ceramic cutting tools while machining hardened martensitic stainless steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 173, 2006, 151156 [5] Ning Liu, Chengliang Han, Haidong Yang, Yudong Xu, Min Shi, Sheng Chao, Feng Xie, The milling performances of TiC-based cermet tools with TiN nanopowders addition against normalized medium carbon steel AISI1045. Wear, 258, 2005, 16881695. [6] Won Tae Kwon, June Seuk Park, Shinhoo Kang, Effect of group IV elements on the cutting characteristics of Ti(C,N) cermet tools and reliability analysis. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 166, 2005, 914. [7] G.E. DErrico, R. Calzavarini, B. Vicenzi. Influences of PVD coatings on cermet tool life in continuous and interrupted turning. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 78, 1998, 5358 [8] G.E DErrico, S. Bugliosi, D, Cuppini. Erosion of ceramics and cermets Journal of Material Processing Technology, 118, 2001, 448 453. [9] L.A. Dobrzanski, K. Goombek, Structure and properties of the cutting tools made from cemented carbides and cermets with the TiN+ mono-, gradient- or multi (Ti, Al, Si)N + TiN nanocrystalline coatings, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 164165, 2005, 805 815 [10] Lima, J.G., Avila, R.F., Abrao A.M., Faustino, M. and Paulo Davim J. Hard turning: AISI 4340 high strength low alloy steel and AISI D2 cold work tool steel Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 169, 2005, 388 395 [11] Zheng Liyun, Zhao Lixin, and Xiong Weihao, Tribological properties of TiAlN-coated cermets, Rare Metals, 28 (1),57 62.
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat - 395 007, Gujarat, India
Effect of Magnesium addition on High Temperature Wear Behavior of A356 Alloy

M. S. Prabhudev1, T. M. Chandrashekharaiah1 and S. A. Kori2
2 1
Basaveshwar Engg. college, Bagalkot-587 102, Karnataka, India Visvesvarayya Technological University (VTU), Belgaum-590 014,Karnataka, India
Corresponding author (e-mail: kori.shivu@gmail.com) In the present study, the influence of temperature (RT, 100, 200 and 300C) on sliding wear behavior of A356 alloy without and with various addition levels of Mg (0.3-0.7%) were studied using pin-on-disc high temperature wear testing machine. The commercially available Al-20%Mg master alloy was used for strengthening of A356 alloy. Master alloy and the worn surfaces of wear specimens were characterized by image analyzer and SEM/EDX. The present results suggest that the weight loss of A356 alloy decreases with increasing addition level of magnesium and the weight loss was minimum for 0.7%Mg addition to A356 alloy in all the tested conditions. Further, it is observed that improvement in the mechanical properties were obtained with the optimal addition level of 0.7%Mg to A356 alloy. The worn surface study shows that the change in microstructure leads to improvement in tribological properties of A356 alloy. 1. Introduction
Wear the progressive damage and material loss, occurs on the surface of a component as a result of its motion relative to the adjacent working parts. It involves not only the cost of replacement but also the expenses involved in the machine downtime and loss of production [1]. Commercial A356 (7%Si) alloy finds widespread applications in automotive, marine, aerospace and general engineering industries where they are used for cylinder blocks, cylinder heads and other body castings due to their excellent combination of properties such as good fluidity, low coefficient of thermal expansion, high strength-to-weight ratio and good corrosion resistance [1-4]. The wear behavior of Al-Si alloys depends on number of material related mechanical properties, microstructure in addition to the service conditions such as load, sliding speed, temperature, environment and counter surface [3,4]. The physical and mechanical properties attainable are strongly influenced by the chemical composition, presence of trace elements; melt treatments, solidification rate and heat treatment [2]. It is well known that addition of small amounts of Cu, Mg, or Ni strengthens aluminium-silicon alloys and also the presence of Si provides good casting properties [5]. Addition of Mg to Al-Si alloys increases the matrix strength, but decreases the ductility [6]. Pramilabai and Biswas [7] observed an increase in wear resistance of hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys when the Mg addition is varied from 0.3-0.9%. A.T.Joenoes and Gruzleski [8] in their study on the A356 (Al-7%Si) alloy with minor addition of Mg, concluded that with higher addition of Mg to Al-7%Si alloy results in the formation of Mg2Si phase [9] and the final structure consists of a fine lamellar and even possibly a fibrous structure. From the Literature review, it is clear that little information is available on high temperature wear and friction behavior of A356 alloy with and without addition of magnesium. o From the viewpoint of high temperature (200-300 C) applications in industry involving wear and friction ex: pistons, cylinder heads and blocks for car engines, the present work is significant [10-16]. In the present work, an attempt has been made to study the effect of Mg addition on the high temperature wear behavior of A356 alloy and to correlate with microstructure and mechanical properties.
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2.
Experimental details
A356 alloy was melted in a resistance furnace under a cover flux and the melt was 0 held at 720 C. After degassing with solid hexachloroethane, Al-20%Mg master alloy chips were added to the melt. The melt was stirred for 30 seconds with zirconia-coated iron rod after the addition of master alloy. Melts were poured at 0min. and 5min. into a split type graphite mould for preparing wear and tensile specimens. The 0 min. refers to the melt without the addition of Mg. The size of the wear test pin taken was 10mm X 32mm length (As per ASTM G99 standards). The chemical compositions of A356 alloy and Al-20%Mg master alloy were assessed using atomic absorption spectrometer (model: Varian AA-240, Netherlands) and are shown in Table1. Wear tests were conducted on a pin-on-disc (Ducom TR-20M35, make) high temperature wear testing machine with a heating chamber. The test pin was loaded against the disc with a dead weight through a pulley string arrangement. The disc material is made up of En-31 steel (C-0.9%, Si-0.35%, Mn-0.75%, S-0.05%, Cr-1.6% and balance Fe) with a hardness value of HRc 45. A constant 90mm track diameter was used throughout the experimental work. An analytical balance with a precision of 0.0001g was used to measure the weight of the pin before and after the each test. The wear rate was calculated from the weight loss method. The sliding wear tests were carried out at constant conditions 2 such as sliding speed of 1.884 m/s, normal pressure of 0.716N/mm and sliding distance of 1696.460m with different compositions and at four test temperatures. Each test result was obtained from an average of three readings. Table 1.Chemical composition of cast and master Alloy
Alloy Composition A356 Al-20Mg

3. 3.1
Si 6.96 -
Cu 0.1
Mg 0.3 19.60
Composition (wt.%) Fe Mn Zn Pb 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 -
Sn 0.05 -
Ti 0.2 -
Al Bal Bal
Results & Discussions Microstructural studies
Fig.1a-f shows the image analyzer photomicrographs A356 alloy without and with the addition of Al-20%Mg master alloy. From the Fig.1a it is clear that absence of Mg has shown coarse columnar -Al dendritic structure and unmodified needle/plate like eutectic silicon. However, addition of Mg to A356 alloy resulted in conversion of unmodified acicular silicon to lamellar and possibly even a fibrous structure in several small regions (Fig.1b-f).
(a) (a) (b) (c)
Unmodified eutectic Si (d) (e) (f)
Modified eutectic Si
Fig.1a-f Shows the optical micrographs of A356 alloy without and with addition of magnesium (a) as cast alloy (b) with 0.3%Mg (c) with 0.4%Mg (d) with 0.5%Mg (e) With 0.6%Mg and (f) with 0.7%Mg (Magnification x100). 3.2 Effect of temperature on weight loss
Fig.2a shows the effect of temperature on weight loss of A356 alloy with various additions of magnesium. From the figure, it is clear that the weight loss increases with increase in temperature in three distinct regions in all the cases studied and the weight loss is higher in case of as cast A356 alloy. These three regions have been identified as mild wear
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(oxidative), intermediate wear (combination of mild and severe) and severe wear (metallic regions), which are separated by sharp transition points. It has been observed that when the sliding temperature increases after the transition point of 200C, a significant increase in weight loss takes place. However, severe wear occurs at 300C of temperature and it was characterized by gross plastic deformation and transfer of material to counterface. It is also clear from the figure that the optimum addition of 0.7% of Mg to A356 alloy has resulted in minimum weight loss when compared to the 0.3 to 0.6% of Mg and to the as cast condition. The addition of magnesium to A356 alloy is strengthening of the matrix and morphological changes. The stronger matrix resists plastic deformation in subsurface, results in increased rigidity and fracture toughness to the subsurface. Due to which wear resistance increases owing to lesser weight loss. Similarly, fig.2b shows the effect of temperature on frictional force of A356 alloy without and with the addition of magnesium tested under similar conditions. It is observed that the frictional force of alloy increases with increase in bulk temperature in all the cases studied and the frictional force was higher in case of as cast alloy.
0.5
(a)
A356 A356+0.3% Mg 0.4 A356+0.4% Mg A356+0.5% Mg A356+0.6% Mg 0.3 A356+0.7% Mg 2 Constant normal presuure=0.716N/mm Constant sliding speed=1.884m/sec 0.2 Constant sliding distance=1696.460m 0.1
30
(b)
A356 A356+0.3% Mg A356+0.4% Mg A356+0.5% Mg A356+0.6% Mg A356+0.7% Mg 20
Weight loss (g)
Frictional force (N)
0.0 0 100 200 300

10 0
Constant normal presuure=0.716N/mm Constant sliding speed=1.884m/sec Constant sliding distance=1696.460m 100 200
o
300
Temperature ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Fig. 2a and b Shows the effect of temperature on weight loss and frictional force of A356 alloy without and with the addition of Magnesium 3.3.1 Worn surface studies Fig. 3a-d shows the SEM photomicrographs of the worn surfaces of as cast A356 o o o alloy after the wear test at various temperatures RT, 100 C, 200 C and 300 C. From fig.3a, it is clear that the worn surface of as cast alloy consists of shallow and rough continuous and discontinuous parallel grooves indicating two and three-body abrasion. The loss of material is low at RT probably due to the formation of oxide film on the sliding surface of the wear pin and thus prevents the metallic wear. With the increase of temperature (at 100oC), the worn surface shows wide parallel grooves with crack initiation on the worn surface (Fig.3b). However at higher temperatures (at 200oC and 300oC), the surface of the test pin become quite plastic enough to deform and finally fracture due to high frictional heat generated such that the wear debris are formed and dislodged from the pin surface through several processes of wear. These are (i) adhesion and shearing of the junctions between the matrix of the test pin and the steel disc, (ii) abrasion or ploughing of the test pin surfaces by the loose hard debris of the matrix alloy and (iii) more cracking and delamination of the surface due to fatigue effect. All these modes leads to what is known as metallic wear. The seizure wear occurs at the highest test temperature of 300oC in case of as cast alloy.
(a) Oxide formation (b)
001 Widely parallel grooves with more oxide formation
(c)
(d)
(d)
Detachment of wear debris
Two body abrasive Three body abrasive grooves
Wide parallel grooves
Fig.3. The SEM photomicrographs of worn surface of A356 alloy at various temperatures (a) RT (b) 100C (c) 200C and (d) 300C(Magnification x100) ( (
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Fig. 4a-d shows the SEM photomicrographs of the worn surfaces of A356 alloy with the optimal addition 0.7% of magnesium tested under similar conditions as that of the as-cast alloy. From the Fig.4a, it is clear that the worn surface of alloy tested at room temperature consists of smooth strips with continuous parallel abrasion grooves and oxide formation when compared to the as cast alloy. With the increase of temperature (at100oC), the worn surface shows wide parallel grooves and more oxide formation (Fig. 4b). At 200oC the worn surface of test pin shows more widely parallel grooves indicating onset of severe wear. However at o 300 C, the worn surface exhibits deep abrasive grooves, large voids and cracks formations with oxide layers. But in this case the severity of surface damage is less as compared to ascast alloy.
Narrow parallel grooves
(a)
(a)
(
Wide parallel grooves
(b) (b)
(b)
(c) Oxide formation Wide grooves
(c)
Deep abrasive grooves
(d)
Crack
001
0.2 mm 0.2 mm
Fig. 4 SEM photomicrographs of worn surface of A356 alloy with the addition of 0.7% of magnesium at various temperatures (a) RT (b) 100C (c) 200C and (d) 300C 3.4 Effect of Mg on mechanical properties of A356 alloy It is observed from the Fig.5 that with increasing addition level of Mg to A356 alloy increases the Proof stress (PS), Ultimate tensile stress (UTS) and Hardness (VHN) while ductility decreases. It can also be seen from the graph that 0.7% of Mg addition to A356 alloy shows the maximum improvement in PS, UTS and VHN as compared to lower addition level of Mg to the melt due to finer precipitation of Mg2Si phase. This is due to the fact that, the magnesium acts as modifier, changes the silicon from acicular to lamellar and fibrous structures, which results in improvement in mechanical properties [7,8].
Mechanical properties (PS, UTS %E and VHN)
300 UTS (MPa) 0.2% PS (MPa) VHN %E 200
100
0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 % of Mg present in A356 alloy 0.7 0.8
Fig. 5. Shows the mechanical properties of A356 alloy with various additions of Mg.
4. Conclusions
At constant normal pressure, sliding speed and at constant sliding distance the weight loss of A356 alloy increases with increase in temperature. However weight loss decreases with the increasing addition level of magnesium. Better wear resistance was observed with the addition of 0.7% of Mg when compared to other addition levels and to the as cast condition at various test temperatures such as RT, 100C, 200C and 300C. The dominant wear mechanisms observed in as cast A356 alloy at RT and 100C were abrasive and oxidative wear. Whereas abrasive, oxidative and delaminative type of wear were observed at 200C and 300C temperatures respectively. A356 alloy containing 0.7%Mg has the improved mechanical properties compared to the alloys having lower addition level of Mg and to the as cast conditions.
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5.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Defense, Naval Research Board (NRB), New Delhi, INDIA for the financial support of the present work. The authors also wish to thank Prof.M.Chakrborty, IIT Kharagpur and Prof. B. S. Murty, IIT Chennai, India for their constant help and encouragement. References [1] Chandrashekharaiah, T. M. Studies on the sliding wear behavior of grain refined and modified hypoeutectic, eutectic and hypereutectic Al-Si alloys, Ph.D. Thesis, VTU, Karnataka, India, 2007. [2] Kori, S.A. Grain Refinement and modification of some hypoeutectic and eutectic Al-Si alloys, Ph. D Thesis, IIT Kharagpur, 2000. [3] Kori, S.A. and Chandrashekharaiah, T. M. Studies on the dry sliding wear behavior of hypoeutectic and eutectic Al-Si alloys, Int. J. of Wear, Sp. issue, 2007, 745-755. [4] Chandrashekharaiah, T. M. and Kori, S.A. Effect of grain refinement and modification on the dry sliding wear behavior of eutectic Al-Si alloys. Tribology international, 42, 2009, 5965. [5] Gruzleski, J. E. and Closset, B.M. The treatment of Liquid Aluminium-Silicon alloys, AFS, Illinois,1990,1-254. [6] Thirugnanam, A. Sukumaran, K. Pillai, U.T.S. Raghukandan, K. and Pai, B.C. Effect of Mg On the fracture characteristics of cast Al-7Si-Mg alloys, Material science and Engineering, A, 445-446, 2007, 405-414. [7] Pramilabai, B.N. and Biswas, S.K. Effect of Magnesium addition and heat treatment on mild wear of hypoeutectic aluminium silicon alloys, Acta Metall. Mater., 39(39), 1991,833840. [8] Joenoes, A.T. and Gruzleski, Magnesium effects on the microstructure of unmodified and modified Al-Si alloys. Cast Metals, 4 (2), 1991, 62-71. [9] Kashyap, K.T. Murali, S., Raman, S.K. and Murthy, K.S.S. Overview of casting and heat treatment variables of Al-7Si-Mg alloy, Material science and Tech., 9,1993,189-203. [10] Wilson, S. and Alpas, A.T. Effects of temperature on the sliding wear performance of Al alloys and Al matrix composites, Wear, 196, 1996, 270-278. [11] Martin, M.A. Martrin, A. and Lorca, J. Wear of Sic reinforced Al-matrix in the temperature 0 range of 20-200 C , Wear,193,1996,169-179. [12] Lee. Cast aluminium alloys for high temperature applications, The Minerals, Metals and Materials society, 2003. [13] Martin, M.A. Martrin, A. and Lorca, J. Wear of Al-Si alloys and Al-Si/SiC composites at ambient and elevated temperatures, Scripta metallurgica et. materilia, 28, 1993, 207212. [14] Lee, J.A. High strength Aluminium casting Alloy for high-temperature applications, Marshall Space Flight center (MSFC), NASA, December 1998. [15] Singh, J. and Alpas, A.T. Elevated temperature wear of Al6061 and Al606120%Al 2O3Scripta metallurgica. et Materilia, 32(7),1995,1099-1105. [16] Liu, Yao-hui, DuJun, Yusi-rong, Wang Wei, High temperature friction and wear behavior of Al 2O3 and/or carbon short fiber reinforced Al-12Si alloy composites, Wear, 256,2004, 275-285.
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An Investigation of Machinability of SiC Particle reinforced Al-MMC

Rajesh Kumar Bhushan1 ,S Das2, Sudhir Kumar1
2
Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu, J&K (INDIA) Advanced Materials&Processes Research Institute, Bhopal,(INDIA) Corresponding author (e-mail: rkbrjit@yahoo.com)
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) derive their excellent mechanical properties from the combination of a hard reinforcement phase such as silicon carbide (SiC) and a ductile matrix material such as aluminium. MMCs have advantages over conventional materials in terms of strength to weight ratios, reduced sensitivity to temperature variations, increased stiffness and improved wear resistance. Applications of metal matrix composites for structural and wear resistant components in aerospace, automotive and recreational fields necessitated an in-depth analysis of quality of machined surfaces. In a turning operation, it is an important task to select cutting parameters for achieving high cutting performance. Usually, the desired cutting parameters are determined based on experience or by use of a hand book. However, this does not ensure that the selected cutting parameters have optimal or near optimal cutting performance for a particular machine and environment. This paper deals with the result of an experimental investigation on the machinability of Al silicon alloy with 10 wt%SiC particulate metal-matrix composites (PMMC). Dry turning tests, at different cutting speeds, feed rates and depths of cut were conducted in order to investigate their effect on the cutting forces and built up edge (BUE) . 1. Introduction and Literature review Aluminium matrix composites possess many advantages such as low specific density, high strength and good wear resistance. Aluminium is used as matrix. Reinforcement can be continuous or non-continuous. Some of the non-continuous reinforcement materials are whisker, fibers or particles. In particular, the particulate reinforced aluminium matrix composites not only have good mechanical and wear resistance properties, but are also economically viable [1,2]. Therefore, SiC-particulate-reinforced aluminium composites have found many applications in the aerospace and automotive industry. There are many methods for fabrication of particulate reinforced metal matrix composites such as powder metallurgy, squeeze casting, compocasting and stir casting [3,4 and 5]. For the metal matrix composites, stir casting is a cost effective method while powder metallurgy is costly, and squeeze casting provides good infiltration quality. The morphology, distribution and volume fraction of the reinforcement phase as well as the matrix properties are factors that affect the overall mechanical and cutting properties. Due to the addition of reinforcing materials, which are normally harder and stiffer than matrix, machining becomes significantly more difficult than those of conventional materials. This has been reported in earlier publications [6-7]. Paper presents the result of an experimental investigation on the machinability of silicon carbide particulate aluminium metal matrix composite (LM6Mg15SiCp) during turning using fixed rhombic tools. The influence of machining parameters, e.g. cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on the cutting force and surface finish criteria were investigated during the experimentation. The combined effect of cutting speed and feed on the flank wear was investigated. Test results show that the flank wear rate is high at low cutting speed due to the generation of high cutting forces and formation of BUE during machining of Al/SiC-MMC. Cutting speed zone between 60 and 150 m/min was recommended for machining of Al/SiCMMC, where cutting forces are more or less independent of cutting speed. Feed was found to be less sensitive to the flank wear as compared to the cutting speed. High speed, low feed and low depth of cut were recommended for better surface finish [8].
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In this study, CVD diamond-coated tools, 30 m thick on tungsten carbide substrates, were investigated by outside diameter turning of MMC of aluminum-alloy reinforced with silicon-carbide particles (A359/SiC/20p). Cutting conditions ranged from 1 m/s to 6 m/s of cutting speed, 0.05 mm/ rev to 0.3 mm/rev feed, and 1 mm to 2 mm depth of cut. Tool wear was measured and compared at different machining conditions. Worn diamond-coated tools were extensively characterized by scanning electron microscopy. Cutting forces, chip thickness, and the chiptool contact area were also measured for cutting temperature simulation by finite element analysis. From wear measurements, force data, and worn surface characterizations, catastrophic coating failure (peeling-off) caused by strong work material adhesion and high cutting temperatures limits the tool life. Difference in thermal expansions between the coating and substrate results in high stresses, due to elevated cutting temperatures, and subsequent coating removal once the internal built-up stress by high temperatures overcomes the bonding strength [9]. The influence of machining parameters, e.g. cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on the cutting force was investigated during turning of LM6Mg15 SiCp by using Uncoated tungsten carbide (WC) (HW-K10) tool .The influence of the length of machining and cutting time on the tool wear and the influence of various machining parameters, e.g. cutting speed, feed, depth of cut on the surface finish criteria was analyzed through the various graphical representations. The combined effect of cutting speed and feed on the flank wear was also investigated. The influence of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on the tool wears and builtup edge was analyzed graphically. The job surface condition and wear of the cutting tool edge for the different sets of experiments were examined and compared for searching out the suitable cutting condition for effective machining performance during turning of Al/SiC-MMC. Test results show that no built-up edge is formed during machining of Al/SiCMMC at high speed and low depth of cut. The test results indicates that flank wear rate is high at low cutting speed due to the generation of high cutting forces and formation of built-up edge during machining of Al/SiC-MMC. Hence cutting speed zone between 60 m/min to 150m/min was recommended for machining of Al/SiC-MMC, where cutting forces are more or less independent of cutting speed. The generation of built-up edge during machining of Al/SiCMMC at low cutting speed increase the actual rake angle and it is found to correlate with the increment of cutting forces, which may in turn increase the cutting tool wear [10].In present paper, the influence of melt treatment (grain refinement and modification) and heat treatment (T6) of cast LM13 and LM28 aluminium alloys on machining behaviour has been reported. Alloys under investigation were prepared by controlled melting and casting followed by heat treatment (T6). As-cast, melt-treated and heat-treated alloys were investigated for machining characteristic at different cutting speeds. Melt treatment of both the alloys (LM13 and LM28) reduced the cutting force and cutting temperature whereas heat treatment increased both cutting force and cutting temperature [11]. So far no work has been reported about the machining of Al silicon alloy reinforced with 10 wt %SiC. In this work, high-speed steel (HSS) and carbides tools have been used for turning of Al silicon alloy reinforced with 10 wt %SiC. Thrust force, feed force and radial force have been measured. Optimum value of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut have been find out for economical machining. 2. 2.1 Experimental procedure Cutting forces
Cutting force generated on tool during the machining is governed by work material characteristics and machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut. There are three components of cutting force i.e. thrust force (Fv), feed force (Ff) and radial force (Fr). These forces generated on tool during the machining were measured by dynamometer .The thrust force (Fv) is largest in the three components of forces. It is therefore responsible for most of the power consumption. Cutting forces verses cutting speed curve at varied values of feed and depth of cut using HSS and carbide tools are shown in figure 1 and 2 respectively.
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2.2
Cutting tools High-speed steel (HSS 10% cobalt) and carbide insert were used for turning
experiments.
3
Cutting Force (Kg) Cutting Force (Kg)
3 Thrust Force (Fv) 2 Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr) 1 0
Thrust Force (Fv) Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr)
0 60 80 100 120 Cutting Speed (m/min)
60
80
100
120
Cutting Speed (m/min)
Figure 1(a) Feed 0.1mm/rev and depth of cut 0.02 mm 0.04 mm
Figure 1(b) Feed 0.2mm/rev and depth of cut
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 60 80 100 120 Cutting Speed (m/min)
25
Cutting Force (Kg)
Cutting Force (Kg)
20 15 10 5 0 60 80 100 120 Cutting Speed (m/min) Thrust Force (Fv) Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr)
Thrust Force (Fv) Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr)
Figure 1(c) Feed 0.4mm/rev and depth of cut 0.08 mm mm
Figure 1(d) Feed 0.8mm/rev and depth of cut 0.16
Figure 1 Effect of cutting speed on cutting force at different, feed, depth of cut with HSS tool 3. Results and Discussion Figure 1 (a), (b), (c), (d) indicates the effect of cutting speed on the cutting force at feed rate of 0.1,0.2,0.4,0.8mm/rev and depth of cut 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.16mm respectively, while using HSS tool. Increase in thrust force is sharp with the increase of cutting speed from 60 to 80 m/min in the feed range of 0.1 to 0.2 mm/rev and depth of cut range of 0.02 to 0.04 mm. But thrust force is constant and radial force increases gradually in the same feed and depth of cut range when cutting speed is increased from 80 to 120 m/min. There is sharp increase in thrust, feed and radial force with the increase of cutting speed from 80 to 100 m/min at feed of 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.08 mm. Increase in thrust, feed and radial force is gradual with the increase of cutting speed from 60 to 120 m/min at feed of 0.8 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.16 mm. It is due to the gradual increase of formation of built-up edge by increasing cutting speed. Chip material is welded to the cutting tool edge due to the high friction and temperature between composite chips and cutting tool. The welded chip material on the cutting edge further increases the friction. Metal is accumulated on the cutting edge due to
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increased friction, hence built up edge is formed. It changes the actual rack angle. This will result in change of shear angle, which directly affect the cutting force.
4
3 Thrust Force (Fv) 2 Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr) 1 0 60 80 100 120 Cutting Speed (m/min)
3 Thrust Force (Fv) 2 Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr) 1 0 60 80 100 120 Cutting Speed (m/min)
Figure 2(a) Feed 0.1mm/rev and depth of cut 0.02 mm mm
Figure 2(b) Feed 0.2mm/rev and depth of cut 0.04
5
4 3 2 1 0 60 80 100 120 Cutting Speed (m/min) Thrust Force (Fv) Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr)
15 Thrust Force (Fv) Feed Force (Ff) Radial Force (Fr) 5
10
0 60 80 100 120 Cutting Speed (m/min)
Figure2(c) Feed 0.4mm/rev and depth of cut 0.08 mm mm
Figure 2(d) Feed 0.8mm/rev and depth of cut 0.16
Figure 2 Effect of cutting speed on cutting force at different, feed, depth of cut with tungsten carbide tool Figure 2 (a), (b), (c), (d) indicates the effect of cutting speed on the cutting force at feed rate of 0.1,0.2,0.4,0.8mm/rev and depth of cut 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.16mm respectively, while using tungsten carbide tool. Thrust force and feed force decreases with the increase of cutting speed from 60 to 80 m/min and then, they remain constant in the cutting speed range of 80 to 120 m/min at feed of 0.1 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.02 mm. variation of thrust, feed and radial force is inconsistent at feed of 0.2 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.04 mm. At feed of 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.08 mm, thrust force decreases with increase of cutting speed from 60 to 80 m/min and then increases up to cutting speed of 100 m/min. Beyond this speed value of thrust force is constant. Radial force increases in the cutting speed range of 60 to 80 m/min. Radial force is constant after cutting speed of 80 m/min.Variation of thrust and radial force is gradual and feed force is constant in the cutting speed range of 60 to 120 m/min at feed of 0.8 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.16 mm. Comparison of cutting force verses cutting speed diagrams obtained while machining with HSS and Carbide tool indicate that the value of thrust force and radial force increases sharply when using HSS tool as compared to use of carbide tool with the increase of cutting speed at feed of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.02, 0.04 and 0.08 mm. Increase of feed force is gradual is both cases. As the cutting speed increases temperature of work piece
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material increases and it becomes soft. This is the reason for almost constant value of thrust, feed and radial force at feed of 0.8 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0.16 mm. 4. conclusions The performance characteristics of HSS and carbide tool in terms of cutting force, and built up edge under different machining conditions (cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate) were studied and their results were compared. The following conclusions can be drawn based on the experimental results: 1. It is recommended to carry out machining of Al silicon alloy 10wt % SiC composite by using HSS tool at feed range of 0.1 to 0.2 mm/rev, depth of cut range of 0.02 to 0.04 mm and cutting speed range of 80 to 120 m/min, where cutting forces are more or less independent of cutting speed. 2. While using tungsten carbide tool machining is recommended in the feed range of 0.4 to 0.8 mm/rev, depth of cut range of 0.08 to 0.16 mm in the cutting speed range of 60 to 120 m/min, where cutting forces are more or less independent of cutting speed. 3 Judicious selections of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut as mentioned above, can enable reduced cutting forces and power consumption. References [1] Kocazac, M.J, Khatri, S.C, Allison JE, and Bader M.G. MMCs for ground vehicle, aerospace and industrial applications. In:Suresh, et al, editor. Fundamentals of metal matrix composites. Guildford, UK: Butterworth, 1993, 297 303. [2] Rohatgi, P.K. Cast aluminium matrix composites for automotive applications. Journal of Metallurgy, 43(4),1991,10 15. [3] Cornie. A, Moon H.K, and Flemings. M.C. A review of semi-solid slurry processing of Al matrix composites, International Conference on fabrication of particles reinforced MMCs, 1720September 1990,Montreal,Canada [4] Bardal, A. Wettability and interface reaction producing in the AlSiMg surface oxidized SiC system. Journal of Material Science and Engineering, A159, 1992,119 123. [5] Llyod, D.J. Particle-reinforced aluminium and magnesium matrix composites. International Material Review, 39(1), 1994, 1 23. [6] Tomac,N and Tonnessen,K. Machinability of particulate aluminium matrix composites,Ann.CRIP 42(1), 1992,55-58 [7] Muthukrishnan N., Murugan M., and Prahlada Rao., Machinability issues in turning Al-SiC (10 p) metal matrix composites,International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 39,2008,211 218 [8] Manna. A. and Bhattacharayya B. A study on machinability of Al/SiC-MMC, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 140, 2003, 711716 [9] Chou .Y. Kevin, Jie. Liu. CVD diamond tool performance in metal matrix composite machining, Surface & Coatings Technology, 200, 2005, 1872 1878 [10] Manna. Alakesh Bhattacharayya B.Influence of machining parameters on the machinability of particulate reinforced Al/SiCMMC, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 25, 2005, 850856 [11] Dwivedi D.K., Sharma A. and Rajan T.V. Machining of LM13 and LM28 cast aluminium alloys: Part I, journal of materials processing technology, 196, 2008,197204.
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Effect of welding parameters on performance of friction stir welded 6061 aluminum alloy
Ratnesh K.Shukla 1*, Dr. Pravin K.Shah2
1 2
Government Engineering College, Surat- 395 001, Gujarat, India L.J. Institute of Technology, Ahmedabad- 382 210, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: ratneshshukla1@yahoo.com)
6061 T6 aluminum alloy (AA) plates were friction stir welded at different welding parameters. The effect of welding parameters on the quality of the friction stir welded joints was investigated. As a result, the optimized combination of various welding parameters (tool rotation speed, welding speed and welding pressure) was identified. Furthermore, the tensile properties of the defect-free joints under different heat inputs were investigated. It was found that for 4 mm thickness plate, tool with 14 mm shoulder diameter produced maximum tensile strength and defect free joint compared with other pin profiles. It was found that the downward pressure has a great influence on the weld quality. When the welding pressure was higher it caused depression and wavy burrs, but when it was low, groove type defects were observed. 1. Introduction
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid state joining process developed and patented by The Welding Institute (TWI) in 1991 [1]. This technique is being applied to aerospace, automotive and ship building industries and it is attracting an increasing amount of research interest. It uses a cylindrical rotating tool consisting of a concentric threaded pin and tool shoulder. A non-consumable rotating tool with specially designed pin and shoulder is inserted at the faying edges of the plates to be welded and traversed along the joint. The two plates are fixed together by means of clamps on the bed and vertical force is applied by fixing the tool on the collet of vertical milling machine. The friction between the tool and work piece leads to plastic deformation of work piece. The localized heating softens the material around the pin and combination of tool rotation and translation leads to movement of material from the front of the pin to the back of pin. The weld is generated by deforming the material at temperatures below the melting point. The side where the tool rotation is in the same direction of translation of the welding tool is called advancing side and where the two motions rotation and translation are in opposite direction is called retreating side. Tool geometry is one of the most important processing parameters that determine the quality of the joint and micro structural characteristics. FSW has many advantages over traditional welding processes including the following : The welding procedure is relatively simple with no consumables or filler material. It does not require shielding gas, no arc formation and no fumes. Joint edge preparation is not needed. Oxide removal prior to welding is not necessary. The procedure is machine tool technology based which can be automated and carried out in all positions. The surface appearance approaches that of a roughly machined surface, which reduces production costs in further processing and finishing. Parent metal chemistry is retained without any gross segregation of alloying elements. Process is solid phase with process temperature regimes much lower than in fusion techniques, thus avoiding problems which can occur in solid phase, such as porosity and cracking. There are also certain disadvantages associated with the process which include: It is necessary to clamp the work piece with suitable jigs and fixture so that there is no lateral movement of the work piece.
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An end hole is left as the tool is withdrawn from the work piece. Although FSW consistently gives high quality welds, proper use of the process and control of number of parameters is needed to achieve this. Using inappropriate welding parameters can cause defects in the joint and deteriorate the mechanical properties of the FSW joints. To produce the best weld quality, these parameters have to be determined individually for each new component and alloy [2]. Only a small number of studies have involved the effects of welding parameters on the defects, microstructures and mechanical properties of the joints [3-6]. The quality of friction stir welded joint is controlled by three welding parameters when using definite pin surface profile, these are tools rotational speed, welding speed and welding pressure. For this relatively new method, there is still lack of optimal combinations of various welding parameters for different materials, different thickness etc. The current work was conducted to study the FSW process on 4 mm thick 6061 AA with focus on appropriate combinations of various welding parameters. In addition, the influence of these parameters on the quality and tensile properties is studied. 2. Experimental procedure
Figure 1. Experimental set up Two 6061-T6 Al alloy plates each with a dimension of 150 mm x 60 mm x 4 mm were butt welded using CNC vertical milling machine of 10 KW motor capacity. These plates were placed on steel backing plate and then clamped using a fixture. The material for tool was tool steel and was fabricated on a lathe machine. The tool shoulder had diameter of 14 mm, top pin diameter of 5 mm and bottom pin diameter of 3.5 mm. The pin height was kept 3.85 mm. The pin was left hand threaded and tool was rotated in counterclockwise direction. Figure 1 shows image of the experimental set up used for present investigation. A three component dynamometer based on strain gauge type sensors was used for measurement of axial force on the work piece. K-type NiAl/NiCr thermocouples were embedded in the work piece by using thermal paste in order to measure temperature history. The thermocouples cannot be placed in the weld zone as the stirring action will displace it before it attains the maximum temperature in its location. Thermocouples were connected to a 16 channel DAQ system which was further connected to a computer equipped with data acquisition computer software. The specimen for tensile test was prepared on a CNC electric discharge wire cut machine according to EN 895: 1995. The gauge length for the tensile specimen was 50 mm. The tensile test was performed using computer controlled tensometer at constant cross head speed of 5 mm/min.
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3. 3.1
Results and discussion Welding pressure

Force Distribution in Z direction
4500 4000 3500
Force Distribution in Y Dire ction

25
20
Force Fz (N)
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Force Fy (N)
1250 rpm 1000 rpm 750 rpm
15
1250 rpm 1000 rpm
10
750 rpm
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Time (sec)
Tim e (s ec)
Force Distribution in X Dire ction

90
85
Force Fx (N)
80
1250 rpm 1000 rpm
75
750 rpm
70
65 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Tim e (s ec)
Figure 2 Force distributions in Z, Y and X direction For welding speed of 50 mm/min and rotational speed of 1000 rpm, the welding pressure between the tool shoulder and work piece was increased from 1000 N to 5000 N gradually. The FSW tool exerts forces on work pieces in tool feed direction (Fx) and tool axis direction (Fz). The recorded forces using three component milling tool dynamometer during FSW process are shown in figure 2. During the initial stage of welding, higher force values (Fz) act on the material due to tool penetration, as the material temperature is still low and consequently its yield strength is high. When the tool penetration is completed the softening of material starts to occur. A preheating time of 30 seconds was given. As soon as the feed starts force Fz again increases and thereafter it stabilizes. As the force F z is increased slowly, at first groove type defect appears on the surface of the weld. When the welding pressures were low, tunnel type defect were observed near the bottom of the weld. With increase of welding pressure, groove type defect disappears gradually. But when the pressure exceeds one value, the welding tool would sink into the weld gradually resulting in the depression of the weld surface and wavy burrs at the edge of the weld region.
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3.2 Rotational speed and welding speed
Temperature Distribution
450 400
T em p eratu re (C)
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 5 8 12 16 25 30 40
1250 rpm 1000 rpm 750 rpm
Distance from centre (mm )
Figure 3 Numerical and Experimental temperature distribution at 50 mm/min and 1000 rpm As the rotational speed increases, the maximum temperature attained also correspondingly increases. With increase of welding speed the maximum temperature attained is decreased slightly. Figure 3 shows numerically and experimental obtained temperatures at rotational speed of 1000 rpm and 50 mm/min welding speed. When the welding speed is increased, the surface quality becomes bad gradually and semicircle streaks appear, even the groove type defects was observed. For constant welding speed, when the tool rotation speed is too low, the material gets less input, causing insufficient metal flow during welding process, whereas when the rotational speed is too high, it causes severe depression of the weld surfaces and the weld has wavy burrs. 3.3 Tool design and heat input During the FSW process, the main heat source is generally considered to be the friction between the rotating shoulder and surface of work piece [4]. So the size of the tool shoulder has significant influence on the surface appearance of the weld. In the present investigation, three different sizes of shoulder viz. 12, 14 and 16 mm were selected. When the tool shoulder diameter was 10 mm it resulted in poor quality of weld. The tensile strength of parent material with shoulder diameter 14 mm observed was 313.6 MPa. The corresponding tensile strength for FSW joint with shoulder diameter 12, 14 and 16 mm observed were 144.2, 155.6 and 133.6 MPa respectively. When the size of shoulder is too small, the frictional heat input is extremely low. The plastic material cannot flow sufficiently. So the bonding cannot be achieved. However, when the size of tool shoulder is too large, the heat generation is too high, it can widen the weld. To a large extent, the quality of the weld depends on the heat input during the welding process. Heat input can further be increased by using asbestos sheet between the work piece and backing plate, which reduces the heat transferred by conduction to the backing plate. Once the parameters of FSW process are chosen, such as the material, welding pressure and size of the welding tool, the total energy input per unit time E is determined by [2] 2 2 r1 + r1 r2 + r2 E = P N ------------------(1) 45 (r1+ r2) where r1 is the radius of tool shoulder, r2 is root radius of pin, denotes friction coefficient between the tool shoulder and the work piece. P expresses the downward pressure on the shoulder and N represents the rotational speed of the tool. Then the energy input per unit length of the weld can be expressed as 2 2 r1 + r1 r2 + r2 e = P N ------------------(2) 45 V (r1 + r2)
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where V is the welding speed. In the current work, the size of the tool is fixed, so r1, r2 and are invariable. Thus a constant C can be defined as 2 2 r1 + r1 r2 + r2 C= ------------------(3) 45 (r1 + r2) Then eq (2) can be changed to e = CP N / V (4) Using eq (4) for a particular combination of the welding pressure, rotational speed and welding speed, values of heat inputs can be found out. 3.4 Hardness of tool Good quality FSW joint for 6061 AA can be obtained when the hardness of the tool is between 58 to 62 Rc. In the present investigation the hardness of the tool was kept 60 Rc. With repeated welding the tool gets heated up, so slowly hardness reduces. At lower hardness it was observed that the material of the work piece tends to stick to the tool and quality of the joint deteriorates. 4. Conclusion The effects of welding parameters on the quality and tensile properties of 6061 AA friction stir welded joints were studied. Following conclusions are made: 1) Heat input for obtaining defect free joint reduces with the increase of welding speed or decrease of rotation speed. 2) For 4 mm thick 6061 AA, 14 mm shoulder diameter gives the maximum tensile strength. 3) There is an optimized welding pressure for given rotation and welding speed. Lower welding pressure gives poor weld quality with welding defects and higher welding pressure produces wavy burrs. References [1] W.M. Thomas, E.D. Nicholas, J.C. Needham, M.G. Murch, P. Templesmith and C.Dases, Friction stir butt welding, International patent application no. PCT/GB92/02203 and GB [Patent application no. 9125978.86 December1991] [2] Shitong Wei, Chuanyong Hao and Jichun, Chen Study of friction stir welding of 01420 aluminum-lithium alloy. Materials Science and Engineering, A 452-453, 2007, 170-177. [3] N rajamanickam, V.Balusamy, G.Madhusudhanna Reddy and K.Natarjan, Effect of process parameters on thermal history and mechanical properties of friction stir welds. Materials and Design,xxx-xxx,2008,1-6. [4] A.Scialpi, L.A.C.De Filippis, P.Cavaliere, Influence of shoulder geometry on microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded 6082 aluminum alloy, Materials and Design. 28, 2007, 1124-1129. [5] P.Cavaliere, A.Squillace, F.Panella, Effect of welding parameters on mechanical and microstructural properties of AA 6082 joints produced by friction welding. Materials Processing Technology, 200,2008,364-372 [6] Mustafa Boz, Adem Kurt, The influence of stirrer geometry on bonding and mechanical properties in friction stir welding process. Materials and Design,xxx-xxx,2004,1-5.
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Some Investigations on Ultrasonic welding Process for metals using regression Analysis
R. S.Barot1*, J.B.Valaki2
1 2
B. V. M. Engineering College, V.V.Nagar-363 222 Gujarat, India L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad-380 015, Gujarat, India * Corresponding Author (E-mail: rakesh_le8@yahoo.com)
Weld strength, an indicator of quality and reliability of a welded product, is one of the most specified customer requirements in fabricated parts. Joining newly developed high strength to weight ratio materials, exotic materials with conventional welding processes gives poor weld joint metallurgy and hence inferior mechanical properties. Ultrasonic welding is one amongst the very limited processes available for the joining advanced materials which utilize repetitive ultrasonic vibrations of ultrasonic tool (Velocity Horn) to join material metallurgically. Complex relationships of various process parameters, lack of well defined theories to find the weld joint strength, set of well specified process data to select the optimal combination of process variables to get desired joint strength, have shown hesitance from the end users to use this joining process.Authors have used design of experiments for experimentation and analyze the effects of various process parameters (welding time, thickness of work material etc.) on weld joint strength of metal materials (Copper, Brass) with different thickness using analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique and empirical models are developed by regression analysis. Results drawn can be used for process planning and product effectiveness. 1. Introduction
Ultrasonic welding has recently gained recognition as an influential process in the technology of non-traditional welding processes, shaping products for which non-mechanical processes prove inadequate. As a welding technique, it has solved the problem of welding conducting and non-conducting materials [1]. Though ultrasonic machining was developed as a means of machining of hard materials, it has been found that it can be used for welding. The basic elements and technology of ultrasonic welding and effect of process parameters have been the subject of discussion for various previous reviews [1, 2]. The need has been felt for empirical models with an object of better production as well as for planning engineers in selecting process parameters and to assess the accuracy of ultrasonic welding for a certain situation. To find out the right combination of process parameters and effect of particular set of process parameters on strength of welded joint is major problem for process engineer. The present work, authors have used design of experiment technique to build an experimentation for metals and analyzed the effect of process parameters (welding time, thickness of work material) on weld strength of work using analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique & performed linear regression to have a mathematical model with the help of Minitab software. 2. Literature review
Reviewing the literature available has proved the lack of reliable and precise strength measurement technique of welded material. Also, the major problem for any process engineer is selection of process parameter and its effect on the response. Research done for different traditional as well as non-traditional processes can be extensively used exclusively and optimized experimentation with help of Design of Experimentation technique and mathematical model development using regression analysis for ultrasonic welding. In the
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present paper authors have tried to use such methods for ultrasonic welding preformed the experimentation and concluded with analysis using trend analysis, regression analysis and 3D plots. 3. Design of experimentation (DOE):
The competition in the market has forced the manufacturers to design and develop product/process with minimal cost and time. The design of experiment has emerged as an important tool for achieving these objectives. DOE is a statistical technique that allows you to run the minimum number of experiments to optimize your product or process. It involves determining the best experiments to run to fit a particular mathematical model (Lipson & Seth). When there is considerable variation from observation to observation on the same material, it is not feasible to take a larger number of such observations. In such cases, the experimenter is forced to use Design of Experiment (DOE), which allows for unbiased estimates of the true treatment difference with a specified degree of precision. It enables us to obtain unambiguous results with minimum amount of data. Materials like Copper and Brass having thickness in order of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 mm were used for the experimentation for different set of welding time of 30,40,50 seconds. Both the factors were selected with different levels and DOE prepared with the help of MINITAB software. 4. Results and Discussion:
In present work, it involves investigation on the effect of welding time and material thickness combinations on weld strength of copper and brass. The effect of each parameter is discussed herewith. 4.1 Effect of welding time:
Figure no.-2 & 3 shows the regression plot for the effects of welting time on the weld joint strength. From regression plot it is seen that in case of copper, weld joint strength slightly increases with increase in the welding time while for Brass, welding time does not have any influence on weld joint strength. This is because of lower melting and diffusion bonding at material interface due to higher thermal conductivity for copper compared to Brass. Figures also shows that penetration of material diffusion from the interface is less influenced by welding time for conductive materials.
Figure 2 Regression plot of weld strength versus time for Copper
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Figure 3 Regression plot of weld strength versus time for Brass 4.2 Effects of material Thickness:
Figure no.-4 & 5 shows the regression plot for the effects of material thickness on the weld joint strength. From regression plot, it is seen that in case of copper, weld joint strength decreases with increase in the material thickness while for Brass, weld joint strength increases with increase in the material thickness. As Density and Thermal Conductivity of copper is higher heat generated at the material interface would be conducted and dispersed in the materials volume rapidly. So less amount of material would be melted and hence bond formation is limited. on the contrary, in case of Brass, having lower Density and Thermal Conductivity, more amount of heat would be generated at the interface. It will remain concentrated at the interface resulting in melting and subsequent diffusion bonding of more material. With increase in material thickness, resistance increases generating more amount of heat and hence resulting in strong diffusion bonding.
Figure 4 Regression plot of weld strength versus thickness for Copper
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Figure 5 Regression plot of weld strength versus thickness for Brass From regression plot it is seen that amongst the two process parameters, material thickness has the major influence on the weld joint strength in respective of material. This stems from the fact that due to the high thickness of the materials, amount of heat generated at the material interface is higher ,which tends to increase heat affected zone and ultimately diffusion prone region. Analysis of variance for Copper (Strength versus Time & Thickness combination): Table 1 ANOVA table for welding strength using MINITAB software Source Time Thickness Error Total 3.2.1 Seq. SS 812.8 4360.2 2105.7 7278.7 DF 2 5 10 17 Adj. MS 406.4 872.0 210.6 F ratio 1.93 4.14 P value 0.196 0.027
Analysis of variance for Brass (Strength versus Time & Thickness): Table 2 ANOVA table for welding strength using MINITAB software Source Time Thickness Error Total Seq. SS 1.604 34.978 99.889 136.471 DF 2 5 10 17 Adj. MS 1.604 34.978 99.889 F ratio 0.0802 6.996 9.989 P value 0.923 0.636
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Following models were developed with the help of regression analyses which can be used for prediction of process parameter, select optimized value and predict the behavior of system before starting of actual operation. For Copper material: Strength = 10.8889 + 0.496667 * Welding Time Strength = 46.4756 - 4.49143 *Material Thickness For Brass Material: Strength = 6.31111 + 0.0266667 * Welding Time Strength = 4.88444 + 0.712381* Material Thickness 5. Conclusion
Experimental investigation and analysis of the experimental data carried out in the selected region and experimentation results could be used to develop empirical model which can be generalized, suites for prediction and which can be used for process planning and product effectiveness. This work has demonstrated that the technique of design of experiments, combined with techniques of linear regressions, can be successfully applied to modeling the functions that depend on diverse variables in most cases. This was carried out in an efficient way, as a great number of experiments are not necessary. Suggested model will make it possible to select most appropriate values of the machining parameters. For example, this can be performed by taking into account two different welding strategies, one that minimizes the welding time and one that maximizes the weld joint strength. References [1] D. Kerner, S.M. Saleh, S. R. Ghabrial, A. Moisan (1981). The state of the art of ultrasonic machining. Annals of CIRP, 30/1, 107-110. [2] Journal of Ultrasonics, 38, 1998, 609-618. st [3] R.K. Springborn. Non traditional machining processes, ASTME, 1 edition, 1967. [4] Ladishlav Grad, Janez Grum, Ivan Polajnar, Janez Marko Slabe. Feasibility of study of acoustic signals for on-line monitoring in short circuit gas metal arc welding, International Journal of Machine tools & Manufacture,44, 2003, 555-561. [5] I Puertas & C J Luis Perez. Modelling the manufacturing parameters in EDM of silicon carbide, Proceedings of Instn. Mechanical Engineers, 217/B, 2003, 791-803. rd [6] P.C. Pandey, Modern machining processes, TATA McGraw hill, 3 edition, 1985. [7] Lipson & Sheth. Engineering experiment design.
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Influence of Surface methodology of EDM process for pure Titanium using Modified Taguchi method
R. Srinivasan , A. Palanisamy , R. Soundararajan , P.Muthukumar
1 1 2 3 1
VLB.Janakiammal College of Engg &Tech,Coimbatore,TN, India 2 Mookambigai College of Engineering, Pudukkottai,TN, India 3 Sri Krishna College of Engg & Tech, Coimbatore, TN, India Corresonding author (Email: vlbsrini@rediffmail.com)
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) is a specialized thermal machining process capable of accurately machining parts of hard materials with complex shapes. Parts having sharp edges pose difficulties during machining. The main stream machining processes can be easily machined by EDM process. In this investigation, response surface methodology (RSM) is used to investigate the effect of three controllable input variables namely: discharge current, pulse duration, pulse off time on surface roughness (SR).Experiments were conducted on pure titanium with copper electrode with multiple performance characteristics based on the L18 Orthogonal Array with Modified Taguchi method has been studied. The significant coefficients are obtained by performing analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed. It is found that discharge current, pulse duration and pulse off time and few of their interactions have significant effect on the SR.
1.
Introduction
The selection of appropriate machining conditions for the optimum MRR, EWR, during Electric Discharge Machining(EDM) process is based on the analysis relating the various process parameters to above mentioned parameters. Traditionally, this is carried out by relying heavily on the operators experience or conservative technological data provided by the EDM equipment manufacturers, which produced inconsistent machining performance. In this paper, Taguchi method is used to optimize the multiple performance characteristic using the weighted factor. The optimization of the multiple performance characteristics is concerned with optimizing a vector of objectives. The purpose of the present work is to introduce the use of utility concept has been employed for the multi-performance characteristics optimization using Taguchi design in selecting optimum EDM conditions on multiple performance characteristics namely, the Material Removal Rate and Electrode Wear Ratio. 2. Overview
Taguchi method uses an orthogonal array to study the entire process parameter with a minimum number of experiments. A loss function is then defined to calculate the deviation between the experimental value and the expected value. Taguchi uses the loss function to measure the performance characteristic deviating from the required value. Then the all value is transformed to S/N ratio. Larger the value of S/N ratio better the performance. A statistical Analysis Of Variance(ANOVA) is performed to see which process parameter is statistically noteworthy. With statistical Analysis Of Variance, optimal combination of the process parameters can be predicted. Finally, a confirmation experiment is conducted to verify the optimal process parameters obtained from the process parameter design. 3. EDM Process Experiments In an Electrical Discharge Machining(EDM) process, the removal of material from work piece is by an electrical spark erosion process. Common methods of evaluating machining performance in the EDM process are based on the Material Removal Rate and Electrode Wear
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Ratio. Basically, these performances are correlated with the machining parameters such as Peak current, Pulse on time, and Pulse off time. A. Selection of Machining Parameters and their Levels The experiments were carried out on ELECTRONICA-M machine having a maximum of 12 A current using copper electrodes for the machining of Titanium in the form of rectangular slot as shown in Table 1. B. Machining Performance Measure Material Removal Rate, Electrode Wear Ratio and surface roughness are used to evaluate machining performance. The Material Removal Rate (MRR) is expressed as the Work piece Removal Weight (WRW) under a period of machining time in minute (T) i.e.,
MRR ( g / min)
WRW T
(1)
The electrode wear ratio (EWR) is defined by the ratio of the Electrode Removal Weight (ERW) to the Work piece Removal Weight (WRW) and usually expressed as a percentage i.e.,
EWR (%)
ERW X 100 MRW
(2)
Therefore, higher the MRR better the performance characteristic and lower the EWR better the performance. 4. Determination Of EDM Process Parameters
A. Orthogonal Array Experiment Before selecting a suitable orthogonal array for the experiments, the total degrees of freedom have to be computed. The degrees of freedom is defined as the number of comparisons between design parameters that need to be made to determine which level is better and specifically how much better it is. In the present study, the relation between the machining parameters is neglected. Basically, the degrees of freedom for the orthogonal array should be greater than or at least equal to those for the design parameters. In this study, an L18 orthogonal array with 4 columns and 18 rows has been used. This array has eight degrees of freedom and it can handle three-level design parameters. The experimental layout and response values for the three machining parameters using the L18 orthogonal array is shown in Table 2. B. Analysis of the S/N ratio The Taguchi method uses S/N ratio instead of the average value to infer the trial results data into a value for the evaluation characteristics in the optimum setting analysis. This is because S/N ratio can reflect both average and variation of the quality characteristics. In the present work, the optimization of EDM process parameters using Taguchis robust design methodology with multiple characteristics is proposed. In order to optimize the multi-performance characteristics namely, Material Removal Rate (MRR) and Electrode Wear Ratio (EWR) while machining in EDM of Titanium material with utility concept has been introduced. Here performances namely EWR are to be minimized and the MRR is to be maximized. The S/N ratio associated with all the responses, are given below:
1 1 10 log 10 2 MMR
(3) (4)
1 10 log10 EWR 2
C. Utility concept
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The utility concept employs the weighing factors to each of the signal-to-noise ratio of the responses to obtain a multi response signal-to-noise ratio for each trial of the orthogonal array. The multi-response signal to noise ratio is calculated by the given equation. w11 w2 2 (5) Where w1 and w2 are the weighing factors associated with the S/N ratio of each of the responses MRR and EWR, respectively. These weighing factors are decided based on the priorities among the various responses to be simultaneously optimized. In this present study, weighing factors of 0.5 for MRR and 0.5 for EWR is assumed. This gives priorities to all responses for simultaneous minimization and Maximization. The effect of a factor level is the deviation it causes from the overall mean response. The overall mean of associated with 18 trials is computed as:
1 18
k 18
k 1
(6)
The effect of a factor level i for parameter j is
1 L

i i 1
(7)
The optimum level of a factor is the level that gives the highest S/N ratio for the optimal level associated with each process parameter is jiopt = max {(m)i , j } (8) in which i = 1,2,3; j = A, B, C Where A is Peak current, B is Pulse ON time and C is Pulse off time. Once the optimal level of the design parameters has been selected, the final step is to predict and verify the quality characteristic using the optimal level of the design parameters. The predicted optimum value of signal to noise ratio (opt) can be determined as
opt
m
j 1
i, j
max
(9)
Where m is the total mean of the multi response S/N ratio, (mi,j)max is the signal to noise ratio of optimum level i of factor j and P is the number of main design parameter that affect the response. As noted from Table 5, it is clearly shown that the multiple performance characteristics in the EDM process are together improved by using this method. D. Data Analysis, Results and Discussion Based on L18 orthogonal array experimental design and outputs were measured and presented in Table 2. Here the datas are analyzed by Taguchi based utility concept. The computed values of S/N ratio for each response and the multi response S/N ratio() for each trial in the orthogonal array are presented below in Table 2. Total mean multi-response S/N ratio m = -31.18 db 5. Analysis Of Variance
The statistical procedure used most often to analyze data is known as the analysis of variance(ANOVA). This technique determines the effects of the treatments, as reflected by their means, through an analysis of their variability. The ANOVA establishes the relative significance of factors in terms of their percentage contribution to the response and also needed for estimating the variance of error for the effects and confidence interval of the prediction error.
18
[1] The Total Sum of Squares(SST) is determined as SST
k 1
3
m )2
(10)
SST is used to measure the relative influence of the process parameters on the response. 2. The Sum of Squares due to Factor j is computed as SSF
3 ( mj
i1
2 ) i m ) i (11)
A factor j with largest SS value will have significant role in controlling the response.
3
3. The Sum of the Squares due to Error is given by SSE
SS
SS
(12)
j 1
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4. The variance of each factor j is
MS
SS
L 1
(13)
5. The percentage contribution of each factor j is given as
Qj
SS j SS T
(14)
From Table 4, we can observe that Pulse current(P = 9.97 %), Pulse ON time(P = 68.77%) and Pulse OFF time(P = 1.39%) have great influence on the multi performance characteristics. 6. Conclusions The factor that affects the performance has been determined using this analysis. In this process peak current and Pulse off time are found to be the more significant EDM parameter in terms of affecting the multiple performance characteristics. In the confirmation test, improvements are calculated based on the optimal machining parameter which was obtained using modified Taguchi method using utility concept. It is clearly shown that the multiple performance characteristics of EDM for Titanium with copper as electrode shows notable improvement. The optimal EDM parameters for multiple performance characteristics are as follows: Peak current 4A; Pulse on time 7s; Pulse off time 1s. Table 1 Machining Parameters and Their Levels Symbol A B C Parameter Peak current Pulse on time Pulse off time Unit A s s Level I 4 500 10 Level II 6 700 20 Level III 8 900 30
Table 2. Experimental Layout With Responses And Its S/N Ratios
Ex. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Process Parameters A B C 4 5 1 4 6 3 4 7 4 6 5 1 6 6 3 6 7 4 8 5 3 8 6 4 8 7 1 4 5 4 4 6 1 4 7 3 6 5 3 6 6 4 6 7 1 8 5 4 8 6 1 8 7 3
Responses MRR EWR 0.0049 63.3793 0.0354 88.7311 0.0631 63.3793 0.0244 38.0276 0.0186 63.3793 0.0641 63.3793 0.0339 38.0276 0.0329 76.0552 0.0607 88.7311 0.0085 50.7035 0.0564 50.7035 0.0773 76.0552 0.0773 38.0276 0.0372 88.7311 0.0773 76.0552 0.0657 50.7035 0.1409 63.3793 0.0751 88.7311
S/N Ratio MRR EWR -47.5350 -39.5304 -30.4575 -23.1395 -19.7897 -38.7026 -33.9794 -36.0086 -33.9794 -33.2425 -23.7110 -35.1807 -28.5298 -29.9880 -28.5298 -23.1395 -18.7603 -38.4081 -40.0984 -29.5008 -25.3108 -29.1601 -21.3946 -36.7644 -21.2013 -9.1601 -27.9588 -38.7026 -20.1156 -30.7438 -33.9794 -23.1395 -16.3568 -31.4390 -16.7644 -29.9880
Multi-S/N Ratio -36.09991479 -24.55153396 -23.39141291 -31.48680725 -28.96633188 -24.63009944 -27.77300859 -25.10555311 -22.83645628 -31.13018793 -23.72866763 -23.54233747 -16.3681451 -27.73625846 -21.51170538 -27.33304646 -20.18472725 -20.06399633
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Table 3 Mean Effect Response Table For Multi-Response S/N Ratio

Symbol A B C Machining Parameters Peak current Pulse ON time Pulse OFF time Level I -19.34 -22.52 -16.95 Level II -18.04 -18.30 -18.57 Level III -17.00 -13.56 -18.87 Max. Min. 2.34 8.9 1.91
Table 4 Results of Anova for Multiple Performance Characteristics

Source of Variance Peak current Pulse on time Pulse off time Error Total Sum of Squares 17.62 263.40 6.27 69.75 375.06 DOF 2 2 2 2 8 Variance 8.81 131.70 3.13 6.34 P% 4.93 73.77 1.75 19.53 100
Table 5 Results of Initial and Optimal Machining Performance of EDM

Factors Levels Material Removal Rate(MRR) in g/min Electrode Wear Rate(EWR) in % Multi-response S/N ratio Initial Machining Parameters A1B1C1 0.0049 88.9 -36.099 Optimal Machining Parameters Prediction A2B2C2 -28.96 Experiment A3B3C1 0.0607 88.73 -22.83
References [1] R.Ramakrishnan,L.karunamoorthy. Modeling and multi-response optimization of inconel 718 on machining of CNC WEDM process, Journal of material processing technology, 2008. [2] R.Ramakrishnan, L.karunamoorthy, Multi-response optimization of wire EDM operation using robust design of experiments.international Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 29, 2006, 105-112 [3] Scott,D, bovina,s.,rajurkar,T.K.P,.analysis and optimization of parameter combination in wire electrical discharge machining. International Journal of Production Research, 29, 1991, 2189- 2207. [4] Spedding, T.A., Wang, Z.G., Parametric optimization and surface characteristic of wire electrical discharge machining process .Precision of Engineering 20, 1997, 5-15 [5] Spedding, T.A.,Wang,Z,Q. Study on modeling of wire EDM process. Journal of Material Processing Technology, 69, 1977, 18-28. [6] Tarng, Y.S., Ma, S.C.,Chung,L.K. Determination of optimal cutting parameters in wire electrical discharge machining. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 35, 1995, 1693-1701. [7] Yan Cherng Lin, Biing Hwa Yan and Yong Song Chang, Machining characteristics of Titanium (Ti6Al4V) using a combination process of EDM with USM. Journal of Material Processing Technology. [8] Ahmet Hascalk, and Ulas Caydas, Electrical discharge machining of Titanium (Ti6Al 4V), Applied Surface Science, 253, 2007, 90079016.
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Some Study Aspect of External Cylindrical Grinding Machine Parameters using Taguchi Techniques
J.L.Ramdatti , M.A.Popat
1 1* 2
CCET, Wadhawan, Gujarat, India. 2 V.V.P., Rajkot, Gujarat, India. Corresponding author (email: jlramdatti_1980@yahoo.com) The paper is based on experimentation with factorial design of Taguchi techniques on grinding machine. Taguchi offers a simple and systematic approach to optimize a performance, quality and cost. The objective of the paper is to obtain an optimal setting of grinding process parameters (work material, feed rate and depth of cut) resulting in an optimal value of the material removal rate and surface roughness when machining EN-8, EN-39,and Cast iron. The effects of the selected grinding process parameters on material removal rate and surface roughness and the subsequent optimal settings of the parameters have been accomplished using Taguchis parameter design approach. The results indicate that the selected process parameters significantly affect the selected machining characteristics. Introduction To provide satisfaction to customers and to deliver in a competitive market, a producer has to acknowledge that considerable advantage can be obtained by controlling quality at the design stage itself instead of at the manufacturing stage or by the inspection of finished products. This is basic idea of off-line quality control; Taguchis method is one of the most comprehensive and effective systems of off-line quality control. Taguchi has built upon W E Demings observation that 85% of poor quality is attributable to the manufacturing process and only 15% to the worker (Roy 1990). Thus, his attempt has been to develop robust manufacturing systems that are insensitive to daily and seasonal variations of environment, machine wear etc.Taguchi recommends a three-stage process to achieve desirable product quality by design: System design, Parameter design, Tolerance design. While system design helps to identify working levels of the design parameters, parameter design seeks to determine parameter levels that provide the best performance of the product or process under study. The optimum condition is selected so that the influence of uncontrollable factors (noise factors) causes minimum variation to system performance. Orthogonal arrays, variance and signal to noise analysis are the essential tools of parameter design. Tolerance design is a step to finetune the results of parameter design (Ross 1996). Experimental Equipment, Workpiece Material and Dimensions The Grinding Machine The tests were performed on external cylindrical grinding machine model UE 140/ 600. This machine is manufactured by UNIVERSAL ENGINEERS PVT LTD. Situated at wadhawan, dist- surendranagar (Gujarat). The cross feed and downfeed changed with ratchet mechanisms. The table velocity was variable over the range 0.1 to 2.5 Mt/min, choosing suitable values. The electrical motor driving the wheel spindle was of 3 H.P. the machine has following technical specification. 2.2. The Grinding Wheel The same wheel was used throughout the work. Its specifications were A 60 L 5 V 10 and it was manufactured by NORTON Co LTD, having a 300 mm diameter and 40mm width. 2. 2.1 1.
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2.3
Material and Workpiece Dimensions
The workpieces were manufactured from Cast iron, En 8 steel, En 39 steel. The properties are given in BS 970:1955. The dimensions were 300 x 34.450 ( length * dia. in mm). All three work piece has same dimensions. 3. Experimental procedures Before any grinding tests were commenced, the wheel spindle and table motors were switched on for thirty minutes, in order to ensure the normal working conditions of lubricant and bearing temperatures, especially on the spindle bearings. The workpiece was set always in the same position on the centre of the grinding machine. The spindle speed was constant at 1440 rot/min, which result in a peripheral wheel speed of 22.6 m/sec for a wheel of 300 mm diameter. In Experimental procedure, I have performed total 9 Nos. of experiment by combining most robust set of different three parameter each having three levels. These different sets of combinations are obtained as per Taguchis L9 orthogonal array. For study of grinding parameter, I have selected three parameters are (1) Types of material (2) Feed mm/rev. and (3) Depth of cut in mm/pass. Each parameters have three different levels are selected as given below. Table1. Process parameters with their values at 3 levels. Process parameters Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Parameters Designations
A Types of material C.I EN-8 EN-39 B Feed (mm/rev) 1.22 1.65 2.93 C Depth of cut (mm/pass) 0.050 0.100 0.150 _____________________________________________________________________ As mentioned in table1, I have performed total 9 Nos. of experiment on external cylindrical grinding machine. During each experiment the various parameters and its level combination are obtained as per Taguchis L9 orthogonal array. The various levels of parameters are combined during every experiment are shown below table 2.
Table 2. No. of experiments ( Taguchi L9 orthogonal array) SR. NO. OF EXPERIMENTS A B C 1. 1 1 1 2. 1 2 2 3. 1 3 3 4. 2 1 2 5. 2 2 3 6. 2 3 1 7. 3 1 3 8. 3 2 1 9. 3 3 2 _____________________________________________________________________
Each experiment are performed by considering levels of parameters are shown in above table. Each experiment is performed in round bar of 100 mm length and 34.450 mm diameter. The sequences of experiment are obtained by random selection procedure. I have performed experiment in following random sequences are 8 1 4 5 3 6 2 9 7. The dressing of the wheel was done after each change in the values of cutting parameters. For this purpose a single point diamond was used which was set on the machine table and feeded across the surface of the rotating wheel. Surface roughness is measured by digital surface roughness tester made by mitutoyo co. ltd. Japan. For measuring surface roughness, I have used measurement laboratories of Atmiya institute of technology and science. 4. Experimental Results and Analysis After performing all experiments output are measured for each run are shown in result Table 3.
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Table 3. Final result table

Sr. No. Exp. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C A Material B Feed (mm/rev) 1.22 1.65 2.93 1.22 1.65 2.93 1.22 1.65 2.93 C Depth of cut (mm/pass) 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.100 0.150 0.050 0.150 0.050 0.100 RESULT OE EXPERIMENTS MRR (mm3 /min) 528.15 1428.60 3805.29 1056.30 2142.91 1268.48 1584.45 714.30 2536.86 Surface roughness (m) 0.32 0.87 1.12 0.47 1.03 0.63 0.44 0.82 0.96
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
C.I C.I C.I EN-8 EN-8 EN-8 EN-39 EN-39 EN-39
5.
Analysis of material removal rate Average S/N ratio for every level of experiment is calculated based on the recorded value as shown in Table 4. Different values of S/N ratio between maximum and minimum are (main effect) also shown in Table 4. The feed and the depth of cut are two factors that have highest different values are 7.6103 and 9.5423, respectively. Based on the Taguchi prediction that the bigger different value of S/N ratio will gives a more effect on MRR or more significant. So that, it can be concluded that increase the depth of cut will increase the MRR significantly. And from table it is also indicate that feed also affect as a second factor for increase MRR. Table 4. Average for S/N Ratio and Main Effect of MRR.
No. Colum 1 2 3 Factors MATERIAL FEED DEP.OF.CUT Designati on A B C Levels 1 63.0537 59.6428 57.8661 2 63.0538 62.2653 63.8866 3 63.053 67.253 67.408 MaxMin 0.0001 7.6103 9.5423 Ranks 3 2 1
The ANOVA is also performed for S/N ratio for MRR. The results of data analysis of S/N ratio for MRR values, which are calculated by Taguchi Method, are shown in Table5. DF (degree of freedom), S (sum of square), V (variance), F (variance ratio), P (significant factor) in percent and contribution each level (Ranjit 1990).
Table 5. ANOVA Analysis of S/N ratio for MRR.

No.Col. 1 2 3 Factors Material Feed Depth of cut Error Total Desi. A B C D.F. 2 2 2 2 8 SS 0.00 89.7 139.7 0.00 229.4 V 0.00 44.8 69.9 F 0.00 1.28 4.67 P 1.000 0.371 0.060 Contr.(%) 0.00 39.1 60.9 100
Table 5. shows that the depth of cut and the feed have more influence on the MRR. Significant factor (P) values for depth of cut are 0.060 in percentage and for feed are 0.371, respectively. In statistical analysis of Taguchi method, the smallest P value gives more significant effect on responded MRR parameters. In this case, a = 0.05 is recommended by Taguchi analysis for engineering case. The significant values for the material, the feedrate, the depth of cut are significant. The contribution of the depth of cut and the feed are 60.9% and 39.1% respectively, whereas the contribution of the material is lower as compared to depth of cut and feed. The graphical representation of the effect of the three control factors on MRR is shown in Fig.1. The analysis was made using the popular software specifically used for design of experiment applications known as MINITAB 13. The S/N ratio response tables for MRR are shown in Table 4.The purpose of the analysis is to determine the factors that have strong effects on the machining performance. It is evident from Table5. that factor B and C can be treated as significant factors whereas factor A are less significant factors for maximization of MRR. Analysis of the results leads to conclusion that factors at level Ai (i=1,2,3), B3 and C3 can be set for maximization of MRR.
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Figure 1. Effect of control factors on MRR 6. Analysis of surface roughness Average S/N ratio for every level of experiment is calculated based on the recorded value as shown in Table 6. Different values of S/N ratio between maximum and minimum are (main effect) also shown in Table 6. The feed and the depth of cut are two factors that have highest different values are 6.9698 and 3.2480, respectively. Based on the Taguchi prediction that the bigger different value of S/N ratio will gives a more effect on Surface Roughness or more significant. So that, it can be concluded that increase the feed will increase the Surface Roughness significantly. And from table it is also indicate that Depth of cut also affect as a second factor for increase surface roughness. Table 6 Averages for S/N Ratio and Main Effect of Surface Roughness.
No. Colum 1 2 3 Factors MATERIAL FEED DEPTH OF CUT Designati on A B C Levels 1 3.3740 7.8620 5.2113 2 3.4381 0.8922 2.7074 3 3.3684 1.1278 1.9632 MaxMin 0.3684 6.9698 3.2480 Ranks 3 1 2
The ANOVA is also performed for S/N ratio for Surface Roughness. The results of data analysis of S/N ratio for S.R values, which are calculated by Taguchi Method, are shown in Table 7. DF (degree of freedom), S (sum of square), V (variance), F (variance ratio), P (significant factor) in percent and contribution each level (Ranjit 1990). Table 7 ANOVA Analysis of S/N ratio for S.R.
No. Col. 1 2 3 Factors Material Feed Depth of cut Error Total Desi. A B C D. F. 2 2 2 2 8 SS 0.23 93.98 17.4 4.25 115.9 V 0.12 46.99 8.7 F 0.02 8.69 0.53 P 0.979 0.035 0.614 Contr. (%) 0.198 81.08 15.01 3.66 100
Table 7 shows that the feed and the depth of cut have more influence on surface roughness value. Significant factor (P) values for feed are 0.035 in percentage and for depth of cut are 0.614, respectively. In statistical analysis of Taguchi method, the smallest P value gives more significant effect on responded surface roughness parameters. In this case, a = 0.05 is recommended by Taguchi analysis for engineering case. The significant values for the material, the federate, the depth of cut are significant. The contribution of the feed and the depth of cut are 81.08% and 15.01% respectively, whereas the contribution of the material is lower as compared to depth of cut and feed. The graphical representation of the effect of the three control factors on S.R is shown in Fig.2. The analysis was made using the popular software specifically used for design of experiment applications known as MINITAB 13. The S/N ratio response tables for S.R are shown in Table 6.
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Figure 2. Effect of control factors on S.R The purpose of the analysis is to determine the factors that have strong effects on the machining performance. It is evident from Table7 that factor B and C can be treated as significant factors whereas factor A are less significant factors for minimization of S.R. Analysis of the results leads to conclusion that factors at level A3, B2 and C3 can be set for minimization of Surface Roughness. It has been observed that the optimal settings of parameters for MRR and S.R are quite different but the factors are essentially same. It is to be noted that the optimal levels of factors differ widely for both the objectives. 7. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the study. 1. Taguchis robust design method is suitable to optimize the MRR and S.R. in grinding. 2. Analysis of results from S/N ratio lead to conclude that factors at levels B3 and C3 with material type can be set for maximization of MRR. 3. Analysis of results from S/N ratio lead to conclude that factors at levels A3, B2 and C3 can be set for minimization of Surface Roughness. 4. The significant factors in grinding on MRR were depth of cut and feed rate, with contribution 60.90 % and 39.10 % respectively obtained from ANOVA analysis. 5. The significant factors in grinding on S.R. were feed and depth of cut, with contribution 81.08 % and 15.01 % respectively obtained from ANOVA analysis. References [1] Ranjit, R.. A Primer on The Taguchi Method, Society of Manufacturing Engineers,Michigan, Dearborn, 1990. [2] Ranjit, R. Design of experiment Using The Taguchi Approach, New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2001. [3] Phadke, M. S. Quality Engineering Using Design of Experiment, Quality Control, Robust Design and Taguchi Method, California, Warsworth & Books. 1998. [4] Park, S. H. Robust Design and Analysis for Quality Engineering, London, Chapman & Hall, 1996. [5] Loan D. Marinescu, Mike Hitchiner, Eckart Uhlmann, W. Brian Rowe, Ichiro Inasaki, Hand book of machining with grinding wheel, CRC press, New york- 1998. [6] J.A. Ghani, I.A. Choudhury and H.H. Hassan.. Application of Taguchi method on the optimization of end milling parameters, Journal Material Processing and Technology, 145, 2004, 84-92. [7] Kackar, Raghu, , "Off-Line Quality Control, Parameter Design, and the Taguchi Method", Journal of Quality Technology, Vol. 17, No.4, pp. 176-188. [8] Antony, J. Multi-response optimization in industrial experiments usingTaguchis quality loss function and principal analysis. Quality and Reliability Engineering International 2000, 16, 1985, 38. [9] Singh H, Kumar P. Optimizing cutting force for turned parts using Taguchis parametersign approach. Indian J. Eng. Mater. Sci. 12, 2005, 97103. [10] Singh H, Kumar P Tool wear optimization in turning operation by Taguchi method.Indian J. Eng. Mater. Sci. 11, 2004,1924.
1003
Comparison of Statistically Controlled Rapid Casting Solutions of Brass Alloys Using Three Dimensional Printing
R. Singh , J.P.Singh
1 1* 1
G.N.D.Engineering College, Ludhiana 141 006, Punjab, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: rupindersingh78@yahoo.com)
In the present work cost effective/best shell wall thickness of mould cavity has been compared with other available shell wall thicknesses for statistically controlled rapid casting solutions of brass alloy. Starting from the identification of component/ benchmark, technological prototypes were produced at different shell thickness with three dimensional printing. Measurements on a coordinate measuring machine helped in calculating the dimensional tolerances of the castings produced. Some important mechanical properties were also compared to verify the suitability of the castings. The results of the study suggests that at best shell wall thickness (10mm) for brass alloys, rapid casting solution is statistically controlled, which is not observed for all shell wall thickness of mould cavities prepared with three dimensional printing. 1. Introduction
The techniques based on layer-by-layer manufacturing are extending their fields of application, from building of aesthetic and functional prototypes to the production of tools and moulds for technological prototypes [1]. Technological prototypes can constitute a strategic means, not only for functional and assembly tests or to obtain the customers acceptance, but mainly to outline eventual critical points in the production process [2]. The relevance of rapid casting (RC) techniques consists, above all, in a short time for parts availability [3]. The initial cost increase can thus be repaid through a reduction of costs and time for the following phases of development, engineering and production, as well as through non-monetary advantages [2, 4]. In this field, innovative solutions are now available based on three dimensional printing (3DP) process, which can extend RC possibilities, thanks to the lower costs with respect to previous technologies such as laminated object manufacturing of sand casting [5-6]. A key issue regarding the shell casting process is the production of the pattern in the case of a prototype casting, for which the traditional die casting is uneconomical [2]. 3DP can meet this requirement, producing single/few parts in short times and without tooling costs [3]. The present work compares shell patterns obtained by 3DP for statistically controlled RC solution, on which the ceramic shell can be built and then joined (as in the conventional process) to obtain the cavity for pouring metal. Experimental studies regarding this solution are lacking in literature, in particular the technological feasibility in the case of thin-walled parts needs to be assessed [6]. In the present work, the 3DP technology has been used as rapid shell casting to make the shell moulds for low brass alloy (Cu 78.5%, Pb 0.05%, Fe 0.05%, Zn 21.4%). An effort has been made through experiments, to study the feasibility of decreasing the shell wall thickness from the recommended one (12mm) [2-3, 5, 7], for statistically controlled rapid casting solution of brass alloy in order to reduce the production cost and time. 2. Experimentation
In the present study, brass alloy casting has been chosen as a benchmark. The component selected for the study is shown in figure 1[5]. For the process of rapid casting process based on 3DP, following phases have been planned: 1. After the selection of the benchmark, the component to be built was modelled using a CAD. The CAD software used for the modelling was UNIGRAPHICS Ver. NX 5.
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2. The upper and lower shells of the split pattern were made for different values of the thickness. The thickness values for shells were 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1mm. 3. The CAD models of upper and lower shells were converted in to STL (standard triangulation language) format also known as stereo lithography format. 4. Moulds were manufactured in 3DP (Z Print machine, Model Z 510) with Z Cast 501 0 powder, and parts were heat treated at temperature of 110 C for 1 hour, The upper and lower shells were placed in such a way that the central axis of both the shells was collinear. The co-linearity of the shells was checked with the help of surface profile-meter, and brass alloy was poured for obtaining the technological prototype. The measurement paths for the internal and the external surfaces of the benchmark have been generated through the measurement software of the GEOPAK v2.4.R10 co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM). These paths direct the movements of the CMM probe along trajectories normal to the parts surface. About 70 points have been measured on the external surface. For each point the machine software evaluates the deviations between the measured positions and the theoretical ones for the X, Y, Z coordinates. Table 1 shows variation in measured dimension of outer diameter and hardness of castings prepared with respect to shell thickness (mm).
Table 1. Experimental observations of low brass casting

S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Shell mould thickness in mm 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 TO 1 Avg. Hardness diameter in VHN in mm 48.9814 93 48.6351 90 49.0131 102 48.7502 96 48.8861 105 48.5120 88 48.9201 94 48.9220 91 Broken due to metal pressure
Figure 1. Benchmark dimensions [5]

It should be noted that in casting neither higher nor lower hardness is desirable [2-3]. This is because if casting is of high hardness, usually it is brittle and with lower hardness it will be of ductile nature. In the present experimental study the variation in hardness value is not too much. The only reason to measure and compare hardness value is, to show that for optimum size shell thickness prepared by 3DP, castings produced have little variation in hardness. So there will not be any problem in its functional operations. The results of the dimensional measurements have been used to evaluate the tolerance unit (n) that derives starting from the standard tolerance factor i, defined in standard UNI EN 20286-1 [2]. The values of standard tolerances corresponding to IT5-IT18 grades, for nominal sizes up to 500 mm, were evaluated considering the standard tolerance factor i (m) indicated by the following formula, where D is the geometric mean of the range of nominal sizes in mm [16]. 1/3 i= 0.45 x D + 0.001 x D. (1) In fact, the standard tolerances are not evaluated separately for each nominal size, but for a range of nominal sizes. For a generic nominal dimension DJN, the number of the tolerance units n is evaluated as follows: n= 1000(DJN - DJM)/ i, (2)
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Where DJM is measured dimension. The tolerance is expressed as a multiple of i: for example, IT14 corresponds to 400i, with n= 400. Table 2 shows classification of different IT grades according to UNIEN 20286-1. After this for each value of outer diameter, corresponding value of n were calculated, the latter taken as a reference index for evaluation of tolerance grade. Further (based upon observations of table1), to understand whether the process is statistically controlled six sample of brass alloy pieces were casted for best shell thickness value that is 10mm. On measurement of outer diameter with CMM, the dimensions obtained are shown in table 3. Now if the mean and standard of population that is having normal distribution is and respectively then for variable data X the standard normal deviate Z is defined as [2-3]: , (3) Where Xi is the variable data obtained, is the mean of data and is the standard deviation. Table 2. IT grades according to IS standards
S.No. Shell mould thickness in mm 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 TO 1 Dimensions in mm Tolerance factor(m) I 50 48.9814 1.58 50 48.6351 1.58 50 49.0131 1.58 50 48.7502 1.58 50 48.8861 1.58 50 48.512 1.58 50 48.9201 1.58 50 48.9220 1.58 Broken due to metal pressure DJN D JM n 644 863 624 971 705 941 683 682 IT Grade IT15 IT15 IT15 IT15 IT15 IT15 IT15 IT15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Table 3. Bench mark dimensional value at 10mm shell wall thickness

S.NO Observation Mean Above OR Below Mean B B A A A A EAB=1 Up OR Down
1 2 3 4 5 6 MEAN
48.6301 48.6255 48.6372 48.6351 48.6402 48.6415 48.63493
48.63493 48.63493 48.63493 48.63493 48.63493 48.63493
D U D U U E UD=3
A=above the mean, B=below the mean, U=Up from previous reading, D=Down from previous reading 2.1 Calculation for Z (standard normal deviate) above and below for 10mm shell:
E (run) AB = ). (4) Where N is the number of observations and E (run)AB is the expected number of run above and below E (run) AB = ( = 4. (5) (6) (7) (8) AB = , Where AB is the standard deviation of above and below AB = =1.118. ZAB= {RUNAB - E(run)AB}/ AB, Where RUNAB is the actual number of run obtained above and below
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ZAB = . (9) P=NORMSDIST(Z), when the value of Z is negative in microsoft excel software (10) PAB = 0.003645. (11) E (run) UD = . Where E (run)UD is the expected number of run up and down. E (run)UD = = 3.667. (12) (13)
UD = ), (14) Where UD is the standard deviation for up and down UD = ). (15) UD = 0.8628. (16) ZUD= {RUNUD - E(run)UD}/ UD. (17) ZUD = (3-3.667)/0.8628. (18) ZUD = -0.773064. (19) P=NORMSDIST(Z), when the value of Z is negative in microsoft excel software (20) PUD = 0.219742. (21) Normally decision making is done with certain margin of error and taken as equal to 0.005 that is there can 5% chances in arriving at wrong conclusion. Now for decision making: If PAB < OR /and PUD < , then non-random pattern exist. In the present case PAB are < indicates existence of non random pattern. Now exercise of predicting various statistical or drawing conclusions should not be undertaken unless the normality of distribution has been verified. Even if one has a large data, superimposing of normal curve on the histogram it is more difficult task than it to be imagined. For histogram one require minimum of 50 observations, however more the better and for assessing whether the underlying distribution is normal or not becomes more difficult when the number of observations is fewer. For cumulative probability plot (Pi): Pi = (S.N-0.5)/N (22) Where S.N is serial number of data observation arranged in ascending order, N is total number of observations in the data set. If the standard normal deviate follows normal distribution that has mean =0 and standard deviation =1, then: (23) The equation above follows normal probability curve and any date close to it also follows normal probability curve. The values of standard normal deviate were calculated using cumulative probability and dimensional values were arranged in ascending order as shown in table 4. Based on table 4 normal probability curve was drawn to predict the probability as shown in figure 2. As observed in figure 2, the aforesaid data follows non random pattern and is under normal probability curve. So, there are very strong chances that the process is under statistical control however X-bar chart and R-bar chart cannot be drawn due to less number of observational data. Similarly normal probability curve was drawn to predict the probability of process under statistical control for the shell thickness from 5mm to 12mm (Ref. Figure 3). As observed in figure 3, the data follows random pattern. So, there are very strong chances that the process is not under statistical control. Table 4. Standard normal deviate and Cumulative probability in ascending order for 10mm shell thickness
S.No Pi (Cumulative Probability) 0.08333 0.25 0.416667 0.58333 0.75 0.91667 Z (Standard normal deviate) -1.38299 -0.67449 -0.21043 0.21043 0.67449 1.382994 Dimensional value in mm 48.6255 48.6301 48.6351 48.6372 48.6402 48.6415
1 2 3 4 5 6
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NORMAL PROBABILITY PLOT

48.645 48.64 48.635 48.63 48.625 48.62 -2 -1 0 1 2 STD. NORMAL DEVIATE(Z)
y = 0.0061x + 48.635 R2 = 0.9501
O U T E R D IA . IN M M
OURT DIA. IN MM Y=Mx+MEAN
Figure 3. Normal probability curve of benchmark (for shell thickness from 5mm to 12mm)
Figure 2. Normal probability curve of selected bench mark (for 10mm shell wall thickness)
3.
Conclusions
On the basis of experimental observations made on the brass alloy castings obtained from different shell wall thickness, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. It is feasible to reduce the shell thickness from the recommended value of 12mm to 5mm. The tolerance grades of the castings produced from different thickness were consistent with the permissible range of tolerance grades (IT grades) as per standard UNI EN 20286-I (1995). Instead of 12mm shell thickness of mould in Z Cast process of casting for brass alloys one can select 10mm shell thickness, as observed from better dimensional results and mechanical properties. The results are in line with the observations made otherwise [5]. 2. Strong possibilities are observed for the process under statistical control for the best set shell thickness (10mm) in case of brass alloy, which is not observed for all shell wall thickness of mould cavities prepared with 3DP. Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to AICTE, New Delhi for financial support under CAYT grant. References [1] Sachs E. M., Haggerty J. S., Cima M. J. and Wiliams A. P. Three dimensional printing techniques. 1994, United States Patent No. US 005340656. [2] Singh J. P. and Singh R. Comparison of rapid casting solutions for lead and brass alloys using three dimensional printing. Proc. of IMechE Part C, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, 2009, In-press. [3] Singh J. P. and Singh R. Investigations for statistically controlled rapid casting solution of lead alloys using three dimensional printing. Proc. of IMechE Part C, Journal of Mechanical Engineering Sciences, 2009, In-press. [4] Karapatis N. P., Griethuysen, J. P. S. and Glardon, R. Direct rapid tooling: a review of current research. Prototyping Journal, 4, 1998, 77-89. [5] Singh J. P. and Singh R. Investigations for reducing wall thickness in low brass rapid casting using three dimensional printing. Proc. of International conference on Advances in mechanical engineering (AME 2008), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, India, Dec. 15-17, 2008, 878-883. [6] Singh R. and Verma M. Investigations for reducing wall thickness of aluminium shell casting using three dimensional printing. Journal of achievements in materials and manufacturing engineering, 31, 2008, 565-569. [7] Bassoli, E., Gatto, A., Iuliano L, and Violante, M., G. 3D printing technique applied to rapid casting. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 13, 2007, 148-155.
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Supplier Selection using PROMETHEE Method

Vijay Manikrao Athawale , Prasenjit Chatterjee , Shankar Chakraborty Government Polytechnic, Amravati - 444603, India 2 Jadavpur University, Kolkata - 700032, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: s_chakraborty00@yahoo.co.in) In todays highly competitive business environment, due to wide variety of customer demands, the organizations are emphasizing more on selection of the proper suppliers. It is therefore important for the organizations to evaluate, manage and select the most suitable suppliers. Hence, the objective of supplier selection is to identify the suppliers with the highest potential for satisfying the organizations needs at an acceptable price. Selecting suppliers from a large number of alternative suppliers is obviously a difficult task and is an example of multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) problem involving various attributes/criteria. In general, a wide variety of quantitative and qualitative criteria, such as price, quality, on-time delivery, flexibility, technical capability, production facilities, service etc. are to be considered while selecting the best supplier. In this paper, an example of supplier evaluation and selection is presented to demonstrate the functional application of an almost new MCDM method, i.e. PROMETHEE (Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluation). While employing the PROMETHEE method to solve a real time supplier selection problem, it is observed that the ranking of the alternative suppliers as obtained using this method almost matches with that derived by the past researchers, which shows the applicability and potentiality of this method to solve such type of MCDM problems. 1. Introduction
1 1 2 2,*
The decision regarding the supplier selection has become the most important component in todays highly competitive business environment. The decision maker has to select the best suppliers, keeping in mind their relative performance characteristics and also the requirements of the organization. Hence, selecting the best supplier from a pool of possible suppliers with different levels of capabilities and potentialities is a difficult task. The problem of supplier selection aims at periodically evaluating the suppliers for acquiring the necessary materials and services based on their capabilities. It is a well-known fact that the cost of raw materials, components and services significantly dominate the final product cost. It will be a major setback for a business organization if the received materials or services are of inferior quality as it directly affects the final output of the organization. Thus, supplier selection decision is one of the most important problems for any organization to earn good amount of profit and success in the supply chain. There are various criteria as identified by the past researchers which may affect the supplier selection decision, but it is not necessary that those will fulfill all the requirements of the organization. For example, in case of a supplier, the cost of a component may be the lowest, but the quality may be inferior. On the other hand, the quality of the component may be high, but the delivery performance may be the worst. So a trade-off among all the considered criteria is to be taken into account while selecting the best supplier for a given situation. As the supplier selection decision-making problems involve both the quantitative as well as qualitative criteria, different solution methodologies are available to deal with these two types of selection criteria. Linear weighting model, categorical model, weighted point model, total cost of ownership model, artificial neural networks and principal component analysis are widely used to solve supplier selection problems with only quantitative information. On the other hand, analytic hierarchy process (AHP), voting analytic hierarchy process, fuzzy extended analytic hierarchy process and multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT)
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[1-5] have been adopted when the supplier selection problems involve both the quantitative and qualitative information. Although research in supplier selection is flooded with several decision models that encompass simple weighted techniques to advanced mathematical programming methods, there has been little work in the area of applications of different MCDM methods in solving the supplier selection problems. In this paper, an attempt is made to discover the potentiality and applicability of an almost new MCDM method, i.e. PROMETHEE while selecting the most appropriate supplier for a specific business organization. 2. PROMETHEE method
Preference function based outranking method is a special type of MCDM approach that can provide a ranking ordering of the decision options. The preference ranking organization method for enrichment evaluation (PROMETHEE) was developed by Brans and Vincke in 1985 [6]. The PROMETHEE I method can provide the partial ordering of the decision alternatives, whereas the PROMETHEE II method can derive the full ranking of the alternatives. In this paper, the PROMETHEE II method is employed to obtain the full ranking of the alternative suppliers as engaged in a specific business organization. The procedural steps as involved in the PROMETHEE II method are enlisted as below [6,7]: Step 1: Normalize the decision matrix using the following equation: (1) R ij Xij min(X ij ) / max(X ij ) min(X ij ) (i 1,2,..., n; j 1,2,..., m)
where Xij is the performance measure of i alternative with respect to j criterion. For non-beneficial attributes, Eqn. (1) can be rewritten as follows: R ij max(X ij ) Xij / max(X ij ) min(X ij )
th
th
(2)
Step 2: Calculate the evaluative differences of i alternative with respect to other alternatives. This step involves the calculation of differences in criteria values between different alternatives pair-wise. Step 3: Calculate the preference function, P j (i, i). There are mainly six types of generalized preference functions as proposed by Brans and Mareschal [7,8]. But these preference functions require the definition of some preferential parameters, such as the preference and indifference thresholds. However, in real time applications, it may be difficult for the decision maker to specify which specific form of preference function is suitable for each criterion and also to determine the parameters involved [8]. To avoid this problem, the following simplified preference function [7] is adopted here: (3) P j (i, i ) 0 if R ij R i j (4) P j (i, i) ( R ij R i j ) if R ij R ij Step 4: Calculate the aggregated preference function taking into account the criteria weights. Aggregated preference function, (i, i) m 1 w j x Pj (i, i) m 1 w j (5) j j
th
where wj is the relative importance (weight) of j criterion. Step 5: Determine the leaving and entering outranking flows as follows: 1 th + Leaving (or positive) flow for i alternative, (i) = (i i) n (i, i) n 1 i 1 Entering (or negative) flow for i alternative, (i) =
th -
th
(6) (7)
1 n (i, i) n 1 i 1
(i i)
where n is the number of alternatives. Here, each alternative faces (n1) number of other alternatives. The leaving flow expresses how much an alternative dominates the other alternatives, while the entering flow denotes how much an alternative is dominated by the other alternatives. Based on these outranking flows, the PROMETHEE I method can provide a partial preorder of the alternatives, whereas
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the PROMETHEE II method can give the complete preorder by using a net flow, though it loses much information of preference relations. Step 6: Calculate the net outranking flow for each alternative. (i) (i) (i) (8) Step 7: Determine the ranking of all the considered alternatives depending on the values of (i). The higher is the value of (i), the better is the alternative. Thus, the best alternative is the one having the highest (i) value. The PROMETHEE method is an interactive multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach designed to handle quantitative as well as qualitative attributes with discrete alternatives. In this method, pair-wise comparison of the alternatives is performed to compute a preference function for each criterion. Based on this preference function, a preference index for alternative i over i is determined. This preference index is the measure to support the hypothesis that alternative i is preferred to i . The PROMETHEE method has significant advantages over the other MCDM approaches, e.g. multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT) and analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The PROMETHEE method can classify the alternatives which are difficult to be compared because of a trade-off relation of evaluation standards as non-comparable alternatives. It is quite different from analytic hierarchy process (AHP) in that there is no need to perform a pair-wise comparison again when comparative alternatives are added or deleted. 3. Illustrative example Pi and Low [1] developed a simple method for supplier evaluation and selection based on four criteria, i.e. quality, on-time delivery, price and service. These four criteria have been quantified in terms of Taguchi quality loss function and then analytic hierarchy process (AHP) has been employed to combine them into one global variable for supplier selection decision-making. Regarding the quality, as the zero-percent-defect is the target of the concerned manufacturing organization, the upper specification limit is set at 2% to indicate the allowable deviation from the target value. Zero-loss will occur at zero-percent-defectiveparts and 100%-loss will occur at the specification limit of 2%-defective-parts. Relating to ontime delivery, a large loss will occur to the manufacturing organization if the supplier delays in delivering the items, but only a small loss will occur if the supplier delivers the items prior to the schedule requirement. But as the lead-time is short in actual practice, the loss when deliveries are delayed always attracts more attention. In case of price, a zero-loss will occur to the supplier if he or she provides the lowest parts among the suppliers and if as much as 20% of the lowest price can be tolerated as the specification. The loss will be 100% when price is up to 20% of the lowest price. As the service factor, being a qualitative criterion, is difficult to quantify, a service factor rating (SFR) method has been employed to measure the supplier service performance. This method includes some important performance factors, like the ability to resolve problems, availability of technical data, forwarding of correlation data, ongoing progress reporting, responsiveness to return authorization and supplier response to corrective action. Detailed data for these supplier selection criteria is given in Table 1 for four different suppliers. Among these four criteria, only service is a beneficial attribute, whereas, quality, on-time delivery and price are the non-beneficial attributes.
Table 1. Quantitative data for example 1 [1]

Supplier A B C D Quality (Defective rate) (Q) 1.8 1.5 1 1.4 On-time delivery (Delay time) (OTD) 1 6 2 6 Price (P) 100 110 118 108 Service (S) 90 72 65 95
Now, the same problem of selecting the most appropriate supplier for the given situation is solved using the PROMETHEE II method. At first, the original decision matrix, as shown in Table 1, is normalized using Eqns. (1) and (2), and is given in Table 2. Pi and Low [1] employed the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method to determine the priority weights
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for the considered criteria. These priority weights, w 1 = 0.462, w2 = 0.101, w3 = 0.304 and w 4 = 0.133 are used here for the PROMETHEE method-based analysis. Now, the preference functions are calculated for all the pairs of alternatives, using Eqns. (3) and (4), and are given in Table 3. Table 4 exhibits the aggregated preference function values for all the paired alternatives, calculated using Eqn. (5). Now, the leaving and entering flows for different supplier alternatives are estimated using Eqns. (6) and (7), and are given in Table 5.
Table 2. Normalized decision matrix

Supplier A B C D Q 0 0.375 1 0.5 OTD 1 0 0.8 0 P 1 0.4444 0 0.5556 S 0.8333 0.2333 0 1
The candidate alternative suppliers are now ranked in descending order, according to the values of the net outranking flow, as calculated using Eqn. (8). The net outranking flow values for different suppliers and their relative rankings are exhibited in Table 6. The best choice of supplier for the given situation is supplier D. Supplier A is the second choice and the last choice is supplier C, which match well with that as obtained by Pi and Low [1]. It is observed that there exists a very high Spearmans rank correlation coefficient (rs = 0.9697) between the rankings as obtained using the PROMETHEE II method and those derived by Pi and Low [1]. Thus the relative ranking of the suppliers as achieved using the PROMETHEE II method is genuine and acceptable.
Table 3. Preference functions for all the pairs of alternatives

Supplier pair (A,B) (A,C) (A,D) (B,A) (B,C) (B,D) (C,A) (C,B) (C,D) (D,A) (D,B) (D,C) Supplier A B C D Q -0.375 -1.0 -0.5 0.375 -0.625 -0.125 1 0.625 0.5 0.5 0.125 -0.5 A 0.1732 0.4620 0.2532 OTD 1 0.2 0.1 -1.0 -0.8 0 -0.2 0.8 0.8 -1.0 0 -0.8 B 0.3497 0.3696 0.1935
+
P 0.5556 1 0.4444 -0.5556 0.4444 -0.1111 -1.0 -0.4444 -0.5556 -0.4444 0.1111 0.5556 C 0.4350 0.1661 0.3019
S 0.6 0.8333 -0.1667 -0.6 0.2333 -0.7667 -0.8333 -0.2333 -1.0 0.1667 0.7667 1 D 0.2361 0 0.3118 -
Table 4. Aggregated preference function values
Table 5. Leaving and entering flows for different suppliers

Supplier A B C D Leaving flow, (i) 0.3403 0.1131 01210 0.2495 Entering flow, (i) 0.2961 0.2042 0.3010 0.1826
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Table 6. Net outranking flow values for different suppliers and their rankings
Supplier A B C D 4. Conclusions Net outranking flow, (i) 0.0442 -0.0911 -0.1801 0.0688 Ranking 2 3 4 1
This real time example demonstrates the potentiality, applicability and flexibility of the PROMETHEE method in solving supplier selection decision-making problems in different business organizations, involving qualitative as well as quantitative data. This method can incorporate the decision makers preferences regarding the relative importance of different criteria. The measures of the qualitative and quantitative criteria, and their relative importance are used together to rank the alternative suppliers, providing a better evaluation of the alternatives. The result derived using the PROMETHEE method matches well with that obtained by the past researchers. This method can also be used for any type of decisionmaking problem, involving any number of qualitative and quantitative criteria, and any number of alternatives. References [1] Pi, W-N. and Low, C. Supplier evaluation and selection via Taguchi loss functions and an AHP. Int. J. of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 27, 2006, 625-630. [2] Akarte, M.M., Surendra, N.V., Ravi, B. and Rangaraj, N. Web based casting supplier evaluation using analytical hierarchy process. J. of the Operational Research Society, 52, 2001, 511-522. [3] Liu, F-H.F. and Hai, H.L. The voting analytic hierarchy process method for selecting supplier. Int. J. of Production Economics, 97, 2005, 308-317. [4] Shyur, H-J. and Shih, H-S. A hybrid MCDM model for strategic vendor selection. Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 44, 2006, 749-761. [5] Ng, W.L. An efficient and simple model for multiple criteria supplier selection problem. European J. of Operational Research, 186, 2008, 1059-1067. [6] Doumpos, M. and Zopounidis, C. A multicriteria classification approach based on pairwise comparisons. European J. of Operational Research, 158, 2004, 378-389. [7] Hajkowicz, S. and Higgins, A. A comparison of multiple criteria analysis techniques for water resource management. European J. of Operational Research, 184, 2008, 255-265. [8] Seo, Y-J., Jeong, H-Y. and Song, Y-J. Best Web service selection based on the decision making between QoS criteria of service, L.T. Yang et al. (Eds.): ICESS 2005, LNCS 3820, Springer-Verlag Berlin, 2005, 408-419.
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Selection of Facility Layouts using ELECTRE II Method

Prasenjit Chatterjee, Shankar Chakraborty*
*
Jadavpur University, Kolkata - 700032, India Corresponding author (e-mail: s_chakraborty00@yahoo.co.in)
Facility layout design (FLD) has a very important role to play on the performance of a manufacturing system. The concept of FLD is usually considered as a multiobjective problem. For this reason, the layout generation and its evaluation is often a challenging and time consuming task due to different conflicting criteria and available alternatives from which the best layout needs to be selected. An effective facility layout evaluation process requires the consideration of various qualitative criteria, e.g. flexibility in volume and variety, and quality related to the product and production as well as different quantitative criteria, such as material handling cost, adjacency score, shape ratio and material handling equipment utilization etc. In this paper, the ELECTRE II (ELimination and Et Choice Translating REality), an outranking method is used for solving the facility layout selection problems. The ELECTRE I method only gives the partial ranking of the available alternatives, whereas the entire ranking of the alternatives can be obtained using ELECTRE II method. The final rankings of the considered alternatives as achieved using this outranking method exactly match with those derived by the past researcher, which show the applicability and potentiality of the ELECTRE methods to solve such type of multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) problems. 1. Introduction
Determining the physical organization of a production system is defined as the facility layout problem (FLP). The location of the facilities and the efficient design of those facilities are the most important and fundamental strategic issues facing by any manufacturing or service organization. Facility layout design (FLD) has a very important role on the performance of a manufacturing system. The concept of FLD is usually considered as a multiobjective problem. For this reason, a layout generation and its evaluation are often challenging and time consuming due to the presence of multiple objectives and their data collection process. In addition, an effective facility layout evaluation procedure requires the consideration of several qualitative criteria, e.g. flexibility in volume and variety, and quality related to product and production, as well as quantitative criteria, such as material handling cost, adjacency score, shape ratio and material handling equipment utilization in the decisionmaking process. As known, facility layout problem is concerned with the allocation of activities to space such that a set of criteria is met and/or some objectives are optimized. The facility layout problem is one of the best-studied fields to achieve its goal of productivity and profitability. It has been observed that 20-50% of the total operating expenses in manufacturing are related to material handling and layout. In this paper, one facility layout problem is solved which contains multiple alternative facility layouts. Selecting a best alternative while considering multiple performance attributes is known as multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) process. Several methods, such as simple additive weighting (SAW), technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS), analytic hierarchy process (AHP), and data envelopment analysis (DEA), grey relational analysis (GRA), simulated annealing, ant colony optimization etc. [1-5] have been successfully applied for solving this kind of FLD problems. This paper attempts to solve the facility layout selection problems using one of the most potential multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approaches for a given facility layout selection application. The MCDM approach used here for the selection of facility layouts is ELimination and Et Choice Translating REality (ELECTRE), an outranking method. This method is used to rank the alternative facility layouts, for which several requirements are considered simultaneously.
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It is important to identify an efficient facility layout or machine placement while considering various constraints, such as specified location, functional relationship, material flow optimization etc. Very few approaches have been proposed by the past researchers on the actual identification of the facility layouts, the evaluating attributes and their relative importance. The MCDM methods give an effective framework for layout comparisons based on the evaluation of multiple conflicting criteria. 2. ELECTRE method The ELECTRE (ELimination and Et Choice Translating REality) method, developed by Roy [6], is based on multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT) with the intention to improve efficiency without affecting the outcome while considering less information [7]. It is a procedure that sequentially reduces the number of alternatives the decision maker is faced within a set of non-dominated alternatives. The concept of an outranking relation S is introduced as a binary relation defined on the set of alternatives A. Given the alternatives Aj and Ak, Aj outranks Ak or AjSAk, if given all that is known about the two alternatives, there are enough arguments to decide that Aj is at least as good as Ak. The goal of this outranking method is to find out all the alternatives that dominate other alternatives while they cannot be dominated by any other alternative. To find the best alternative, the ELECTRE method also requires the knowledge of the weight values for all the criteria. Each criterion Ci C is assigned a subjective weight wi (the sum of the weights of all the criteria equals to 1), and every pair of the alternatives Aj and Ak is assigned a concordance index, c(j,k), given as below:
c(j, k)
wi , g i (j) g i (k)
j, k 1,2,..., n, j k
th th
(1)
where gi(j) and gi(k) are the normalized measures of performance of j and k alternative th respectively with respect to i criterion in the decision matrix. Thus, for an ordered pair of alternatives (Aj,Ak), the concordance index, c(j,k) is the sum of all the weights for those criteria where the performance score of Aj is at least as that of Ak. Clearly, the concordance index lies between 0 and 1. A discordance index, d(j,k) is also calculated as given below:
d(j, k) 0,
g i (k) g i (j) i 1,..., m
if g i (j) g i (k) , i 1,2,..., m max
g i (k) gi (j)
otherwise , j, k 1,2,..., n, j k
(2)
max g i (k) g i (j)
Once these two indices are estimated, an outranking relation S can be defined as: AjSAk if and only if c(j,k) c and
(3)
d(j,k) d
where c and d are the threshold values as set by the decision maker. If the threshold values
are high, it will be more difficult to pass the tests (normally, c = 0.7 and d = 0.3 [8]). For an outranking relation to be judged as true, both the concordance and discordance indices should not violate their corresponding threshold values. When these two tests are performed for all the pairs of alternatives, the preferred alternatives are those which outrank more than being outranked. The steps for implementing the ELECTRE method are described as below [7]: Step 1: Obtain the normalized values of all the criteria. Step 2: Construct the outranking relations by following the concordance and discordance definitions, and develop a graph representing the dominance relations among the alternatives. In this graph, if alternative Aj outranks alternative Ak, then a directed arc exists from Aj to Ak. Step 3: Obtain a minimum dominating subset by using the minimum concordance and maximum discordance indices. Step 4: If the subset has a single element or is small enough to apply value judgment, select the final decision. Otherwise, repeat steps 2-3 until a single element or small subset exists.
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Step 5: If a full ranking of the alternatives is required, apply an extension of the ELECTRE, i.e. ELECTRE II method. Calculate another two indices as follows:
n n
Pure concordance index (Cj) =
c(j, k) c(k, j)
k 1 n j1 n
(j k) (j k)
(4)
Pure discordance index (Dj) =
k 1
d(j, k)
d(k, j)
j 1
(5)
(a) Once these two indices are computed, obtain two rankings separately. (b) Determine an average ranking from the two rankings as obtained in step 5(a). (c) Select that alternative which has the best average rank. The ELECTRE method differs from other compensatory methods as the weights in this method are treated as the coefficients of importance and moreover, a significantly weak criterion value of an alternative cannot directly be compensated for by other good criteria values. The pure concordance and discordance indices in the ELECTRE II method incorporate two extreme opposite relationships, i.e. strong and weak relationships, whereby strong and weak rankings are reduced to obtain the final ranking. By interactively changing the threshold values, the size of the subset consisting of the promising pair of alternatives can be changed. The ELECTRE I method is used to develop a partial ranking and choose a set of the promising alternatives, whereas the ELECTRE II method is used for ranking all the alternatives. When an outranking creditability between two alternatives is to be measured, the ELECTRE III method is adopted where an outranking degree can be established. 3. Illustrative example This example is related to the selection of the best layout for a given industrial application [1]. Rao [1] considered the choice of the best suited facility involving three alternatives and eight attributes, i.e. closeness to market (CM), closeness to raw material (CR), land transportation (LT), air transportation (AT), cost of labour (CLR), availability of labour (AL), community education (E) and business climate (BC). All these attributes are beneficial for which higher values are desirable; except for cost of labour, which is a nonbeneficial attribute where lower value is preferable. All the attributes are expressed subjectively, as shown in Table 1, in terms of linguistic variables, except for cost of labour. Objective values are now assigned to these variables using Table 2 [1]. The list of the alternative layouts along with their corresponding criteria values are given in Table 3.
Table 1. Linguistic terms for different alternative layouts

Layout 1 2 3 CM H VH A CR VA H A LT H H VH AT AA VH AA CLR 250 265 255 Crisp score 0.045 0.135 0.253 0.335 0.410 0.500 0.590 0.665 0.745 0.865 0.955 AL H AA AA E AA H VH BC VH VH H
Table 2. Conversion of linguistic terms into objective values

Linguistic term Exceptionally low Extremely low Very low Low Below average Average Above average High Very high Extremely high Exceptionally high
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Table 3. Layouts with their corresponding criteria values

Layout 1 2 3 CM 0.665 0.745 0.500 CR 0.745 0.665 0.665 LT 0.665 0.665 0.745 AT 0.590 0.745 0.590 CLR in Rs 250 265 255 AL 0.665 0.590 0.590 E 0.590 0.665 0.745 BC 0.745 0.745 0.665
Rao [1] determined the weights for different criteria affecting the best layout selection decision-making problem using analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and these weights, as shown in Table 4, are used here for the ELECTRE method based analysis.
Table 4. Weights for different attribute

WCM 0.1267 WCR 0.1267 WLT 0.0883 WAT 0.0517 WCLR 0.0929 WAL 0.0706 WE 0.1668 WBC 0.2764
Now, in order to solve this problem using the ELECTRE II method, the original decision matrix, shown in Table 3, is normalized and the weighted normalized matrix is exhibited in Table 5.
Table 5. Weighted normalized decision matrix

Layout 1 2 3 CM 0.0754 0.0845 0.0567 CR 0.0786 0.0702 0.0702 LT 0.0489 0.0489 0.0548 AT 0.0272 0.0344 0.0272 CLR 0.0522 0.0553 0.0532 AL 0.0440 0.0390 0.0390 E 0.0848 0.0956 0.1071 BC 0.1652 0.1652 0.1475
Now, using Eqns. (1) and (2), the concordance and discordance indices are calculated as represented in Table 6 and 7 respectively.
Table 6. Concordance matrix

Layout 1 2 3 1 0.5274 0.2808 2 0.4725 0.4465 3 0.7191 0.5534 -
Table 7. Discordance matrix

Layout 1 2 3 1 0.78 0.83 2 1 1 3 1 0.41 -
The pure concordance and discordance indices for the alternative layouts are computed using Eqns. (4) and (5) respectively. Then the average ranking is determined on the basis of which the final ranking is obtained, as given in Table 8.
Table 8. Pure concordance and discordance indices

Layout 1 2 3 Pure concordance index 0.3834 0.1618 -0.5452 Initial rank 1 2 3 Pure discordance index 0.3769 -0.8028 0.4258 Initial rank 2 1 3 Average rank 1.5 1.5 3 Final rank 2 1 3
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Using the ELECTRE II method, it is observed that layout 2 is the best choice, followed by layout 1 and 3. Rao [1] obtained a ranking of the alternative layouts as 2-1-3, which exactly matches with the ELECTRE II based analysis. So the ranking obtained by the ELECTRE II method is quite satisfactory. 4. Conclusions
This real time example demonstrates the potentiality, applicability and flexibility of the ELECTRE II method in solving facility layout decision-making problems, involving qualitative as well as quantitative data. This method can incorporate the decision makers preferences regarding the relative importance of different criteria. The measures of the qualitative and quantitative criteria, and their relative importance are used together to rank the alternative layouts, providing a better evaluation of the alternatives. The result derived using the ELECTRE II method exactly matches with that obtained by the past researcher. This method can also be used for any type of decision-making problem, involving any number of qualitative and quantitative criteria, and any number of alternatives. References [1] Rao, R.V. Decision Making in the Manufacturing Environment Using Graph Theory and Fuzzy Multiple Attribute Decision Making Methods. Springer-Verlag, London, 2007. [2] Kuo, Y., Yang, T. and Huang, G.W. The use of grey relational analysis in solving multiple attribute decision-making problems. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 55, 2008, 80-93. [3] Chwif, L., Barretto, M.R.P. and Moscato, L.A. A solution to the facility layout problem using simulated annealing. Computers in Industry, 36, 1998, 125-132. [4] Hani, Y., Amodeo, L., Yalaoui, F. and Chen, H. Ant colony optimization for solving an industrial layout problem. European J. of Operational Research, 183, 2007, 633-642. [5] Houshyar, A. and White, B. Comparison of solution procedures to the facility location problem. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 32, 1997, 77-87. [6] Roy, B. and Vincke, P. Multi-criteria analysis: survey and new directions. European J. of Operational Research, 8, 1981, 207-218. [7] Cho, K.T. Multicriteria decision methods: an attempt to evaluate and unify. Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 37, 2003, 1099-1119. [8] Milani, A.S., Shanian, A. and El-Lahham, C. Using different ELECTRE methods in strategic planning in the presence of human behavioral resistance. J. of Applied Mathematics and Decision Sciences, Article ID 10936, 2006, 1-19.
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Characterization of weld quality and process stability in pulsed MIG welding using sensor signals
Kamal Pal, Surjya K. Pal* Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: skpal@mech.iitkgp.ernet.in) Manufacturing companies often face weld quality problems due to improper weld bead shape with huge metal spatter. Weld bead geometry can be improved with lower aspect ratio and higher form factor. The weld deposition efficiency also is an economic factor. Various sensors may be useful to improve the characterization of weld quality and process stability in real time. In this work, arc sensors along with thermocouple and sound sensor were used in pulsed metal inert gas welding of low carbon steel. These sensors signals also have been analyzed in time domain as well frequency domain to completely characterize the process. 1. Introduction Pulsed metal inert gas welding (P-MIGW) is an advanced spray transfer process with less heat input [1]. Weld bead geometry is influenced by welding heat input as well as various pulse parameters. Welding process stability or arc stability is also affected with the variation of welding process parameters [2]. Weld deposition efficiency (d) is an important economic factor, which is related to arc stability [3]. Weld quality as well as deposition efficiency have to be improved to compete in the real world. Weld bead geometry is mainly characterized by the weld width (w), its reinforcement (r) and depth of penetration (p) as shown in Figure 1. The depth of weld penetration, aspect ratio (w/p) and weld form factor (w/r) are the most essential features to control the weld strength and its service life [4]. The weld quality improves with higher depth of penetration and the reduction of reinforcement, toe angle (e), dilution (d), and HAZ width (wh). Weld strength and its service life may also be enhanced with the reduction of aspect ratio and an increase of weld form factor (w/r). Weld dilution, the ratio of base metal fusion area (A) to weld bead area (A+B), is also related to weld quality. Generally, the weld HAZ (coarse grain size near to fusion zone) is the weakest area in case of low carbon steel [5]. Therefore, weld HAZ width or its area has to be reduced to improve the weld bead quality. Weld deposition rate (or its efficiency) is an economic factor. Weld deposition efficiency indicates the ratio of actual amount of metal deposited to the theoretical metal deposition, which is related with the degree of arc stability [6].
Figure 1. Schematic representation of weld bead geometry The demand for online weld quality characterization is being highly increased to overcome expensive off-line inspection in modern automated manufacturing industries. There are various uncontrollable factors like contamination and environmental conditions in
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arc welding. It indicates the necessity of reliable and non-contact sensors to improve monitoring capability in real time. Arc sensors are found to be widely used in most of research works because of its simplicity and reliability [7]. However, these sensors are not sufficient to completely characterize the process. Recently, arc sound also has been used to monitor arc stability [8-10]. Weld temperature profile also dictates the weld bead features [11-12]. In this work, pulsed metal inert gas welding (P-MIGW) has been investigated on low carbon steel plates. Welding speed (S) and two pulse voltage parameters namely, peak voltage (Vp) and back ground voltage (Vb) are varied, keeping other welding conditions constant. The wire feed rate, pulse frequency and pulse on-time were kept constant at 8m/min, 100Hz and 5ms, respectively. Weld quality and process stability also have been characterized using various time domain statistical values of various sensors, such as voltage, current, sound and temperature. Weld bead peak temperature (Tp), root mean square (RMS) value of arc power (Prms ) and arc sound (Srms ) have been found to be related with weld quality. Finally, an attempt has been made to correlate it with the frequency domain features of arc voltage, welding current and arc sound. Firstly, these weld bead geometry features along with deposition efficiency have been studied with the variation of welding speed and pulse voltage parameters. The acquired sensors signals have been analyzed in both time domain as well as frequency domain, to correlate with process outputs. 2. Experiments
In this investigation, a constant voltage pulsed MIG welding machine (FRONIOUS) is used. The work material was mild-steel plates of 7.5 mm thickness. The copper coated mild steel filler wire (ESAB, S-6 wire, 1.2 mm diameter) was used in the bead-on-plate method. The electrode wire was feed to the welding gun by a four-roller drive system. The pure argon (99.9%) was used as shielding gas in the experiment. There are four various sensors such as current, voltage, sound and thermocouple were used. The experimental setup is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up A Hall-effect DC current sensor and a DC voltage sensor are fitted to the return cable of welding gun. The measured voltage is stepped down in 1:11 ratio before feeding to the A/D card. A microphone (B & K, 4189) with pre-amplifier (2669L) and Nexus conditioning amplifier (Nexus 2690, combined sensitivity 316 mV/Pa) were used at a distance of one meter from the welding torch. A K-type thermocouple is attached on the plate surface at a distance of 10 mm from the weld center. These analog signals are acquired and converted to digital signals by a National Instruments data acquisition card (USB- 6120 / 16) to an Intel Pentium 4 PC through LABVIEW data acquisition interface at a sampling frequency of 10 kHz.
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The Leica stereo zoom microscope was used to capture the image of the weld bead. The bead geometry measurements were calculated with Lieca-Qwin V3 software. The weld deposition efficiency (d) expressed by the ratio of the enhancement of plate weight in welding to the weight of the theoretical deposited metal. The enhancement of the plate weight is calculated by the change of the final (Wf) and initial (Wi) plate weight during welding. The weight of the deposited metal (Wd) was calculated from the equation given below, where Tw is the welding time, F is the wire feed rate and wu is the unit weight of the wire.
d (W f Wi ) / Wd
Wd Tw .F .w
3.
(1) (2)
Experimental results and discussions The process inputs and their corresponding sensors outputs along with weld bead geometry values are shown in Table 3. Table 1. Experimental design matrix with their corresponding responses Process Sensor Process parameters outputs outputs Expt S Vm Vp Vb Prms T p Srms w p r w/p w/r e wh no. (mm/ (volt) (volt) (volt) (Kw) (0C) (mV) (mm) (mm) (mm) (deg) (mm) sec) 1 3.5 28 38 18 9.36 745 1.18 12.7 3.6 3.2 3.5 4 50 2.8 2 5.6 28 38 18 9.46 600 1.11 10.2 3.1 2.8 3.3 3.7 52.5 2.3 3 7.7 28 38 18 9.45 520 1.31 8.5 3.1 2.8 2.8 3.1 55.5 1.6 4 3.5 23 33 13 7.62 580 1.59 12 2.8 3.2 4.4 3.8 47 2.6 5 5.6 23 33 13 7.76 515 1.41 10.4 2.7 3 3.9 3.5 45.9 1.6 6 7.7 23 33 13 7.57 400 1.51 9.3 2.7 2.7 3.5 3.4 48 1.2 7 3.5 25.5 38 13 9.44 630 1.47 12.5 3.6 2.9 3.5 4.4 43.3 2.8 8 5.6 25.5 38 13 9.63 560 1.36 10.7 3.5 3 3.1 3.6 46.5 2.3 9 7.7 25.5 38 13 9.41 525 1.26 9.5 2.8 2.6 3.4 3.7 42.5 1.8 10 3.5 25.5 33 18 7.55 665 1.67 11.6 2.8 3.1 4.2 3.7 51 2.3 11 5.6 25.5 33 18 7.57 465 1.46 10.2 2.7 2.7 3.9 3.8 48 2 12 7.7 25.5 33 18 7.59 445 1.42 10 2.3 2.7 4.3 3.8 45.5 1.7
d d (%) (%) 34.4 36.4 37.5 36 39.2 45.6 37.9 37.7 39.6 36.5 39.1 39 91.4 93.1 93.1 84.7 84.5 87.9 89.7 91.8 92.2 84.4 80.2 87.8
The acquired RMS values of arc voltage, welding current were found to be higher at high mean voltage condition. However, these sensors output values were less in case of low peak voltage condition (33V/18V) than high peak voltage condition (38V/13V) at a constant mean voltage (25.5V). The weld peak temperature was also influenced in the same manner. The RMS value of arc sound was found to be higher at low peak voltage condition due to poor arc stability and droplet mode of metal transfer rather than spray mode of metal transfer without any spatter. Therefore, the influence of peak voltage on arc intensity (or arc power) as well as metal transfer behavior was significantly higher than background voltage (or mean voltage). There was an optimum welding speed to achieve better arc stability (or arc intensity) at a specified pulse voltage condition. The heat input to the weld was also influenced as it is the ratio of arc power to the welding speed. The result indicated that the size of the weld bead increased with an increase of heat input to the weld. The weld bead width (w), depth of penetration (p), reinforcement height (r) as well as HAZ width (wh) was found to be reduced with the welding speed. The arc intensity (or arc power) also found to be highly correlated with weld penetration and reinforcement height. The weld penetration was significantly higher at higher peak voltage condition due to higher arc intensity. The same type of variation has been noticed in case of reinforcement height with arc power. The bead width was found to be almost proportional with the heat input to the
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weld. The HAZ width also correlated with the weld heat input in the same manner. The aspect ratio (w/p) reduced (improved) at high peak voltage condition as weld penetration (Figure 3a). However, the weld form factor (w/r) was found to be better (higher) at low welding speed, especially in case of high peak voltage condition. Weld toe angle (e) reduced with welding speed beyond a certain point except high mean voltage condition.
4.4 4.2 4.0
94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 3 4 5 6 7 8
3.8 3.6 3.4 3.2 3.0 2.8 3 4 5 6 7
Deposition efficiency (%)
Aspect ratio (w/p)
Vp=38V, Vb=18V Vp=33V, Vb=13V Vp=38V, Vb=13V Vp=33V, Vb=18V
Vp=38V, Vb=18V Vp=33V, Vb=13V Vp=38V, Vb=13V Vp=33V, Vb=18V
(a) (b) Figure 3. Effect of welding speed on (a) Aspect ratio, (b) Deposition efficiency The weld dilution (d) was not very much influenced by welding speed except low mean voltage condition. The weld peak temperature was found to be a better indicator of weld dilution as dilution increased with welding speed. The deposition efficiency (d) has been found to be improved at high peak voltage condition due to higher arc intensity with low metal spatter (Figure 3b). It indicated with higher arc power (better arc stability) and lower arc sound. The fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the acquired voltage, current and sound signals also has been processed to correlate with weld bead characteristics. One major frequency peak at pulse frequency and minor frequency peaks at its odd multiples have been observed. The voltage and current FFTs were highly monotonous. The variation of voltage and current FFTs were not so prominent with the change of welding speed as well as various pulse voltage conditions. However, the arc sound FFTs comprised of various frequency peaks indicating the metal transfer behavior (or arc stability) as shown in case of high and low voltage conditions (Figure 4a and 4b).
12 x 10
6
Welding speed (mm/sec)
Welding speed (mm/sec)
Frequency Spectra 18
x 10
Frequency Spec tra
(a)
10 8
16
(b)
14
12
10 Power 6 Power 8 6 4 2 2 0 50 100 150 200 250 cy cles /s ecs 300 350 400 450 500 0 0
50
100
150
200
250 cycles/sec s
300
350
400
450
500
Figure 4. FFT of arc sound at (a) High voltage (Expt #1), (b) Low voltage (Expt #4) There were a lot of low frequency peaks and the major frequency peak of lower amplitude at low peak voltage condition as shown in Figure 4(b). It indicated the poor arc stability and droplet mode of metal transfer. The low frequency peaks completely diminished with an increase of peak voltage. The major frequency peak was highly monotonous and its high amplitude was found to be higher indicating more metal transfer at high peak voltage condition.
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4.
Conclusions
The weld bead geometry characteristics were highly influenced by the variation of pulse parameters as well as heat input to the weld. The process stability also found to be correlated with metal transfer behavior and arc intensity. The following conclusions can be made. a) The weld penetration as well as weld deposition efficiency were almost proportional to arc power. However, weld bead width and HAZ width are strongly influenced by the heat input. b) The aspect ratio can be improved with the increase of peak voltage, whereas weld form factor increased at slower welding speed. c) The weld dilution increased with the welding speed, which was found to be highly correlated with weld peak temperature. d) The frequency domain analysis of arc sound was also found to be a good indicator of process stability. References [1] Palani, P.K. and Murugan, N. Selection of parameters of pulsed current gas metal arc welding (Review). J Mat Proces Techn., 172, 2006,110. [2] Amin, M. Pulsed current parameters for stability and controlled metal transfer in arc welding. Met Constr., 15, 1983, 272278. [3] Pal, K., Bhattacharya, S. and Pal S.K. Prediction of metal deposition from arc sound and weld temperature signatures in pulsed MIG welding. Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 2009, Accepted for publication, DOI: 10.1007/s00170-009-2052-5. [4] Nouri, M., Abdollah-zadehy, A. and Malek, F. Effect of welding parameters on dilution and weld bead geometry in cladding. J Mater Sci Technol., 23, 2007, 817-822. [5] Gural, A., Bostan, B. and Ozdemir, A.T. Heat treatment in two phase region and its effect on microstructure and mechanical strength after welding of a low carbon steel. Materials and Design, 28, 2007, 897903. [6] Hermans, M.J.M. and Ooden, G.D. Process behavior and stability in short circuit gas metal arc welding. Welding Res Suppl. 78, 1999, 137s-141s. [7] Li, D., Yonglun, S. and Feng, Y. On line monitoring of weld defects for short-circuit gas metal arc welding based on the self-organize feature map neural networks. Proc. int. joint. conf. neural networks, 5, 2000, 239244. [8] Arata, Y., Inoue, K., Futamata, M. and Toh, T. Investigation on welding arc sound (Report I) -- Effect of welding method and welding condition of welding arc sound. Trans. JWRI 8, 1979, 25-31. [9] Cudina, M. and Prezelj, J. Evaluation of the sound signal based on the welding current in the gasmetal arc welding process. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs (Part C), J. Mechanical Engineering Science IMechE, 217, 2003, 483-494. [10] Grad, L., Grum, J., Polajnar, I. and Slabe, J.M. Feasibility study of acoustic signals for on-line monitoring in short circuit gas metal arc welding. Int J Machine Tools & Manufacture, 44, 2004, 555561. [11] Moreira, P.M.G.P., Frazao, O., Tavares, S.M.O., Figueiredo, de M.A.V., Restivo, M.T., Santos, J.L. and Castro, de P.M.S.T. Temperature field acquisition during gas metal arc welding using thermocouples, thermography and fibre bragg grating sensors. Meas. Sci. Technol. 18, 2007, 877883. [12] Santos, T.O., Caetano, R.B., Lemos, J.M. and Coito, F.J. Multipredictive adaptive control of arc welding trailing centerline temperature. IEEE Trans. Control systems techn 8, 2000, 159-169.
1023
Analysis of Total Aerosol Emission from Electrical Discharge Machining Process

Jose Mathew, S. P. Sivaprakasam , K. R. Balasubramanian, K. Renjith National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli 620 015, Tamilnadu, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: spshivam@nitt.edu) Emission of toxic aerosols and gases are considered as the major occupational and environmental threats associated with Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) process, which is the most widely used non-traditional manufacturing technique especially when hydrocarbon based dielectric fluids are used. This paper presents the evaluation emission rate of total aerosol from die sinking EDM process when commercially available kerosene was used as the dielectric medium. The experimental results indicated that the emission of total aerosol increased with increase in peak current and flushing pressure. Emission increased with increase in pulse duration upto medium value and then decreased. The process parameters of EDM were optimised for minimising the emission and occupational exposure of toxic releases from the process. 1. Introduction
*
Recently the importance of safe and environment friendly processes is recognized by the manufacturing community, especially after the implementation of stringent rules and regulations by the governments and standard organizations[1]. Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) is one of the extensively used non-traditional manufacturing processes having considerable occupational and environmental hazard potentials especially when hydrocarbon based dielectric fluids are used [2]. Among them, emission of toxic aerosols is considered as one of the major occupational and environmental threat associated with the process. High temperature and pressure developed in the spark location of EDM could lead to the generation of a number of reaction products of the dielectric which can emit from the dielectric as aerosols or gases. The emission may contain toxic substances such as BTEX, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), carbon dust, metal particles etc[3]. Hazardous substances that are part of these emissions can concentrate in the surrounding air. The constituents of the emission depend on the dielectric, work and tool materials whereas the rate of emission is influenced by the process parameters. Eventhough the machining characteristics of the process has been studied by many researchers, no much research has been carried out to explore the hazard potentials of the process [4][5]. Generally exposure assessment is considered as the standard technique of risk assessment. In order to get a clear understanding of the hazard associated with the process, it is needed to assess the rate at which the fumes are generated. The main objective of the present work is to analyse the rate of aerosol emission by varying the process parameters when kerosene is used as the dielectric fluid using a statistical tool called Design of Experiments. 2. Experimental
The experiment was conducted using conventional die sinking electric discharge machine manufactured by Victory Electromech. A blind hole of 25mm diameter is drilled on high carbon high chromium work piece of 40mmX40mmX15mm size using copper electrode. Dielectric fluid was kerosene which is a commonly used one in die sinking EDM process. In order to estimate the emission rate the EDM process location is completely enclosed using a hood made of teflon. Bottom portion is connected to fresh air using pipes to compensate the air sucked using the pump. Air was actively pulled through glass fiber filter of 37 mm diameter to collect airborne hazards in particulate form. Weight of the filter paper was taken
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before and after sampling with a sensitive balance (accuracy 0.01mg). The rate of emission of aerosols into the work atmosphere was calculated using the following equation.
RE
wb wa t
(1)
Where wa and wb are the weight of filter paper before and after the sampling (in mg) and t is the sampling duration (in minutes). The statistical tool Design of Experiments (DoE) was used to explore the influence of input parameters with regard to the emission of aerosols. The design of experiment matrix for the analysis was developed using the software Design Expert[6]. Each operating parameters were varied at three levels according to a Box Behnken [7] experimental design. The operating variables and their levels for the design used in this study are shown in the table 1 and design of experiment matrix is presented in table 2. The ranges of input parameters were selected based on the values used for the machining of small and medium sized components. In this analysis the air velocity of the sampler was kept at 4.5 lpm. Table 1: Input parameters and their levels Process Parameter Peak current (I), A Pulse duration,(ton), s Dielectric level(h), mm 2 Flushing pressure(p), kg/cm 3. Results and discussion Operating Range 4.5 261 60 0.5
2 2 40 0.3
7 520 80 0.7
The experimental results are presented in table 2. It was observed that the rate of aerosol emission varied when any one of the input parameter was changed. A rigorous analysis of the output data was carried out using Design Expert software (Version 7.1.3) employing a hierarchical cubic model for the concentration of aerosols. Insignificant higher order terms are eliminated from this model. Equation for this model is given below. Emission of Aerosol =
0.17416 1.21981 I 3.6607 10 4 t on 0. 051375 h 4.1333 p 1.71083 10 3 I t on
2 2 0.105 h p 0.081914 I 2 1.99445 10 6 t on 2.99638 10 6 I t on
(2) From the regression model it is clear that the peak current is the most significant process parameter influencing the emission rate of aerosols. Pulse duration and flushing pressure are also having significant effects. Eventhough the main effect of dielectric level is not significant, its interaction with flushing pressure is significant. The main effects and significant two factor interaction effects considering worst case scenario (keeping the other input parameters at a level in which the emission of aerosol is higher) are discussed in the following sessions. The main effects of process parameters are shown in Figure 1. As it is evident from the graph, the increase in peak current and flushing pressure caused increase in concentration of aerosols. This is explained by the fact that as the peak current was increased, the intensity of the discharge was increased and the resulting high temperature lead to the generation of more fumes and reaction products in the working gap. The increase in flushing pressure caused increase in the removal rate and consequently the emission of aerosol. The emission increased with flushing pressure reached a maximum at medium value (261 s) and then decreased. As the pulse-on duration was increased, the amount of
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heat energy transferred to the sample surface was increased and consequently more fumes and reaction products were generated. The reduction in the outer temperature of the plasma at higher pulse duration [8] may be the cause of decrease in emission. From the graph it can be observed that the main effect of dielectric level is not significant. Table 2: Design of experiment matrix and experimental results Expt. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Peak Current (A) 4.5 2 2 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 7 2 4.5 4.5 7 7 4.5 2 7 2 2 7 4.5 7 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Pulse Duration (s) 261 261 261 261 261 520 2 261 520 520 2 261 261 261 261 2 2 261 261 261 261 261 261 520 520 520 2 261 2 Dielectric Level (mm) 60 80 40 80 60 40 40 40 60 60 80 40 80 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 80 40 60 80 60 60 60 60 60 Flushing Pressure 2 (kg/cm ) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.7 Rate of Aerosol emission (mg/min) 3.24 0.82 0.45 2.58 3.54 2.8 1.59 3.8 3.78 0.97 1.98 3.12 4.48 3.4 3.03 0.77 3.2 1.14 0.17 5.2 3.58 4 3.53 2.59 2.11 2.98 1.15 3.1 2.39
The effect of peak current and pulse duration on the total aerosol emission is depicted in fig 2(a). It was evident from the graph that the effect of pulse duration on the emission is significant only at higher values of peak current (4.5 7A). At lower current values (>4.5A) the temperature developed at the plasma and the amount of energy transferred to the work piece and tool surfaces will be less. The reduction in temperature and energy caused significant reduction in emission of aerosol and the effect of pulse duration became insignificant.
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Figure 1: Individual effects of process parameters on emission of aerosol
Figure 2: Interaction effects of process parameters on emission of aerosol The effect of emission of aerosol according to the input parameters of dielectric level and flushing pressure are shown in fig. 2(b). It is clear from the figure that at lower values of flushing pressure (below 0.5kg/cm2) the emission increases with decrease in flushing pressure and at higher value of flushing pressure emission increased with increase in dielectric level. When the dielectric level is increased, the more substances will be dissolved, precipitated and/or condensed in the dielectric and hence the emission is reduced. But at higher value of flushing pressure, the behaviour is contrary to this theory. This tendency may
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be owing to the fact that higher discharge energy generated more heat content at the processing location which produced more vapours of metal particulates. It is hypothetically inferred that as the level of dielectric medium was increased, more vapours will be condensed to form metal particulates, which in turn increased the emission of particulates. 4. Conclusions
The results of the present work indicated that the process parameters have significant influence on the rate of emission from EDM process. From the results obtained in this work the following conclusions can be made Higher values of peak current and flushing pressure caused high rate of emissions from the EDM process. The emission of aerosol increased with increase in pulse duration upto medium value (261s) and then decreased. Dielectric fluid level does not have significant main effect on emission from the process. But its interaction effect with flushing pressure is significant. The emission rate can be effectively controlled by adjusting the process parameters. The design of experiment is an effective tool in the analysis of emission from similar processes.
References [1] Sheng P, Srinivasan M, A Hierarchical Part Planning strategy for Environmentally Conscious manufacturing, Annals of the CIRP, 45(1), 1996, 455 460. [2] H. K. Tonshoff, R Egger, F Klocke, Environmental and safety aspects of electrophysical and electrochemical processes, Annals of CIRP- Manufacturing Technology, Volume 45, Issue 2, 1996, 553-568. [3] B. Bommeli, Study of the harmful emanations resulting from the machining by electroerosion, in: Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Electromachining (ISEM VII), 1983, 469478. [4] Jose Mathew, Sivapirakasam S. P, Surianarayanan M, Pandivelan C. Safe and Green nd Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) A Review, Poster Presentation of the 2 Intl. rd and 23 AIMTDR Conference, December 2008, IIT Madras, Chennai, India. [5] Swen Evertz, Wolfgang Dott, Adolf Eisentraeger, Electrical discharge machining: Occupational hygienic characterization using emission based monitoring, Int. J. Environ. Health 209, 2006, 423 434. [6] Getting Started with Version 7.1 of Design-Expert Software Statease Software, Training & Consulting, Statistics made easy, www.statease.com, as on June 2009. th [7] Douglas C Montgomery, Design and analysis of experiments, 5 edition, Wiley India Edition, 2004. [8] Eubank, P.E., Patel, M.R. , Barrufet, M.A., Bozkurt, B., Theoretical models of the electrical discharge machining process. III. The variable mass, cylindrical plasma model, J. Appl. Phys. 73 (11), 1993, 79007909.
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Throughput Estimation of Serial Production Lines

S.S. Das , S.S. Mahapatra
1 1* 2
College of Agricultural Engineering & Post Harvest Technology (Central Agricultural University), Ranipool, Gangtok, Sikkim 2 National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Orissa
Performance studies of manufacturing systems have drawn the attention of researchers for last few decades. These studies mainly focus on the design aspects of the systems with a view to increase the productivity. Simulation, as a tool for analyzing such systems, is widely used due to its modelling flexibility. Analytical and numerical methods are hardly capable to take in to account the real-life factors. Simulation plays a very important role in model building, especially for complex manufacturing systems. Many design configurations and operating policies can be tested for a complex production system via simulation at a reasonable time. To this end, an attempt has been made in this paper to use simulation software, i.e., Extend V4 for throughput estimation of serial production lines. The behaviour of the production lines are studied under three input parameters such as capacity of inter-stage buffers, coefficient of variation and line length under different control strategies. The objective is to model manufacturing systems using the software for complex manufacturing system The managers can easily develop models using this and can gain insight in to the system. 1. Introduction
Simulation plays a very important role in model building, especially for complex manufacturing systems. Many design configurations and operating policies can be tested for a complex production system via simulation at a reasonable time. To this end, an attempt has been made to develop simulation models for complex manufacturing systems operating on different control strategies. Instead of building a complex model for analyzing its performance, the objective is confined to the development of valid models for production systems using simplified logic. Therefore the model is restricted to serial production lines. The effects of inter-stage buffer capacity, line length, and the coefficient of variation of processing times under different control strategies for special production lines have been investigated. The managers can gain insight to the operating and design aspects for the production systems by conducting simulation experiments. 2. Model Building The following assumptions have been made during modelling: The processing times are probabilistic. The line operates as unit-by-unit processing. However, this assumption can be relaxed if a batch is considered as a unit, and mean processing time is assigned for the batch. The line is perfectly reliable i.e., no break down of the stages during operations. The line produces 100% good quality items. Set-up and transportation times are negligible, and All the items that are produced by the line are consumed. The input parameters are as follows: 2.1 Line Length Line length or line site is the number of work stations in the serial production line. It is denoted by n, where n= 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12 etc.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
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2.2
Buffer Capacity Inter-station buffer capacity or buffer size, denoted by B j, is the maximum number of buffers provided between stations where j represents the inter-station buffer location. The station I is always followed by inter-station buffer location j except the last station where I varies from 1 to n and j varies from 1 to n-1 because only n-1 inter-station buffer location is the matter of interest for a line length of n. With limited buffers, the full capacity of the line can not be obtained because the stations will be idle owing to starvation (the station has to wait for input) or blocking (the station has to wait because it can not depose its processed items). Processing Time Distributions Processing time varies according to probabilistic distribution. The characteristics of processing time distributions can be described as being that: (a) They exist only for non-negative values; (b) As variability changes, the form of distribution must change. Several distributions, such as Gamma, Normal, and Weibull satisfy these requirements. Gamma-distribution is used because of its flexibility, computational efficiency and ease of use and is represented as: Gamma: gamma (i, i)
2.3
Density Function: f(x) = 0
x 1e (x)
x /
if otherwise
-------------- (1)
where , shape and scale parameters of gamma distributions respectively. 3. Operating Mechanism The operating mechanism of a buffer control system is explained in the following from the modelling point of view. It is assumed that there are n work stations in series. It is also assumed that there is always supply of raw materials ready to be processed at the first station and finished goods are withdrawn from the line from the moment that processing is finished. This means that demand for the finished goods always exists and deterministic. Buffer stocks are provided between the work stations. An unit of item is immediately transferred to the buffer location whenever a station completes processing on it if a space is available. Otherwise, the station is subjected to blocking. Usually, the inter station buffer capacity is limited to prescribed limit depending on the space available and cost of carrying the in-process inventories. The blocking phenomenon continues at the station till the succeeding station withdraws an unit from its preceding buffer location. Therefore, a station may be blocked or starved depending on the buffer levels in the preceding and succeeding buffer locations of a station. As the assumptions are made that there is infinite supply of raw materials, the first station is never starved. Similarly, the last station is never blocked because the finished products are immediately consumed. However, the intermediate stations are both starved and blocked. The process flow diagram of a general n- station serial production system is shown in Figure 1. The following outputs are measured: (i) R = throughput i.e., the number of jobs per hour ( 60 minutes). (ii) Average buffer at each buffer location, and (iii) = utilization. Also, let = mean processing time cv = coefficient of variation of processing times B1 = B2 = Bn-1 = B, when the inter station buffer capacity at each buffer location is same.
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B-1
B-2
B-(n-1)
B-n
WS-1
WS-2
WS-3
WS (n-1)
WS- n
Figure 1. Serial Production Lines

1. 2
45
Throughput (MA)
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 50 10 0 15 0 200
Throug hput
0. 8
0. 6 0. 4
0. 2
cv=0.3 cv=0.6 cv=0.9

0 5 10 15
Days
Fig.(b) Throughput(MA) vs . Days (Gam ma n=9, cv=0.6, w =50, B=3, re p=10)
n
F ig . ( c) T hr o ug hp ut V s n f o r B =3
0.985
1. 2
T h ro u g h p u t
0. 98 0.975 0. 97 0.965 0. 96 0.955 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Throughput
1 0. 8
0. 6 0. 4
n=3 n=4 n=5
0. 2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
B Fig.(d) Throughput Vs B for cv=0.3
cv Fig.(e) Throughput Vs cv (for n=6, B=3 )
The capacity of a work station is 1/ jobs per hour. Thus the stations processing rate if there were no blocking or starving. The ratio of throughput R to the capacity 1/ is the utilization of a work station. Let = utilization (= R) (0 1) This dimensionless quantity is the fraction of time of a work station is utilised (i.e., processing jobs). It is known as the traffic intensity in queuing theory. The fraction of a time the station is idle is 1- . Table 1. Validation of the Model n- line size, B- buffer capacity, gamma ( , ) distribution where and are shape and scale parameters respectively Sl. No n B Throughput (in percentage) (F-A)/A
Model Knott (Simulation) Hillier & Boling (Numerical) Panwalker & Smith (Predictive) Blumenfeld (Predictive)
Relative Difference (F-B)/B (F-C)/C
(FD)/D
Gamma (1,1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 1 6 2 6 4 4 5 3 6 3 8 3 10
A 57.653 66.122 75.802 80.858 84.925 87.666 89.563
B 59.6 0 67.4 8 76.6 1 81.4 6 85.2 7 87.9 4 89.7 9
C 59.180 --80.770 84.900 87.570 89.440
D -66.8 76.4 -----
E 59.000 66.430 75.080 80.470 84.735 87.520 89.565
0.0233 0.0045 -0.0095 -0.0048 -0.0022 -0.0017 -0.00001
-0.0010 -0.0156 -0.0199 -0.0121 -0.0062 -0.0047 -0.0025
-0.0034 ---0.0037 -0.0020 -0.0005 -0.0013
0.0055 0.0172 -----
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4.
Model Implementation
A simulation model of a manufacturing system mimics the evolution of the system over time. Basically, it is a model developed using Extend V4 that contains the operational logic of a system, or a subsystem of it. This simulation model is experimented with by running the computer model and examining its output. An example of it is shown in fig.(a). 5. Validation of the Model
Validation is concern with determining whether the conceptual simulation model is an accurate representation of the system under study. Validation should be contrasted with output analysis, which is concerned with estimating a simulation models true measures of performance. The models are validated by comparing simulation, predictive , and numeric results. The complete set of comparison is listed in Table-1. It is observed that the model sizes very close agreement to the simulation results of Knott [5] for a wide range of parameters with relative difference less than 1% .Comparison with Hillier and Bolings result [2] for exceptional and Erlang processing times distribution, the relative difference is found to be written 0.6%. Comparison with the Panwelkar and Smiths results [3] for exponential processing times and Blumenfelds [6] results for exponential, and Normal processing times, relative difference of 1% is found in few occasions. Therefore, it may be concluded that the simulation model developed in this paper estimates the throughput of a serial line with accurately. 6. Results and Discussions
It is intended to study the effects of cv, n, and, B for the performance measures of serial production lines. As simulation approach is adopted in this work, it is essential to study the system behaviour at a steady state, i.e., independent of initial conditions. Usually same numbers of observations from the beginning of a simulation run are deleted and the remaining observations are used to estimate the steady state parameter. The method for choosing 1 can be explained with the help of an example. Consider a system operating under nine-station system. The processing time at each station follows gamma distribution having mean processing time of ten minutes and cv = 0.6. Buffers are provided between the stations (B=3). The line is operating for 200 days (each day= 8 hours, say 500 minutes for ease). The daily throughput of the system is required to be estimated. Simulation experiments are conducted varying the number of replications (rep.) The moving averages for daily throughputs are taken for rep = 10.The moving averages for daily throughputs are plotted in fig.(b) for w =50. From the fig.(b), a warm up period of l = 50 can be choosen. Therefore, fifty observations must be deleted for estimating throughput of this nine station system. Data were collected at the steady state using the aforementioned procedure for all experiments discussed in the following sections. 7. Performance of System
In order to study the effects of n, cv, and B strategy, experiments are conducted with different input parameters. Serial lines of different length having identically independent gamma service time distributions of mean at each station and equal number of buffer spaces between the stations are considered. The mean processing time of one hour (60 minutes) is choosen. Three cases of variability of processing times are examined. Low Variability (cv = 0.3), Medium Variability (cv = 0.6) and High variability (cv = 0.9). The various line lengths are 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12. For each combinations of n and cv, buffer capacity (B) between the stations are varied from 1 to 10 in steps of one. Assuming 50 weeks in a year and a week
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consists of 40 hours, throughput (hourly) of the line are collected for 2000 hours (one year = 50 x 5 x8 hours) at steady state for each combination of n, cv, and B. The variation of throughput with the line size are shown in Fig.(c) for cv equal to 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 respectively. It can be observed that the throughput decreases approximately exponentially with the line length. A close look at these figures shows that throughput decreases rapidly with the line length n for short lines, but decreases gradually beyond n= 9. It can also be observed that the decrease in throughput with the line length is more prominent when the cv increases. For example, the difference in throughput between n=3 and 12 stations is 3.65 % when cv=0.6 and B=5. This difference is 6.38% if cv is increased to 0.9 keeping B equal to 5. The curves in Fig (d), also suggest that throughput of a line can substantially be improved by increasing inter-station buffers. For example, the increase in throughput is 2.58% when B is increased from 3 to 4 for n=5 and cv=0.3. From the shape of the curves, it can be observed that throughput of the line increases with buffer capacity for a combination of n and cv. The impact of increasing the buffer capacity rapidly increases throughput up to a certain value of B beyond which the improvement is not so significant. From curves of Fig(d) it can be deduced that more buffer capacity is needed as the line length increases to attain a particular value of throughput because blocking and starving phenomenon increases with line length. From the above curves it can be observed that provision of buffers can improve the throughput of the line significantly with large variability in processing times compared to small variability. It can also be observed that throughput reduces as cv increases for any combination of n and B but the reduction in throughput slows down as the B increases as shown in fig.(e). 6. Conclusions It has been found that simulation models for a manufacturing system can be easily developed using Extend v4 in a short time. In this study, serial production lines with inter stage buffers have been studied. Increase or decrease of throughput depends on the number of work stations, buffer capacity and coefficient of variation in processing times.
References [1] Buzacott, J.A.,1968; Prediction of the Efficiency of Production System without Internal Storage, International Journal for Production Research, vol.6(3), 173-188. [2] Hillier, F.S. & Boling, R.W. 1967; Finite Queues in Series with Exponential or Erlang Servicing times- a Numerical Approach., Operations Research, vol. 15, 286. [3] Panwalker, S.S. and Smith, M.L., 1979; A Predictive Equation for Average Output of Kseries Systems with Finite Inter Stage Queues, AIIE Trans. Vol. 11, No.2, pp 136. [4] Magazine, M.J. and Silver, G.L., 1978; Heuristic for Determining Output and Work Allocation in Series Flow Lines, IJPR, vol.16 (3), 169-189. [5] Knott, A.D.,1970; The efficiency of a Series of Work Stations- A Simple formula, International Journal for Production Research, vol.8(2), 109-119. [6] Blumenfeld,D.E.,1990; A Simple Formula for Estimating throughput of a Serial Production Lines with Variable Processing Times and Limited Buffer Capacity. International Journal for Production Research, vol.28(6), 1163-1182. [7] Groover,M.P.,1997; Automation, Production System and Computer Integrated Manufacturing; Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., Ch.4 and 5.
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Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009 S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat - 395 007, Gujarat, India
Optimization of Surface Roughness, Material Removal Rate and Cutting Tool Flank Wear in Turning Using Extended Taguchi Method
Umesh Khandey , Saurav Datta , Siba Sankar Mahapatra , Asish Bandyopadhyay
1, 2, 3 4 1 2 3* 4
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Rourkela, Orissa-769008, India Jadavpur University, Raja S. C. Mallik Road, Kolkata- 700032, West Bengal, India * Corresponding author (email: mahapatrass2003@yahoo.com)
Present work highlights application of Principal Component Analysis, grey relation theory combined with Taguchis robust design for simultaneous optimization of surface roughness, Material Removal Rate (MRR) and cutting tool flank wear in straight turning of mild steel. The study aims at evaluating the most favorable process environment followed by an optimal parametric combination for achieving high surface quality, ensuring high productivity and subsequent improvement in tool life. The study concludes the robustness and flexibility of the extended Taguchi method for solving such a multi-objective optimization problem associated with turning operation. 1. Introduction
Literature depicts that a considerable amount of work has been carried out by previous investigators for modeling, simulation and parametric optimization of surface properties of the product in turning operation [1, 2, 3]. Issues related to tool life, tool wear, cutting forces have been addressed to [4, 5]. Apart from optimizing a single response (process output) [6], multi-objective optimization problems have also been solved using Taguchi method followed by grey relation theory [7]. However, this approach was based on the assumption that quality indices being uncorrelated or independent [8]. But it is felt that, in practice, there may be some correlation among various quality indices (responses) under consideration. To overcome this limitation of grey based Taguchi approach, the present study proposes application of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to convert correlated responses into uncorrelated quality indices called principal components [9, 10]. Finally based on grey relation theory, Taguchi method has been applied to solve this optimization problem. The study demonstrates detailed methodology of the proposed optimization technique and validates its effectiveness through a case study in which correlated multiple response characteristics of turning operation have been optimized. 2. Procedure adapted for optimization
The proposed optimization methodology is as follows. Assuming, the number of experimental runs in Taguchis OA design is m , and the number of quality characteristics is n . The experimental results can be expressed by the following series:
X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,.........., X i ,...., X m
Here,
X 1 { X 1 (1), X 1 (2)......... X 1 (k )..... X 1 (n)}

.
X i { X i (1), X i (2)......... X i ( k )..... X i ( n )}

.
X m { X m (1), X m (2)......... X m ( k )..... X m ( n)}
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Here, X i represents the i th experimental results and is called the comparative sequence in grey relational analysis. Let, X 0 be the reference sequence: Let, X 0 { X 0 (1), X 0 (2).........X 0 ( k )..... X 0 (n )} The value of the elements in the reference sequence means the optimal value of the corresponding quality characteristic. X 0 and X i both includes n elements, and X 0 ( k ) and
X i (k ) represent the numeric value of k th element in the reference sequence and the comparative sequence, respectively, k 1, 2,........, n . The following illustrates the proposed
parameter optimization procedures in detail. Step 1: Normalization of the responses (quality characteristics) There are three different types of data normalization according to whether we require the LB (lower-the-better), the HB (higher-the-better) and NB (nominal-the-best). The normalization is taken by the following equations. (a) LB (lower-the-better)
X i* (k )
min X i (k ) X i (k ) X i (k ) max X i (k )
(1)
(b) HB (higher-the-better)
X i* (k )
(2)
(c) NB (nominal-the-best)
X i* (k )
Here,
* i
min{ X i (k ), X 0b (k )} max{ X i (k ), X 0b (k )} i 1, 2,........, m;
(3)
k 1, 2,........., n
*
X ( k ) is the normalized data of the k th element in the i th sequence. X 0b (k ) is the desired

value of the k th quality characteristic. After data normalization, the value of X i (k ) will be between 0 and 1. The series X i , i 1, 2,3,........, m. can be viewed as the comparative sequence used in the grey relational analysis. Step 2: Checking for correlation between two quality characteristics Let, Qi { X 0 (i ), X 1 (i), X 2 (i ),............, X m (i )}, where, i 1, 2,......., n. It is the normalized series of the i th quality characteristic. The correlation coefficient between two quality characteristics is calculated by the following equation:
* * * * *
jk
Here,
Cov(Q j , Qk )
j 1, 2,3......, n.
,
Q j Qk
k 1, 2,3,........, n., jk
(4)
jk is the correlation coefficient between quality characteristic
j and quality
characteristic k ; Cov(Q j , Qk ) is the covariance of quality characteristic j and quality characteristic k ; Q j and Qk are the standard deviation of quality characteristic j and quality characteristic k , respectively. The correlation is checked by testing the following hypothesis:
H 0 : jk 0 H1 : jk 0
(There is no correlation) (There is correlation)
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Step 3: Calculation of the principal component score k and the Calculate the Eigenvalue
corresponding
eigenvector
k ( k 1, 2,......, n) from the correlation matrix formed by all quality characteristics.

Calculate the principal component scores of the normalized reference sequence and comparative sequences using the equation shown below:
n
Yi (k ) X i* ( j ) kj , i 0,1, 2,......., m; k 1, 2,........, n.

j 1
*
(5)
Here, Yi ( k ) is the principal component score of the k th element in the i th series. X i ( j ) is the normalized value of the j th element in the i th sequence, and
kj is the j th element of
eigenvector k . Step 4: Calculation of the individual grey relational grades (1) Calculation of the individual grey relational coefficients Use the following equation to calculate the grey relational coefficient between X 0 ( k ) and X i ( k ) .
r0,i (k )
min max , 0,i (k ) max
i 1, 2,.........., m; k 1, 2,....., n.
(6)
Here, r0, i ( k ) is the relative difference of k th element between sequence X i and the comparative sequence X 0 (also called grey relational grade), and 0,i ( k ) is the absolute value of difference between X 0 ( k ) and X i ( k ) .
* X 0 (k ) X i* (k ) , no significant correlationbetween quality characteristics 0,i (k ) (7) Significant correlation between quality characteristics Y0 (k ) Yi (k ) , * max max X 0 ( k ) X i* ( k ) , no significant correlationbetween quality characteristics i k max Significant correlation between quality characteristics max max Y0 ( k ) Yi (k ) , k i
(8)
min min X (k ) X (k ) , no significant correlation between quality characteristics k min i min min Y0 (k ) Yi (k ) , Significant correlation between quality characteristics i k
(9) Note that is called the distinguishing coefficient, and its value is in between 0 to 1. In general it is set to 0.5, [Deng, 1989]. (2) Calculation of the overall grey relational grade After the calculation of the grey relational coefficient and the weight of each quality characteristic, the grey relational grade is determined by:
n
* 0
* i
0,i wk r0,i (k ),
k 1
i 1, 2,..................., m.
(10)
In this section, the multiple quality characteristics are combined into one grey relational grade, thus the traditional Taguchi method can be used to evaluate the optimal parameter combination. Finally the anticipated optimal process parameters are verified by carrying out the confirmatory experiments.
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3.
Experiments and data analysis
The present study has been done through the following plan of experiment. a)Checking and preparing the Centre Lathe ready for performing the machining operation. b)Cutting MS bars (AISI 1040) by power saw and performing initial turning operation in Lathe to get desired dimension of the work pieces. c) Calculating weight of each specimen by the high precision digital balance meter before machining. d)Performing straight turning operation on specimens with various cutting environments involving various combinations of process control parameters like: spindle speed, feed and depth of cut. e)Measurement of machining time by using stop watch. f) Calculating weight of each machined plate again by the digital balance meter. g)Measuring material removal rate (MRR). h)Measuring depth of cutting tool flank wear by Tool Makers microscope. i) Measuring surface roughness and surface profile with the help of a portable stylus-type profilometer, Talysurf (Taylor Hobson, Surtronic 3+, UK) The working ranges of the parameters for subsequent design of experiment, based on Taguchis L9 Orthogonal Array (OA) design have been selected. In the present experimental study, spindle speed, feed rate and depth of cut have been considered as process variables. The process variables with their units (and notations) are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Process variables and their limits (domain of experiments)
Process variables Values in coded form -1 (A) 0 (B) +1 (C) Spindle Speed (RPM) 220 530 860 MRR Surface roughness Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ra in
Feed
Depth of cut (mm) 0.4 0.8 1.2
(mm/rev) 0.044 0.088 0.132
Table 2. Experimental data
mm3 min
124.1 868.7 2420.0 896.9 1793.8 2242.3 2425.6 2425.6 4746.5
Depth of flank wear (mm) 0.151 0.101 0.178 0.07 0.104 0.059 0.224 0.079 0.019
3.153 4.720 3.903 5.757 3.700 3.873 1.397 3.743 3.883
Experimental data (Table 2) have been normalized using Equations (1) and (2). For surface roughness and depth of flank wear (Lower-the-Better) LB; and for material removal rate (Higher-the-Better) HB criteria have been selected. After data normalization, a check has been made to verify whether the responses are correlated or not. The coefficient of correlation, between two responses, has been calculated using Equation (4). It has been observed that, all responses are correlated to each other. In order to eliminate response correlations, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) has been applied to derive three independent quality indexes (called principal components), using Equation (5). 0i (k ) (Quality loss estimates) for all three principal components have been evaluated using Equations (7-9). Grey relational coefficients of individual principal components have been calculated using Equation (6). The overall grey relational grade has been calculated using Equation (10). Thus, the multi-criteria optimization problem has been transformed into a single objective optimization problem using the combination of Taguchi approach and grey relational analyses. Higher is the value of grey relational grade, the corresponding factor combination is said to be close to the optimal. The S/N ratio plot [HB (higher-the-better)] for the overall grey relational grade is represented graphically in Figure 1. With the help of the
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Figure 1, optimal parametric combination has been determined. The optimal factor setting becomes A1 B0 C0 . Optimal result has been verified through confirmatory experiment.
Figure 1. S/N Ratio plot of overall grey relational grade Conclusions In the present work, multi-response optimization problem has been solved by searching an optimal parametric combination, capable of producing high surface quality turned product in a relatively lesser time and at the same time ensuring reduced flank wear of the cutting tool. Reduction in cutting tool flank wear also increases tool life. PCA has been used to eliminate correlation among the responses and to convert the correlated responses into independent quality indexes; so as to meet the basic requirement of Taguchi method. Grey relation theory has been found efficient to convert multiple responses into an equivalent single objective function. Thus, a multi-objective optimization problem has been converted into a single objective function optimization problem which can be solved by Taguchi method. The aforesaid extended Taguchi method can be applied for continuous quality improvement of the product/process and off-line quality control. 4. References [1] Ahmed S. G., Development of a Prediction Model for Surface Roughness in Finish Turning of Aluminium, Sudan Engineering Society Journal, 52(45), 2006, 1-5. [2] Abburi N. R. and Dixit U. S. A knowledge-based system for the prediction of surface roughness in turning process Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing. 22, 2006, 363372. [3] Doniavi A., Eskanderzade M. and Tahmsebian M. Empirical Modeling of Surface Roughness in Turning Process of 1060 steel using Factorial Design Methodology. Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(17), 2007, 2509-2513. [4] Choudhury S. K. and Bartarya G. Role of temperature and surface finish in predicting tool wear using neural network and design of experiments. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 43, 2003, 747753. [5] Fnides B., Aouici H., Yallese M. A. Cutting forces and surface roughness in hard turning of hot work steel X38CrMoV5-1 using mixed ceramic. Mechanika, 2(70), 2008, 73-78. [6] Thamizhmanii S., Saparudin S. and Hasan S. Analysis of Surface Roughness by Using Taguchi Method, Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 20(1-2), 2007, 503-505. [7] Wang M. Y. and Lan T. S. Parametric Optimization on Multi-Objective Precision Turning Using Grey Relational Analysis. Information Technology Journal, 7, 2008, 1072-1076. [8] Datta S., Nandi G., Bandyopadhyay A. and Pal P. K. Application of PCA based hybrid Taguchi method for multi-criteria optimization of submerged arc weld: A case study, For International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2009. (Article In press) DOI: 10.1007/s00170-009-1976-0. [9] Antony J. Multi-response optimization in industrial experiments using Taguchis quality loss function and Principal Component Analysis. Quality and Reliability Engineering International, 16, 2000, 3-8. [10] Su, C. T. and Tong, L. I. Multi-response robust design by principal component analysis. Total Quality Management, 8(6), 1997, 409-416.
1038
A Mathematical Approach for Machine Cell Formation in CMS

Kaushik Mishra, Chiranjiv Mohanty, Sarthak Sambit Singh, Siba Sankar Mahapatra National Institute of Technology, Rourkela,India. One of the major steps in designing cellular manufacturing systems is to form cells. This involves identication of machine cells and part families. This paper proposes a new mathematical approach for forming manufacturing cells. The proposed approach involves two phases. In the rst phase, machine cells are identied by applying factor analysis to the matrix of similarity coefficients. In the second phase, an heuristic approach is adopted to assign parts to the identied machine cells. To evaluate its performance, the proposed approach is applied to sample problems from the literature. The results indicate that the proposed approach performs very well in terms of a number of criteria and compares favorably to well-known existing cell formation methods. In addition to its good performance, the proposed approach has the exibility to allow the cell designer to either identify the required number of cells in advance, or consider it as a dependent variable. Using algorithms which are available in many commercial software packages is the other advantage of the proposed approach. 1. Introduction
Cellular manufacturing has been recognized as one of the most recent technological innovations in job-shop or batch-type production to gain economic advantages similar to those of mass production (Chu & Tsai, 1990). Many rms have recently started to adopt cellular manufacturing systems in order to achieve flexibility and efficiency, which are crucial for survival in todays competitive environment. Cell formation, which involves identication of machine cells and part families, is the first major step in designing a cellular manufacturing system. During the last three decades of research, a large number of cell formation methods have been developed. These methods are classified into array-based methods, heuristic methods, hierarchical methods, graph partition methods, articial intelligence methods, and mathematical programming methods. Mathematical approach for cell formation is extremely limited in the literature. Therefore, attempt has been made in this work to develop a mathematical approach for cell formation and compare the results with existing well-known methods. 2. The Proposed Approach
Cell formation can be considered as a dimension reduction problem in which a large number of inter-related machines are grouped into a smaller set of independent cells. The proposed approach applies factor analysis, a dimension reduction technique, to the initial part-machine matrix to identify machine cells. Factor analysis is a powerful multivariate analysis tool used to analyze interrelationships among a large number of variables to reduce them into a smaller set of independent variables called factors. Factor analysis requires having data in form of correlations, and uses different methods for extracting a small number of factors from a sample correlation matrix. These methods include: common factor analysis, principal component analysis, image factor analysis, and canonical factor analysis. In this method, we take care of the basic fact whether a part is manufactured by the machine or not. An incidence matrix is prepared using the information of the parts from the group of machines. It is explained in the following example. We consider the matrix shown in Table 1. The matrix cell is assigned the value 1 if and only if the part is visiting to the corresponding machine. Take the case of part1 and machine1, the corresponding cell gets the value 0 since the part is not visiting to the machine. The cell corresponding to part2 and machine1 gets the value 1 since the part is visiting to the machine. This matrix is then analyzed and the similarity index is generated as described later. The similarity index calculated is then put for analysis using SPSS. Basing on the report of the
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analysis, the part and the machines are regrouped and the group technology efficiency is calculated. 2.1 Generation of Matrix using similarity index
The implementation of factor analysis requires the correlation matrix of the initial data set. This correlation matrix can be obtained in the form of a similarity coefficient matrix. Each element of the correlation matrix of a set of variables can be represented as a scalar product of two vectors representing two of the variables. In the present case, the similarity index has been taken as the similarity measure and is defined as Sij= A / (T-A) where A= Number of common elements between row i and row j T=Total Number of Elements Sij=Similarity coefficient (i =1, 2.n, j=1, 2.n) The Similarity coefficient found using the above equation is as given in Table 2. Table 1. Incidence Matrix P 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 P 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 P 3 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 P 4 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 P 5 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 P 6 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 P 7 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 P 8 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 P 9 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 P 10 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 P 11 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 P 12 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 P 13 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 P 14 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 P 15 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 P 16 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 P 17 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 P 18 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 P 19 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 P 20 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 2.2
Similarity Matrix
The similarity index matrix that was calculated for analysis and clustering of the original matrix. Table 2. Similarity Matrix 1 0.13 0.9 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.125 0.07 3. 0.13 1 0.07 0.67 0.07 0.08 0.67 0.86 0.9 0.07 1 0.00 0.13 0.07 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.67 0.00 1 0.25 0.17 0.66 0.86 0.06 0.07 0.13 0.25 1 0.625 0.166 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.17 0.625 1 0.07 0.09 0.125 0.67 0.06 0.66 0.166 0.07 1 0.75 0.07 0.86 0.00 0.86 0.08 0.09 0.75 1
The similarity matrix obtained was fed to the SPSS software for analysis. PCA (Principal Component Analysis) was carried out on the data. The number of components or groups is determined from SCREE plot or eigen values of the components. In this method, all the principal components are generated in such a way that they are orthogonal to each other so the correlation between them is zero. The raw component (without rotation) is converted into rescaled component (with rotation) with Varimax rotation with Kaiser Normalization. Depending upon the factor loading of the variables (machines), they were grouped into two subdivisions namely group 1 and group 2 with reference to the absolute value of the factor. For example the rescaled components of the variable 2 are 0.888 and 0.399. So the absolute value of the first factor loading is greater than that for the second. So machine 2 is assigned to group 1. Similarly, other machines are assigned to two groups.
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Table 3. Rotated Component Matrix (PCA Analysis, Varimax rotation with Kaiser Normalization) Raw Component 1 VAR00001 -.327 VAR00002 .351 VAR00003 -.364 VAR00004 .367 VAR00005 -.056 VAR00006 -.066 VAR00007 .330 VAR00008 .412 a. Rotation converged in 3 iterations. 2 .232 .158 .202 .060 -.316 -.330 .123 .142 1 -.813 .888 -.872 .953 -.164 -.188 .888 .942 Rescaled Component 2 .576 .399 .484 .155 -.933 -.943 .332 .323
The parts are assigned to groups depending on maximum number of operations being carried out in a group. For example, part 2 is processed in two machines belonging to group 1 and one machine belonging to group 2. So it is kept in group 1. When there is a tie as in case of part 1 where the part is processed in one machine of group 1 and one machine of group 2, then the part is assigned arbitrarily to a group. All the parts were similarly analyzed and assigned to their corresponding groups. 3.1 Bottleneck adjustment Bottleneck cell is a cell with maximum operations. Machine 7 is identified as a bottleneck as it is used in the manufacturing of 9 parts out of 12 parts. It is seen that the similarity of machine 7 with members of cluster 1 (m1, m2, m3, m4, m8) is greater than that with members of cluster 2 (m5, m6). S78=0.75 S75=0.166 S76=0.07. Hence, it is concluded that the bottleneck machine m7 can be clustered with group1. This ultimately reduces the number of exceptional elements thereby increasing the efficiency. Grouping of machines after bottleneck adjustment is as follows: Group 1 Machine 1, Machine 2, Machine 3, Machine 4, Machine 7, Machine 8 Group 2 Machine 5, Machine 6
Regrouping of parts after bottleneck adjustment is as follows: Group 1 Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 6, Part 7, Part 8, Part 9, Part 11, Part 13, Part 14, Part 15, Part 16, Part 17, Part 18, Part 19, Part 20 Group 2 Part 1, Part5, Part 10, Part 12 Then the part-machine matrix was regenerated after regrouping the cells. Table 4. Matrix after Bottle-neck Adjustment P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 M1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 M2 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 M3 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 M4 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 M8 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 M7 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 M5 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 M6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
P 20 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
P 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
P 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
P 10 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
P 12 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
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3.2
Group Technology Efficiency (GTE)
GTE is given by GTE= (IP-IR)/IP where IP - Maximum number of inter-cell travel possible in the system and IR - Number of inter-cell travel actually required by the system. So group technology efficiency, for the above case is calculated using the mentioned formula. GTE= (42-7)/42 X 100 = 82.9% since IP=42 and IR=7 Table 5. Comparison Table Matrix Size Row X Column 7X7 Number of Clusters 2 Number of exceptional elements 3 GTE of proposed method 76.90% GTE of referred paper 71.40%
Sl. No. 1
2 3
Reference Problem Nair and Narendran, (1998) Vitanov et al. (2007) Venkumar and Haq (2006) Vitanov et al. (2007) Nair and Narendran, (1998) Ohta and Nakamura (2002) Nair and Narendran, (1998) Zolfaghari and Liang (2002) Zolfaghari and Liang (1998) Zhao and Wu
7X12 7X11
2 2
9 1
52.63% 90.00%
68.42% 80.00%
5X7
80.00%
80.00%
8X20
82.90%
87.80%
8X10
70.00%
81.00%
10X12
87.50%
80.20%
7X8 4X4
2 2
4 4
69.20% 50.00%
69.20% 50.00%
10
6X6
46.15%
78.50%
It is evident from Table 5 that the group technology efficiency for selected problems is either outperform or comparable with existing methods. However, a small set of problems (maximum size 8X20) have been selected from the literature. Larger problems need to be solved to establish performance of the proposed approach. In future, the method can be extended to incorporate real life production factors like operation time, lot size, operation sequence etc. References [1] Nair, G.J and Narendran, T. T. A clustering algorithm for cell formation with sequence data. International Journal of Production Research, 36, 1998, 157-180.
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[2] Zhao, C. and Wu, Z. A genetic algorithm for manufacturing cell formation with multiple routes and multiple objectives. International Journal of Production Research, 38, 2000, 385- 395. [3] Zolfaghari, S. and Liang, M. Comparative study of simulated annealing, genetic algorithms and tabular search for solving binary and comprehensive machine-grouping problems. International Journal of Production Research, 40, 2002, 2141-2158. [4] Venkumar, P. and Haq, A. N. Complete and fractional cell formation using Kohonen selforganizing map networks in a cellular manufacturing system. International Journal of Production Research, 44, 2006, 42574271. [5] Zolfaghari, S. and Liang, M. Machine cell/part family formation considering processing times and machine capacities: A stimulating annealing approach. Computers and Industrial Engineering, 34, 1998, 813-823. [6] Ohta, H. and Nakamura, M. Cell formation with reduction in setup times, Computers and Industrial Engineering, 42, 2002, 317-327. [7] Vitanov, V.,Tjahjono B. and Marghalany, I. A decision support tool to facilitate the design of cellular manufacturing layouts. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 52, 2007, 380403.
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Applying Integrated Supply Chain in Manufacturing Industries

Ms. Sarojrani Pattnaik , Mr. Mihir Kumar Sutar
1 1 2*
Synergy Institute of Engineering and Technology, Dhenkanal-759001, India, *Corresponding author (e-mail:mihirsutar05@gmail.com)
Manufacturers have been exploring innovative strategies to achieve and sustain their competitive advantages by facing a new era of intensive global competition. Such a strategy is Supply Chain Management (SCM), which has gained a tremendous amount of attention from both researchers and practitioners since the last decade. Supply chain management (SCM) has been considered as the most popular operations strategy for improving organizational competitiveness in the twenty-first century. It has attracted a lot of attention recently due to its role involving all of the activities in industrial organizations ranging from raw material procurement to final product delivery to customers. Well-designed supply chain systems can substantially improve efficiency and product quality, and eventually enhance customer satisfaction and profitability. In this paper, a manufacturing engineering perspective on supply chain integration is presented. Research issues discussed include product and process design for supply chain, design valuation of manufacturing supply chain, agent-based techniques for supply chain integration, intelligent information sharing across supply chain, and development of standards for product, process, and production data exchange to facilitate electronic commerce. The objective is to provide guidelines and references for manufacturing engineers and researchers that are interested in supply chain integration. 1. Introduction
A supply chain is "an integrated process wherein a number of various business entities (i.e., suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and retailers) work together in an effort to: (1) acquire raw materials, (2) convert these raw materials into specified final products, and (3) deliver these final products to retailers". [1] The supply chain comprises the production and supply of materials and parts, and it serves both the manufacturing logistic chain and the distribution logistic chain. The manufacturing logistic chain deals with the logistic business processes related to the production of the consumer article, while the distribution logistic chain combines all logistic operations concerned with the after-sales market, including maintenance and repair of the consumer product. Due to shortened product life cycles, rising manufacturing costs and the globalization of market economies, increasing attention has been placed on supply chain management. Manufacturing can be defined as an activity which, utilizing a variety of capabilities, adds value to a material, thereby making possible different uses of that material. Each step in the manufacturing process adds value. The first manufacturers were probably artisans who worked by themselves to design and create products. They served as both supplier and manufacturer, gathering and managing the resources, and applying various processes to add value to the materials. Over time, manufacturing progressed to a series of specialists, each of whom supplied or added specific amounts and types of value. The benefits of this division of labor were that (1) more resources could be brought to bear on the task of adding value and (2) specialization tended to reduce costs and increase the efficiency, consistency, and quality of each operation. Because the business environment and product requirements keep changing, the requirements imposed on suppliers and the processes of supply chain building and integration are also changing. Young industries typically focus on providing new, innovative products, and their supply chains must be flexible enough to respond to rapid changes in technology and market demand. As the industry matures the primary basis of competitive advantage shifts to other capabilities, such as marketing and distribution. As the industry continues to mature, the emphasis typically evolves toward cost saving, a limited product
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array, high levels of customer service, and improved manufacturing practices. The Supply Chain management has advanced to some extent in recent years. However, failing to conduct comprehensive planning and integration on the whole supply chain, most of the enterprises are unable to properly monitor their supply chains or improve their decision-making services from their overall operation indices and their production and organization methods remain at the state of making to stock. Facing such fierce market competition, enterprises should conduct management innovation so as to improve their core competitiveness. The supply chain management innovation offers an effective way [2]. The organization of the paper is as follows: Section 1 presents the introduction to the research subject and its scope and relevance. Section 2 reviews selected literature available on Supply Chain Integration. Section 3 describes the features of the supply chain management in the manufacturing industry. Section 4 presents a manufacturing engineering perspective on supply chain integration. Section 5 concludes the paper. 2. Literature Review
A supply chain is an integrated system wherein a number of various business entities (i.e., suppliers, manufacturers, industrial customers, distributors, retailers) work together to address issues of both materials flow and information flow. Cohen and Huchzermeier [3] presented a survey of the literature pertaining to analytic approaches for global supply chain strategy analysis and planning. Two fundamental approaches, stochastic network optimization models and options pricing methods, were summarized to characterize the global supply chain network strategy planning model. The integrated supply chain network model is developed to capture the complexities of a multi-product, multi-echelon, multi-country, multiperiod planning problem for the optimal choice of facility locations, capacity, and technology used, as well as sourcing, production, and distribution decisions contingent on future statesof-nature. Options pricing approaches focus primarily on the evaluation of operational flexibility to enhance the firms shareholder value. A general modeling framework for evaluation of compound real options was also proposed. This comprehensive survey is purely from business managements perspective. Ganeshan et. al. [4] explored the basics of supply chain management from a conceptual perspective by tracing the roots of the definition and the origins of the concept from a broad stream of literature. In their paper, supply chain management is also characterized as evolving over the years from materials management, physical distribution, and integrated logistics. Bhatnagar et. al. [5] reviewed coordination of production planning among multiple plants in a vertically integrated firm. It is identified that production and inventory decisions could be determined for all plants in a manner optimal for the organization as a whole. Several issues that arise in coordinating the multi-plant structure including nervousness issues, lot sizing issues and safety stock issues are reviewed. 3. Supply Chain Management Innovation in the Manufacturing Industry
In the supply chain, the flow of information moves upstream, whereas the flow of material moves downstream. Information flows from customers to retailers, manufacturing companies, logistics and raw material provider. It is the way the production systems have been working since decades. The difference in a supply chain is that all the partners should be informed simultaneously. The idea of introducing a common information system that sends the customers information simultaneously to all the partners according to their needs is a major characteristic of the next generation of supply chains. Material flows downstream from suppliers of raw material or components to customers. As with information, the flow of material should be coordinated among all partners. This implies that activities should be. enterprises. The Supply Chain innovation of the manufacturing industries is characterized by the following features. 3.1 Customer Satisfaction Approach
There is a range of products with different features to satisfy the needs of different types of customers. Typically, there are many manufacturers in the market that can supply
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comparable products. Because different manufacturers provide products with similar features and quality, the products are viewed by customers as commodities. Customers do not wait for the product to become available and will easily substitute a product with a product from a competitor that offers a lower price for the same product features and quality. Thus, it is important that the product be available at the time, in the quantity and at the price the customer wants. To better satisfy the end customers is the common goal of all supply chain members. The manufacturing industries should change its traditional make-to stock production form and take the requirements and satisfaction of customers as its tenet [6]. The most important piece of information is what customer wants. Sometimes, even the customers are not sure what products can satisfy their needs. In these cases, manufacturers having a strong knowledge of the technology and the capability to deliver have the upper hand. The customer is willing to wait and pay a premium for quality, reliability and customized products. 3.2 Concept of New Cooperative Competition
Different from traditional business management models, the supply chain management system is cooperative, comprehensive and harmonious, including the inner management of nucleus enterprises, the utilization & cooperation of resources among all enterprises at every stage, and it requires all enterprises to participate in cooperative games so as to reach a win-win situation in the end. The Manufacturing industry should establish the supply chain management concept of cooperative competition, regard the supply chain as a complete system and treat every member enterprise as a branch system so as to set up dynamic alliances in which member enterprises can trust each other, cooperatively open up markets, realize maximum economic return and share all cost they save and profits they create in the end. In a supply chain, the flow of information moves upstream, whereas t 3.3 Relying on Modern Network Information Technology The supply chain management is the product of modern network information technology and the idea of strategic alliance. The highly integrated network information system serves as the technical foundation; in particular, ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) is widely applied in the supply chain management [7]. ERP system created a revolution with their capacity to integrate different functional areas of an enterprise. It fully embodies the concept of manufacturing completely according to customers requirements and realizes the strategy of taking customer satisfaction as the core through information and resources sharing. 4. Manufacturing Perspective:
In this section, a manufacturing engineering perspective on supply chain integration is presented. Research issues discussed include (1) product and process design for supply chain, (2) design and evaluation of manufacturing supply chain, (3) agent-based techniques for supply chain integration, (4) intelligent information sharing across supply chain, and (5) development of standards for product, process, and production data exchange to facilitate electronic commerce. 4.1 Product and Process Design for Supply Chain
Design for supply chain can result in major improvements of a companys profitability. A majority of researchers and engineers are already familiar with Design for X (DFX) concepts including design for assembly, design for manufacture, design for disassembly, design for environment, design for recyclability, design for life-cycle, etc. Design for supply chain can be viewed as a new addition to the DFX family. Researchers should not consider these DFX issues in an isolated fashion. Rather, it is necessary to develop an integrated approach to simultaneously address all of the DFX issues.
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4.2
Design and Evaluation of Manufacturing Supply Chain
To improve productivity, reduce cost, and shorten product time-to-market, manufacturing companies need to establish an appropriate supply chain. This calls for a formal methodology for the design and evaluation of manufacturing supply chains. Newhart [8] proposed a two-phased approach for the optimal design of a supply chain. First, a mathematical programming formulation and heuristic solution approach was used to minimize the distinct number of product types held at various points in the supply chain. Supply chain design and evaluation is an issue that received relatively large amount of attentions in both academia and industry. Beamon performed a comprehensive literature review of multistage supply chain modeling and methods for supply chain design and analysis. The author proposed a research agenda for supply chain design and analysis: (1) the evaluation and development of supply chain performance measures, (2) the development of models and procedures to relate decision variables to the performance measures, (3) consideration of issues affecting supply chain modeling, and (4) the classification of supply chain systems to allow for the development of rules-of-thumb or general techniques to aid in the design and analysis of manufacturing supply chains. 4.3 Agent-based Techniques for Supply Chain Integration
One promising approach in supply chain integration is the agent-based distributed artificial intelligence approach. While conventional systems rely on sequential operation, the agent architecture facilitates distributed and concurrent decision making. Agents are able to communicate with each other in order to collaboratively solve a challenging problem. Multiagent systems offer a new dimension for supply chain integration. Although agent-based techniques hold great promise to achieve supply chain integration, there are a number of issues in agent application that need serious consideration. An important issue is the potential chaotic behavior of an agent-based system, which has been demonstrated based on mathematical theory and examples [9]. Therefore, researchers should explore approaches that can minimize, if not eliminate, the potential chaotic behavior of agent-based systems. 4.4 Intelligent Information Sharing Across Supply Chain
Distorted information from one end of a supply chain to the other can lead to tremendous inefficiencies. The keys to success in supply chain management should be focused on integration of activities, cooperation, coordination, and information sharing throughout the entire supply chain. A key success factor for intelligent information sharing is the availability of useful information. This means that there is a large amount of data available but useful information has yet to be extracted from the data. Therefore, researchers should explore the application of data mining techniques in information extraction for supply chain integration. 4.5 Development of Data Exchange Standards
Data exchange, specifically, EDI, was identified as an important factor in contributing to partnership satisfaction. Recently, EDI is beginning to be used to exchange technological data, more specifically, product data. In order to advance electronic commerce, manufacturing engineers should first focus on CAD/CAM data exchange. CAD/CAM systems are commonly used to provide a seamless interface between design and manufacture of products. A supply chain consists of different corporations. These corporations usually use different CAD/CAM systems. Hence, product data exchange becomes a critical issue. 5. Conclusions
Since manufacturing is an important aspect of a supply chain, manufacturing engineers should not be left out of supply chain research. This paper presents a manufacturing engineering perspective on supply chain integration. Facing the competitive situation, the
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manufacturing industry is required to conduct the supply chain management innovation so as to constantly improve the core competitiveness of all related enterprises. A unified planning with due consideration must be done to ensure the promptness and effectiveness of the supply chain and enable the manufacturing industry to remain invincible in the fierce market competition. Putting undue emphasis on one aspect or some aspects while ignoring other aspects should not be done. The emergence of supply chain integration will have a profound impact on engineering practices. Manufacturing organizations are now establishing partnerships with suppliers. They need to incorporate these suppliers into their product development process from early phases by applying concurrent engineering and integrated logistics support concepts. Suppliers will then have more opportunities to participate in product specifications and anticipate future problems, and responsibilities to propose new ideas for product development and to plan, produce, maintain, and carry out traceability throughout the total product life cycle. This paper discussed technical aspects of the collaboration between manufacturing companies and their suppliers. While solving technical problems is necessary, it is not sufficient to ensure successful collaboration to achieve supply chain integration. The success of supply chain integration also requires research to be conducted on social aspects of multi-organization collaboration. As a result, manufacturing engineers would benefit from a multidisciplinary team when conducting research on supply chain integration. References [1] Beamon, B. M. Supply Chain Design and Analysis: Models and Methods, International Journal of Production Economics, 55, 1998, 281-294. [2] Zhang Hongmei. Utilizing Supply Chain Management to Promote Enterprise Competency. Market Modernization, 7, 2008, 95~96. [3] Cohen, M. A., and Huchzermeier, A. Global Supply Chain Management: A Survey of Research and Applications, Quantitative Models for Supply Chain Management, Klumer.1998. [4] Ganeshan, R., Stephens, P., Jack, E., and Magazine, M. A Taxonomic Review of Supply Chain Management Research, Quantitative Models for Supply Chain Management, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999, 839-879. [5] Bhatnagar, R., Chandra, P. and Goyal, S. K., Models for Multi-Plant Coordination, European Journal of Operational Research, 67, 1993, 141-160. [6] Sui Yingqin. Logistics Management Innovation under the Environment of the Supply Chain Management. Pioneering with Science & Technology Monthly, 3, 2008, 52~53. [7] Luo Ming, Ma Wei. Analysis on SCMIS Structure Oriented Equipment Manufacturing Industry. Logistics Technology, 2, 2008, 108-110. [8] Minimize Inventory Levels for a Multi-stage Production and Distribution System, Journal of the Operational Research Society, 44(7), 637-644. [9] Sarri, D. G., A Chaotic Exploration of Aggregation Paradoxes, SIAM Review, 1, 1995, 3752.
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Proc. of The International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering. August 3-5, 2009 S. V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395007, Gujrat, India.
Abrasive wear study of flame sprayed Co-based composite coatings

Sat Pal Sharma*; D. K. Dwivedi; P. K. Jain Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, IIT Roorkee (India). *Corresponding author (e-mail : satpal68sharma@yahoo.co.in) In the present investigation Co-base alloy was modified with the addition of 20wt.%WC and varying amount of chromium carbide addition in order to develop three different coatings Co - 20WC - (0, 10 and 20wt.% chromium carbide). These coating powder mixtures were deposited by flame spraying process. The microstructure, porosity and hardness of the coatings were evaluated. With the addition of WC and chromium carbides the volume fraction of eutectic was reduced with the formation of various types of carbides and intermetallic compounds. WC and CrC particle addition increase the hardness of coatings. The abrasive wear behavior of these coatings was investigated under three normal loads (5, 10 and 15 N) and two abrasive grit sizes (120 and 320 grit size). The abrasive wear was found to increase with the increase of abrasive grit size. The tungsten carbide and chromium carbide addition increases the abrasive wear resistance of coatings. Analysis of the scanning electron microscope images revealed cutting and plowing as the material removal mechanisms in these coatings under abrasive wear conditions used in this investigation. 1. Introduction
Wear of industrial components is a severe problem in many industries such as aerospace, automotive, hydro, thermal and cement industry. There are two options before material engineer to avoid the wear problems of industrial components. Firstly, the superior material may be used to produce the whole components but this is not a feasible solution as industrial components are produced from materials having a balance in various metallurgical and mechanical properties. Second option is to conserve the non-renewable resources by using the reclamation techniques or improved service life by applying a coating of superior material on the relatively inferior metal. Reclamation technology can protect the material against the primary cause as wear, corrosion, heat, friction etc. Thermal sprayed coatings have emerged as a viable solution for a wide range of wear resistance applications to improve the service life of machine components. The Ni, Fe, Co-base alloys and their composites are mainly employed for combating wear and various types of material degradation. Co-base alloys with an appropriate composition are widely selected for different types of wear applications. The Co-base alloys are extremely powerful where a combination of wear, corrosion and high temperature is encountered. Tungsten is added to improve the hardness at elevated temperatures and this alloy exhibit good wear and corrosion resistance even up to 750C [1]. Co-base stellite alloys generally contain around 30%wt. Cr to enhance the corrosion resistance and 4-7% wt. W for solid solution strengthening. C (0.1 to 3 % wt) is added to form hard carbides. Some studies report the influence of carbide size and their distribution on the abrasive wear resistance [2-6]. Effect of various depositing techniques (such as manual metal arc (MMA) welding, tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding and laser cladding) and post spray heat-treatment on the microstructural aspects of stellite coatings and their influence on the abrasive wear behavior have also been investigated [7-10]. Some studies also reports the increase in abrasive wear resistance of Cobase alloys with the addition of TiC and chromium carbide additions [11, 12]. Maiti et al. [13] reported that with addition of WC up to 20% in WC-Co-Cr coatings the increases the hardness and abrasive wear rsistance and further addition of WC increases hardness marginally. Literature survey did not reveal the effect of addition of CrC addition in the WC modified Co-base alloys deposited by flame spraying on microstructure, hardness and abrasive wear behavior. In view of the above, the present investigation was aimed to study
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the effect of chromium carbide addition in the WC modified Co-base alloys on microstructure, hardness and abrasive wear resistance. 2. 2.1 Experimental procedure Materials and methods The carbon steel substrate was used for coating deposition. The nominal compositions of substrate and surfacing powder are shown in Table 1. The substrate was degreased and roughened to an average surface roughness of Ra 3.15 m (Rmax 18.2 m). The normal composition of the commercially available Co-base powder is shown in Table 1. The Co-base alloy powder was modified by adding 20% WC and varying amount of CrC (0, 10 and 20wt.%). The modified Co-base alloy powders/ coatings are designated by 0% chromium carbide, 10% chromium carbide and 20% chromium carbide coatings respectively. These modified powder coatings were deposited by flame-spraying process (Super Jet spray torch, L & T India). The flame spraying on substrate was carried out using neutral flame of oxy-acetylene gas where the pressures of oxygen and acetylene were maintained at 0.3 MPa o and 0.12 MPa respectively. The substrate was preheated to 20010 C. 2.2 Characterization of coating Coated samples were cut transversely for microstructural characterization (SEM, SEM- LEO 435- VP, England), porosity and hardness. The samples were polished using standard metallographic procedure and etched with a chemical mixture of 3 parts HCl + 1 part HNO3. SEM micrographs were used to study microstructure and worn surfaces. The porosity was measured by the point counting method [14-15]. The average of 25 areas of each coating has been used for porosity measurement. Vickers hardness of the coating was measured using a load of 5 kg and average of six readings of the coating was used for study purpose. Scanning electron microscopy of the worn surfaces of coatings was also carried out to identify the material removal mechanisms under abrasive wear conditions. 2.3 Wear test Abrasive wear behavior of flame sprayed coatings was studied using pin on disc type abrasive wear tester. For abrasive wear tests coated wear pins (5525 mm) were held against abrasive medium. Waterproof SiC abrasive paper of 120 and 320 grit sizes were used as an abrasive medium. Abrasive wear test of all the coatings was conducted under different normal load of 5, 10 and 15 N against both abrasive sizes. An electronic balance (accuracy 0.0001g) was used for weighing the samples after washing in acetone before and after abrasive wear. The weight loss was used as a measure of wear. Wear rate was calculated by weight loss per km of wear distance. The abrasive wear test is described elsewhere [14, 15]. Table 1. Chemical composition (wt %) of substrate and surfacing powder M.S. Substrate Co-base powder 3 3.1 C 0.2-0.22 3.0-3.5 Ni 20-25 Cr _ 28-30 W _ 5-6 Si 0.4-0.6 0.2-0.5 Fe Bal. _ Co _ Bal. Mn 0.4-0.8 0.5-0.7
Results and discussion Microstructure The microstructures of 0wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings are shown in Figs. 1(a-b) respectively. These microstructures were taken from the center region of the coatings. EDAX analyses of all the three coatings mainly showed eutectic, W dominated carbides and Cr dominated carbides. The microstructure mainly consists of carbides (cuboid and needle shaped) and eutectic matrix containing Co, Ni, Cr and W. The eutectic is composed of fcc cobalt and various type of carbides in these coatings. The percentage of eutectic by image analysis was found to be 58, 52 and 48 % in 0wt.% chromium carbide, 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings respectively where as the percentage of carbides were 41, 47 and 51% in 0wt.% chromium carbide, 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings respectively. The 0wt.% chromium carbide coating mainly showed polyhedral (cuboids) carbides surrounded by
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eutectic matrix where as 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings showed both types of carbides (cuboid and needle shaped). The average size of the carbides particles found to be increased with the addition of WC and CrC concentration. The average size of the carbide particles was found 22, 34 and 38 m respectively in 0wt.% chromium carbide, 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings respectively. The aspect ratio (length to width) of the needle shaped carbide particles was found to be higher in 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings as compared to 0wt.% chromium carbide coatings coating. It can be observed that with the addition of chromium carbide concentration from 0wt.% to 20wt.% the volume faction of eutectic was reduced where as the volume fraction of Cr dominated carbides increased. This is attributed to increase in the formation of carbide particles M23C6, Cr3C2 and Cr7C3 and inter-metallic compounds (Co7W6 and Co3W9C4). These results are in agreement with the findings of Radu et al. [16].The various types of carbide particles are not pure phases but also contain Ni, Co and Fe. Thus, it is inferred that these carbides are not pure phases. These results are in agreement with the findings of Chorcia et al. [17].
Tungsten carbide Chromium carbide Eutectic
Figure 1. Microstructure of (a) 0wt.% chromium carbide and (b) 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings. 3.2 Porosity and hardness Porosity and hardness has a great influence on the coating properties such as wear and corrosion resistance. The porosity of 0wt.% chromium carbide, 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coating was found to be 7.6%, 8.7% and 9.2% respectively. The porosity is known to affect on the normal hardness (Hv5) of the coatings appreciably. The average Vickers hardness (Hv5) of three coatings namely 0 wt.% chromium carbide, 10 wt.% chromium carbide and 20 wt.% chromium carbide coating was found to be 59686 Hv5, 70195 Hv5 and 776112 Hv5 respectively. The average hardness of 20wt.% chromium carbide coating was found higher as compared to 0 wt.% chromium carbide and 10 wt.% chromium carbide coatings. There was more scatter in the hardness of 20 wt.% chromium carbide coating as compared to 0 wt.% chromium carbide and 10% chromium carbide coatings which is attributed to higher porosity of 20 wt.% chromium carbide coating. 3.3 Abrasive wear behavior of coatings The abrasive wear behavior of various coatings as a function of normal loads against 120 and 320 abrasive grit sizes is shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (b) respectively. It can be observed that increase in normal load increases the abrasive wear against both abrasive grit sizes. This is due to the fact that the load determines the depth of penetration of abrasive particles in the coating. Depth of penetration increases with the increase in load, which in turn increases the volume of material removed from the coating due to relative motion between coating and abrasive particles hence, increasing the abrasive wear (Fig. 2a-b). With the increase of abrasive size there is a greater tendency for deeper penetration of sharp abrasives and the increase in actual contact area and hence, increases the effective load [18]. The increase in effective load leads to deeper and wider grooves which in turn cause more abrasive wear of the coating. While in the case of small abrasive size particles, the depth of penetration of the
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small size abrasives in the coating surface is reduced due to the lower height of projection of small size abrasive particles, which results in reduced wear of coatings, even though the load is increased on fine abrasive size. The 20wt.% chromium carbide coating exhibits the lowest abrasive wear at all normal loads and both abrasive grit sizes as compared to 0wt.% chromium carbide and 10wt.% chromium carbide coatings. This is due to increase in hardness of the 20wt.% chromium carbide coating with the addition of tungsten and chromium carbides.
0 wt.% chromim carbide 10 wt.% chromim carbide 20 wt.% chromim carbide
0.6
Abrasive wear, g
0 wt.% chromim carbide 10 wt.% chromim carbide 20 wt.% chromim carbide

0.6
Abrasive wear, g
0.4 0.2 0 5 10 Norm al load, N 15
0.4 0.2 0 5 10 Norm al load, N 15
Figure 2. Abrasive wear rate of various coatings (a) 120 grit size and (b) 320 grit size. 3.4 SEM study of worn surfaces In an attempt to identify the abrasive wear mechanism of various coatings (0wt.% chromium carbide, 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide); SEM images of worn surfaces of various coatings were analyzed (Fig.3 a-b). The worn surfaces of various coatings (0wt.% chromium carbide, 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings) mainly showed the ploughing and cutting mechanism (Fig. 3 a-b). The weight loss of each coating under abrasive wear test conditions is determined by the extent of damage caused by these mechanisms. Ploughing and cutting mechanisms were observed in the 0wt.% chromium carbide coating while material removal by cutting mechanism wear observed in 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings. It can be observed that the worn grooves are wider in 0wt.% chromium carbide as compared to 10wt.% chromium carbide and 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings (Fig. 3 a-b). The formation of wider grooves in 0wt.% chromium carbide coating is due to its low hardness as compared to other coatings. The width of the cutting/ ploughing grooves increases at higher loads with the increase in depth of indentation and results in increased wear rate of the coatings. Cutting a Cutting Ploughing b
Figure 3. SEM images of the worn surfaces of (a) 0wt.% chromium carbide (b) 10wt.% chromium carbide and (c) 20wt.% chromium carbide coatings respectively. 3. Conclusions
1 With the chromium carbide additions the volume fraction of eutectic was reduced and the morphology of the carbide particles in the microstructure was modified from cuboids to cuboids and needle like structure. 2 The chromium carbide addition increases the hardness of the coating approximately 1.3
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times from 596 to 776 Hv5. 3 The abrasive wear of 20wt.% chromium carbide coating is 2-4 times lower under different loads and both abrasive grit sizes. References [1] Chaynes P., Farmer H.N., Friction and wear of hard facing alloys, ASM handbook. ASM international 18, 1992, 758-765. [2] Desai V. M., Rao C. M., Kosel T. H. and Fiore F., Effect of carbide size on the abrasion of cobalt-base powder metallurgy alloys. Wear, 94, 1984, 89-101. [3] Kosel T. H., Fiore N. F., Coyle J. P., Udvardy S. P. and Konkel W. A., Proceedings of Conference, on corrosion-erosion Behavior of Materials, , Metallurgical Society of AIME, October 1978, St. Lious, MO. [4] Shetty H. R., Kosel T. H. and Fiore N. F., A study of abrasive wear mechanisms in cobalt-base alloys. Wear, 84, 1983, 327-343. [5] Frenk A. and Kurz W., Microstructural effects on the sliding wear resistance of a cobaltbased alloy. Wear, 174, 1994, 81-91. [6] Bhansali K. J., Adhesive wear of nickel- and cobalt-base alloys, Wear, 60, 1980, 95110. [7] Kim H. J. and Kim Y. J., Wear and corrosion resistance of PTA weld surfaced Ni and Co- based alloy layers. Surface Engineering, 15, 1999, 495-501. [8] Atamert S. and Bhadesia, H. K. D. H., Comparison of the microstructures and abrasive wear properties of stellite hardfacing alloy deposited by arc welding and laser cladding, Metallurgical Transactions A (Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science). 20A, 1989, 1037-1054. [9] Yadav A.K., Arora N., and Dwivedi D. K., On microstructure, hardness and wear behavior of flame sprayed Co-base alloy coating deposited on mild steel. Surface Engineering, 22, 2006, 331-336. [10] Hrasha S. and Dwivedi D.K., Microstructure, hardness and abrasive wear behavior of flame sprayed Co-based alloy coatings. Surface Engineering, 23, 2007, 1-6. [11] Minoru Nishida, Effect of TiC-Cr3C2 particles content on abrasive wear resistance of Co-base overlay weld alloy. Journal of the Japan Welding Society, 11, 1993, 156-161. [12] Harsha S., Dwivedi D.K., Agrawal A., Influence of WC addition in CoCrWNiC flame sprayed coatings on microstructure, microhardness and wear behavior. Surface & Coatings Technology, 201, 2007, 57665775. [13] Maiti A.K., Mukhopadhyay N., Raman R., Effect of adding WC powder to the feedstock of WCCoCr based HVOF coating and its impact on erosion and abrasion resistance. Surface & Coatings Technology, 201, 2007, 77817788. [14] Sharma S.P., Dwivedi D.K. and Jain P.K., Effect of CeO2 addition on the microstructure, hardness, and abrasive wear behavior of flame-sprayed Ni-based Coatings. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineering, Part J- Journal of Engineering Tribology, 222, 2008, 925-933. [15] Sharma S.P., Dwivedi D.K. and Jain P.K., Effect of La2O3 addition on the microstructure, hardness and abrasive wear behavior of flame sprayed Ni based coatings. Wear, 267, 2009, 853-859. [16] Radu Iulian, Li D.Y., Llewellyn R., Tribological behavior of Stellite 21 modified with yttrium. Wear, 257, 2004, 11541166. [17] Corchia M., Delogu P. and Nenci F., Microstructural aspects of wear-resistant stellite and colmonoy coatings by laser processing. Wear, 119, 1987, 137 152. [18] Venkateswarlu K., Mohapatra S., Rao R.G., Ray A.K., Pathak L.C. and Mondal D.P., High abrasive wear response of diamond reinforced composite coating: a factorial design approach. Tribology Letters, 24, 2006, 7-14.
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An Experimental Investigation for Determination of Effects of Machining Parameters on Surface Roughness in EDM of WC-Co
Shruti Mehta , A. U. Rajurkar
1&2 1* 2
Charotar Institute of Technology, Education Campus, Changa - 388421 Ta. Petlad, Dist. Anand, Gujarat (INDIA) * Corresponding author (e-mail: shrutimehta.me@ecchanga.ac.in)
A complete control over the process is difficult to achieve while in die sinking EDM of conductive ceramics. Since, uniform electrical conductivity throughout the work piece volume cannot be guaranteed; machining may commence and proceed smoothly, but cease to progress further at a particular moment due to the localized lack of conductivity. In addition to that, formation of oxide layers, deposition of recast layer and carbon particles are likely to retard the process and may lead to process instability. Unlike the surface produced in EDM of metals, while machining of conductive ceramics the binder phase is preferentially removed leaving behind the carbide grains exposed. Hence, study of the material removal mechanism and the quality of surface produced becomes vital. Although the field of die sinking EDM of conductive ceramics had witnessed enormous advancements in last few years, but still there is an absence of standard know-how by which the setting values of cutting parameters available to achieve the desired characteristics on the material. So present study investigates the simultaneous effect of various input parameters like current, duty factor, pulse on time and sparking gap on surface quality. The experiments were carried out with cobalt bonded tungsten carbide ceramics (64WC-9Co) as work piece and copper as electrode on die-sinking EDM machine. The parameter range was carefully selected to give a feel of working in roughing, semi finishing and finishing zones. Taguchi techniques of robust design were adopted to formulate the experimental layout and to analyze the effect of each parameter on machining and to predict the optimal choice among all parameters. Taguchis recommended signalnoise ratio formulae and ANOVA have been used to identify the significant parameters and their degree of contribution in the process output. 1. Introduction
EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining) is a specialized thermal machining process generating electrical spark at the electrode and work piece gap in the presence of dielectric fluid [1]. At present, it is a widely used in industry for high-precision machining of all types of conductive materials such as: metals, metallic alloys, graphite, or even some ceramic materials, of whatsoever hardness. th During 20 century, significant advancements have been made by researchers in material technology. The exploration for materials which have prominent mechanical and physical properties and capability to serve at high temperature conditions has led the continuous evolution in this direction, conceding the emergence of advanced ceramic materials. This advancement changed the way ceramic systems were viewed. In it ceramic material such as cobalt-bonded tungsten carbide (WCCo) is of special attention in producing cutting tools, dies and other special tools and components due to its very high hardness and excellent resistance to shock and wear. So the techniques which previously applied to metals were now considered applicable to ceramic systems. Although, it has good servicing property, partial acceptance has been observed in industrial applications due to high cost and time implicated with their manufacturing [2]. Since, traditional machining processes are unable to process such materials, unconventional technologies like Electrical Discharge machining has
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proved to be effective tool with the mandate that the material should be conductive [3]. Hence, for these materials the threshold of electrical resistivity is considered to be between 100 and 300 -cm [4]. After adding conductive phases, ceramics exhibit the machinability by EDM. The development of a proper EDM technology for ceramics requires a good knowledge of the material removal mechanisms. Therefore, research is required in order to understand the relation between the surface roughness of ceramic material with process parameters and optimization technique applied to the EDM process. This paper reports the results of experimental investigation during Electrical Discharge machining of cobalt bonded tungsten carbide (64WC-9Co). Consequently, an analysis of influence of sparking gap, peak current, pulse ON time on machined surface is presented. 2. Process description
In this section, a brief description of the equipment used to carry out the experiments, along with the specifications of ceramic material used is portrayed. Also, the design factors are outlined. 2.1 Equipment used in this experiment
All the experiments have been conducted on an AZ50 JOEMARS make Die Sinking Electrical Discharge Machine with z-axis NC fuzzy logic control. Figure 1 (a & b) shows the experimental set up of work piece and electrode along with SEDM machine. The dielectric has been jet flushed by nozzles, directed against the arc gap under 0.5 kg/cm2 pressure.
Figure 1. (a) Experimental set up with jet flushing and (b) S-EDM machine, 2.2 Materials specification
Tungsten carbide is one of the cemented carbide known as metal carbide. Mostly called as mono tungsten carbide (WC), it is of more importance due to its better stability. It is usually used in industry as WCCo composite; a combination of WC with 530% of Co matrix. The material used in the experiments is 64WC9Co. The specimens used were in the form of cermets of standard size. Availability in cermets form was readily ensured in local industries before going to finalize the specifications. This material was principally developed in order to be used as cutting tool, due to its excellent hardness properties and, it is capable of coping with rapid changes of temperature. In the case of 64WC9Co, it has a thermal conductivity of 100 W/mK and a thermal 6 1 0 expansion coefficient of 4.3 10 K , at a temperature of 200 C with Youngs Modulus (Gpa) 620 and Vickers hardness (VPN) 1400 1550.
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The electrode material was electrolytic copper in cylindrical form with diameter 10 mm and 50 mm length. It was worked with negative polarity according to surveyed literature. 2.3 Process and response variables
There are number of process parameters which affect on surface quality but the study has been restricted to peak current (i), ON time (s), duty cycle () and sparking gap. As a matter of fact, surface roughness (SR) has been treated as response parameter, denoted by Ra.Surface roughness of the machined work pieces was measured using Mitutoyo SJ-201 equipment with digital height gauge and with sampling length of 0.8mm. 3. Design methodology
There are number of statistical techniques available for engineering and scientific studies. Taguchi has prescribed a standardized way to utilize the Design of Experiments (DOE) technique to enhance the quality of products and processes. In this approach, the parameters and their levels are mentioned in table 1 and according to it L18 orthogonal array was selected and to determine the effect of each variable on the output, the signal-to-noise ratio (SN ratio) needs to be calculated for each experiment conducted. Here, smaller is better strategy is selected.
N y2 S / N 10. log u .. (1) u 1 N

Table 1. Machining parameters levels Design Factor Unit Level I II A. Sparking Gap V 50 62 B. On Time 40 50 s C. Duty Cycle 0.4 0.5 s D. Peak Current A 9 13 III -60 0.6 17
Std 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Table 2.Experimental layout using mixed orthogonal array L18 Sparking Peak ON Surface Roughness Run Gap Current Time (V) (Amp) (S) Ra(um) S/N (db) 13 50 9 93 2.35 -7.42136 3 50 9 180 3.90 -11.8213 18 50 9 360 4.95 -13.8921 12 50 13 93 3.83 -11.664 10 50 13 180 4.34 -12.7498 2 50 13 360 5.30 -14.4855 1 50 17 93 4.05 -12.1491 11 50 17 180 4.76 -13.5521 7 50 17 360 4.52 -13.1028 17 62 9 93 2.99 -9.51342 4 62 9 180 3.15 -9.96621 6 62 9 360 4.95 -13.8921 8 62 13 93 4.53 -13.122 16 62 13 180 4.35 -12.7698 5 62 13 360 4.11 -12.2768 15 62 17 93 5.69 -15.1022 14 62 17 180 5.33 -14.5345 9 62 17 360 5.99 -15.5485
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The experimental layout has been generated by using Minitab 15 and the responses are recorded during experimentation. 4. Analysis of surface roughness
The recorded response has been statistically analysed by Minitab 15, the ANOVA results (table 3 & 4) and mathematical model is generated and tested. Table 3. ANOVA table for SR in EDM Cu to Rp-30 process Source SG PC OT DC Residual Error Total DF 1 2 2 2 10 17 Seq SS 1.926 25.839 16.918 11.864 15.568 72.155 Adj SS 1.926 25.839 16.918 11.864 15.568 Adj MS 1.926 12.919 8.459 5.932 1.557 F 1.24 8.30 5.43 3.81 P 0.292 0.008 0.025 0.059
Table 4. Estimated Model coefficients Term Constant SG 50 PC9 PC13 OT93 OT180 DC 0.4 DC 0.5 Coef -12.6424 0.3271 1.5580 -0.2022 1.1471 0.0768 1.1481 -0.5714 SEcoef 0.2941 0.2941 0.4159 0.4159 0.4159 0.4159 0.4159 0.4159 T -42.988 1.112 3.746 -0.486 2.758 0.185 2.761 -1.374 P 0.000 0.292 0.004 0.637 0.020 0.857 0.020 0.200
Final Equation in Terms of Coded Factors SR = -12.6424+ 0.3271* A +1.5580*B [1] - 0.2022 *B [2] +1.1471*C [1] +0.0768 * C [2] +1.1481 * D [1] -0.5714 *D ..(2)
(a) (b) (c) Figure 2. (a)Main effects plot (b) Residual plots for S/N ratio (c) Interaction plot The model F-value of 4.93 implies that the model is significant. Values of "Prob > F" less than 0.0500 indicate model terms are significant. Figure 2(a) reveals the main effects plots. The purpose of this analysis is to find out the strong effect of parameters on SR .It shows the A1, B1, C1 and D1 have strong effect on the SR. Figure 2(b) shows the four plots viz. Normal probability plot, residual vs fit, histogram and residual vs order. The residuals spread on a straight line implies that the errors are distributed normally. Correspondently, the other plots in figure show no obvious pattern and
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unusual structure and all the results fall in the acceptable range. No run number go far from other runs and they fall within the range. Therefore, it can be concluded that the model proposed is adequate and can be used for further analysis. In the ANOVA table (Table 3, 4), almost all the factors influence the SR, but the most three effectives are ON time (B), duty cycle (C) and peak current (D) are shown graphically in figure 2(c), where the interaction of above parameters and effect of it on SR can be visualized. 5. Conclusions
This investigation has proposed a model for EDming of WC-Co with copper electrode and taguchi technique identify the significant factors and their associated levels on desired output. The technological variables like current, ON time, duty cycle and sparking gap have been studied as a function of design to minimize the roughness. The following conclusion are derived from the above study 1. Based on the ANOVA table, the most influencing factors on SR are peak current and ON time and with less effect of gap voltage and duty cycle. 2. Good surface quality is achieved at a parameter set of 9A current, 90s on time, 0.4 duty cycle and 50v sparking gap regarding with main effect of parameters. 3. Good surface quality is achievable by decreasing peak current and increasing ON time and it advisable to keep high gap voltage with high current. Whereas, duty cycle should be 50%. 4. Further optimized parameter set values are also achieved using the controlled parameter equation to get optimized surface roughness. 5. Effective residual plots results are indicate the outliers and fitted model values for desired data. 6. The extended study of EDM technology with ceramics and using proper non conventional optimization technique will be helpful to generate manufacturing data in all provisions of machining of ceramics. Acknowledgement Authors acknowledge the support and encouragement received from Mr. Vijaykumar Chaudhary, Head, Mechanical Engineering Department and Dr. Y. P. Kosta, Principal, CIT Changa and Management of Education Campus, Changa. References [1] Joemars EDM, AZ series operation manual., 2001, Taiwan. [2] Anonymous, Advanced ceramics - The evolution, classification properties, production, firing, finishing and design of advanced ceramics, http://www.azom.com/details.asp? Article ID= 2123. [3] W. S. Lau et.al. Un-conventional machining of composite materials, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 48, 1995, 199-205. [4] I. Puertas et. al., Analysis of the influence of EDM parameters on surface quality, MRR and EW of WCCo, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 153154, 2004, 1026 1032. [5] Ross Phillip J. Taguchi Techniques for Quality Engineering.Tata Mc-GrawHill edition, 2005. [6] Minitab Technologies Inc (2006) Minitab 15 software versions user guide.
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Effect of welding parameters on weld bead geometry and metal transfer in synergic MIG welding
R. P. S. Sisodia*, M.S. Niranjan and Reeta Wattal Delhi college of Engineering, Delhi, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: raghawendra.sisodia@gmail.com) The objective of this paper is to analyze voltage transients associated with Synergic MIG welding of 304L SS for various plate thicknesses with 100% Argon as the shielding gas and the relation between these transients and observation is used to analyze the mode of metal transfer and weld bead geometry. The most popular method to identify the mode of metal transfer and the moment in which the transfer occurs is based on an oscillographical analysis of voltage (voltage versus time) by using DSO with Synergic MIG machine. With the use of oscilloscopes, it is possible to observe the format of the voltage traces produced by welding processes. For instance, during short-circuiting transfer, when the droplet is starting its development, voltage oscillates around a mean value but tends to zero when the drop touches the pool (short-circuit). Also, the mechanical strength of welds is influenced by the composition of metal and welds bead geometry and shape relationships and in turn the weld bead geometry is influenced by direct and indirect welding parameters. 1. Introduction
A review of the available literature reveals many studies relating to the fundamental physical and chemical properties of 304L stainless steel (SS) [1, 2]. Due to its excellent mechanical and anticorrosion properties, and the ease with which it may be formed and welded, 304L SS is widely used throughout the chemical and automotive industries and within nuclear power plants. The joining of these parts is often achieved by welding, and consequently, the favourable welding characteristics of 304L SS play an important role in its selection as the material of choice. It is recognized that 304L SS can be successfully welded using a variety of techniques, including Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, Submerged Arc Welding, and Plasma Arc Welding [3,4]. With the increase of automation in arc welding, the selection of welding procedure must be more specific to ensure that adequate bead quality is obtained [5]. Several researchers have attempted to investigate the effects of various process variables on the weld bead geometry and metal transfer. Also the mechanical strength of welds is influenced by the compositions of the metal and to greater extent by the weld bead geometry and shape relationships and in turn the weld bead geometry is influenced by the direct and indirect welding parameters. The study of weld bead geometry and shape relationships is important as these dimensions and ratios decide to a great extent, the load bearing capacity of weldments. This includes the study of penetration (p), bead width (w), and height of reinforcement/crown height (h), ratio of bead width to penetration (w/p) also known as weld penetration shape factor (WPSF), ratio of bead width to reinforcement height (w/h) also known as weld reinforcement form factor (WRFF), and % dilution(%D) which is percentage ratio of area of base metal melted to total area of the weld bead at a given cross-section of the weld deposits [5,6].All these terms are depicted in Figure1. Metal transfer describes the process of the molten metal movement from the electrode tip to the work piece in metal inert gas welding. A better understanding of the metal transfer process is important for improvements in the quality and productivity of welding [7]. The mode of metal transfer significantly influences the chemical composition and the properties of weld metal, metallurgy of weld metal, weld pool stability, fumes levels, arc stability, spatter losses and weld bead geometry/ strength of weldment.The modes of metal transfer is affected mainly by the type of the arc, welding current, electrode polarity, arc voltage, nozzle to plate distance, gas composition and flow rate [8]. Depending upon the
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welding conditions, there are different ways in which this transfer of metal takes place. One of the most up-to date and comprehensive reviews of metal transfer modes during arc welding was written by Lancaster [9]. According to the International Institute of Welding (IIW) nomenclature referenced in his book [10], metal transfer can be classified into three main groups: free flight transfer, bridging transfer and slag protected transfer. Free flight mode of transfer can still be sub classified as drop, repelled, projected, streaming or rotating. In freeflight transfer, the electrode does not contact the molten metal pool. Metal droplet detaches from the tip of the electrode and move across the arc column. When the electrode contacts the weld pool, bridging transfer occurs .For welding process that uses large amount of fluxes, metal transfer may involve layers of slag, known as slag-protected transfer. The mode of metal transfer, which are operative at any instances during welding ,are also dependent upon several forces that act upon the molten droplet growing at the tip of the electrode [11,12]. WPSF (w/p) WRFF (w/h) Ap = Weld penetration shape factor = Weld reinforcement form factor = Area of penetration
W = Weld bead width P = Weld bead penetration

Ap At
%D
100 % dilution
h = Weld bead height = Angle of convexity = Angle of entry
Ar
= Area of reinforcement
A t Ap A r
= Total weld bead area
Figure 1. Weld bead geometry and shape relationships Many attempts have been made by various researchers with an objective of identifying and explaining the mechanism that governs the phenomenon of metal transfer [13,14]. Besides the metal transfer mode identification, it is important, in many cases, to know the relationship between the metal under transfer and the signals of welding current, arc voltage, arc sound, etc. The knowledge of this interaction becomes important when the target is the optimization and control of processes, such as pulsed and short circuiting GMAW. The most popular method to identify the type of metal transfer and the moment in which the transfer occurs is based on an oscillographical analysis of voltage (voltage versus time) [15]. The main objective of this paper was to study the effects of welding process parameters such as welding current, welding speed and gas flow rate for various plate thickness on weld bead geometry and metal transfer based on practical observations made during the welding of 304L Stainless Steel, bead-on-plate technique by Synergic MIG welding associated with DSO to estimates accurately the weld bead dimensions as affected by welding variables and metal transfer. 2. Experimental set up
All the weldments in this study were carried out using microprocessor based Synergic MIG welding machineEWM force Arc 521 with the semi-mechanized welding station used during the experimentation. This welding machine is connected with digital signal oscilloscope in parallel and DSO is connected with printer in order get the printout of the transient simultaneously during welding process. Welding gun was placed perpendicularly to stainless steel 304L plates. In the welding experiments, a 308L filler wire with a 1.2-mm diameter was used. All experiments were carried out with contact tip to work distance (CTWD) of 20mm, using pure argon as shielding gas at a three different flow rate i.e. 10, 13 & 15 lit/min. A direct current power source was used to perform the bead on plate welds by means of Synergic
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MIG process. Bead on plate technique was employed for depositing the weld beads on stainless steel plate of thickness 3 & 8mm using semi mechanised welding station .The weld bead samples are cut from each weld bead at 15mm intervals, with the first sample being located at 15 mm behind the trailing edge of the crater at the end of the to eliminate the end effects. The transverse faces of the specimens were further prepared for study of weld bead geometry. Specimens were polished with various grades of emery papers, starting with 150,180, 320,400, 800, 1200 and SIA Sianor B 1600. After this the specimens were polished on rotating disc with paste of alumina abrasive powder. Water was used as coolant. Finally the specimens were etched by mixture of three parts of HCl and one part of HNO3 then washed off with water to reveal the geometry of the weld bead. Several critical parameters, such as bead penetration, bead width & bead height was measured by projecting it on the profilometer. 3. Results Table 1. Bead dimensions for different G, S and I on 3mm plate thickness P .T Welding Current (mm) (Amp) 3 159 Arc voltages (volts) 22.2 Welding speed GFR P (cm/min) (lit/min) (mm) 47.4 10 13 15 15 1.54 2.05 0.91 1.49 1.75 1.11 0.40 0.84 1.99 B.W R.H (mm) (mm) 6.33 7.39 7.44 2.57 2.85 3.48
32.4 41.4 47.4 130 139 144
7.09 3.36 5.21 3.12 4.95 3.03 6.19 1.91 6.64 2.22 7.25 3.00
Table 2. Bead dimensions for different G, S and I on 8mm plate thickness P .T Welding Current Arc voltages Welding speed (mm) (Amp) (volts) (cm/min) 8 241 31 32.4 GFR P (lit/min) (mm) 10 13 15 15 B.W (mm) R.H (mm) 2.43 2.56 2.65 3.32 3.15 2.80 3.14 3.15 3.60
2.14 11.07 4.37 12.08 2.60 13.09 2.14 13.05 3.39 12.97 1.89 11.91 1.94 11.28 3.02 12.51 3.39 13.05
263
32.4 41.4 47.4 32.4
241 250 263
15
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4.
Conclusions
Following conclusion was drawn from this analysis: 4.1 Effect of process parameters on metal transfer With the use of oscilloscopes, it is possible to observe the format of the current and voltage traces produced by welding processes. These signal waves may mimic some metal transfer modes. For instance, during short circuiting transfer, when the droplet is starting its development, voltage oscillates around a mean value but tends to zero when the drop touches the pool (short-circuit). A voltage peak happens just after the drop detachment, due to the arc reignition phenomenon. Thus, it is possible to detect droplet detachment electrically by using a storage oscilloscope or transient recorder. The detachment generates a small blip on the arc voltage trace, probably due to the increased electrical rsistance of the droplet neck just before separation. However ,the spray transfer 3 mm plate were observed at current 159A,gas flow rate 15 lit/min,voltage 22.2 volts and welding speed of 32.4 cm/min using 100% argon shielding gas. For 8mm plate thickness the spray transfer were observed at current 263A,gas flow rate 15 lit/min,voltage 31 volts and welding speed of 32.4 cm/min using 100% argon shielding gas. This results shows that it is the optimum value for spray transfer in Synergic MIG welding. Good quality welds could be achieved only with axial spray type of transfer. High welding current and high voltage produced the mixed mode but predominantly axial spray and occasional short circuiting transfer in between. The weld bead ripples were fairly uniform and the general appearances of the bead were very good. 4.2 Effects of process parameters on penetration For 3mm plate thickness, the welding speed and gas flow rate was fixed as 47.4 cm/min and 15 lit/min respectively and the change in depth of penetration was drawn with increasing welding current for 22.2 V values. The biggest penetration value was obtained as 1.99 mm in 144 A and 22.2 V condition, while the smallest one as 0.40 mm in 130 A and 22.2 V. In all three conditions, the depth of penetration increases with increasing welding current. The same trends were shown for 8mm plate thickness. The graphs of welding speed vs. penetration were drawn using Table 1. & Table 2. in 22.2 and 31V constant arc voltages for 159 and 263A values for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively. The depth of penetration increases with increasing welding speed up to 41.4 cm/min point which was the optimum value to obtain maximum penetration, because it begins to decreasing after this point again linearly. This condition is convenient with the literature [16, 17]. The graph of gas flow rate vs. penetration was drawn using Table 1. & Table 2 in 22.2 and 31V constant arc voltage for 159 and 263A and gas flow rate of 10 lit/min ,13 lit/min and 15 lit/min values for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively. The depth of penetration increases with increasing gas flow rate up to 13 lit/min point which was the optimum value to obtain maximum penetration, because it begins to decreasing after this point again linearly. 4.3 Effects of process parameters on weld bead width Weld bead width increased from 6.33 mm to 7.44 mm and 11.07 mm to 13.09 mm for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively when gas flow rate was increased from 10 lit/min to 15 lit/min. Weld bead width increased from 6.19 mm to 7.25 mm and 11.28mm to 13.05mm for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively when current was increased from low level to high level. Weld bead width decreased from 7.09 mm to 4.95 mm and 13.05mm to 11.91mm for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively when welding speed was increased from 32.4mm to 47.4mm. 4.4 Effects of process parameters on reinforcement height Reinforcement height increases from 2.57mm to 3.48 mm and 2.43mm to 2.65mm for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively when gas flow rate was increased from 10lit/min to 15 lit/min.
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The reinforcement height increased from 1.91 mm to 3.00 mm and 3.14mm to 3.60mm for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively when current was increased from low level to high level. This was due to the larger amount of metal deposited per unit length. The increased proportion of weld metal deposited with the increase in welding wire feed rate got distributed in the bead width and the height of reinforcement. The reinforcement height decreased from 3.36 mm to 3.03 mm and 3.32mm to 2.80mm for 3mm and 8mm plate thickness respectively when welding speed was increased from 10lit/min to 15 lit/min. This could be due to the fact that weld pool size is affected by cooling rate, which can decrease increasing the or by decreasing the travel speed. Details were shown in Table 1. & Table 2. References [1] K.G. Brickner and J.D. Defilippi, 1977, Handbook of Stainless Steels, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, pp. 25-31. [2] R.A. Lula, J.G. Parr, and A. Hanson, 1986, Stainless Steel, ASM, Metals Park, OH, 60-70. [3] O. Kamiya and K. Kumagai, (1990), J. Mater. Sci. 25, 2017. [4] H. D. Steffens and H. Kayser, (1972), Weld. J. 51 408. [5] Reeta Wattal and Sunil Pandey, 2007, Prediction of weld bead geometry in GMAW of aluminium alloy 7005, Global Conference on Production and Industrial Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, March 22-24, Paper No.327. [6] Sunil Pandey and Reeta Wattal, 2005, Weld bead geometry and shape relationships in th GMAW of aluminium alloy 7005, 14 ISME International Conference on Mechanical Engineering in the Knowledge age, Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi, India, 12-14 December, 448-453. [7] G. Wang, P. G. Huang, and Y. M. Zhang Numerical Analysis of Metal Transfer in GMAW. [8] Reeta Wattal and Sunil Pandey, 2007, Metal transfer in GMAW of aluminium alloy 7005, All India Conference on Recent Developments in Manufacturing & Quality Management, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, 5-6 October, 106-111. [9] Lancaster J .F, 1986, The physics of welding. International Institute of Welding, Oxford, Pergamon press. [10] Anon., 1976, Classification of metal transfer. International Institute of Welding, DOC XII: 636-76. [11] Ludwig H., 1957, Metal transfer characteristics in gas-shielding arc welding Welding Journal.36 (1): 23s-26s. [12] Waszink J.H. and Gratt L.H.I., 1983, Experimental investigation of the forces acting on a drop of weld metal. Welding Journal.62 (4), 108-116. [13] Amson J. C. And Salter, G. R., 1966, An analysis of the gas shielded consumable metal arc welding system. Proceedings, Physics of the Welding Arc Conference, London, 133147. [14] Cooksey C. J. and Milner D.R., 1962, Metal transfer in gas-shielded arc welding. Ibid, 123-132. [15] Paulo S.S. Blsamo, Louriel O. Vilarinhoy, Mrcio Vilelaz & Amrico Scottix, 2000, Development of an experimental technique for studying metal transfer in welding: synchronized shadowgraphy. Int. J. for the Joining of Materials 12(1) [16] Ates. H, Turker M., 1999, Determination of penetration with various welding parameters of electrical arc and GMA welding. Ghazi Univ J; 12(3) [in Turkish]. [17] Tu lbentci K., 1990, MIG-MAG arc welding. Istanbul: Gedik Welding Co. Press; [in Turkish].
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Estimation of Surface Roughness in Turning Using Back Propagation Neural Network

1* 2 3
S.J.Rajpal , V.V.Dongaonkar , Chennabasava Gouda Sr. Grade, B.N. College of Engg ,Pusad, India Dr.B.A..Govt.Polytechnic, Karad(D.P.), Silvasa, India *Corresponding author (e-mail: sjrajpal69@rediffmail.com) . This paper presents a feed forward back propagation neural network model for estimation of surface roughness in turning operation. A large number of experiments were conducted on mild steel work piece using high speed steel as a cutting tool material. All the experimental work has been performed on HMT lathe of type LB-20 at MNNIT (Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology), Allahabad (U. P.). Process parameters such as speed, feed, and depth of cut are used as inputs to the neural network model. Roughness of the machined surface corresponding to these conditions is the output of the neural network. Performance of the trained neural network has been tested with experimental data and found to be in good agreement.
3 1,2
1.
Introduction Adaptive control of computerized numerically controlled (CNC) machines has attracted the attention of a number of researchers in the past. Attempts are being made to impart human-like intelligence called artificial intelligence to machine tools. An artificially intelligent machine tool will have the ability to predict the job quality and tool condition based on sensory feedback and take appropriate corrective actions. However, present technology is still far away from that goal. Development of a reliable prediction strategy for predicting job quality is a challenge to be met on the way of developing an artificially intelligent and unmanned turning center. Todays manufacturing industries are very much concerned about the quality of their products. They are focused on producing high quality products in time at minimum cost. Cutting parameters such as speed, feed and depth of cut strongly influence the surface roughness of the machined product. This paper presents a strategy for surface roughness estimation based on the process parameters like speed, feed and depth of cut in cylindrical turning operation. Due to non-linear dependence of surface finish on the process parameters, toolwork combination and rigidity of machine tool, neural networks are used for estimation. 1.1 Review of literature The effect of tool vibration and chatter on surface finish has been studied by Selvam [10]. Rangwala and Dornfield [9] have done a comprehensive by studied the machining processes. Limitations of the theoretical models are discussed and a compared with neural network models. Abouelatta and Madl [1] developed a correlation between surface roughness and the cutting vibrations in turning. Lee and Tarng [7] used computer vision techniques to inspect surface roughness of a work piece in turning operations. They used digital camera to acquire a surface image of the work-piece and then the feature of the surface image. Dixit and Risbood et al. [4] developed a neural network based model to predict surface roughness and dimensional accuracy through the measurement of cutting forces and vibration. Lee et al. [8] have developed an online surface roughness recognition system using artificial neural network in turning operation. In their model, vibration signatures in the three directions have been used. The cutting tool with constant nose radius has been considered in their analysis. Kohli and Dixit [6] predicted the surface roughness of the machined product in turning operation taking the acceleration of the radial vibration of the tool holder as one of the inputs to the neural network model. Some of the research work in the field of tool wear monitoring has been reported here. Das et al. [3] used back propagation algorithm for measuring flank wear of carbide tool in the turning operation. Chien and Tsai [2] used the back propagation
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neural network for predicting the tool wear and determining the optimum cutting condition in turning operations. 2. Methodology adopted back propagation neural network Back propagation neural network (BPNN) has been used in the present work. The basic structure of back propagation neural network having input, hidden and output layers, is shown in Figure1. The input layer receives information from external sources and passes this information to the network for processing. The hidden layer receives information from the input layer, and does all the information processing, and while the output layer receives processed information from the network, and sends the results out to an external receptor. The input signals are modified by an interconnection weight, known as weight factor wij, which th th represents the interconnection of i node of the first layer to j node of the second layer. The sum of modified signals (total activation) is then modified by a log sigmoidal activation function. Here batch mode type of supervised learning has been used .During training, the calculated output is compared with the target output, and the mean square Mean square error, E, is calculated [5] by the equation (1), error is calculated.
1 p n p p (d k c k ) 2 p 1 k 1
(1)
Figure 1. Back Propagation Neural Network where, p = Number of pattern, n = Number of node in output layer, node of p pattern, 3.
th
p k
= Desired output of k
th
p k
= Calculated output of k node of p pattern
th
th
Experimental approaches used A large No. of experiments over a wide range of cutting conditions are performed at MNNIT, Allahabad (UP). A lathe machine (LB20 model, Hindustan Machine Tools) is used for the turning operation. HSS cutting tool (18% Tungsten, 4.3% Chromium, 1.1% Vanadium, 5% Cobalt, 0.65% Molybdenum, 0.75% Carbon; Hardness 290 BHN) is used for turning mild steel work-piece (0.2% Carbon; Hardness125 BHN) under different cutting conditions. Surface roughness of the machined surface is measured using portable surface roughness tester (Surf test SJ -201P/M). 4. Observations Table 1. Experimental data for M.S. Job
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Turning Speed (rpm) 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 Depth of cut (mm) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Feed rate (mm/rev) 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 Surface roughness (m) 8.57 7.56 5.03 4.13 7.72 6.67 4.28 3.15 6.28 5.02 3.63 2.95
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13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
320 320 320 320 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 800 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066
7.02 5.90 3.77 2.99 8.13 7.24 5.59 4.59 6.72 5.58 3.58 3.05 7.42 5.17 3.73 2.85 7.70 6.42 4.84 3.95 7.20 6.81 4.98 3.85 7.74 6.26 4.36 3.75 7.40 5.87 4.29 3.65 6.90 6.40 4.60 3.71 8.90 6.44 4.07 3.15 9.14 8.26 5.50 4.12 7.50 6.21 4.27 3.50 3.53 3.03 2.95 2.02
5. Results and discussions 5.1 Neural Network Models: To train the neural network, feed force, cutting force, speed, feed and depth of cut are used as input parameters, and corresponding surface roughness of the machined product as the output parameter. About 80% data sets are used for training the neural network and remaining data sets are used for testing the neural network. The used feed forward neural networks (back propagation) give accurate results, but they require more time for training and testing. The Levenberg-Marquardt method base training function (TRAINLM) of MATLAB7 is used for faster convergence. The back propagation based on Levenberg-Marquardt method is nothing more than a heuristic method. Neural networks with
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different combinations of number of hidden neurons in the hidden layer have been trained to meet a performance goal of 0.001. Optimum neural network architecture has been selected on the basis minimum MSE and No. of epochs. Comparison of experimental surface roughness with simulated (estimated by neural network) surface roughness is also done. The performance of the trained neural network has been tested with experimental data, and found to be in good agreement. Thirteen designed data (nearly 20%data) are used as testing data. After getting the testing and training data, neural network of different topologies are fitted. Three chosen neurons are cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. Input and output parameters are normalized, to lie between 0.1and 0.9 by using equation (2):
x x min (2) y 0.1 0.8 * x x max min where, x= Actual value, x max = Maximum value of x, x min =Minimum value of x, y=Normalized
value corresponding to x. Table 2. Testing data for the neural network
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Turning speed (rpm) 320 320 320 320 500 500 500 800 800 800 1000 1000 1000 Depth of cut (mm) 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.5 0.1 Feed (mm/rev) 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 0.1 0.075 0.066 0.2 Surface Roughness(m) 8.57 6.67 3.63 2.99 6.72 5.17 4.84 3.85 7.40 6.40 4.07 4.12 3.53
The number of nodes in the hidden layer is decided by trial and error. Neural networks with different combinations of number of hidden neurons in the hidden layer have been trained to meet a performance goal of 0.001. Depending upon the mean square error, and convergence rate, optimum network architecture has been arrived at. In the present case, 3-6-1 network has been found to be the optimum network (Table 4). Figure 3 shows the variation of training error with the number of iteration for the network used in the present case. Table 3. Training error for different neural network architectures Neural Network Mean Square Error Number of Remarks Architecture In Training Epochs 3-4-1 0.002323 1000 performance goal not met 3-5-1 0.002313 1000 performance goal not met 3-6-1 0.000995 48 performance goal met Table 5 shows the neural network predicted surface roughness for different actual surface roughness values for 13 testing data and also the percentage error. Maximum error in prediction is observed to be 10.77%. It was considered that less than 20% error is reasonable, considering that there is inherent randomness in metal cutting process [6]. Figure 6 shows the comparison between experimental and simulated value of surface roughness given by 3-6-1 neural network for the testing data (shown in table 5).
Figure 5. Variation of MSE in training with number of iterations for 3-6-1 neural network
Figure 6. Simulated and Experimental surface roughness in testing data
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Table 5. Percentage error in testing data Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 6. Actual surface roughness (m) 8.57 6.67 3.63 2.99 6.72 5.17 4.84 3.85 7.40 6.40 4.07 4.12 3.53 Predicted surface Roughness(m) 8.89 5.98 3.41 3.12 7.19 5.59 4.76 3.68 7.52 5.71 4.10 4.53 4.59 % error -3.74 10.31 5.84 -4.38 -7.06 -7.58 1.61 4.38 -1.71 10.77 -0.90 -10.19 -30.29
Conclusions A methodology for the estimation of surface roughness in turning using back propagation neural network is developed. A good number of experiments have been conducted on mild steel work-piece using HSS as the cutting tool material. The optimum network architecture has been found out based on the mean square error and the convergence rate. The estimated surface roughness from the present neural network model is very close to the values measured experimentally, thus showing the efficiency of back propagation neural network for estimating surface roughness in turning. References [1] Abouelatta OB, Madl J (2001) Surface roughness prediction based on cutting parameters and tool vibrations in turning operations. J Mater Process Technol 118:269277. [2] Chien WT, Tsai CS (2003) The investigation on prediction of tool wear and the determination of optimum cutting conditions in machining 174 PH stainless steel. Int J Machine Tools Manuf 140:340345. [3] Das S, Roy R, Chottopadhyay AB (1996) Evaluation of wear of turning carbide inserts using neural network. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 36:789797. [4] Dixit US, Risbood KA Sahasrabudhe AD (2003) Prediction of surface roughness and dimensional deviation by measuring cutting forces and vibrations in turning process. J Mater Process Technol 132:203-214. [5] Haykin S (2003) Neural networks: a comprehensive foundation, 2nd edn. Pearson Education 2:203214. [6] Kohli A, Dixit US (2004) A neural-network-based methodology for the prediction of surface roughness in a turning process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 25:118129. [7] Lee BY, Tarng YS (2001) Surface roughness inspection by computer vision in turning operations. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 41:12511263. [8] Lee SS, Chen JC (2003) On-line surface roughness recognition system using artificial neural network system in turning operations. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 22:498509. [9] Rangwala SS, Dornfield DA (1989) Learning and optimization of machining operations using computing abilities of neural networks. Adv Manuf Technol 22:498509. [10] Selvam MS (1975) Tool vibrations and its influence on surface roughness in turning. Wear 35:149157.
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Study the Effect of Temperature on Material Properties of EDD Steel Using Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
Rahul.Shashikant.Sanghvi , M.Azharuddin , Sai Kiran.J.G and K.Srikesh , K. Mahesh , Amit 2 1 Kumar Gupta and Swadesh Kumar Singh* GRIET, Hyderabad, AP-500090, India BITS Pilani Campus-Hyderabad, AP, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: swadesh@iitdalumni.com)
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Understanding properties of materials at elevated temperature is very important because it defines the behaviour of materials under different loading conditions especially during forming. Proposed investigations is aimed at calculating the material properties like Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), Yield Strength (YS), % Elongation, Strength Coefficient (K) and work Hardening Exponent (n) at different temperature and developing a model in Neural Networks to predict these properties at a unknown temperatures. After experimentally preparing the matrix of these material properties of extra deep drawing (EDD) steel, it was found that below 3500C the material follows work hardening principle and the strength properties decreases by increasing the temperature. Between 3504500C blue brittle phenomena appears in this material and there is an increase in 0 mechanical properties in this region. After 450 C region of plasticity starts in the material and as a result of that % elongation increases. Data from all the three above mentioned regions in the material is created and ANN (Artificial Neural Network) network is trained and all the five mechanical properties are calculated for the unknown data. The results are promising and it is found that ANN predicts these properties in all the three regions very accurately. 1. Introduction Understanding the behaviour of material properties at elevated temperature is important because it gives the deformation behaviour in various metal forming operation. To minimise trial and error in the experimentation, simulation practises are used in sheet metal forming operation to draw the material without defects. The simulation procedures require the values of material properties like yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), strength coefficient (K), work hardening exponent (n) etc. The experiments to calculate these properties at elevated temperature is again a time consuming operation because after conducting the experiments, the furnace should be cooled to around 1000C to avoid any cracking of insulation and damage of furnace accessories. In the present investigation, an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model is trained by the data developed by experiments of 0 EDD steel from room temperature to 700 C and using trained up model values of material properties were calculated at unknown temperatures. Manabe et al, [1] demonstrated that ANN can be trained to predict the different material parameters in deep drawing operations. Lin [2] used the ANN model to predict the drawing performance in hydrodynamic deep drawing. He used (the simulation data as input and predicted maximum length for a T-piece. Since it is important to know the thickness strains in the drawn cup to ensure the quality of cups, a Neural Network model has been developed to predict the thickness strains in hydro mechanical deep drawing. Singh et al [3] predicted the thickness distribution in the drawn cups by Hydromechanical deep drawing using ANN techniques. Singh et al [4] compared different Neural Network trained algorithm for hydromechanical deep drawing process. Salas et al, [4] used feed-forward neural networks to predict the daily average stream flow of the Little Patuxent River in Maryland. A trial-and-error process was used to determine the most accurate model structure. The network input sets consisted of combinations of variables such as precipitation, temperature, evaporation, snow water equivalent, and previous stream flow. The number of nodes in the hidden layer ranged from one to four hundred. The best-fit model was found to have precipitation, precipitation for the previous
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day and temperature as inputs and ten hidden nodes. This network model was then compared to a statistical model, a simple conceptual rainfall runoff (SCRR) model, and results showed that the ANN performed better than the SCRR model for predicting stream flow. 2. Experimentation
Figure 1. Universal Testing Machine The specimen is machined according to Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory 0 0 0 (DMRL) standards. The specimens of EDD steels are cut along 0 , 45 and 90 to the rolling direction. As shown in Fig. 1 a furnace is installed on a 5 ton UTM machine with temperature 0 controllers. It can maintain temperature inside the chamber within 1 C. To prevent the damage of load cell and the electronic controls due to heat, water is circulated through the inconel pull rods connected to crosshead and specimen (as shown in Fig 1). This water is being cooled by using a cooling tower connected to the machine and is again circulated back 0 0 to the pull rods. The experiments were conducted from room temperature 25 C to 700 C in 0 the interval of 25 C. After breaking the specimen log f (true stress) Vs log (true strain) curve was plotted in the work hardening region (sufficiently away from yield strength and ultimate tensile strength) to calculate strength coefficient (K) and work hardening exponent (n). It was found out that as the temperature increases, there is a decrease in the values of 0 YS, UTS, K and n values. But at 350 C these values starts increasing again due to blue brittle phenomenon which occurs due to impurities of Cr, Ni and other impurity materials. 0 After 450 C these properties again starts decreases due to material being in the plastic region. 3. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) A neural network is a parallel processing architecture consisting of a large number of interconnected processors, called neurons, organized in layers [5]. ANN often called a "neural network" (NN), is a mathematical or computational model based on biological neural networks. It consists of a highly interconnected group of artificial neurons which processes information in parallel. In most cases, an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network during the learning phase. Thus, the neural network is trained according to the type of information which is used to train it.
Figure 2. Architecture of Artificial Neural Network Separate ANN models were constructed for each mechanical property as shown in Fig. 2. In the input layer there was one neuron representing the temperature and in the output layer also there was one neuron corresponding to the mechanical property and in the hidden layer there were 15 neurons. The network was trained using 500 epochs. Before using the experimental data in ANN it need to be normalized to avoid the skewness in data. The data is normalized in the range of (0, 1).The coded expression used is as shown in Equation below
cod ed X X i m in ( X ) m ax( X ) m in( X )
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where X is the vector column; Xi is the specific element of vector X; min(X) is minimum of the vector X; max(X) is the maximum of the vector X. Table 1. Predicted vs experimental values Properties Orientation 0deg Temperatures 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 125 412 625 Experimental Value 311.99 350.32 116.01 322.42 353.30 112.29 308.62 346.39 117.08 192.33 210.03 102.77 200.93 231.16 101.24 191.74 217.94 104.33 38.24 26.60 49.07 35.63 32.15 47.83 36.80 31.33 47.50 599.38 699.20 167.84 639.88 674.84 157.65 590.47 677.49 166.00 0.28 0.29 0.12 0.30 0.27 0.10 0.28 0.27 0.11 ANN Value 298.48 340.20 124.72 324.46 358.92 108.11 302.78 332.28 110.36 188.77 216.35 101.89 210.06 221.84 95.78 190.86 210.69 100.15 38.48 26.95 49.62 35.70 33.45 44.40 37.26 33.15 48.15 572.88 679.74 171.35 618.41 690.99 151.81 589.12 661.60 154.47 0.28 0.27 0.13 0.29 0.27 0.11 0.28 0.27 0.11 % of Error 4.33 2.89 -7.51 -0.63 -1.59 3.72 1.89 4.07 5.74 1.85 -3.01 0.86 -4.54 4.03 5.40 0.46 3.32 4.01 -0.62 -1.31 -1.12 -0.20 -4.04 7.18 -1.24 -5.81 -1.38 4.42 2.78 -2.09 3.36 -2.39 3.71 0.23 2.34 6.94 -0.63 3.89 -6.53 3.02 -2.69 -5.91 -0.34 1.45 -3.19
45deg UTS 90deg
0deg
45deg YS 90deg
0deg
% of Elongation
45deg
90deg
0deg
Strength Co-efficient (K)
45deg
90deg
0deg
Work hardening exponent (n)
45deg
90deg
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4.
Results and Discussion ANN is used for predicting the values of output at unknown input data , by training the obtained experimental data. After completion of experiment the data was trained with 0 0 0 ANN and the results were predicted at 125 C, 412 C, 625 C for properties of materials like UTS, YS, % of Elongation, Strength Co-efficient (K), Work-hardening exponent (n). These predicted results were compared with experimental values. These results are presented in Table 1. It is observed from the table that the % of error for UTS lies in between -7.5 to 5.7%. It can also be observed that the range of % of error for YS, % Elongation, K and n are -4.5 to 5.39%, -5.8 to 7.1%, -2.39 to 6.94% and -6.5 to 3.8% respectively. It can also be observed from the ANN predicted results that the % error for 6250C is maximum. It may be due to change in Blue brittle phenomenon to plasticity. Especially for this transistion sufficient experimental data could not be developed due to time consuming 0 exercise of evaluating properties at much higher temperatures like 625 C. the error reflected 0 in the ANN results at 625 C is due to improper training. But the result of ANN for all the properties match very closely with the experimental results at a temperature below Blue brittle phenomenon , during Blue brittle regime and in the region of plasticity. So ANN gives very accurate predictions of these material properties and avoid lot of hassles in conducting the experiments. But to begin with there has to be sufficient data for the training. 5. Conclusions In present investigation feed-forward back propagation ANN model was trained from 0 0 experimental data created from 25 C to 700 C. Individual networks were developed for mechanical properties like UTS, YS, % Elongation, K and n. After training these mechanical properties were predicted at three unknown temperatures and at all the three rolling directions. It was found out that ANN model predict these mechanical properties very closely to that of experimental ones. Acknowledgement The author would like to acknowledge the financial support given by the Department Of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India under project no-1118(2008) to carry out the research activity at the institute. References [1] Manabe, K., Yang, M. and Yoshihara, S `Artificial intelligence of process parameters and adaptive control system for deep-drawing process', Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 80-81, 1998, .421-426. [2] Lin, J.C.`Using FEM and neural network prediction of hydrodynamic deep drawing of Tpiece maximum length', Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, Vol. 39, 2003, 445-456. [3] Swadesh Kumar Singh and D. Ravi Kumar, Application of a neural network to predict thickness strains and finite element simulation of hydro-mechanical deep drawing International Journal Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 25, 2005, 101107. [4] Swadesh Kumar Singh and D. Ravi Kumar, A comparision of different Neural Networks training algorithms for Hydromechanical deep drawing, International Journal of Materials and Product Technology Vol 21 Issue 1/2/3, 2004,186-199. [5] Salas, J. D., M. Markus, and A. S. Tokar, Stream flow Forecasting Based on Artificial Neural Networks, in Artificial Neural Networks in Hydrology, R. S Govindaranu and A. R. Rao Editors, Kluwer, 2000, 23 - 51. [6] Lippmann RP, An introduction to computing with neural nets, IEEE ASSP Mag, 1987, 422.
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Application of Support Vector Regression in Hydro mechanical Deep Drawing

Swadesh Kumar Singh1*, Amit Kumar Gupta2*
1
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology, Bachupally, Hyderabad, India 2 Birla Institute of Technology and Science - Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad, India *Corresponding author (e-mail ID:swadesh@iitdalumni.com) In this paper, a new data mining technique Support Vector Regression (SVR) is applied to predict the thickness along cup wall in hydro-mechanical deep drawing. After using the experimental results for training and testing, the model was applied to new data for prediction of thickness strains in hydro-mechanical deep drawing. The prediction results of SVR are compared with the experimental observations. The results are promising. It is found that SVR predicts the thickness variation in the drawn cups very accurately in the wall region.
1.
Introduction Hydro-mechanical deep drawing is a sheet metal forming operation in which a pressure chamber is attached to the female die and after drawing the cup is taken by the pressure chamber under pressure (Fig. 1). Due to fluid pressure in the chamber, blank comes in contact with the punch even before actual drawing starts. This is called pre-bulging. It reduces the necking or fracture tendency at the punch profile. Pre-bulging causes radial tensile and tangential compressive stresses which reduces the wrinkling tendency in the cup. The counter pressure induces compressive stresses in the blank. This increases the hydrostatic component of stress during deformation which leads to increase in ductility and hence formability of the material improves.
Figure 1: Setup for Hydro-mechanical deep drawing A constant oil gap is maintained between cup and the die. The size of this oil gap is very critical in optimizing the parameters in hydro-mechanical deep drawing [1]. The friction between die and blank holder is reduced because of thin oil film. Thereby flange suffers less damage during deformation. Good quality products can be made by hydro-mechanical deep drawing because of better surface finish and more uniform distribution of thickness strains when compared to conventional deep drawing. Researchers [2] found that limiting draw ratio improved significantly in case of hydromechanical deep drawing when compared with conventional deep drawing. High chamber pressure is required to achieve maximum possible LDR, but when the chamber pressure is too high blank may be ruptured at the die profile [3]. As punch moves down, the pressure inside the pressure chamber increases, which forces the blank against the punch. There has to be an optimum pressure inside the pressure chamber. If the pressure build up is too large, it will lead to more bulging and will result in tearing of the blank. If the pressure build up is too small, then it may not be sufficient enough to make any effect on the drawing process. M. R.
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Jenson et al. [1] calculated this counter pressure by finite difference approximation and by experimental methods. Nakamura et al [4] and M. G. El-Sebaie et al. [3] studied the fracture mechanism of blank during forming. El-Sebaie and Mellor [3] suggested that by counter pressure, the fracture at the punch corner could be suppressed. 2. Finite element approach Hydro-mechanical deep drawing process was simulated using LS-DYNA. Blank was discretized into 400 elements. In the simulation the process is considered as axi-symmetric around vertical Y axis. The model consists of 4 node quadrilateral shell elements of thickness 1.0 mm. In the model, punch is given time dependent velocity boundary conditions. A fixed clearance between die and blank holder is used. To reduce the simulation time, a scaling factor of 500 is used. Since for most part of the punch travel counter pressure remains constant, a fixed value (cutoff pressure of relief valve) was taken for simulation. Table I presents the material properties of interstitial free (IF) steel used in the investigation. FEM simulation is performed on the IF steel using draw ratio of 2.11 and the thickness of the drawn cup at the different location from the centre of the drawn cup were calculated in the post processor. For the purpose of comparison same draw ratio is taken for the FEM, experimental and SVR model analysis. Thickness of the drawn cup at different locations are presented in Figure 4. Table 1. Properties of interstitial free steel Property Rolling direction 0 0 0 0 45 90 2 Yield Strength (N/mm ) 143.8 134.7 130.9 Ultimate Tensile 249.8 265.4 252.4 2 Strength (N/mm ) %Elongation 50.19 47.84 50.23 n 0.2811 0.2553 0.2577 2 K (N/mm ) 550.1 500.2 490.0 r 1.75 1.50 3.06 1.95 r = (r +2r +r )/4
0 45 90
r=(r0-2r45+r90)/2 3.
0.90
Support vector regression Support Vector Machines (SVM) is a part of Supervised Learning, a branch of statistical learning which learns through a series of examples and gets trained, i.e., it creates a decision-maker system which tries to predict new values. When SVM is applied to regression problems, then it is called as Support Vector Regression (SVR). The prediction of continuous variables is known as regression. Recently, learning and soft computing based approaches such as artificial neural networks (ANNs) and SVRs are widely used in functional regression problems [5,6]. Although both data modeling methods of ANNs and SVRs show comparable results on the most popular benchmark problems, the theoretical status of SVRs makes them an attractive and promising area of research [7]. The SVR was presented as a learning technique that originated from the theoretical foundations of the statistical learning theory and structural risk minimization. The SVR first nonlinearly transforms the original input space x into a higher dimensional feature space. That is, in order to learn nonlinear relations with a linear machine, it is required to select a set of nonlinear feature and to express the data in the new representation. This is equivalent to applying a fixed nonlinear mapping of the data to a feature space which the linear machine can be used in. This transformation can be achieved by using various nonlinear mapping. Nonlinear regression problems in input space can become linear regression problems in feature space. The SVR model is given N training data xi , yi iN R m R , where xi is the 1 input vector to the SVR model and yi is the actual output value, from which it learns the input output relationship. The SVR model can be expressed as follows [7]:
N
y f ( x) wii ( x) b w T ( x) b
i 1
(1)
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where the function
i (x) is called the feature that is nonlinearly mapped from the input space
T T
x, w [ w1 w2 w N ] , and [1 2 N ] . Eq. (1) is a nonlinear regression model because the resulting hyper-surface is a nonlinear surface hanging over the m-dimensional input space. However, after the input vectors x are mapped into vectors (x) of a high dimensional kernel-induced feature space, the nonlinear regression model is turned into a linear regression model in this feature space. The nonlinear function is learned by a linear learning machine where the learning algorithm minimizes a convex functional. The convex functional is expressed as the following regularized risk function, and the parameters w and b are a support vector weight and a bias that are calculated by minimizing the risk function: N 1 R ( w) w T w y i f ( x) e 2 i 1 (2) where 0 if y i f ( x) yi f ( x) e yi f ( x) otherwise The constant is called a regularization parameter. The regularization parameter determines the trade-off between the approximation error and the weight vector norm. An increase of the regularization parameter penalizes larger errors, which leads to a decrease of approximation error. This can also be achieved easily by increasing the weight vector norm. However, an increase in the weight vector norm does not make sure of the good generalization of the SVR model. The constants and are user-specified parameters and |yi f(x)| is called the -insensitive loss function [8]. The loss equals zero if the predicted value f(x) is within an error level , and for all other predicted points outside the error level , the loss is equal to the magnitude of the difference between the predicted value and the error level (refer to Fig. 2 (a) and (b)). In SVR modeling, the data points which lie on the margin lines ( y f (x ) ) are the support samples or support vectors or support set, whereas the data points which lie inside the margin lines are called as remaining set and the data points which lie outside the margin lines are called error set. Increasing the insensitivity zone means a reduction in requirements for the accuracy of approximation and it also decreases the number of support vectors, leading to data compression. In addition, increasing the insensitivity zone has smoothing effects on modeling highly noisy polluted data.
(a) (b) Figure 2 (a): Linear -insensitive loss function Figure 2 (b): Non-linear regression with -insensitive band in the SVR model Parrella [9] developed an OnlineSVR toolbox for SVR modeling in MATLAB application. This toolbox is used here for the application of SVR in predicting the thickness strains in hydro-mechanical deep drawing operation. The input parameters have been normalized between 0 and 1. The training set X is the combined vector of the twelve input parameters (thickness of sheet, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, strength coefficient, work hardening exponent, strain ratios at 00, 450 and 900 rolling direction, draw ratio, cup
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height, punch radius and die radius). The range of input parameters is shown in Table II. The training set Y is the response parameter, i.e., thickness strain in the drawn cup. SVR model is trained using 315 sets of input-output pairs. Training parameters are initialized as: cost function (C) = 10; -insensitive loss function () = 0.01; kernel type = Radial Basis Function (RBF); kernel parameter = 30. SVR trains the data one by one by adding each sample to the function simultaneously checking if the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditions are verified. If the KKT conditions are verified the sample is added, or else the sample is stabilized using the stabilization technique. The stabilization technique dynamically changes the SVR parameters, cost function and epsilon insensitive loss function to optimize the values. Table 2. Input parameters and their range for svr modeling Input parameters Range Thickness of sheet 0.9- 1.3 mm Yield Strength 100- 500 MPa Ultimate tensile strength 200 500 MPa Strength Coefficient 400 800 MPa Work hardening exponent 0.1 0.3 0 Strain ratio at 0 rolling 0.5 2.5 direction Strain ratio at 450 rolling 0.5 2.5 direction 0 Strain ratio at 90 rolling 0.5 2.5 direction Draw Ratio 1.5 3.0 Cup height 1 100 mm Punch radius 5- 10 mm Die radius 5 10 mm 4. Results and discussion Fig. 3(a) shows the comparison between the thickness strains identified in the process by SVR and those obtained from FEM simulation and experimentation. The wall region of the cup is very important because excessive thinning takes place in the drawn cup due to compressive hoop stresses in the flange portion. This leads to heterogeneous distribution of stresses and non-uniform properties of material. Thickness strains obtained by FEM simulation and SVR models are evaluated and compared against each other in the wall region of the cup, i.e., between the distance of 24 mm to 42 mm from the cup center. The relative percentage error between the FEM and SVR obtained values and the experimental values of thickness strain in the drawn cup are computed. This relative error is computed using the following formula: Relative error (%) (3) model obtained value - experimental value 100 experimental value Fig. 3(b) illustrates the relative errors for FEM and SVR models against the experimental values of thickness strain in the drawn cup. It can be seen in Fig. 5 that SVR analysis leads to very low relative errors as compared to FEM in the wall region of the cup. The descriptive statistics of the errors are also calculated for the two models as shown in Table III. This table illustrates error means, SE error, trimmed mean, standard deviation, minimum, median, maximum and range of errors. Table III indicated that mean, standard deviation and other statistics of errors for SVR are much lower than those for FEM simulation. This table shows that SVR model clearly outperforms than the FEM simulation. Although FEM simulation results shows a very good agreement with the experimental findings, but since SVR was trained with 315 data points of experimental results from the investigations of Andersen [10] and Singh and Kumar [11]. It shows a better agreement with the experimental results especially when thickening takes place in the wall, i.e., the wall region. It is confirmed that SVR is significantly effective and it is a reliable tool to determine strains in hydro-mechanical deep drawing.
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Model FEM SVR
Mean 9.315 3.704
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for error comparisons SE Mean TrMean St Dev Minimum Median Maximum 0.944 8.860 2.984 5.937 8.948 16.333 0.422 3.764 1.334 1.302 3.960 5.63
Thickness distribution along cup wall
Range 10.396 4.327
1.15
18.00
1.1 1.05 1 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
16.00
FEM SVR
Thickness (mm)
14.00
Relative error (%)
12.00
10.00
Experimental Simulation SVR
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Distance from the cup centre (mm)
Distance from the cup center (wall region) (mm)
(a) (b) Figure 3. (a) Comparison between SVR, Simulation and experimental thickness distribution along the cup wall (b): Relative errors of thickness strain in the wall region (%) 5. Conclusions A support vector regression model was built using experimental data sets of hydromechanical deep drawing process. The inputs of the model were material and process parameters and output was thickness strains along cup wall. The SVR was applied to unknown data to predict the thickness distribution. The SVR works fairly well and can predict a large portion of strains correctly. So the application of SVR can increase the know how of hydro-mechanical deep drawing process. References [1] Jensen M. R., Olovsson L. and Danckert J., Numerical model for the oil pressure distribution in the hydromechanical deep drawing process, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 103, 2000 pp 74-79. [2] Hiroyuki Amino, Kazuhiko Nakamura and Takeo Nakagawa, Counter-pressure deep drawing and its application in the forming and automobile parts, Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 23, 1990 pp 243-265. [3] El-Sebaie M. G. and Mellor P. B., Pressure assisted deep drawing, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1973 pp 71-72. [4] Nakamura K. and Nakagawa T., Sheet metal forming with hydraulic counter pressure in Japan, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 36, No. 1, 1987 pp 191-194. [5] Kulkarni, A., Jayaraman, V.K. and Kulkarni, B.D., Control of chaotic dynamical systems using support vector machines. Phys. Lett. A, 2003, 317, 429435. [6] Na, M.G., Kim, J.W., Lim, D.H. and Kang, Y., Residual stress prediction of dissimilar metals welding at NPPs using support vector regression, Nucl. Eng. Des., 2008, doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2007.12.003. [7] Kecman, V.,. Learning and Soft Computing. 2001, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. [8] Vapnik, V., The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory. 1995, Springer, New York. [9] Parrella, F., Online Support Vector Regression. 2007, A thesis presented for the degree of Information Science, University of Genoa, Italy. [10] Andrsen, J. C. F. Hydro-mechanical forming of high strength steels, Ph. D. thesis, Department of Production, Alborg University, 1994. [11] Swadesh Kumar Singh and D. Ravi Kumar, Effect of process parameters on product surface finish and thickness variation in hydro-mechanical deep drawing Journal of Materials Processing Technology Volume 204 (1-3) 2008.
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Fractal Dimension Modeling in Grinding Using Artificial Neural Network

T. K. Barman , P. Sahoo Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: tkbarman@gmail.com) In this paper, an artificial neural network model is developed to predict the fractal dimension in grinding of mild steel materials. Fractal dimension is used to describe the surface roughness which is intrinsic property of the surface and independent of the filter processing. Work-piece speed, longitudinal feed and radial infeed are considered as the process parameters in the experimental study. To develop the multi-layer feed forward neural network using backpropagation algorithm, three cutting parameters are considered as the input neurons to the network and corresponding fractal dimension as the output neuron. The best network is selected based on the minimum mean square error. It is seen from the analysis that the developed neural network model predicts the fractal dimension accurately. 1. Introduction
*
Surface roughness which is generally expressed in terms of some statistical roughness parameters like centre line average roughness, root mean square roughness, skewness, kurtosis etc. has large impact on the mechanical properties like fatigue behavior, corrosion resistance, creep life etc. It also affects other functional attributes of machine components like friction, wear, light reflection, heat transmission, lubrication, electrical conductivity etc. As the surface topography is a non-stationary random process, the variances of slope and curvature depend strongly on the resolution of the roughness-measuring instrument or any other form of filter and these conventional roughness parameters are strongly depend on the resolution and filter processing of the instrument. In this context to express surface roughness the concept of fractal is applied. The concept is based on the self-affinity and selfsimilarity of surfaces at different scales. Fractals may retain all the structural information and are characterized by single descriptor, the fractal dimension, D. This fractal dimension, which forms the essence of fractal geometry, is both scale-invariant and is closely linked to the concepts of self-similarity and self-affinity [1]. It is therefore essential to use fractal dimension to characterize rough surfaces and provide the geometric structure at all length scales [2]. It has been shown that surfaces formed by electric discharge machining, milling, cutting or grinding [3, 4, 5, 6, 7], and worn surfaces have fractal structures. Recently application of neural network to model surface roughness is more popular. Some of the recent relevant references are listed here. Zhou and Xi [8] have developed a neural network model for predicting surface roughness in grinding. Maksoud et al. [9] have used ANN to achieve desired surface roughness under grinding wheel surface topography variations. Fredj and Amamou [10] have tried to establish a model combining the application of DOE and neural network method for ground surface roughness prediction. Kumar and Choudhury [11] have tried to model surface roughness in electro-discharge diamond grinding using artificial neural network. Mohanasundararaju et al. [12] have applied the neural network model and fuzzy methodology for the prediction of work roll surface roughness in grinding. However, an extensive review of literature on roughness studies of grinding surfaces reveals the fact that the fractal study of grinding surfaces profiles is rarely reported [2, 3, 13, 14, 15]. In the present study, using artificial neural network, models are developed to predict fractal dimension accurately, reliably in cylindrical grinding of mild steel material. Three machining parameters viz. workpiece speed (rpm), longitudinal feed (mm/rev) and radial infeed (mm) are used as the inputs of the neural network and corresponding fractal dimension is as the output of the neural network.
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2.
Fractal Characterization Multi-scale property of the rough surfaces including machining surfaces is characterized as self similarity and self affinity in fractal geometry implying that when the surface or the profile is magnified more and more details emerge and the magnified image is statistically similar to the original topography. Statistical self-similarity means that the probability distribution of a small part of a profile will be congruent with the probability distribution of the whole profile if the small part is magnified equally in all directions. On the other hand, self-affinity implies unequal scaling in different directions. The qualitative description of statistical self-affinity for a surface profile is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Qualitative description of self-affinity of a surface profile The property of self-affinity can be characterized by the profile fractal dimension D (1< D <2). Isotropic and homogeneous rough engineering surface of dimension Ds (2 < Ds < 3) is considered in this study. The property of isotropy means that the probability distribution of heights is invariant when the coordinate axes are rotated and the surface is reflected on any plane. The property of homogeneity of a surface indicates that the probability distribution of the height is independent of the location on the surface. Therefore, the profile, z(x), of such a surface along a straight line and in any arbitrary direction is of dimension D = Ds -1 and is a statistically valid representation of the surface. Thus the profile fractal dimension D is adopted to characterize the fractal nature of the surface in this paper. The profile z(x) in Fig. 1 has the mathematical properties of being continuous everywhere but non-differentiable and is self-affine in roughness structure. These properties are satisfied by the Weierstrass Mandelbrot (W-M) fractal function, which can be used to characterize the roughness of surface profile and is given as
z ( x) G
( D 1)
n n1
cos 2 x
( 2 D ) n
; 1 < D <2;
>1
n
(1)
where G is a characteristic length scale, where L is the sampling length. , where frequency is the reciprocal of wave length and n is called wave number. To provide both the phase randomization and high spectral density is selected to be 1.5. The parameters G and D form the set to characterize profile z(x). The methods for calculating profile fractal dimension mainly include the yard-stick, the box counting, the variation, the structure function and the power spectrum methods. Out of these, the power spectrum and structure function methods are most popular. Sahoo et al. [15] have presented the procedure to calculate fractal dimension using power spectrum and structure function methods. 3. Experimental Details Experiments are carried out on mild steel, AISI 1040 materials using universal type cylindrical grinding machine (Make- HMT) equipped with maximum wheel speed of 1910 rpm. The wheel signature of the machine is A70K5V10. The compressed coolant WS 50-50 with a ratio of 1:20 with water is used as cutting environment. Mild steel specimens are in the form of round bars of diameter 48 mm and length 50 mm. The review of literature shows that workpiece speed (rpm), longitudinal feed (mm/rev) and radial infeed (mm) are the most widespread among the researchers and machinists to control grinding process with respect to surface roughness and these parameters are selected as design factors while other parameters have been assumed to be constant over the experimental domain. The
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machining variables / design factors with their values on different levels are listed in Table 1. Considering full factorial design for three factors with four levels, total 64 experiments are carried out. The response variable used to accomplish the present study is the profile fractal dimension D. Table 1. Process parameter levels used in the experimentation Parameters Workpiece speed Longitudinal feed Radial infeed Unit rpm mm/rev mm 1 56 11.33 0.02 2 80 17.00 0.04 3 112 22.66 0.06 4 160 28.33 0.08
Roughness profile measurement is done using a stylus-type profilometer, Talysurf (Taylor Hobson, Surtronic 3+). The measured profile is digitized and processed through the dedicated advanced surface finish analysis software Talyprofile. Then fractal dimension is evaluated following the structure function method. 4. Neural Network Modeling A neural network is a massively parallel distributed processor that has a natural propensity for storing experimental knowledge and making it available for use [16]. In this study, to construct the neural network models, three cutting parameters viz., workpiece speed, longitudinal feed and radial infeed are used as the input neurons and corresponding fractal dimension as the output neuron. The data points are normalized so that the datasets range in -1 to +1. To construct the models, the hyperbolic tangent sigmoid function in the hidden layer and linear activation function in the output layer is considered. Determination of hidden layer(s) and numbers of neurons in the hidden layer(s) is a considerable task. But, generally, one hidden layer network is selected first. If it does not perform well then two or more hidden layers are used. Optimum number of neurons in the hidden layer is decided by trail with increasing the number of neurons. The performance of a particular problem in neural network depends on various factors like number of training data sets, performance goal, complexity of the data set, network architecture. So, it is very difficult to predict which training algorithm will provide the best performance. In this study, to train the network, different training algorithms viz. Levenberg-Marquardt (L-M) algorithm, gradient descent with variable learning rate and momentum (GDX) algorithm, scaled conjugate gradient algorithm and BFGS quasi-Newton algorithm are used and based on the minimum mean square error (MSE) the best network is chosen. Nguyen-Widrow weight initialization algorithm has been applied which generates initial weight and bias values for a layer so that the active regions of the layer's neurons will be distributed roughly evenly over the input space [17]. The main target of a properly trained neural network is to give reasonable answers when presented with inputs that they have never seen which is called the generalization capability. Here early stopping technique is implemented. For this, out of 64 datasets, randomly 40 sets are used for training, 12 datasets for testing and rest 12 datasets for validation purpose. The validation set determines when the training should stop by monitoring the error. Testing set does not participate in the training of the network but is used to test the generalization of the trained network. MATLAB 6.5 is used to develop the neural network, train and test the network. 5. Results and Discussion Performances of different networks trained with L-M, GDX, SCG and BFGS algorithms are presented in Table 2. It is seen that architecture 3-14-1 trained using L-M algorithm has the minimum mean square error and the architecture is selected as the best performing network. The architecture also provides the maximum correlation coefficient (R) and minimum absolute percentage error. When the networks are trained using GDX algorithm, the architecture 3-14-1 gives the minimum MSE and is selected as the best network. Architecture 3-12-1 provides the minimum MSE when the network is trained with SCG algorithm. So, architecture 3-12-1 is selected as the best network for training network using SCG algorithm. Again, it is observed that 3-14-1 architecture provides the optimum performance having minimum mean square error when the network is trained using BFGS quasi-Newton algorithm and subsequently the network is chosen as the best network.
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Table 2. Performances of different networks Model 3-4-1 3-5-1 3-6-1 3-7-1 3-8-1 3-9-1 3-10-1 3-11-1 3-12-1 3-13-1 3-14-1 3-15-1 3-16-1 L-M 0.00031747 0.00028831 0.00025583 0.00026813 0.00029587 0.00023197 0.00017423 0.00017593 0.00013387 0.00023015 0.00011341 0.00011722 0.00022875 MSE values for training pattern GDX SCG BFGS 0.00043601 0.00043602 0.00046331 0.00042798 0.00033945 0.00044921 0.00038895 0.00028100 0.00043148 0.00031426 0.00024024 0.00038720 0.00025016 0.00035257 0.00031179 0.00035786 0.00039936 0.00023069 0.00035875 0.00030399 0.00027278 0.00025038 0.00026615 0.00035372 0.00025984 0.00023966 0.00033276 0.00025652 0.00028970 0.00026561 0.00019131 0.00029367 0.00015634 0.00027430 0.00036520 0.00021506 0.00024497 0.00031061 0.00024094 Maximum absolute % error L-M GDX SCG BFGS 3.09 3.91 5.65 5.29 3.77 5.03 5.48 3.68 2.87 3.76 2.90 5.00 2.98 4.26 2.79 4.52 4.05 2.67 4.24 2.98 3.17 3.56 4.85 2.45 2.18 4.19 2.98 3.56 2.22 2.44 3.41 3.85 2.37 4.01 2.75 4.12 2.90 3.01 2.72 3.33 2.07 2.60 3.23 2.10 2.08 3.34 3.36 2.67 2.92 3.55 4.30 2.80
Table 3. Comparisons of network performances based on different training algorithms Algorithm L-M GDX SCG BFGS Architecture 3-14-1 3-14-1 3-12-1 3-14-1 MSE for training 0.00011341 0.00019131 0.00023966 0.00015634 MSE for testing 0.00033693 0.00042063 0.00043855 0.00038227 Correlation coefficient (R) 0.914 0.823 0.832 0.782 Maximum training error (%) 2.07 2.60 2.75 2.10
Table 4. Comparisons of network predicted and experimental D for testing pattern No of Experiments 4 6 13 18 20 25 28 35 36 41 53 62 Experimental D 1.46 1.44 1.41 1.47 1.46 1.47 1.39 1.46 1.48 1.42 1.47 1.45 NN Predicted D 1.4654 1.4874 1.4004 1.4735 1.4778 1.4575 1.3995 1.4568 1.4963 1.4458 1.4597 1.4428 Error -0.0054 -0.0474 0.0096 -0.0035 -0.0178 0.0125 -0.0095 0.0032 -0.0163 -0.0258 0.0103 0.0072 Absolute % Error 0.37 3.29 0.68 0.24 1.22 0.85 0.68 0.22 1.10 1.82 0.70 0.50
Table 3 presents the comparative study the performances among the best networks when trained with different training algorithms. Architecture 3-14-1 trained with L-M algorithm is selected as the best network based on the minimum MSE. It is also seen that the architecture has the minimum training error (2.07%). It implies that the experimental value and ANN predicted values lie very close to each other. It is observed from the regression analysis that correlation coefficient (R) is 0.914 for training pattern and it is a good indication of the correlation between predicted and experimental outputs. The developed network is tested with 12 new patterns which are unknown to the developed network. Comparative study of the experimental D and ANN predicted D is presented in Table 4 and it is seen that the maximum absolute percentage error for testing pattern is 3.29% which means the network predicts the fractal dimension with about 97% accuracy. From the results, it is obvious that
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the network gives a good prediction of fractal dimension and the network has been generalization capability. 6. Conclusions In this study, to predict fractal dimension multi-layer feed forward artificial neural network models with different training algorithms have been developed in grinding of mild steel material. It is seen that the network trained with Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm gives the best result for predicting fractal dimension. It is seen that the developed neural network predicts fractal dimensions with about 97% accuracy. From the regression analysis, it is also clear that the experimental and predicted fractal dimensions are in good agreement. The developed neural networks can reliably, successfully and accurately predict the fractal dimension. The network also has a good generalization capability. References [1] Mandelbrot, B.B. The fractal geometry of nature, W H Freeman: New York, 1982. [2] Bigerelle, M., Najjar, D. and Iost, A. Multiscale functional analysis of wear a fractal model of the grinding process, Wear, 258, 2005, 232-239. [3] Zhang, Y., Luo, Y., Wang, J.F. and Li, Z, Research on the fractal of surface topography of grinding, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacturing, 41, 2001, 20452049 [4] Jiang, Z., Wang, H. and Fei, B. Research into the application of fractal geometry in characterizing machined surfaces, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacturing, 41, 2001, 2179-2185 [5] Jahn, R. and Truckenbrodt, H. A simple fractal analysis method of the surface roughness, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 145, 2004, 40-45 [6] Kang, M.C., Kim, J.S.and Kim, K.H. Fractal dimension analysis of machined surface depending on coated tool wear, Surface & Coatings Technology, 193(1-3), 2005, 259-265 [7] Han, J.H., Ping, S. and Shengsun, H. Fractal characterization and simulation of surface profiles of copper electrodes and aluminum sheets, Materials Science and Engineering A, 403, 2005, 174-181 [8] Zhou, X. and Xi, F. Modeling and predicting surface roughness of the grinding process, , International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacturing, 42, 2002, 969977. [9] Maksoud, T.M.A., Atia, M.R. and Koura, M.M., Applications of Artificial Intelligence to Grinding Operations via Neural Networks, Machining Science and Technology, 7, 3, 2003, 361-387. [10] Fredj N B. and Amamou R. Ground surface roughness prediction based upon experimental design and neural network models, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 31, 2006, 24-36. [11] Kumar, S. and Choudhury, S.K. Prediction of wear and surface roughness in electrodischarge diamond grinding, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 191, 2007, 206-209 [12] Mohanasundararaju, N., Sivasubramanian, R., Gnanaguru, R. and Alagumurthy, N. A Neural Network and Fuzzy-Based Methodology for the Prediction of Work Roll Surface Roughness in a Grinding Process, International Journal for Computational Methods in Engineering Science and Mechanics, 9, 2008, 103110 [13] Hasegawa, M., Liu, J., Okuda, K. and Nunobiki, M. Calculation of fractal dimensions of machined surface profiles, Wear, 192, 1996, 40-45. [14] He, L. and Zhu, J. The fractal character of processed metal surfaces, Wear, 208, 1997, 17-24. [15] Sahoo, P., Barman, T. K. and Routara, B. C. Taguchi based fractal dimension modeling of surface profile and optimization in cylindrical grinding, Journal of Manufacturing Technology Research, 2009(in press) [16] Haykin, S. Neural networks: a comprehensive foundation, 2nd edn. Parson Education, 2003 [17] Demuth, H. and Beale, M. Neural network toolbox users guide, version 3.0. Natick, MA: The Mathworks Inc.1998.
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Coating deposition by cold gas dynamic spray processA review

Tarun Goyal 1*, Dr. T.S.Sidhu 2, Dr. R.S.Walia 3
2 1
Punjab Technical University, Jallandhar, PUNJAB, India SBS College of Engineering and Technology, Ferozpur, PUNJAB, India 3 PEC University of Technology, CHANDIGARH, india *Corresponding author (e-mail: goyaltarun1@gmail.com
Cold gas dynamic spray process is a high-rate material deposition process in which fine, solid powder particles are accelerated in a supersonic jet of compressed gas to impact the target substrate surface at velocities ranging from 500-1000 m/sec. In this paper, a review of literature is made in respect to the process. The successful bonding of the powder particles on the impinging surface depends on the gas parameter, powder properties, substrate properties, nozzle geometry, process parameters and spray conditions. The deposition of particles on the substrate takes place due to plastic deformation at the onset of adiabatic shear instability. The cold-sprayed coatings are uniform, dense, and hard and have good electrical & thermal conductivity due to which they provide cost-effective and environmental friendly technological applications. 1. Introduction
The cold-gas dynamic-spray process, often referred to as simply cold spray, is a high-rate material deposition process in which fine, solid powder particles (generally 150 m in diameter) are accelerated in a supersonic jet of compressed (carrier) gas to velocities in a range between 500 and 1000 m/s. As the solid particles impact the target surface, they undergo plastic deformation and bond to the surface, rapidly building up a layer of deposited material. A simple schematic of a typical cold-spray device is shown in Figure 1
Figure 1 Schematic of Cold Spray Process [1] Cold spray as a coating technology was initially developed in the mid-1980s at the Institute for Theoretical and Applied Mechanics of the Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Science in Novosibirsk [2, 3]. In this process, compressed gas of an inlet pressure of the order of 30 bar (500 psi) enters the device and flows through a converging/diverging nozzle to attain a supersonic velocity. The solid powder particles are metered into the gas flow upstream of the converging section of the nozzle and are accelerated by the rapidly expanding gas. To achieve higher gas flow velocities in the nozzle, the compressed gas is often preheated. However, while preheat temperatures as high as 900K are sometimes used, due to the fact that the contact time of spray particles with the hot gas is quite short and that the gas rapidly cools as it expands in the diverging section of the nozzle, the temperature of the particles remains substantially below the initial gas preheat temperature and, hence, below the melting temperature of the powder material. The theory of bonding of particle/substrate and particle/particle is supported by a number of experimental findings such as: (a) A wide range of ductile (metallic and polymeric) materials can be successfully coldsprayed while non-ductile materials such as ceramics can be deposited only if they are cocold-sprayed with a ductile (matrix) material [3]; (b) the mean deposition particle velocity should exceed a minimum (material-dependent) critical velocity to achieve deposition which suggests that sufficient kinetic energy must be available to plastically deform the solid
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material and/or disrupt the surface film [4]; (c) The particle kinetic energy at impact is typically significantly lower than the energy required to melt the particle suggesting that the deposition mechanism is primarily, or perhaps entirely, a solid-state process [5-8]. 2. Current status of cold spray process A number of researchers have presented quite a number of research papers on the topic of Cold Gas Dynamic Spray Coating Deposition. The literature on Cold Spray that deals with strategies and technologies for effectively optimizing a cold spray process is quite vast. 2.1 Process modeling A detailed analysis of the effects that the type of the carrier gas, the inlet gas temperature and the shape of the cold-spray nozzle have on the impact velocity of the feedpowder particles is carried out by Dykhuizen and Smith [9] using an isentropic, onedimensional gas-flow model. In the recent work by Grujicic et al. [10], the analysis of Dykhuizen and Smith [9] was extended in order to include the effects of finite values of the particle velocity and the effect of variability of the gas/particle drag coefficient. While the onedimensional model of Dykhuizen and Smith [9] has been found to be quite successful, its numerical nature does not enable an easy establishment of the relationships between the gas, process and feed-powder parameters on one side and the gas and the particle velocities at the nozzle exit and the velocity at which particles impact the substrate surface, on the other. 2.2 Effect of parameters 2.2.1 Gas temperature effects : J.Lee et al. [11] found that increasing the gas pressure caused an increase in particle velocity, while increasing the gas temperature not only affected the particle velocity but also the particle temperature. Increasing the particle temperature could enhance thermal softening, which is important for bonding. The deposition efficiency at the same particle velocity became higher at higher process gas temperatures. 2.2.2 Powder properties : Ning et al. [12] showed that the irregular shape particle presents higher in-flight velocity than the spherical shape particle under the same condition. It was also found that the larger size powder presents a lower critical velocity in the study. 2.2.3 Spray parameters : T.H. Van Steenkiste et al. [13] found that kinetic sprayed coatings have relatively low porosity values, hardnesses comparable with the corresponding bulk materials, adhesive strengths as high as 68-82 MPa, and oxide contents essentially the same as in the powders. They observed that powders essentially do not stick to the substrates below a certain inlet air temperature range. Substrate effects appeared to be relatively weak in this experiment. 2.2.4 Incidence angle : Gang et al. [14] found that the contact area between the deformed particle and substrate decreases and the crater depth in the substrate reduces with increasing the tilting angle at the same impact velocity. 2.2.5 Stand-off distance : Li et al [15] found that the deposition efficiency was decreased with the increase of standoff distance from 10 mm to 110 mm for both Al and Ti powders used in study. However, for Cu powders, the maximum deposition efficiency was obtained at the standoff distance of 30 mm, and then the deposition efficiency decreased with further increasing the standoff distance to 110 mm. Pattison et al. [16] found that the bow shock formed at the impingement zone not only reduces the velocity of the gas, but also that of the entrained particles. Therefore at small standoff distances, when the strength of the bow shock is high, deposition performance is reduced. While at large standoff distances, when the bow shock has disappeared, deposition can continue unhindered. Three distinct standoff regions were identified that affect deposition performance: the small standoff region, where the presence of the bow shock adversely affects deposition performance, and is limited by the length of the nozzle's supersonic potential core; the medium standoff region, where the bow shock has disappeared and, if the gas velocity remains above the particle velocity (positive drag force), the deposition efficiency continues to increase; and the large standoff region, where the gas velocity has fallen below the particle velocity (negative drag force), and the particles begin to decelerate. For optimal deposition performance, the standoff distance should be set within Region 2. 2.2.6 Impact velocity analysis : Grujicic et al. [17] defined a simple function, which relates the gas velocity at the nozzle exit with the nozzle expansion ratio and the carrier gas stagnation properties. Wu et al. [18] showed that particle velocity increases with increasing
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the process gas pressure and temperature. At higher temperature (or pressure), gas pressure (or temperature) do more effect particle velocities. It is believed that gas pressure and temperature have little effect on the flux distribution of flying particles. Further, it was concluded that with increasing particle velocity, two critical velocities are observed: one is for particle deposition onto the substrate (Vcr1) and the other for particleparticle (Vcr2) bonding. Helfritch and Champagne [19] proved the fact that it is true that small particles exit the nozzle at high velocity, their velocity at impact can be significantly lower because of the bow shock wave. It was shown that impact velocity increases as the particle diameter decreases until a diameter of 4 to 8 m is reached. Impact velocity then decreases as the particle diameter is further reduced. Schmidt et al. [20] demonstrated that critical velocities decrease with increasing particle size, which can be attributed to effects by heat conduction or strain rate hardening, respectively. By defining the influences of particle temperature and velocity on bonding, a parameter window for cold spray deposition can be developed, which for successful spray experiments must be met by the respective particle impact conditions. 2.2.7 Impact phenomena : Klinkov et al. [21] showed that results of particle impacts depend not only on impact velocity but also on particle size. Impacts result in two contrasting phenomena: destruction (also called erosion, cratering etc.) and adhesion (also called attachment, sticking). At hyper-velocity impacts, cratering and destruction are typical features which exhibit minor scale effects. At low impact velocities, there is a transition from erosion to adhesion (sticking) when the particle size decreases. Here, the nature of adhesion is due to van der Waals and electrostatic forces. At high velocities, the results of impact depend not only on size and velocity but also on other parameters (e.g. plasticity, particle flux concentration, etc.). Wu et al. [22] concluded that a rebound phenomenon was observed in which a high particle velocity caused a high fraction of rebound particles. A maximum impact velocity was found for the particle deposition onto the substrate. The deposition of individual particles was controlled by the adhesion energy and the rebound (elastic recovering) energy. The impacting particles could only be attached to the substrate when the adhesion energy was higher than the rebound energy. 2.3 Bonding mechanism Grujicic et al. [23] indicated that the two main factors contributing to the observed higher deposition efficiency in the case of copper deposition on aluminium are larger particle/substrate interfacial area and higher contact pressures. Both of these are the result of a larger kinetic energy associated with a heavier copper feed-powder particle. They concluded that the critical velocity, above which cold-spray deposition takes place, is associated with the attainment of a condition for the formation of a particle/substrate interfacial jet composed of both the particle material and the substrate material. An interfacial instability due to differing viscosities and the resulting interfacial roll-ups and vortices may promote interfacial bonding by increasing the interfacial area, giving rise to material mixing at the interface and by providing mechanical interlocking between the two materials. Assadi et al. [24] found that the bonding of a particle can be attributed to adiabatic shear instabilities which occur at the particle/substrate or particle/particle interfaces at high velocities. The modelling also shows a very non-uniform development of strain and temperature at the interface, suggesting that this bonding is confined to a fraction of the interacting surfaces. The analysis also suggests that density and particle temperature have significant effects on the critical velocity and are thus two of the most influential parameters in cold gas spraying. Li et al. [25] indicate that both the flattening ratio and compression ratio of particles increase with the increase in particle velocity. The compression ratio is more convenient for characterizing the extent of particle deformation owing to the easy estimation and its independency on meshing size. 2.4 Adiabatic Shear Instability Grujicic et al. [26] show that the minimal impact particles velocity needed to produce shear localization at the particles/substrate interface correlates quite well with the critical velocity for particles deposition by the cold-gas dynamic-spray process in a number of metallic materials. This finding suggests that the onset of adiabatic shear instability in the particles/substrate interfacial region plays an important role in promoting particle/substrate adhesion and, thus, particles/substrate bonding during the cold-gas dynamic-spray process.
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2.5 Properties of Cold Sprayed coatings Stoltenhoff et al. [27] demonstrate that at negligible porosities, microstructures of coldsprayed and thermally sprayed coatings are mainly determined by high degrees of deformation or oxidation. Here, cold-sprayed coatings show a more uniform appearance and respectively higher electrical conductivity. Overall, a solid-state deformation results in higher hardness of cold-sprayed and HVOF-sprayed coatings, similar to that of cold rolled bulk material after 90% reduction in thickness. Subsequent annealing experiments and respective analyses demonstrated that in cold-sprayed coatings mainly recovery and recrystallization determine further microstructural developments. 2.6 Effect of heat treatment Gartner et al. [28] demonstrate that cold-sprayed coatings, which are processed with helium, show a similar performance as highly deformed bulk material. Also after subsequent annealing, strength and elongation to failure develop in a similar manner as for cold rolled sheets. In the as sprayed state, cold-sprayed coatings, processed with nitrogen, and thermal spray coatings show brittle failure already under comparatively low tensile stress. Whereas the performance of cold-sprayed coatings, processed with nitrogen, can be substantially improved by annealing, mechanical properties of thermal spray coatings are influenced only to a minor extend by following heat treatments. Sundararjan et al. [29] concluded that copper alumina coatings are found to be resistant to grain growth and softening even upon heat o o treatment at 950 C which is close to the melting point of copper (1083 C) owing to the presence of fine alumina particles. Grain size is found to be the most dominant factor affecting the electrical conductivity of the coatings. The present study clearly indicates the potential of cold sprayed copper alumina coatings in high-strength, high conductivity applications. 3. Summary and Conclusions 3.1 The particle exit velocity depends on the type, stagnation temperature, and pressure of the propellant gas. 3.2 For the successful bonding of the coating, the particle should have a velocity higher than the critical velocity. 3.3 Increasing the tilting angle at the same impact velocity reduces the contact area between the deformed particles and substrate (interface area). The normal component of the impact velocity of the particles should be greater than the critical velocity for higher deposition rate. 3.4 The deposition of individual particles was controlled by the adhesion energy and the rebound energy. The impacting particles could only be attached to the substrate when the adhesion energy was higher than the rebound energy. 3.5 The factors that significantly affect the bonding features and properties of kinetic sprayed coatings include the interface temperature, contact area, contact time, recoverable strain energy, flattening ratio and compression ratio of particles. 3.6 Cold-sprayed coatings show higher deposition efficiency, a more uniform appearance, low porosity, dense coatings with high hardness and higher electrical and thermal conductivity due to which they can find potential applications in high strength, high conductivity, and cost effective and environmentally friendly alternatives to technologies such as electroplating, soldering, painting, fabrication and repair of electro-technical and mechanical parts. References [1] J.Karthikeyan, Cold Spray Technology: International Status and USA efforts, 2004. [2] A.P. Alkhimov, A.N. Papyrin, V.F. Dosarev, N.I. Nestorovich, M.M. Shuspanov, Gas dynamic spraying method for applying a coating// US Patent 5,302,414- 12, April 1994. [3] A.O. Tokarev, Structure of aluminum powder coatings prepared by cold gas dynamic spraying// Met. Sci. Heat. Treat. 35 (1996) 136. [4] R.C. McCune, A.N. Papyrin, J.N. Hall, W.L. Riggs, P.H. Zajchowski, C.C. Berndt, S. Sampath, An exploration of the cold gas-dynamic spray method for several material systems,// Thermal Spray Science and Technology; ASM International, 1995, 15. [5] J. Vlcek, A systematic approach to material eligibility for the cold spray process: International Thermal Spray Conference and Exhibition, May 58, 2003, Florida, USA. [6] D.G. McCartney, Particle-substrate interactions in cold gas dynamic spraying: International Thermal Spray Conference and Exhibition, May 58, Orlando, 2003, Florida, USA.
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[7] H. Assadi, F. Grtner, T. Stoltenhoff, H. Kreye// Acta Mater. 51 (2003) 4379. [8] F. Grtner, Numerical and microstructural investigations of the bonding mechanisms in cold spraying: International Thermal Spray Conference and Exhibition, May 58, 2003, USA. [9] R.C. Dykhuizen, M.F. Smith, J. Therm. Spray Technology, 7 (1998) 205. [10] M. Grujicic, W.S. DeRosset, D. Helfritch, Flow analysis and nozzle-shape optimization for the cold-gas dynamic-spray process// Materials and design, J. Eng. Manufact., August, 2003. [11] Jongho Lee, Sumin Shin, HyungJun Kim, Changhee Lee, Effects of gas temperature on critical velocity and deposition characteristics in kinetic spraying//Applied Surface Science, Vol -253(2007); 3512-3520. [12] Xian-Jin Ning, Jae-Hoon Jang, Hyung-Jun Kim, Effects of powder properties on in-flight particle velocity and deposition process during low pressure cold spray process//Applied Surface Science; Vol-253(2007), 7449-7455. [13] T.H. Van Steenkiste et al., Kinetic spray coatings// Surface and Coating Technology; Vol111(1999), 62-71. [14] LI Gang, Wang Xiao-fang,LI Wen-ya,Effect of different incidence angles on bonding performance in cold spraying:Trans. Nonferous Met.Soc. China; Vol-17(2007). [15] W.-Y. Li, C.Zhang, X.P.Guo, G.Zhang, H.L.Liao, C.-J.Li, C.Coddet, Effect of standoff distance on coating deposition characteristics in cold spraying//Materials and Design; Vol29(2008), 297-304. [16] J.Pattison, S.Celotto, A.Khan, W.ONeill, Stand-off distance and bow-shock phenomena in Cold Spray process//Surface and Coating Technology; Vol-202(2008), 1443-1454. [17] M. Grujicic, C.L. Zhao, C. Tong, W.S. DeRosset, and D. Helfritch, Analysis of the impact velocity of powder particles in the cold-gas dynamic-spray process // Materials Science and Engineering A 368, 2004, 222230. [18] J. Wu, H. Fang, S. Yoon, H.J. Kim, and Ch. Lee, Measurement of particle velocity and characterization of deposition in aluminum alloy kinetic spraying process // Applied Surface Science, Vol. 252, No. 5, Dec. 2005, 13681377. [19] D. Helfritch and V. Champagne, A model study of powder particle size effects in cold th spray deposition: 26 Army Science Conference Proceedings 2008. [20] T. Schmidt, F. Gartner, H. Assadi, and H. Kreye, Development of a generalized parameter window for cold spray deposition // Acta Mater 54, 2006, 729742. [21] Sergei Vladimirovich Klinkov et al.,Cold Spray Deposition: Significance of particle impact phenomenon// Aerospace Science and Technology;Vol-9(2005), 582-591. [22] J. Wu, H. Fang, S. Yoon, H. Kim, and Ch. Lee, The rebound phenomenon in kinetic spraying deposition // Scripta Materialia, Vol. 54, 2006, 665669. [23] M. Grujicic, J.R. Saylor, D.E. Beasley, W.S. DeRosset, and D. Helfritch, Computational analysis of the interfacial bonding between feed-power particles and the substrate in the cold-gas dynamic-spray process // Applied Surface Science, 219, 2003, 211227. [24] H. Assadi, F. Gaertner, T. Stoltenhoff, H. Kreye, Bonding mechanism in Cold Spraying // Acta Materiala 2003; Vol. 51, No. 15, Sept. pp. 43794394. [25] Wen-Ya Li et al.,On high velocity impact of micro-sized metallic particles in cold spraying//Applied Surface Science;Vol-253(2006), 2852-2862. [26] M. Grujicic, C.L.Zhao, W.S.DeRosset, D.Helfritch, Adiabatic shear instability based mechanism for particles/substrate bonding in the cold-gas dynamic-spray process//Materials and Design; Vol-25(2004), 681-688. [27] T. Stoltenhoff, C.Borchers, F.Gartner, H.Kreye, Microstructures and key properties of cold-sprayed and thermally sprayed copper coatings//Surface and Coating Technology; Vol-200(2006), 4947-4960. [28] F. Gartner et al., Mechanical properties of cold-sprayed and thermally sprayed copper coatings// Surface and Coating Technology; Vol-200(2006), 6770-6782. [29] P. Sudharshan Phani, V. Vishnukanthan and G. Sundararjan,Effect of heat treatment on properties of coldsprayed nanocrystalline copper alumina coatings// ActaMaterialia; Vol55(2007), 4741-4751 .
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Automated Process Planning in Manufacturing Using Knowledge Management

Deepali Tatkar , Venkatesh Kamat
1 1* 2
New Vision Online services Pvt. Ltd Tivim Industrial Estate, Goa, India 2 Goa University, Goa, India * Corresponding author (dtatkar@nvi.co.in)
Two important areas in the life cycle of a product are design and manufacturing. Current interest in manufacturing systems focuses heavily on integrating isolated computerbased systems into a unified system that handles and transforms information to facilitate a smooth production environment. Computer-Aided Process Planning (CAPP) serves as an integration link between design and manufacturing. In this paper we describe how we have implemented the CAPP system. We have used Open CASCADE, an open source CAD kernel to implement feature recognizer. The recognized features are then sent to a manufacturing knowledge management system that automatically generates process plan based on the resources available in the resource base. We have provided an interface to the process planners and the machine tool operators to develop a common Knowledge Base for manufacturing. This Knowledge Base is continuously developed and maintained so that a manufacturing process plan can be automatically generated without much manual intervention or manufacturing expertise. 1. Introduction
In a traditional manufacturing environment, a process plan is generated by a process planner, who examines a part drawing to develop an efficient and feasible process plan to produce the part. This manual approach of process planning depends heavily on the knowledge and experience of the process planner. In order to prepare new process plan, the process planner must be able to manage and retrieve a great deal of documents for a similar part and make necessary modifications to the plan to produce the new part. In this paper we discuss a manufacturing knowledge management framework that attempts to automate the process planning task by modelling a human kind of intelligence. The automation of the manufacturing process plan from a product design can be seen as a two-stage process. The first stage deals with recognition of the manufacturing features from the CAD product description. Manufacturing features are typically defined as high level geometric entities representing volumes of material to be removed from the workpiece [1, 2]. Feature recognition involves 3-D matching between feature definition and geometric representation of the CAD data model in standard format (e.g. IGES, PDES, STEP, etc.). However, the features which can be recognized are limited and many complex geometric features cannot be identified correctly because of interference among features [3, 4]. The recognized manufacturing features serve as an input to the process planning stage, where the task is to generate manufacturing process plan with a certain sequence of operations and accuracy so that the design information provided by a design engineer is translated into detailed work instructions to manufacture the part. A detailed work instruction in process planning includes: selection of appropriate machines, tools, machining processes, cutting tools, jigs and fixtures, determination of operation sequences, the generation of NC part programs etc. 2. Overview of Manufacturing Knowledge Management System
The goal of Manufacturing Knowledge Management System is to automatically generate a process plan according to design information and manufacturing knowledge available in an enterprise. Its focus however, is on improving work efficiency and quality by Integration, Intelligence and Information Management. The key modules of Knowledge Management system are shown in Figure.1.
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The Feature Recognizer module extracts and translates the design information given in the CAD model into manufacturing information. Input to the Feature Recognizer consists of a STEP file containing CAD model generated by some external solid modeller. The list of manufacturing features presently recognized by the Feature Recognizer includes: Cylindrical Holes/Solids, Chamfers, Fillets & Edges Rounds, Slots & Steps, Pockets, Cones, Tapers & Spheres, Ribs, Threads, Grooves, Bosses, Irregulars and Voids. On completion of the feature recognition task, the Feature Recognizer outputs all the recognized features in a XML file along with their feature parameters. Automatic Process Planning Module contains manufacturing Knowledge base specified in term of <If-then-else> production rules. Each production rule contains detailed set of instruction as to what resources are required to manufacture each feature. Process Planning (Reasoning Engine) module takes in XML file containing recognized features as input, refers it to the Knowledge base and tries to find out which of the production rules can be satisfied. Knowledge Base module typically manages company specific manufacturing knowledge and experiences. The reasoning rules cover the whole manufacturing process from raw material selection to finishing manufacturing. Resource database module manages all manufacturing resources, including machine tools, cutting tools, measuring tools etc.
Manufacturing Knowledge Management System STEP File Feature XML
CAD Modeler
Feature Recognizer
Automatic Process Planning (Reasoning Engine)
Report
ProcessPlanning rule Knowledge Base module
Resource information Resource database module
Figure 1. Architecture of Knowledge Management System The output is a detailed process plan that typically contains setup operation like how to place and clamp the work piece, nominal machining process operations like drilling, milling with process details such as tool diameter, feed rate, number of passes, and finally finishing operation (if needed to improve the tolerances) along with its process details. The production rules specified in Knowledge base contains detailed set of instruction as to what resources are required to manufacture each feature. These rules are compiled by the systems personnel by interacting with manufacturing expert. 3. Implementation
In this section we shall discuss in detail different modules of the Manufacturing Knowledge Management System that we have implemented as a part of process planning system called Xplano [5]. 3.2 Feature Recognition
Feature Recognition module is implemented using the Open CASCADEs Geometric Modelling toolkit [6]. Each manufacturing feature is coded in C++ using collection of rules [7]. For each feature, the entire CAD model is searched. Any feature satisfying the condition/rule is added to the feature database. Also, simultaneously the tree-view giving the list of recognized feature is updated in the 3D Viewer. All the algorithms in Feature Recognition system are implemented in C++ using object-oriented modelling principles [8]. 3.3 Knowledge, information and Resource management
The Knowledge base module organizes all rules and knowledge available for generating the process plan [9, 10]. System divides manufacturing process into six phases. Each phase involves a decision making which we call production rule. The user can define rules according to their own experience and practical situation. Each rule can be represented in the form of if <condition> then
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<action>. Six distinct set of selection rules identified are: Selection of material, Selection of manufacturing method, Selection of machine tool, Selection of fixture, Selection of sequence of operation and Selection of cutting tool. Each entity in the selection process is described with attributes. Selection of a particular entity is based on the value of its attribute. For instance, raw material is described by its dimension and material strength. Manufacturing method is decided by feature type - is it a hole or a slot? Different methods will be selected for different feature types along with their parameters and attributes. For example, the parameters of hole include radius, depth, point angle, tolerance, surface roughness, material, and its hardness etc. The machine tool selection depends on the type of operation - is it rough turning, finished turning or drilling? The fixture selection mainly depends on raw material part shape. For example, Bolt, Tube and Block. The sequence selection depends on the order in which sequence of operation need to be carried out, machine tool optimization shortest time, cost, etc. For instance, the rough turning should be performed before finished turning etc. In short, Knowledge base consists of rules which depict relationships or constraints among different entities involved in manufacturing. Each rule is also associated with a priority. The kind of relationships specified in the knowledge base depends on the understanding and experience of the manufacturing expert. We have provided an interface so that new rules can be inserted and old rules can be deleted or edited. The rules in Knowledge Base may directly influence the final process planning. It means that the quality of these rules will directly affect the results of the process planning. The structure of the reasoning rules is defined in this module and the user just needs to enter the relevant parameters so as to generate a new rule. These rules defined by the user are also easy to modify and change in order to fit to the actual situation. The Resource Database is used to organize and manage the manufacturing resources for the manufacturing phase. Resource base is actually a fact sheet that contains all the material resources available in the enterprise. The structure of the manufacturing resources is defined in the Resource Database module and the user needs only to input the values in the resource record. In our system, manufacturing resources are divided into following six categories, namely raw material, machine tools, fixtures, cutting tools, rotating tools, and turning tools. After all the manufacturing rules have been defined in the knowledge base, the reasoning engine of the Automatic Process Planning Module uses these rules along with resource database to generate the process plan. 3.4 Automatic Process Planning
Loading manufacturing feature information is the first step towards generating a process plan report. Manufacturing feature information is stored in XML file, which is the output of Feature Recognizer module. The job of the reasoning engine is to tell which rules are being satisfied at any given point in time. In case of conflict, i.e. more than one rule is getting satisfied, we use the concept of priority to resolve the conflict. Inference engine goes through reasoning process in step by step order. As shown in Figure 3. below, there are three different approaches to generate a process plan, namely Generative Method, Template Method, and Manual Method. Generative Method automatically builds a process plan using the knowledge saved in the knowledge base and the resources saved in the Resource Database. Manual Method allows building the process plan manually without Knowledge base and Resource database. Template Process Planning is used for generating a process plan report, which has similar characteristics as a saved template. Generative method of process planning has two ways of generating process plan, i.e. reason step by step and reason continuously. Both approaches use intelligent reasoning based on user-defined rule. Automatic Process Planning Module provides the process plan edit operation such as insert, delete, modify, move, copy, paste and save. It allows template function to share the process plan information along with user-defined process plan table. User can save process information in different formats.
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Reason Step by step Generative method
Generating Process planning methods
Reason continously method Manual method
Template method
Figure 2. Methods to generate a Process Plan 3.5 Example with Manufacturing Knowledge Management System
The system can be best understood with the help of a working example. First stage involves invoking Feature Recognition Module. Input to the Feature Recognition Module is a STEP file containing the part definition. 3D viewer helps in visualizing the part as well as recognized features Figure 3(a). shows 3D viewer containing list of extracted features. The top left panel shows the recognized features in tree view form. The bottom left panel shows details of each feature such as dimensions, tolerances, roughness, etc. Figure 3(b). below shows Resource Base module which manages manufacturing knowledge and experience. It is designed such that it can select optimal resources for different operations in part manufacturing. It stores information about raw materials, machine tools, cutting tools, measuring tools etc. It provides search, edit functions, and allows user to define his /her own functions.
Figure 3. Example scenario with Knowledge Management System Figure 4(a) shows an interface to define a rule in Knowledgebase module. It allows to extract, organize and manage company specific manufacturing knowledge. It also provides user to define rules according to his/her own experience. It also has Edit facility for the knowledge base. Figure 4(b) shows an output from Automatic Process Planning module which is an optimum process plan generated after reasoning process.
Figure 4. Example scenario with Knowledge Management System 1091
4.
Conclusion
This paper describes Manufacturing knowledge management framework, implemented to automate process planning in manufacturing. The framework allows manufacturing expert to incrementally specify rules in Knowledgebase and gradually enhance degree of automation. It is observed that the rules in Knowledgebase directly influence the quality of process plan. Over a period of time, with trial and error the system stabilizes and over dependence on expert process planner reduces. Acknowledgement This work was carried out at New Vision, Tivim Industrial Estate, Mapusa Goa, India on behalf of Xplano AS Trondheim, Norway. We would like to thank the management of New Vision and Xplano, especially Dr. Ketil Bo, Dr. Mohsen Pourjavad and Bob Lloyd for their valuable cooperation and support in promoting this research. References [1] Serope Kalpakjian and Steven Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 4th Ed. Pearson Education Asia. [2] Khalid Aldakhilallah and R. Ramesh, Computer Technique and Applications of Automated Process Planning in Manufacturing Systems, Computer Aided and Integarted Manufacturing Systems Vol.2, 135-158. [3] Qiang Ji Marefat Machine Interpretation of CAD Data for Manufacturing Applications. ACM Computing surveys, 24(3), 1997, 246-311. [4] Deepali Tatkar and Venkatesh Kamat Semi-automatic Manufacturing Feature Recognition for Feature Interaction Problem in Process Planning Proceedings of ICMEE 2009 GRT Grand, Chennai 24 -26 July 2009, Chennai, India, 79-84. [5] Xplano Integrated Automatic Process Planning System, Xplano AS (www.xplano.com). [6] Open CASCADE Package Documentation, Version 5.0 (www.opencascade.com) 2003. [7] Mangesh P. Bhandarkar, Rakesh Nagi STEPbased feature extraction from STEP geometry for Agile Manufacturing Computer in Industry 41, 2000, 3-24. [8] Deepali Tatkar, Venkatesh Kamat and Ketil Bo Xplano Manufacturing Knowledge Management Tool Using OpenCASCADE. Proceedings of NCOSS-2009CDAC- Mumbai, 25- 26 May 2009, Mumbai, India, pp.121-126. [9] Bing Jiang, Henry Lau, Felix T.S. Chan and H. Jiang An automatic process planning system for the quick generation of manufacturing process plans directly from CAD drawings Journal of Material Processing Technology 87, 1999, 97-106. [10] D. N. Sormaz, J. Arumugam and C. Ganduri, Integration of rule-based process selection with virtual machining for distributed manufacturing planning, Process Planning and Scheduling for Distributed Manufacturing, Springer Verlag, 2007, 61-89.
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Data Envelopment Analysis as A Decision Making Method in Site Selection for the Plant Location
V. P. Darji 1, R. V. Rao2
1
C. U. Shah College of Engineering & Technology, Surendranagar, Gujarat, India 2 S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India
The nature of the decisions in the selection of an appropriate plant location is usually considered to be multidimensional, interdisciplinary, complex due to lack of certainty in environment and information regarding time, quantity and quality of returns, etc. In the present work effort has been made to either minimize the expenses of the production firm or to maximize the total profit. We applied a mathematical model for efficiency analysis; know as DEA R model. The results obtained by using this model definitely give a different measures of efficiency compared to the standard DEA model. To validate the results mathematical and empirical comparisons are also made with the other related DEA models. The paper also provides a case study to further justify practicability shows the effectiveness of our models. 1. Introduction This paper presents an alternative approach to the choice of site selection for the plant layouts. The methodology considers three main objectives for the selection of layouts: increasing flexibility for the men, market and materials, increasing flexibility in transportation, increasing production volume and reducing manufacturing costs. Three main types of layout are considered: functional (process) layout, group technology (cellular) layout and transfer (flow) lines. An example of the application of the DEA methodology is presented, which represents an important step towards proper validation of the methodology. The proposed model can help in deriving effective and efficient decisions depending on the various criteria. GTMA and fuzzy MADM approach for the selection and the results obtained gave a logical correct selection of the plant location selection compared with the other methods applied in the previous studies [2]. A measurement model considering a set of three layout effectiveness factorsfacilities layout flexibility (FLF), productive area utilization (PAU) and closeness gap (CG)was developed in [5]. The basic problem of sitting facilities to cover demand for services was analogous to the problem of selecting reserves to support species diversity [6]. The main aim of this paper is to propose a new approach for evaluating and selecting an appropriate location for the given application. 2. Overview of DEA Model for ranking the locations The CCR efficiency model is developed by is used to calculate the optimal simple efficiencies. The measure of this efficiency is referred to as the technical efficiency or the amount of waste that ca be eliminated without worsening any input or output. 2.1 Standard Notations and mathematical formulation Assume that there are s decision making units (DMUs) to be evaluated. Each DMUp (p=1, 2, , s) consumes varying amounts of m different inputs to produce n different outputs. Specifically, DMUp consumes amount x ip of input i and produces amount y jp of output j. Assume that x ip 0 and y jp 0 . In mathematical form the objective function for the particular DMU being evaluated can be given by Eq. (1).
max ai ,b j 0
n j 1 m i 1
b j y jk a i x ik
n j 1 m i 1
b j y jp a i x ip
1, For p =1, 2, , s
(1)
Where, y jk Value for output j for DMUk (Where k is the test DMU); x ik Value for input i for DMUk
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b j Weight of output j ; ai Weight of input i 0
The values of inputs and outputs of a DMUp can be represented by the input data matrix X and output data matrix Y respectively. Input matrix X is defined as the (m s) matrix with columns X p , while output matrix Y is the (n s) matrix with columns Yp ,using i (i = 1, 2, , m) and j (j = 1, 2, , n) to index inputs and outputs. Then
x ip
is a single entry from
y the matrix X and it represents the value of input i of the DMUp, while jp is a single entry of the matrix Y and it represents the value of output j of the DMUp. Classical DEA model assume that all the inputs are relevant to all the outputs. With the above notations, DEA-CCR ratio form for calculating efficiency k for some DMUk is defined as:
k
(2) Thus, the uses of CCR model identify DMUs that enter into the optimal evaluations and hence can serve as target DMU to determine how best to eliminate the inefficiencies. 3. DEA R : Ratio based comparative efficiency model DEA R treats all possible ratios output/input as outputs within the standard DEA model. The key advantage of DEA-R over DEA is that it allows effective integration of the model with experts opinion via flexible restrictive conditions on individual output / input pairs. 3.1 Mathematical formulation The DEA-R model has a similar formulation to the DEA-CCR model, only with the input space-defined by matrices X and Y in the DEA-CCR model being transformed. As a matrix of outputs now use the matrix M = [ Y : X ], which is defined as a collection of all the possible row-vectors that could be obtained by dividing coordinate-wise a single row-vector from the matrix Y by a single row-vector from the matrix X . More clearly, the matrix M could be seen as a collection of all the possible ratios m(j,i)p , formed between each output and each input for all DMUs: m(j,i)p = y jp x ip . In this way, the size of the input matrix will be equal to ~ 1 n. Mathematical formulation of the DEA-R efficiency k for some test DMUk is given by:
n by j 1 j jk max m ai ,b j 0 i 1 ai x ik
by j 1 j jp m ax i 1 i ik
1, p(p 1,2,..., s)
~ k max C(j,i)r(j,i)k c(j,i)0 j1 i1

n m
ps
C
j1 i1
(j, r(j, 1,for p 1,2, ,n i) i)p
(3)
This formulation can be explained as follows. For instance there are m inputs, n outputs and p = 1 to s decision making units. The formula Eq. (3) than becomes:
~ k = max
Subject to
ps
p 1
(j,i)r(j,i)k
(where K is the test DMU)

(3a)
C
p 1
(j,i)r(j,i)k
1 for p 1,2,, s
Which is further equivalent to: ps y (j,k) ~ k = max C(j,i) x (i,k) p 1
Subject to
ps
C
p 1
(j,i)r(j,i)p
for p 1,2,, s
(3b)
The main benefit in using DEA-R efficiency model comes from their ability to incorporate some types of judgments and a priori knowledge that was not possible in any
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other DEA model. The practical considerations in relation to DEA-R model are addressed in the present work. Since the DEA-R model can be solved using Eq. (3), much of the analysis remains similar to what would be if DEA-CCR model used. The data set for DEA-R model is the set of all ratios between outputs and inputs. DEA-R model instead of the classical DEA model does not introduce any additional risk of making the relative efficiency model less plausible or less discriminating. In order to calculate the relative efficiencies of the units, DEA R more succinctly considers the relative ratio powers. These are termed as Relative input power (RIP) and Relative output power (RIP) and analogous to both RIP and ROP, RRP stands for relative power ratio. Thus, the DEA R efficiency model given in Eq. (3) can be represented by Eq. (4). ~ 1 (4) k max min r(j,i)p j i C(j,i)1,C(j,i)0 C(j, i) r(j,i)k j i Substituting for r (j,i)p = yjp/xip and r(j,i)k = yjk/xik, Eq. (4) is further equivalent to ~ 1 k max min yjp xik C(j,i)1,C(j,i)0 j i C(j, i) yjk xip j i (4a)
In other words, C(j,i) is just a weight in front of the ratio value which was obtained by dividing output j by input i found as an average to all the alternatives available for any particular condition. The denominator in the above expression is the weighted sum of yjp xik th sum n m terms yjk xip , which is nothing else but p coordinate of some linear combination of the rows of the matrix M = [ Y : X ](k). The weights for all the attributes related each alternative available can be find out using Eq. (5) as given below [7]. 1 ynk 1 xmk W (i, j) p p , W (i, j) p p (5) xmp ynp k 1 k 1
So, in essence, and informally, there is no need for double index in the original formula and we could have written the whole thing as:
~ k max cu 0
mn
C
u 1
u m uk
(6)
m n
Subject to
C m
u u 1
up
for p 1,2,, s
Note that summation goes over index u, which is a counter from 1 to m n ( m n )being the product of number of inputs m and number of outputs n i.e., the number of all ratios that can be formed by pairing each output with each input. 4. Multicriteria ranking problem and procedures Facility location decision involves organizations seeking to locate, relocate or expand their operations. The facility location decision process encompasses the identification, analysis, and evaluation of, and selection among alternatives. Factories, warehouses, retail outlets, terminals, and storage yards are the typical facilities to be located. A decision is then made to start the search for the correct location [7]. The suitability of a specific location for proposed facility operations depends largely on what location factors are selected and evaluated, as well as their potential impact on corporate objectives and operations. Facility location attribute is defined as a factor that influences the selection of facility location for a given industry. In the case of plant location selection, these attributes include: cost of land, cost of energy, availability of transportation, cost of transportation, proximity to raw material sources, cost of raw materials, availability of local labor and worker attitude, cost of labor, availability of managerial and technical personnel, nearness to the market, government policies and incentives, tax rates, nearby industries, community environment, availability of water, electricity, environmental conditions, etc. Plant location selection is a typical multiple
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criteria decision-making problem in which managerial preference among performance attributes plays a key role in the final decision [3]. The example considers 8 facility location selection attributes, and three alternative facility locations. The objective and subjective information of the attributes is given in Table 1. All the attributes are expressed subjectively in linguistic terms (CM, CR, LT, AT, AL, E, and BC), except for cost of labor (CLR). Table 1. Data of the Facility Location attributes of example
Locations Attributes CM CR LT AT AL E BC CLR Location1 Location 2 Location 3 A H VH AA AA VH H 255
H VH H AA H AA VH 250
VH H H VH AA H VH 265
Where, CM Closeness to market; CR Closeness to raw material; LT Land transportation; AT Air transportation; AL Availability of labor; E Community education; BC Business climate; CLR Cost of labor (Rs/worker) A: Average; AA: Above average; H: High; VH: Very high Table 2. Objective data of the facility location attributes
Locations Attributes CM CR LT AT AL E BC CLR Location1 Location 2 Location 3
0.665 0.745 0.665 0.590 0.665 0.590 0.745 250
0.745 0.665 0.665 0.745 0.590 0.665 0.745 265
0.500 0.665 0.745 0.590 0.590 0.745 0.665 255
The attributes under subjective form are assigned objective values with the help of 11-point scale and the resulted crisp data are given in Table 2. It may be mentioned here that the fuzzy judgments (i.e., average, above average, high, very high) can be understood inappropriate equivalent terms such as good, very good, etc. with respect to the attributes. 4.1 Model formulation Except CLR, all seven attributes are beneficial i.e., output attributes. The methodology for the efficiency measurement is explained step by step in the next sections. Step 1: There are s decision making units (DMUs) and that each DMUp (p = 1, 2, 3 = s). Here, m = 1 and n = 7. The DEA R model has similarity to DEA CCR model. Now ~ using the mathematical formulation of the DEA R efficiency for some DMUk can be calculate using Eq. (3a) and (3b). Step 2: The relative weights for all the input and output attributes for each alternative can be find out. In fact, the weights reflect the priorities for each input and output. The weights are relative to each location for all the defined attributes and hence they reflect more on the importance of the interrelationships of each input and output and given in Table 3. Table 3. Relative Weights for all the attributes of each alternative of example
Ls
L1 L2 L3
CM (j=1) 0.1161 0.1300 0.0873
CR (j=2) 0.1197 0.1068 0.1068
LT (j=3) 0.1068 0.1068 0.1197
AT (j=4) 0.1022 0.1290 0.1022
AL (j=5) 0.1201 0.1066 0.1066
E (j=6) 0.0983 0.1108 0.1242
BC (j=7) 0.1152 0.1152 0.1029
CLR (i=1) 0.1082 0.1147 0.1103
Output attributes:
CM = 1.91; CR = 2.075; LT = 2.075; AT = 1.925; AL = 1.845; E = 2.00; BC = 2.155;
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Input attributes:
CLR = 770;
The relative weights for all the attributes for each alternative are found and listed in Table 3. Step 3: The DEA R efficiencies for 7 outputs and 1 input case, Eq. (5a) and Eq. (5b) can be represented as follows:
Location : 1
~ y(1,1) y(2,1) y(3,1) y(4,1) y(5,1) y(6,1) y(7,1) C(2,1) C(3,1) C(4,1) C(5,1) C(6,1) C(7,1) 1 = C(1,1) x(1,1) x(1,1) x(1,1) x(1,1) x(1,1) x(1,1) x(1,1) Where, the terms C (n,m) are the weights I front of the ratio value which is obtained by diving the relative weight of each output j by each input i. ~ 1 = 0.1161 0.665 + 0.1197 0.745 + 0.1068 0.665 + 0.1022 0.59 + 0.1201 0.665 +
250 0.1082 0.1152 0.745 0.10983 0.59 + 0.1082 250 0.1082 250
250
0.1082
0.1082
250
0.1082
250
0.1082
250
~ 1 = 0.0193 For the rest of locations the DEA R efficiencies can be found by following the procedure as given in Table 4. From the values of the facility location selection scores, it is found that the facility location, designated as 2 is the best choice among the three facility locations considered for the given industrial application. The next choice is 1, and the last choice is 3. Table 4. Results of Facility Location Evaluation Table 5. Comparison of different methods
Location No. Location 2 Location 1 Location 3 Score 0.0206 0.0193 0.0180 Rank 1 2 3 Location No. Location 2 Location 1 Location 3 CCR R Score 0.0206 0.0193 0.0180 CCR Score 0.00549 0.00538 0.00534 Rank 1 2 3
Step 4: The CCR scores of all the alternative in this case will be the same as that of the Harmonic scores. The results are summarized in Table 5. For the above weights of importance of attributes, the multiplicative AHP method also leads to the same ranking order. It may be observed that the above ranking is for the given preferences of the decision maker. The ranking depends upon the judgments of relative importance of the attributes made by the decision maker. 5. Conclusions The proposed DEA method is very easy method to evaluate the alternatives and to rank them appropriately. The use of available data in its original form or in its normalised form does not affect the final ranking of the materials. Further, this methodology is suitable for any kind of selection issues having numbers of alternatives and attributes. References
[1] D Ozren, D Mladen, CP Joseph. DEA-R: ratio-based comparative efficiency model, its mathematical relation to DEA and its use in applications. Journal of Production Analysis, 28, 2007, 33-44. [2] I Averbakh, O Berman, Z Drezner, GO Wesolowsky. The uncapacitated facility location problem with demand-dependent setup and service costs and customer-choice allocation. European Journal of operational Research, 179, 2007,956-967. [3] RV Rao. Plant location selection using fuzzy diagraph and matrix methods. International Journal of industrial Engineering, 13, 2006, 166-176. [4] A Charnes, WW Cooper, E Rhodes. Measuring the efficiency of decision making units. European Journal of Operational Research, 2, 1978, 429-444. [5] D Raman, SV Nagalingam, GCI Lin. Towards measuring the effectiveness of facilities layout. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 25, 2009, 191-203. [6] SR Velle Charles, JC Wlilliams, JJ Boland. Counterpart models in facility location science and reserve selection science. Environmentally Modelling and assessment, 7, 2002, 71-80. [7] MS Lawrene, Z Joe. Identifying excesses and deficits in Chinese industrial productivity (19531990): a weighted Data Envelopment Analysis approach. International journal of Management and science, 26, 1997, 279-296.
1097
Effect Analysis of Nose Radius on Surface Roughness in CNC Turning of EN8

Mr. V. N. Modi , Mr. Jatin V. Panchal, Mr. Ankit K. Modi, Mr. Rutvij A. Manek
1 *
U. V. Patel College of Engineering, Ganpat University *Corresponding author (e-mail: vnmodi@gmail.com)
Surface roughness, an indicator of surface quality, is one of the most specified customer requirements in machining of parts. Surface roughness influences not only the dimensional accuracy of machined parts, but also their properties. Surface finish describes the geometric features of surfaces; surface integrity pertains to properties, such as fatigue life and corrosion resistance, which are influenced strongly by the type of surface produced. In this study, the experimental results corresponding to the effects of different feed rates (0.10, 0.16, 0.24, 0.30, 0.36, 0.40 mm/rev), different cutting speeds (355, 380, 405, 430, 455, 490 m/min) and various depth of cuts (0.3, 0.7, 1.1 mm), on the surface quality of the EN8 steel work pieces turned on industrial production CNC Turning Center Power DX 150 was determined. Total 108 data sets were designed and full factorial experiment structure was applied on total 18 jobs, designed for performing 6 data sets on each. Surface roughness was measured using Mitutoyo Surface Roughness Tester SJ 201. It was identified that minimum surface roughness value 0.65 m was obtained at the value of 0.10 mm/rev, 455 m/min and 1.10 mm for feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut respectively. The maximum surface roughness value 7.21 m was obtained at the value of 0.40 mm/rev, 405 m/min and 1.10 mm for feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut respectively. Experimental results show that feed rate has maximum influence on surface roughness and depth of cut has negligible effect on surface roughness. Minitab statistical tool was applied for experiment analysis considering main effect and interaction effect on surface roughness. Less interaction characteristics in between depth of cut and feed was observed. 1. Introduction
In all manufacturing methods, besides the dimensions and geometrical tolerances of products, a satisfactory surface roughness quality is of great importance. Surface roughness is an important design consideration as it impacts many part characteristics such as fatigue strength, cleanability, assembly tolerances, coefficient of friction, wear rate, corrosion resistance, and aesthetics. Besides other parameters, the desired productivity, tool life and resistance against the outer effects of operating machine tool types are dependent on the surface quality as well. Surface operations realized in various manufacturing systems are affected by the process parameters directly or indirectly. Process parameters chosen with non-accordance cause losses such as rapid tool wear and tool fracture besides the economic losses including spoiled work pieces or reduced surface quality [1]. In machining, surface quality is one of the most commonly specified customer requirements in which the major indication of surface quality on machined parts is surface roughness. Surface roughness is mainly a result of process parameters such as tool geometry (nose radius, edge geometry, rake angle, etc.) and cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed, depth of cut, etc.) [2][3]. 1.1. Surface Roughness
Surface finish describes the geometric features of surfaces; surface integrity pertains to properties, such as fatigue life and corrosion resistance, which are influenced strongly by
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the type of surface produced. The built-up edge, with its significant effect on the tool-tip profile, has the greatest influence on surface roughness that damages the surfaces considerably [4]. The surface parameter used to evaluate surface roughness in this experiment is the roughness average (Ra). Ra (arithmetic mean roughness value, arithmetic average (AA), or centerline average (CLA) is recognized universally as the commonest international parameter of roughness. The average roughness is the area between the roughness profile and its center line, or the integral of the absolute value of the roughness profile height over the evaluation length (Refer Figure 1) [5]. Therefore, Ra is specified by the following equation: Ra =
1 | Y(x)|dx ......................................................... (1) L 0

1 n | Yi | ................................................................ (2) n i 1
When evaluated from digital data, the integral is normally approximated by a trapezoidal rule: Ra =
where Ra is the arithmetic average deviation from the mean line (m), L is the sampling length, and Y is the ordinate of the profile curve. Graphically, the average roughness is the area (as shown in Figure 1) between the roughness profile and its center line divided by the evaluation length (normally five sample lengths with each sample length equal to one cutoff).
Figure 1. General surface roughness profile [5] 3. Experimental design and setup
As shown in Table 1, Nose Radius-r (mm), Feed Rate - f (mm/rev), Cutting Speed Vc (m/min), Depth of Cut - ap, (mm) were considered as input parameters. Surface roughness was considered as output parameter. All four input parameters with 3-5-5-5 factor level and their Taguchi fractional factorial design consideration (3 r X 5 f X 5 Vc X 5 ap ) resulted in a total 25 observations. An experimental setup was created for the purpose of generating turned surfaces, measuring their surface roughness and analyzing this data. The hardware used in this experimental setup includes a CNC turning center, sample workpieces and a surface roughness measurement setup. EN8 material was selected for experimental work which is widely used as structural material in automobiles, aerospace, ship building, nuclear power plants, machine tools and general engineering applications [5]. For economic and quality machining of this material to benefit the industry, EN8 material was considered for this experiment. We have received material in form of bar of diameter of 51 mm and from it 5 work pieces were prepared on which experimental work was carried out. Based on specifications of Mitutoyo Surface Roughness Tester SJ 201 [6], CNC Turning Centre Power DX 150, parameters levels and bar size available commercially, work specimens were designed for CNC turning.
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In attempts to evaluate the effects of cutting parameters on surface roughness on EN8 steel, it has been used cemented carbide cutters manufactured by Sandvik Asia Ltd., coated with three layers of (TiN, Al2O3, TiC), the outermost CVD TiN. In experiment, VBMT 16-04-04-PF, VBMT 16-04-04-PF and VBMT 16-04-12-PF inserts and SVJBL 2020K-16 tool holder were used. Total 3 inserts were used and each having two cutting sides, so total 8 cutting sides were used for 25 data points in CNC turning of total 5 workpieces. Used all 3 inserts in experiment are shown in Figure 2. Table 1. Input Parameters Levels and Values No. 1 2 3 4 Factors Nose Radius, r Feed Rate, f Cutting Speed, Vc Depth of Cut, ap Levels 3 5 5 5 Factor Levels Values 0.4, 0.8, 1.2 (mm) 0.04, 0.08, 0.15, 0.22, 0.30 (mm/rev) 355, 380, 405, 430, 455 (m/min) 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, 1.1, 1.2 (mm)
Based on above, actual CNC turning was carried out for total 25 combinations of machining parameters on Turning Centre Power DX 150 (two-axis turning center capable of both CNC and manual control of the turning process) in CAM laboratory at Mechanical Engineering Department of UVPCE under room temperature approx. 34 1 C. Conventional machine grade oil was used for cooling. Cutting tool was fixed at tool position number 6. Single time turning was done for 5 data sets on a single job with 9 mm cutting length for each data point. Turned all 5 workpieces are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Used Inserts
Figure 3. 5 Turned Work pieces
Surface roughness values of finish-turned workpieces were measured by Mitutoyo Surface Roughness Tester SJ201-P by a proper procedure and measurements were repeated three times with 120 angular distance. Surface Roughness Standard ISO was used for measurement. To measure roughness of the surface formed while processing the workpiece, the cut-off length was taken as 0.8 mm and the sampling length as 5 mm for roughness value 2 where as cut-off length was taken as 2.5 and evaluation length as 8 mm for roughness value 2 [6]. 4. Experiment Result and Analysis From the results, it was identified that minimum surface roughness value 0.46 m was obtained at the value of 1.2 mm, 0.08 mm/rev, 405 m/min and 0.03 mm for nose radius, feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut respectively. The maximum surface roughness value 6.65 m was obtained at the value of 0.4 mm, 0.30 mm/rev, 455 m/min and 1.2 mm for nose radius, feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut respectively. Minitab version 15 was used for the analysis of result obtained by experimental work. Main Effects Plots shown in Figure 4 shows effect of nose radius, feed, cutting speed and depth of cut (DOC) on surface roughness on same scale base of surface roughness. It states that comparative to other two parameters, feed and nose radius have major effect on surface roughness and surface roughness value increases rapidly as feed increases and nose radius decreases. Depth of cut has minimum impact on surface roughness. Surface roughness increases very slowly as depth of cut increases. Cutting speed shows positive effect on surface roughness. Figure 5 shows interaction among nose radius, feed, cutting speed and DOC. At higher nose radius and lower feed rate, surface roughness is minimum and increases with
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increase of nose radius and feed values. Strong interaction in between nose radius and cutting speed was found at 0.4 mm nose radius. Less interaction characteristics in between depth of cut and nose radius except 0.4 mm nose radius, depth of cut and feed, depth of cut and cutting speed was observed as shown in Figure 5. Surface roughness value was lower at lower value depth of cut and feed.
Figure 4. Main Effects Plots (Nose Radius-Cutting SpeedFeed-DOC)
Figure 5. Interaction Plots (Nose Radius-Cutting SpeedFeed-DOC) Figure 6 shows 3D plot among nose radius, feed and surface roughness whereas figure 7 shows 3D plot among nose radius, cutting speed and surface roughness. Figure 8 shows the region values of nose radius and feed for surface roughness values. Figure 9 shows the region values of nose radius and cutting speed for surface roughness. 4. Conclusions The depth of cut did not impact largely to the surface roughness in the studied range, which could be used to improve productivity if it would not worsen the surface microstructure of the material and the dimensional and geometric accuracy. Higher feed rate can be selected for higher nose radius value which reflects higher production rate. Higher cutting speed can be selected for higher nose radius value.
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Figure 6. 3D (Nose Radius-Feed-Ra)
Figure 7. 3D (Nose Radius-Speed-Ra)
Figure 8. Countour (Nose Radius-Feed) Speed)
Figure 9. Countour (Nose Radius-
Future work would focus on expansion of the work by considering other parameters such as nose radius, wiper inserts, CBN cutting tool, cutting forces, cutting temperature. References [1] Hasan GO Kkaya Muammer Nalbant, The effects of cutting tool coating on the surface roughness of AISI 1015 steel depending on cutting parameters. Turkish J. Eng. Env. Sci., 30 (2006), 2007, 307 316. [2] Turul zel and Yiit Karpat, Predictive modeling of surface roughness and tool wear in hard turning using regression and neural networks. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 45, 2005, 467479. [3] V.N.Modi, Prof. J.P.Patel, Prof. D.M.Patel, Experimental Analysis of Machining Parameters Effect on Surface Roughness in CNC Turning of EN8, Proceedings of the the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, December 15-17, 2008, SVNIT, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India. [4] Serope Kapakjjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Pearson Education th (Sigapore) Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, India, 4 edition, pp. 558, 2004. [5] Muammer Nalbant and Ihsan Toktas, Comparison of regression and artificial neural network models for surface roughness prediction with the cutting parameters in CNC turning. Hindawi Publishing Corporation, Modelling and Simulation in Engineering, Article ID 92717, 2007, 1-14. [6] Mitutoyo Surface Roughness Tester SJ 201 users manual, Mitutoyo Instruments Ltd., Japan, 2007.
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ELECTRE as a Decision Making Method in the Manufacturing Environment

R.V. Rao , B.K. Patel S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat 395 007, Gujarat, India * Corresponding author (e-mail: ravipudirao@gmail.com) Manufacturing environment consists of many interrelated activities which frequently require selection of best alternative among more than one suitable alternatives available for the given situation. The selection in such situations depends on more than one attributes / criteria. The ELECTRE method is an outranking method used for solving such multiple attribute decision making (MADM) problems. In this paper MADM problems in manufacturing environment using ELECTRE are described. Three situations in manufacturing environment like gear material selection, flexible manufacturing system (FMS) selection and material handling equipment selection are considered. An attempt has been made to elaborate the effectiveness of ELECTRE method in selecting a suitable alternative for the particular decision making situation in manufacturing environment. 1. Introduction
*
The manufacturing sector is having higher impact than many other sectors on the economy in a country. In recent years, manufacturing technologies have continually gone through revolutionary changes. Nowadays, new technologies such as FMS, robotics, rapid prototyping, environmentally sustainable technologies, etc., have become an integral part of manufacturing. Many alternatives have been available to perform an activity due to the available technologies. In parallel, lots of research work is being done in developing new products and processes. There are many challenges to the manufacturing companies such as maintaining quality & reliability of products, manufacturing products at low cost, life-cycle prediction and the organizational ability to meet market pressures like delivery and service. Fast-changing technologies on the product front cautioned the need for an equally fast response from the manufacturing industries. Manufacturing industries have to select appropriate manufacturing strategies, product designs, manufacturing processes, work and tool materials, machinery and equipment, etc. to survive in todays competitive era. The objective of any selection procedure is to identify appropriate selection criteria, and obtain the most appropriate combination of criteria in conjunction with the real requirement. Decision making situations and methods are discussed in depth in Rao [4]. ELimination Et Choix Traduisant la Realit (ELECTRE) i.e ELimination and Choice Expressing the REality, is one of the decision making method for multiple criteria decision making problems. In the following section the methodology of the ELECTRE is explained. 2. ELimination and Choice Expressing the REality (ELECTRE) method
The outranking method ELimination Et Choix Traduisant la Realit (ELECTRE) i.e ELimination and Choice Expressing the REality, was developed by Roy [5]. The Electre method is a highly efficient multiple attribute decision making method, which takes into account the uncertainty and vagueness, which are usually inherent in data produced by predictions and estimations. Three different threshold values are to be defined for this purpose. The thresholds of preference (p), indifference (q) and veto (v) have been introduced in the ELECTRE method, so that outranking relations are not expressed mistakenly due to differences that are less important. Lets first define these three thresholds as follows: Preference threshold (p): - Preference threshold (p) is a difference of objective values of an attribute above which the decision maker strongly prefers an alternative over other for the given attribute. Alternative b is strictly preferred to alternative a in terms of attribute i if,
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fi(b) > fi(a) + p. Indifference threshold (q): - Indifference threshold (q) is a difference of attribute values beneath which the decision maker is indifferent between two alternatives for the given attribute. Alternative b is indifferent to alternative a in terms of attribute i if, fi(b) > fi(a) + q. Veto threshold (v): - Veto threshold (v) blocks the outranking relationship between alternatives for the given attribute. Alternative a cannot outrank alternative b if the performance of b exceeds that of a by an amount greater than the veto threshold, i.e. if fi(b) fi(a) + v. 2.1 ELECTRE methodology The operational implementation of the outraking principles is now discussed, assuming that all attributes are to be beneficial (i.e. higher value is desired). In case, if any attribute is non-beneficial, negative of the objective values are to be considered. If fi(a) is defined as the score of alternative a on attribute i and wi represents the weight of attribute i, the concordance index C(a,b) is defined as follows: n 1 n C (a, b) w j c j (a, b), where w w j (1) w j 1 j 1 Where
1, 0, c j (a, b) p j f j (a) f j (b) pj qj if if f j (a ) q j f j (b) f j (a) p j f j (b) ,
j = 1,2,...,n
(2)
otherwise
The concordance index indicates relative dominance of one alternative over another, based on the relative importance weightings of the relevant decision attributes. To calculate discordance, a further threshold called the veto threshold is defined. The veto threshold v j , allows for the possibility of aSb to be refused totally if, for any one attribute j, f j (b) f j (a ) v j . The discordance index for each attribute j, d j (a, b) is calculated as:
d j (a, b) f j (b) vj 0, 1, f j (a) p j pj if if f j (a) p j f j (b) f j ( a) v j f j (b) ,
j = 1,2,...,n
(3)
otherwise
The discordance index measures the degree to which alternative a is worse than b. The essence of the discordance index is that any outranking of b by a indicated by the concordance index can be overruled if there is any criterion for which supplier candidate b outperforms candidate a by at least the veto threshold. The final step in the model building phase is to combine these two measures to produce a measure of the degree of outranking; that is, a credibility index which assesses the strength of the assertion that a is at least as good as b. The credibility degree for each pair (a, b) A is defined as:
if d j (a, b) C(a, b), j C(a, b), where, j J (a, b) is the set of criteria S (a, b) such that d j (a, b) C(a, b) 1 d j (a, b) otherwise C(a, b) jJ ( a, b) 1 C (a, b)
(4)
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This concludes the construction of the outranking model. The next step in the outranking approach is to create the hierarchy of the alternative solutions from the elements of the credibility matrix. The determination of the hierarchy rank is achieved by calculating the superiority ratio for each scenario. This ratio is calculated from the credibility matrix and is the fraction of the elements sum of every scenarios respective column. The numerator represents the total dominance of the specific scenario over the remaining scenarios over the rest and the denominator the dominance of the remaining scenarios over the former. The numerator for each alternative is also known as concordance credibility is calculated as follows: ( a ) S ( a, b) (5)
bA
The denominator for each alternative i.e. discordance credibility is calculated as follows:
( a ) S ( a, b)
bA
(6)
Finally, the superiority ratio is obtained as: R (a ) CC (a ) DC(a )
(7)
The alternatives are then arranged in ascending order of their superiority ratio. The alternatives with higher values of superiority ratio are preferred over the others. 3. Applications of ELECTRE method Two examples are described to illustrate how the ELECTRE method supports decision maker in the manufacturing environment. 3.1 Example 1 : Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) selection Recently, the expanding competitiveness in manufacturing due to the globalization has forced the manufacturers to increase their product types and respond to the changes in demand very quickly. Flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs) provide the means to reach these objectives. Robots, CNC machines and automated material handling systems controlled by dedicated computers are the main components of an FMS. The main benefits of an FMS can be listed as increase in product types, enhancement in quality, and reduction in WIP and setup costs. Before investing in such advanced manufacturing technologies requiring substantial capital expenses, both the cash-denominated consequences and those effects not readily reduced to financial terms have to be considered. Table 1. Objective data of the attributes of Example 1 (Karsak & Kuzgunkaya, [1]) FMS No. RLC RWP RSC IMR IQ CMC FSU 1 30 23 5 0.745 0.745 1,500 5,000 2 18 13 15 0.745 0.745 1,300 6,000 3 15 12 10 0.500 0.500 950 7,000 4 25 20 13 0.745 0.745 1,200 4,000 5 14 18 14 0.255 0.745 950 3,500 6 17 15 9 0.745 0.500 1,250 5,250 7 23 18 20 0.500 0.745 1,100 3,000 8 16 8 14 0.255 0.5 1,500 3,000 RLC: Reduction in labor cost (%) RWP: Reduction in WIP (%) RSC: Reduction in set up cost (%) IMR: Increase in market response IQ: Increase in quality CMC: Capital and maintenance cost ($1,000) FSU: Floor space used (sq. ft.) The above data for RLC, RWP, RSC, CMC, and FSU are actually the middle values of the range presented by Karsak and Kuzgunkaya (2002) Karsak and Kuzgunkaya [1] proposed a fuzzy multiple objective programming approach for the selection of a flexible manufacturing system. The authors had considered
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eight alternative flexible manufacturing systems and seven attributes. In the present work, the attributes considered are the same as those of Karsak and Kuzgunkaya [1] as shown in Table 1. Five attributes (RLC, RWP, RSC, CMC and FSU) were expressed objectively, and two attributes (IMR and IQ) were expressed subjectively. The subjective data of the two attributes IMR and IQ are converted into appropriate objective data. The final values of different attributes are represented in Table 1. The normalized weights of each attribute are calculated and these are: wRLC = 0.1181, w RWP = 0.1181, wRSC = 0.046, wIMR = 0.1181, wIQ = 0.3, w CMC = 0.3 and wFSU = 0.046. Solving the problem using ELECTRE method, following results are obtained: Table 2. Leaving, entering and net flow values for alternatives of example 1 FMS No. Leaving flow Entering flow Superiority ratio Rank 1 6.3285 4.9382 1.2816 4 2 6.7857 6.2428 1.0870 5 3 4.5862 6.5517 0.7000 7 4 7.6755 5.0782 1.5114 1 5 7.0463 5.0971 1.3824 3 6 5.2620 7.1576 0.7352 6 7 7.6347 5.1535 1.4815 2 8 2.7340 7.8339 0.3490 8 The ranking obtained using ELECTRE in this case is 4 7 5 1 2 6 3 8. This ranking differs from the ranking that suggested by Karsak and Kuzgunkaya [3] which was 7 4 1 5 6 2 3 8. From the objective data and weights of the attributes it can be easily judged that alternative 4 is better than the alternative 7 and similarly alternative 6 is better as compared to alternative 3. Thus, the ranking suggested by ELECTRE methods seems more logical than the ranking suggested by Karsak and Kuzgunkaya [1]. 3.2 Example 2 : Material handling equipment selection Material handling equipment (MHE) is the most important part of todays manufacturing systems and is increasingly playing an important role in the productivity of the plant. There are many possible types of MHE available for manufacturing activities that need material handling. The decision maker (DM) has to consider various tangible (i.e., load capacity, energy consumption, cost, etc.) and intangible (i.e., flexibility, reliability, performance, etc.) criteria for the selection of MHE depending on the application. An example (Onut et. al. [3]) of material handling equipment selection is considered from a company in the steel construction industry. Selection process is done in competence with five attributes which are Material, Move, Method, Cost and Area constraints. The fourth criterion (Cost) and the fifth criterion (area constraint) are defined as non-beneficial attributes, and the others are defined as beneficial attributes. The weights of attributes, calculated by Onut et. al. [3] using fuzzy ANP (analytical network process), were wmaterial = 0.295, wmethod = 0.284, wmove = 0.087, wcost = 0.29, and warea = 0.044. After determining the selection criteria, alternative material handling systems were analyzed and determined. According to companys production characteristics, five alternatives were chosen. The alternatives are Industrial truck (A1), Conveyor (A2), Rail system crane (A3), Automatic guided vehicle (AGV) (A4) and Fixed crane (A5). Table 3. Objective data of the attributes of Example 2 (Onut et. al., [5]) Material Move Method Cost Area constraint 5 7 5 3 5 7 5 9 5 7 9 7 5 7 3 7 5 7 9 5 9 9 5 7 3
MHE No. A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
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Onut et. al. [3] used the linguistic scales and their corresponding fuzzy numbers: (1,1,1)very poor, (2,3,4)poor, (4,5,6)Fair, (6,7,8)Good, (8,9,10)very good. The values of attributes for given alternatives were expressed on above scale in fuzzy terms. For the calculation purpose, middle values of the triangular fuzzy numbers of objective values and weights are considered here. The objective data of the example is shown in Table 3. The problem is then solved using ELECTRE following the procedure explained earlier. The results obtained are shown in Table 4. Table 4. Leaving, entering and net flow values for alternatives of example 2 MHE No. Leaving flow Entering flow Superiority ratio Rank A1 3.4529 3.5312 0.9778 3 A2 3.3535 4.1299 0.8120 4 A3 4.3434 3.6700 1.1835 2 A4 2.8479 4.6000 0.6191 5 A5 4.5328 2.5995 1.7437 1 The higher superiority ratio means the better rank, so the alternatives can be ranked as follows: A5 - A3 - A1- A2 - A4. From the results obtained, fixed crane system is chosen as the best alternative MHE among the given five alternatives. The ranking obtained by Onut et. al. [3] was A5 - A1 - A2 - A3 - A4, which also indicates alternative 5 as the best and alternative 4 as the last choice. Looking to the objective data, it can be found that alternative 3 is superior than alternative 1 with respect to material and area constraint attributes whereas poorer in only cost. So, it can be understood that the ranking suggested by the ELECTRE method is more reliable than the fuzzy TOPSIS approach suggested by Onut et. al. [3]. Also, ELECTRE is less complex and faster than the fuzzy TOPSIS. 4. Conclusions In this paper the ELECTRE method is applied to various decision making situations in manufacturing. It is observed that the results obtained by the ELECTRE are more logical than the results obtained by the other authors using different methods. So the ELECTRE method seems to be very useful in the manufacturing environment as a decision making method as well as to compare the ranks obtained by other methods. Acknowledgement Authors acknowledge the financial support provided by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India in carrying out the present research work. References [1] Karsak, E.E., and Kuzgunkaya, O., A fuzzy multiple objective programming approach for the selection of a flexible manufacturing system. International Journal of Production Economics, 2002, 79, 101-111. [2] Montazer, G. A., Saremi, H.Q., Ramezani, M., Design a new mixed expert decision aiding system using fuzzy ELECTRE III method for vendor selection, Expert Systems with Applications, 2009, doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2009.01.019. [3] Onut, S., Kara, S. S. and Mert S., Selecting the suitable material handling equipment in the presence of vagueness. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2009, DOI 10.1007/s00170-008-1897-3. [4] Rao, R.V. Decision Making in the Manufacturing Environment Using Graph Theory and Fuzzy Multiple Attribute Decision Making Methods. Springer-Verlag, London, 2007. [5] Roy, B., The outranking approach and the foundations of ELECTRE methods. Theory and Decision, 1991, 31, 49-73. [6] Wang, J.J., Lin, Z.K., Huang, H. A Decision Model for Information Systems Outsourcing: Using a Multicriteria Method. Journal of Serv Science & Management. 2008, 1, 1-9.
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Fuzzy LINMAP as a Decision Making Method in the Manufacturing Environment

R.V. Rao and D. Singh S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat - 395007, Gujarat, India Corresponding author (e-mail: dineshsingh05@rediffmail.com) This paper presents the applicability of a multi-attribute decision making (MADM) method, linear programming technique for multidimensional analysis of preferences (LINMAP) to the manufacturing situations. Two examples are presented to illustrate the potential of LINMAP with fuzzy as well as crisp data of attributes. The results of fuzzy LINMAP are compared with the results obtained by using other decision making methods. 1. Introduction Manufacturing industries are compelled to move away from traditional setups to more responsive and dynamic ones. Many new concepts have emerged from these changes, sustained by strategies aimed at meeting the challenges arising from global markets. Fast-changing technologies on the product front cautioned the need for an equally fast response from the manufacturing industries. To meet the challenges, manufacturing industries have to select appropriate manufacturing strategies, product designs, manufacturing processes, work piece and tool materials, machinery and equipment, etc. There are several common methodologies for multi-attribute decision making (MADM), some of them are simple additive weighting (SAW), the technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS), analytical hierarchy process (AHP), operational competitiveness rating (OCRA) and grey relational analysis (GRA)[1-3]. Linear programming technique for multidimensional analysis of preferences (LINMAP) is also a MADM method having very few applications in manufacturing [4]. In this paper, two MADM problems, rapid prototyping process selection and Selection of electroplating system are examined. Both problems are having the qualitative and quantitative types of attributes. The qualitative attributes values are converted to crisp score using fuzzy scale. The next section presents the LINMAP methodology in details. 2. Linear programming technique for multidimensional analysis of preferences LINMAP, a MADM method was developed by V. Srinivasan and A. D. Shocker in 1973 [4]. They have developed a methodology for determining individuals' ideal points and weights based on their preference judgments on a set of alternatives. In this model the alternatives are represented as points in a multi-attribute space. For a MADM problem, if there are m alternatives and n attributes, the ith alternative can be expressed as Yi = (yi1, yi2, ., yij, ., yin) in decision matrix form, where yij is the performance value (or measure of performance) of attribute j (j = 1,2,3,.,n) for alternative i (i = 1,2,3,.,m). The xij is the normalized value of yij for attribute j (j = 1,2,3,.,n) of alternative i (i = 1,2,3,.,m). The normalized values xij are determined by use of the Equations 3 and 4, which are for beneficial and non-beneficial type attributes respectively. y ij min{ y ij } for i = 1,2,,m and j = 1, 2, n (1) x ij max{ y ij } min{ y ij }
x ij max{ y ij } y ij max{ y ij } min{ y ij }
for i = 1,2,,m and j = 1, 2, n
(2)
Let A = {aj*}; the ideal point of the subject, i.e., the alternative location most preferred by the individual. Let W = {wj}, (j = 1, 2, , n) denote the weight associated with n dimensions. Then the weighted euclidean distance di of the ith alternative from the ideal point is given by
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n d i w j ( x ij a j ) 2 j 1
2
1/ 2
for (i = 1, 2, , m)
n
(3)
Moreover the square distance S i d i is given by: S i
w
j 1
( x ij a ) 2 for (i = 1, 2, , m) (4) j
Let = {(k, l)} denote the set of ordered pairs (k, l) where k designates the preferred alternative on a forced choice basis resulting from a paired comparison involving k and l. Total number of possible paired judgments are m(m-1)/2.The ranking order of alternatives is * determined by the square distance based on wj and.aj . For the pair (k, l), if Sl Sk, then there is no error attributable to the solution. On the other hand if Sl < Sk, then (Sk Sl) denotes the error. An index (Sl Sk)-,known inconsistency between the ranking order of alternatives k and l denotes the error for the pair (k, l). The poorness of fit or total inconsistency index (B) is (5) B (S l S k ) [max{ 0 , ( S k S l )}]
( k ,l )
( k ,l )
The objective is to find a solution (wj, aj*) with B minimal (B is +ve) with constrain G B = h. Where G is the goodness of fit or total consistency index associated with the solution (wj, aj*) and h is some arbitrary positive number. The value of h = 1 can be assumed for LINMAP model (Srinivasan, 1973).Now G, the goodness of fit or total consistency index is defined as (6) G ( S l S k ) [max{ 0 , ( S l S k )}]
( k ,l ) ( k ,l )
Now LINMAP model is Objective Function: s. t.
Minimize (B)
GB h;
w j 0 , a 0 j
(A)
Now for each pair (k, l) , a variable z kl (may be considered to be an artificial variable) is defined as z kl 0 and z kl S k S l , i.e. z kl max{0, S k S l } . So LINMAP model is Objective Function: Minimize z kl
( k ,l )
s. t.
S l S k z kl 0
GB h;
(B)
w j 0 , a 0 , z kl 0
Now, using Equation (13), the value of (G B ) obtained is

GB
( k ,l )
(S
n j 1
Sk )
j lj
( k , l )
(S
Sk )
( k ,l )
[( S
n j 1
S k ) (S l S k ) ]
n j 2 2 ( x lj x kj )
( k ,l )
(S
Sk )
(7) (8)
Sl Sk
w ( x
2
a j ) 2 ( x kj a j ) 2
2
2w
j 1
a j ( x lj x kj )
Now, let a klj ( xlj x kj ) , bklj 2( xlj x kj ) and V {v j } {[ w j a j ]} for (j = 1,2, , n). Substituting these values in Equation (8), we get
n n
Sl Sk
j 1
w j a klj
j 1
v j b klj
(9)
Combining Equations (7) and (9), the value of (G B ) obtained is
GB
( k , l )
(S l S k )
n n w j a klj v j bklj ( k ,l ) j 1 j 1
n ( k , l )
wj(
j 1
a klj ) v j (
j 1
( k ,l )
klj
(10)
Mostly, the attributes are of two types: beneficial and non-beneficial and ideal point is known. As * j = wj.aj and when ideal point is known as priory, the LINMAP model is
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Objective Function: s. t.
Minimize
n
( k ,l )
z kl
(C)
w
j 1
( a klj a j b klj ) z kl 0
w ( a
j j 1 ( k ,l )
klj
a*. j
( k ,l )
klj
) h;
w j 0 , z kl 0
There is a wide scope of LINMAP in decision making in the manufacturing environment as the applications of LINMAP found in the manufacturing field are almost nil. The next section describes the applications of LINMAP to two decision making problems of manufacturing environment. 3. 3.1. Examples Rapid prototyping process selection As a new technology that fabricates a 3D physical model from computer aided design (CAD) data using an additive process, rapid prototyping (RP) has been developed to reduce product development time and cost. In this example, the rapid prototyping (RP) process selection problem is taken from the case study conducted by Byun and Lee in 2005 [5]. The six RP systems are to be evaluated based on the six attributes: A: Accuracy (m), R: surface roughness (m), S: tensile strength (MPa), E: elongation (%), C: cost of the part and B: build time (Table 1). Now, various steps of the LINMAP methodology are carried out to this problem as follow: Step 1 Decision Matrix: The decision matrix is given in Table 1. The attributes C and B which are expressed in a fuzzy manner are quantified using fuzzy conversion scale (Table 2). By using fuzzy set theory, the value of the attributes (Ai) can be first decided as linguistic terms, converted into corresponding fuzzy numbers and then converted to the crisp scores. In this example, 11-point scale is considered to convert the languishing terms into crisp value [6].
Table 1 Decision matrix for Example 1
Alternative RP systems SLA3500 SLS2500 FDM8000 LOM1015 Quadra Z402 Attributes A 120 150 125 185 95 600 R 6.5 12.5 21 20 3.5 15.5 S 65 40 30 25 30 5 E 5 8.5 10 10 6 1 C VH VH H SH VH VVL B M M VH SL SL VL
Table 2 Value of RP process selection attribute [6]

Qualitative measure Exceptionally low Extremely low Very low Low Below average Average Above average High Very high Extremely high Exceptionally high Assigned value 0.045 0.135 0.255 0.335 0.410 0.500 0.590 0.665 0.745 0.865 0.955
Step 2 Normalized decision matrix: Beneficial (S and E ) and non-beneficial (A, R, C and B). The fuzzy terms are quantified using 11-point scale (Table 2) and values are normalized (Table 3).
Table 3 Normalized decision matrix for LINMAP analysis for Example 1
AlternativeRP systems SLA3500 SLS2500 FDM8000 LOM1015 Quadra Z402 A 0.950495 0.891089 0.940594 0.821782 1 0 R 0.828571 0.485714 0 0.057143 1 0.314286 S 1 0.583333 0.416667 0.333333 0.416667 0 E 0.444444 0.833333 1 1 0.555556 0 C 0 0 0.131148 0.254098 0 1 B 0.471154 0.471154 0 0.644231 0.644231 1
Step 3 Ideal point: It is the set of ideally desired value for attributes. It is: {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1}. Step 4 Euclidean distance: The weights were used by Byun and Lee (2005) for attributes are: 0.1113, 0.1113, 0.0634, 0.0634, 0.3253, and 0.3253. The weighted Euclidean distance (di) of alternatives are 0.6629, 0.6781, 0.8391, 0.5940, 0.6329 and 0.5389 respectively.
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Step 5 Paired comparison judgments: For this MADM problem, the total numbers of paired comparison judgments () are: m*(m-1)/2 = 6*(6 1)/2 = 15. = {(1,2), (1, 3), (4, 1), (5, 1), (6, 1), (2, 3), (4, 2), (5, 2), (6, 2), (4, 3), (5, 3), (6, 3), (4, 5), (6, 4), (6, 5)} LINMAP model:
Step 7 Solution: The problem is solved using MATLAB software. Optimal weights obtained are: wj*={0.163066, 0.203647, 0.053725, 0.126509, 0.425943, 0.027109} Step 8 Square distance of alternatives: Square distance of alternatives (for (k, l) are: Si = {0.478955, 0.502163, 0.571159, 0.450508, 0.472645, 0.439056}. Step 9 Ranking: The ranking of RP systems based on square distance of alternatives from the ideal point using LINMAP method is: 6 4 5 1 2 3. The ranking proposed by Byun and Lee [5] using modified TOPSIS method was: 6 4 5 1 2 - 3 The proposed LINMAP method is giving RP system Z402 as the best and LOM1015 as the second best. Ranking order obtained by LINMAP method is exactly same as given by Byun and Lee [5] using modified TOPSIS method. This shows the validity and applicability of proposed LINMAP methodology. 3.2 Selection of electroplating system There has been a rapid increase in the number of electroplating systems and electroplating manufacturers. Electroplating with vastly different capabilities and specifications are available for a wide range of applications, e.g., surface finishing, thickness maintaining, avoiding rusting, restoring dimension of under size parts, aesthetic, etc. In this example, the selection of electroplating system for ornamental purpose is taken from the case study conducted by Kumar and Agrawal in 2009 [7]. The purpose of electroplating is generally to alter the characteristics of a surface so as to provide improved appearance, ability to withstand corrosive agents, resistance to abrasion, or other desired properties or a combination of them. Decision matrix is given in Table 4, having both quantitative and fuzzy attributes. To convert linguishtic terms into crisp score, the five point scale [8] is used (Table 5). The weights used by Kumar and Agrawal [7] are: w1=0.1761, w2=0.2042, w3=0.2668, w4=0.1243, w5=0.2286.
Table 4 Decision matrix for Example 2
Electroplating 1- Silver 2- Gold 3- Lead 4- Rhodium 5- Nickel 6- Chromium 7- Platinum Hardness (HV) 350 250 150 400 550 600 580 Thickness (m) 20 25 30 20 30 35 30 Aesthetic Good Excellent Average Fair Poor Poor Good Adhesion Good Average Poor Average Fair Excellent Good Cost Medium High Low Medium Low Low High
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Table 5 Conversion of linguistic terms into fuzzy scores (5- point scale) [8]
Linguistic term Low /Poor Below average/Fair Average Above average/Good High/Excellent Fuzzy number M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 Crisp score 0.115 0.295 0.495 0.695 0.895
Now LINMAP method is applied to the problem and it is solved using MATLAB software. Optimal weights obtained are: wj* = {0.16942, 0.20176, 0.24836, 0.15585, 0.22461}. The square distance of alternatives calculated is: Si = {0.333939, 0.457756, 0.412999, 0.476483, 0.365087, 0.248360, 0.273938} and the ranking of alternative (based on Si) is: 6 7 1 5 3 2 4. Ranking proposed by Kumar and Agrawal [7] using spider diagram was: 7 6 2 1 5 4 3. Now on comparison of alternative electroplating 6 and 7, the four attributes are in favor of alternative 6, so alternative 6 should be preferred over alternative 7. Furthermore, the last choice proposed by LINMAP is alternative 4 , whereas proposed by Kumar and Agrawal [7] is 3. Now on comparing the decision matrix data of alternative electroplating 3 and 4, it is clear that alternative 3 is in better position having three attributes in its favor as compared to alternative 4 having only two attributes in its favor. Therefore, the proposed LINMAP method is giving better results. 4. Conclusions Selecting a best alternative is very important problem in manufacturing environment considering various multiple performance attributes having fuzzy and crisp data. This paper presents a fuzzy LINMAP method for solving MADM problems having both qualitative and quantitative data. Two MADM problems, Rapid prototyping process selection and electroplating system selection problems are solved using fuzzy LINMAP method. In the first problem (Rapid prototyping process selection), the 6 alternative rapid prototyping systems are ranked using fuzzy LINMAP method, which is exactly same as obtained by previous researchers using modified TOPSIS method. In the second problem (electroplating system selection), out of 7 alternative electroplating system, the best two alternatives proposed by the fuzzy LINMAP method are same as suggested by the previous researchers using spider diagram. With these two examples it is concluded that LINMAP method is efficient in solving MADM problems of manufacturing environment with fuzzy and crisp values of attributes. Acknowledgement Authors acknowledge the financial support provided by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India in carrying out the present research work. References [1] Yoon, K.P., Hwang C.L. Multiple Attribute Decision Making: An Introduction. SAGE Publications, Beverly Hills, California, 1995. [2] Saaty, T.L. Fundamentals of decision making and priority theory with the AHP. RWS Publications, Pittsburg, 2000. [3] Deng, J.L. Introduction to grey system theory. The Journal of Grey System, 1(1), 1989, 1- 24. [4] Srinivasan V. and Shocker A.D. (1973). Linear programming techniques for multidimensional analysis of preferences, Psychometrika, 38 (3) 337469. [5] Byun H.S. and Lee K.H. (2005). A decision support system for the selection of a rapid prototyping process using the modified TOPSIS method. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 26, 1338-1347. [6] Rao R.V. and Padmanabhan K. K. (2007). Rapid prototyping process selection using graphtheory and matrix approach. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 194, 81-88. [7] Kumar A,and Agrawal V.P. (2009). Attribute based specification, comparison and selection of electroplating system using MADM approach. Expert Systems with Applications, 36, 10815 10827. [8] Rao, R.V. Decision Making in the Manufacturing Environment Using Graph Theory and Fuzzy Multiple Attribute Decision Making Methods. Springer-Verlag, London, 2007.
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A Genetic Algorithm Approach for Minimizing Makespan in Job Cell Scheduling Problems
Seema Linggi, *C. Murali Krishna, A. Mandal and M. Chandrasekaran Department of Mechanical Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology (Deemed University), Nirjuli 791 109, ARP, India. Corresponding author (e mail: chimatamk@rediffmail.com) In Job shop environment, the path of the jobs from one machine to another for different operations is undedicated as there are varieties of products in batches and varying batch sizes. It becomes time consuming and a very costlier effort to change the shop layout every now and then as per the product variety requirement. If the products are to be manufactured in batches, cellular arrangement of machines is recommended in the literature as it reduces the transportation time. The objective of the research is to minimize the makespan and find out the allocation of various tasks of jobs to the job cells for a defined problem. Batch sizes of the jobs are taken into account and the weight given to jobs in the market are also considered. The jobs are processed in the descending order of their weights. As it may be difficult to obtain an optimal solution to these problems with conventional optimization methods owing to high computational complexity, genetic algorithm approach is proposed in this paper. The goal of this research is to minimize the makespan by using genetic algorithm method. A source code for the problem is developed in MATLAB by giving different weights to crossover and mutation operations. The input data required for the problem is developed by using simulation method and the results are presented. The results show that the makespan is minimum for a weight of 0.8 for crossover operation and 0.2 for mutation operation. 1. Introduction
Production scheduling deals with the efficient allocation of resources, such as, labour, material, and machine over time for the manufacture of goods. Scheduling problems arise whenever these resources must be used to make a variety of different products during the same period of time or involving same expenditure. Number of conventional techniques such as Gantt chart, Min-max method, Min-min method, Opportunistic line balancing, User directed assignment (UDA) etc., are available in the literature to solve scheduling problems effectively. However, as the problem size increases, computational time becomes large and often may not result in optimum solutions. This leads to application of new approaches to production scheduling problems involving a variety of pragmatic and theoretical considerations. The problem under consideration is a Job Cell Scheduling Problem (JCSP). The problem can be briefly stated as a scheduling problem in which a finite set of jobs are processed on a finite set of cells (group of machine) in order to minimize a given performance measure. Each job is characterized by a fixed order of tasks, each of which is to be processed in a specific cell (group of machines) for a specified duration. Each cell can process at most one job at a time and once a job initiates processing in a given cell, it must complete processing uninterrupted. Job shop scheduling is one of the most complicated combinatorial optimization problems [1] and the solution is context dependent. In addition to conventional techniques, meta heuristic algorithms, such as, Genetic Algorithm (GA)[2], Simulated Annealing (SA), Tabu Search (TS), Ant colony optimization (ACO) and particle swarm optimization (PSO)[3] are widely used by earlier researchers to get near optimal solution. According to Rezende [4], every search and optimization task have some common components i.e. search space, where all the possible solutions are considered and an evaluation or cost function, which is the way to evaluate the search space elements. Among the meta-heuristic algorithms, the Genetic
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Algorithm (GA), inspired by the process of Darwinian evolution [5], has been recognized as a general search strategy and an optimization method which is often useful for attacking combinatorial problems. In contrast to other local search methods such as simulated annealing and Tabu search, which are based on handling one feasible solution, the GA utilizes a population of solutions in its search, giving it more resistance to premature convergence on local minima [6]. The objectives of this research paper may be stated as follows: 1. To develop a mathematical model for Job Cell Scheduling Problem (JCSP) for varying operating times for the jobs, 2. To develop MATLAB codes to solve the JCSP using Genetic Algorithm method, and 3. To test the developed codes using simulated data to illustrate its effectiveness and performance. The research work is targeted to illustrate the effectiveness and performance of Genetic Algorithm to solve a hard combinatorial optimization problem like JCSP. This research is useful for job shop and batch type industries which may use cellular manufacturing systems. In addition to introduction, this paper has three more sections. Section-2 provides statement of problem in detail and section-3 describes application of GA for this problem. In section-4, results and discussions are explained. Conclusions are given in section-5. 2. Statement of the Problem Cellular manufacturing is a combination of two processes namely the efficiency of the flow process and the flexibility of the job shop process. It can be said as the hybrid of the two. It can be thought as a mixture of mini flow process called wok cells or simply cells, and a job shop operation. In this work, there are p cells arranged in parallel and m number of jobs to be processed in it. Each job i requires processing most of the n number of tasks in cells and on some more machines in batches. These n numbers of tasks are common for all the jobs and a cell is formed so as to process these n tasks together. These n tasks are processed th in p cells depending on the availability of the cell for a particular task of a job. Thus, j task th th of i job is processed in k cell. Jobs are processed one after another with a sequence from 1 to m and the tasks are performed one after another from 1 to n. 2.1 Assumptions The above formulation is made by using the following assumptions: 1. Job splitting is not allowed. The jobs are independent of each other i.e. it is necessary that a job should be processed only after the completion of some particular job. 2. Job release dates are not specified and numbers of tasks in a job are not restricted. 3. Jobs are being processed on unrelated parallel cells and cell repetition is considered 4. The batch size of the jobs of various kinds is one. 5. The sequence in which tasks are performed in a job is 1,2,3,n. 6. All the jobs are given equal importance. 7. The time TC (j, k) includes processing time, transportation time and handling time. 8. All the jobs have additional tasks other than those shown in the job-task matrix. 2.2 Mathematical Formulation of the Problem If we have processing times TC(j,k) for job i comprising tasks JT(i.j) on cell k, and job permutation = J1, J2, ..,Ji,. , Jn, then we can calculate the completion times R(i) = JT(i,j) for i=1,2,..n and j=1,2,..m (1) MAT(k) = MAT(k-1)+R(i) for i=1,2,n and k=1,2,..p (2) The makespan is calculated by the relation MAKESPAN () = Max (MAT (k)) (3) The objective function for the JSSP corresponds to the minimization of the makespan given in Eq. (3). Makespan is defined as the time difference between the start and finish of a sequence of jobs or tasks. 3. Solution by Genetic Algorithm (GA) Method
It is an Optimization technique and as in other optimization problems even here we are to maximize or minimize an objective function over a solution space of arbitrary dimension. The procedure used in GA is shown by using a flow chart in Figure-1.
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Customized MATLAB codes are written to execute the genetic algorithm for given problem. Reproduction options control how the genetic algorithm creates the next generation. The options are elite count, crossover fraction and mutation fraction. In this work, an elite count of 4% is selected and various combinations of cross over fraction and mutation fraction are tried.
Creation of Population of size 50 chromosomes Evaluation by using Fitness Function (makespan) Arrangement of Evaluated Populations by Ranking Method Crossover No Mutation by randomly exchanging the elem ents of data Generation of new populations Yes
Selection of the best Solution
Termination Criteria
Figure-1: Flow chart for GA methodology used for solving the defined problem 4. Results and Discussion 5. In this section, development of hypothetical data for processing times, results obtained by executing MATLAB code and statistical analysis are briefly explained. For development of hypothetical data, eight jobs, eight tasks in each job and eight cells for each task are considered. 4.1 Development of Hypothetical Data Hypothetical data has been developed by using the random number simulation. Random numbers are generated between 0 and 1 by using random number tables. For each of the processing time of a task in a cell, an upper and a lower bound values are selected. The task time is then calculated by using the formula. Task time = tmin+ R.N (tmax-tmin). A data matrix of size [m x n] is developed. R.N, tmin and tmax denote random number, minimum task time and maximum task time respectively. The matrix is not consistent in the sense that data in none of the columns dominates any other column. 4.2 Development of Semi-consistency Matrices To arrange the data in the form of semi-consistent matrices, we first check the consistency of the matrix. If all the elements of a particular column are greater than or equal to corresponding elements of another column, then the matrix is said to be consistent. As it is not possible to completely make the matrix completely consistent, some elements are interchanged; various combinations are used and adjusted to develop eight new semiconsistent matrices to use as data for eight jobs. One of the semi-consistent matrices is shown in Table-1. Table-1: Task-Cell Semi-consistency matrix for Job-1 Data
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 C1 162.152 295.437 13.455 60.616 38.468 59.016 68.702 78.63 C2 156.471 146.316 12.945 99.109 4.22 47.758 35.894 80.755 C3 11.824 91.371 10.53 36.892 29.748 44.004 21.68 71.27 C4 104.715 275.538 21.0325 93.502 22.296 59.708 36.74 92.205 C5 10.342 89.54 8.932 34.625 26.38 41.55 16.863 69.432 C6 132.74 159.357 7.8625 75.394 46.856 55.706 54.308 87.405 C7 9.485 80.96 6.453 30.321 19.072 40.045 14.586 65.392 C8 148.985 165.783 24.895 15.715 29.816 58.81 61.316 99.47
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4.3 Development of Job-Task matrix Table-2: Job-Task matrix for the problem Job-task matrices indicate the tasks involved in a particular job. Binary codes are used where in 1 indicate presence of a task and 0 indicate absence of a task in a job. The job-task matrix used in this research work is given in Table-2.
Task Job J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 T1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 T2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T3 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 T4 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 T5 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 T6 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 T7 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 T8 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
4.4 Development of MATLAB code MATLAB code is used to prepare the code for solving the problem described in above section where in, each job has different processing times. While developing code, Table-3 Sample Results obtained the crossover and mutation ratio is changed from 0 to 1 in the increments of 0.2 in order to find the optimum combination of cross Task 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 over and mutation. In addition to the Job variation in the crossover and mutation 1 3 7 4 1 8 4 6 5 functions, the number of iterations and 2 4 4 4 4 5 7 3 1 the population size are also changed 3 6 3 6 7 4 5 8 7 and their effect on the optimum value of 4 3 5 5 3 4 3 8 2 the objective function is studied. It is 5 1 2 8 1 7 2 4 5 found that the effect of the above two is 6 1 4 8 8 8 7 6 2 insignificant when compared to the 7 8 8 2 4 4 5 5 6 variation of cross over and mutation 8 7 6 1 6 6 1 1 2 functions. The results obtained for all the variations (shown as cases 1-6) used in the problem are presented in tables 1 to 6. The jobs are arranged row wise and the tasks are given column wise. The matrix element represents the cell number to which the task of a particular job is allocated. Results are given in Tables 3 and 4. Table-4 Results obtained for various combinations of crossover fractions Case-1: Cross over: 1 Mutation: 0 MAKESPAN = 507.0160 Case-4: Cross over: 0.4 Mutation: 0.6 MAKESPAN = 539.3760 Case-2: Cross over: 0.8 Mutation : 0.2 MAKESPAN = 493.0620 Case-5: Cross over: 0.2 Mutation : 0.8 MAKESPAN = 548.1850 Case-3: Cross over: 0.6 Mutation : 0.4 MAKESPAN = 525.5805 Case-6: Cross over: 0 Mutation : 1.0 MAKESPAN = 564.6160
From the above results, it may be seen that the makespan decreases when crossover fraction increases from 0 to 0.8 and then increases with further increase in the crossover fraction. It implies that optimum result is obtained for a crossover fraction of 0.8. The computation time is also less in this case as it takes 78 seconds of CPU time. The complexity of the problem can be further increases by increasing the number of jobs, tasks and cells in production environment. 5. Conclusions
It is observed that the makespan decreases when crossover fraction increases from 0 to 0.8 and then increases with further increase in the crossover fraction. It implies that optimum result is obtained for a crossover fraction of 0.8. In addition to the variation in the crossover and mutation functions, the number of iterations and the population size are also changed and their effect on the optimum value of the objective function is studied. It is found that the effect of the above two is insignificant when compared to the variation of cross over and mutation functions. The program is run for 200 times with crossover fraction fixed at 0.8 and found that the mean and standard deviation are statistically significant. However, in this work, it is assumed that the transportation time between the cells and within the shop
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environment is negligible in order to simplify the problem. The sequence of the tasks in each jobs were again taken such that second job can be loaded only after the first job. Future researchers can include transportation time for each task in a job and remodel the problem. It may further be complicated by allowing simultaneous machining of jobs in a cell. In addition to this, the importance given by the customer for each job and the batch size may be taken as a variable for representing the real life cases in industry. References [1] Fred Glover,Manuel Laguna. Tabu Search, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998. [2] Zhou, H et al. Minimizing weighted tardiness of job shop scheduling using a hybrid genetic algorithm, European Journal of Operations Research, 2008, doi:10:1016/j.ejor.2007.10.063. [3] J.Jerald, P.Asokan, G.Prabaharan, and R.Saravanan. Scheduling optimization of flexible manufacturing systems using particle swarm optimization algorithm. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2005, 25: 964-971. [4] RezendeSO. Sistemas inteligentes: Fundamentos e applicacoes, Manole, Barueri, Sao Paulo, 2006. [5] Godwin, V.B. Interactive scheduling: historical survey and state of the art," AIIE Transactions, 1978, 10(3):331-337. [6] S.O.Tasan and S. Tunali. A review of the current applications of genetic algorithms in assembly line balancing. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 2008, 19: 49-69.
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Dr. R. Venkata Rao

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S. V. National Institute of Technology

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ABOUT THE DEPARTMENT OF MECANICAL ENGINEERING

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INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

TF-4 TF-5 TF-6 TF-7 TF-8 TF-9 TF-10

TF-14 TF-15 TF-16 TF-17 TF-18

TF-19 TF-20 TF-21

TF-26 TF-27 TF-28 TF-29 TF-30 TF-31

TF-35 TF-36 TF-37

126 131 136 141 146 151

171 176 181

TF-39 TF-40 TF-41 TF-42 TF-43

191 196 201 206 211

TF-50 TF-51 TF-52 TF-53 TF-54 TF-55 TF-56

247 252 257 262 267 272 277

TF-59 TF-60 TF-61 TF-62 TF-63

293 298 303 307 312

TF-65 TF-66 TF-67

TF-71 TF-72 TF-73 TF-74

322 327 332

352 357 361

TF-79 TF-80 TF-81 TF-82 TF-83 TF-84 TF-85 TF-86

TF-88 TF-89 TF-90

TF-92 TF-93 TF-94

436 440 445

456 462 467

Design and Dynamics Stream

DD-3 DD-4 DD-5 DD-6

483 488 492 497

DD-7 DD-8 DD-9

502 507 512

DD-11 DD-12 DD-13 DD-14

522 527 532 537

DD-15 DD-16 DD-17 DD-18 DD-19 DD-20

542 546 551 556 561 566

DD-46 DD-47 DD-48

693 697 702

Production and Industrial Engineering Stream

PI-14 PI-15 PI-16 PI-17 PI-18 PI-19 PI-20 PI-21 PI-22

835 840 845 849 854 859 864 869 874

PI-41 PI-42 PI-43 PI-44 PI-45

968 974 979 984 989

PI-62 PI-63 PI-64 PI-65 PI-66 PI-67 PI-68 PI-69 PI-70

1073 1078 1083 1088 1093 1098 1103 1108 1113

Thermodynamic Analysis of R-404a/R-508b Cascade Refrigeration System

600 400 200 0 25 30 35 40 45 50

4 3 2 1 0 -90 -85 -80 -75 O -70 -65 -60 -55

(DSC and DSH)both=0

Fig.4 Effect of low temperature circuit condensing temperature on COP, RE and WD

700 600 500 400

Fig.5 Effect of temperature difference in cascade condenser on COP, RE and WD

0.67 0.65 0.63 0.61 0.59 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Fig.6 Effect of degree of subcooling and superheating on COP

Nusselt number (Nu)

Reynolds number (Re)