EINSTEIN

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Sir.C.V.Raman Nagar, Tirunelveli-12




Department of Computer Science and
Engineering

Subject Code: CS76


Computer Graphics Lab


Name :
Reg No :
Branch :
Year & Semester :




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Syllabus


CS76 COMPUTER GRAPHICS LABORATORY L T P 0 0 3 2

1. Implementation of Bresenhams Algorithm Line, Circle, Ellipse.
2. Implementation of Line, Circle and ellipse Attributes
3. Two Dimensional transformations - Translation, Rotation, Scaling, Reflection,
Shear.
4. Composite 2D Transformations
5. Cohen Sutherland 2D line clipping and Windowing
6. Sutherland Hodgeman Polygon clipping Algorithm
7. Three dimensional transformations - Translation, Rotation, Scaling
8. Composite 3D transformations
9. Drawing three dimensional objects and Scenes
10. Generating Fractal images





























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INDEX



Sl.No Date Experiment Name
Page
No.
Marks Sign.
1
Implementation of Bresenhams
Algorithm Line, Circle, Ellipse.

2
Implementation of Line, Circle
and ellipse Attributes

3
Two Dimensional transformations
- Translation, Rotation, Scaling,
Reflection,
Shear.

4 Composite 2D Transformations
5
Cohen Sutherland 2D line
clipping and Windowing

6
Sutherland Hodgeman Polygon
clipping Algorithm

7
Three dimensional
transformations - Translation,
Rotation, Scaling

8 Composite 3D transformations
9
Drawing three dimensional
objects and Scenes




10 Generating Fractal images

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EX NO:1a. Bresenhams Line Drawing Algorithm

AIM:
To write a C program to draw a line using Bresenhams Algorithm

ALGORITHM:

1. Input the two endpoints (x1,y1) and (x2,y2).
2. Plot the pixel value (x1,y1) with a specified color.
3. Calculate the value of dx and dy and find the starting value of decision
parameter as
dp=2*dy-dx;
4. Calculate the values of s1 and s2 depending on (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) values.
5. If dp<0, the next point to plot is (x,y+s2) and dp=+2*dy;
6. Otherwise the next point to plot is (x+s1,y+s2) and dp=dp+2*dx-2*dy.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 dx times.


































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EX NO 1b. Bresenhams Circle Drawing Algorithm

AIM:
To write a C program to draw a circle using Bresenhams Algorithm

ALGORITHM:
1. Input radius r and the midpoint of the circle (x,y) and obtain the first point on
the circumference for the circle as (0,r).
2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as p=1-r.
3. At each position check the following conditions.
a) If p<0 then x=x+1 and p+=2*x+1
b) Else y=y-1 and p+=2*(x-y)+1.
4. Determine symmetry points at the other seven octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position (x,y) onto the circular path centered on
(xc,yc) and plot the coordinate value as x=x+xc and y=y+yc.
6. Repeat step 3 until x<y.



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EX NO 1c. Bresenhams Ellipse Drawing Algorithm

AIM:
To write a C program to draw an ellipse using Bresenhams Algorithm

ALGORITHM:
1. Input
y x
r r , and the center of the ellipse ( )
c c
y x , and obtain the first point on
the ellipse centered on the origin as ( ) ( )
y
r y x , 0 ,
0 0
=
2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region1 as
2 2 2
0
4
1
1
x y x y
r r r r p + =
3. At each position
k
x in region 1 , starting at k=0,perform the following test.If
0 1 <
k
p the next point along the ellipse centered on (0,0) is ( )
k k
y x ,
1 +
and

2
1
2
1
2 1 1
y k y k k
r x r p p + + =
+ +
.
4. Otherwise the next point along the ellipse is ( ) 1 , 1 +
k k
y x and
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 1 1
y k x k y k k
r y r x r p p + + =
+ + +
with
2 2
1
2 2 2
1
2
2 2 2 , 2 2 2
x k x k x y k y k y
r y r y r r x r x r = + =
+ +
and continue until
y r x r
x y
2 2
2 2 > .
5. Calculate the initial position of the decision parameter in region 2 as
( )
2 2 2
0
2
2
0
2
0
1
2
1
2
y x x y
r r y r x r p +
|
.
|

\
|
+ = where ( )
0 0
, y x is the last position
calculated in region 1.
6. At each
k
y position in region 2, starting at k=0,perform the following test , if
0 2 >
k
p the next point along the ellipse centered on (0,0) is ( ) 1 ,
k k
y x and
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
x k x k k
r y r p p + =
+ +
.
7. Otherwise the next point along the ellipse is ( ) 1 , 1 +
k k
y x and
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2
x k x k y k k
r y r x r p p + + =
+ + +
.
8. Using the same incremental values for x and y as in region 1 ,continue until
y=0.
9. For both regions determine symmetry points along the other three quadrants.
10. Move each calculated pixel position (x,y) on to the elliptical path centered on
( )
c c
y x , and plot the coordinate values
c c
y y y x x x + = + = ,

QUESTIONS
1. Difference between DDA and Bresenham's line drawing algorithm
DDA uses float numbers and uses operators such as division and multiplication in its
calculation. Bresenhams algorithm uses ints and only uses addition and subtraction.
Due to the use of only addition subtraction and bit shifting (multiplication and
division use more resources and processor power) bresenhams algorithm is faster than
DDA in producing the line. Im not sure, though if i remember right, they still produce
the same line in the end.

2.What are the advantages of bresenhams algorithm?
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The main advantage of Bresenham's algorithm is speed. It uses only integer
addition/subtraction and bit shifting.


3.What are the disadvantages of bresenhams algorithm?
The disadvantage of such a simple algorithm is that it is meant for basic line drawing.

4.What is the drawback of DDA?
Time consuming

5. Define Computer graphics.
Computer graphics remains one of the most existing and rapidly growing computer
fields. Computer graphics may be defined as a pictorial representation or graphical
representation of objects in a computer

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EX NO 2 Implementation of Line, Circle and ellipse Attributes

AIM:
To write a program to draw a Line,circle,ellipse.


LINE DRAWING

FUNCTIONS USED:
Line()
line (x1,y1,x2,y2) :
Line function draws a line between two specified points (x,y) towards (x2,y2).This
function comes handy if you want to draw box like shapes or just plotting the graphs
etc.
e.g. line(100,50,100,400);
You can set the line style using setlinestyle functions. This function specifies the type
of line, pattern & the thickness that is going to appear on the screen. You have options
like solid,dotted,centered,dashed etc.

The other attributes with the command are as follows:
setlinestyle(style,0,1);SetLinetype(lt),setLinewidthScaleFactor(lw),sePolylinecolourIn
dex(lc)
Color palettes
The graphics.h has declaration about 16 colors.In order to use the color in your
program you have to use the functions like setcolor( ) ,setbkcolor( ) & setfillstyle(
).The function setcolor( ) sets the value of current drawing color to color.setfillstyle( )
sets the current fill pattern and fill color.setbkcolor( ) sets the value for background
color,which is by default black.
Below is the table that describes the value for each color that are declared in the
graphics.h file.
Color Value
Black 0
Blue 1
GREEN 2
Cyan 3
RED 4
MAGENTA 5
BROWN 6
LIGHTGRAY 7
DARKGRAY 8
LIGHTBLUE 9
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LIGHTGREEN 10
LIGHTCYAN 11
LIGHTRED 12
LIGHTMAGENTA 13
YELLOW 14
WHITE 15

CIRCLE DRAWING

FUNCTIONS USED:
Circle()

The function circle() is used to draw a circle using(x,y) as centre point.
Syntax:
circle (x,y,radius)

The other attributes with the command are as follows:
Setfillstyle(style,lc),setcolor(lc)

ELLIPSE DRAWING

FUNCTIONS USED:

ellipse (x,y,stangle,endangle,xrad,yrad) :
This function draws an elliptical arc. Here (x,y) are the co-ordinates of center of the
ellipse. (stangle,endangle) are the starting and ending angles. If stangle=0 and
endangle=360 then this function draws complete ellipse.

eg.ellipse(100,150,0,360,100,50);

The other attributes with the command are as follows:
setfillcolor(lc),setfillstyle(ls),setlinecolor(lc),setlinewidth(lw)

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Draw the line. Set the attributes like style,type,width etc.
Step 3: Draw the circle. Set the attributes using commands.
Step 4: Draw the ellipse . Set the attributes like fillcolour,fillstyle,linecolour,linewidth
Step 5: stop the program

QUESTIONS
1. What is scan conversion?
A major task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an
application program into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in the frame buffer.
This digitization process is called scan conversion.
2. Write the properties of video display devices?
Properties of video display devices are persistence, resolution, and aspect
ratio.
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3. What is rasterization?
The process of determining the appropriate pixels for representing picture or graphics
object is known as rasterization.
4. Name any four input devices.
Four input devices are keyboard, mouse, image scanners, and trackball.
5. Write the two techniques for producing color displays with a CRT?
Beam penetration method, shadow mask method
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EX NO 3 2D Transformations

AIM:
To write a C program to perform 2D transformations such as translation,
rotation, scaling, reflection and sharing.


ALGORITHM:
1. Input the object coordinates.
2. Translation
a) Enter the translation factors tx and ty.
b) Move the original coordinate position (x,y) to a new position
(x1,y1).ie. x=x+x1, y=y+y1.
c) Display the object after translation

3. Rotation
a) Enter the radian for rotation angle .
b) Rotate a point at position (x,y) through an angle about the origin
x1=xcos - ysin , y1=ycos + xsin .
c) Display the object after rotation

4. Scaling
a) Input the scaled factors sx and sy.
b) The transformed coordinates (x1,y1) , x1=x.sx and y1=y.sy.
c) Display the object after scaling

5.Reflection
Reflection can be performed about x axis and y axis.
a) Reflection about x axis : The transformed coordinates are x1=a and
y1=-y.
b) Reflection about y axis : The transformed coordinates are x1=x and
y1=y.
c) Display the object after reflection

6. Shearing
a) Input the shearing factors shx and shy.
b) Shearing related to x axis : Transform coordinates x1=x+shx*y
and y1=y.
c) Shearing related to y axis : Transform coordinates x1=x and
y1=y+shy*x.
d) Input the xref and yref values.
e) X axis shear related to the reference line y-yref is
x1=x+shx(y-yref) and y1=y.
f) Y axis shear related to the reference line x=xref is x1=x and
g) Display the object after shearing





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QUESTIONS
1 What is reflection?
The reflection is actually the transformation that produces a mirror image of an object.
For this use some angles and lines of reflection.
2. What are the two classifications of shear transformation?
X shear, y shear.
3. Name any three font editing tools.
ResEdit, FONTographer
4. What is bitmap?
Some system has only one bit per pixel; the frame buffer is often referred to as
bitmap.
5. What is point in the computer graphics system?
The point is a most basic graphical element & is completely defined by a pair of user
coordinates (x, y).

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EX.NO.4 Composite 2D Transformations


AIM:

To perform the 2D transformation such as translation, rotation, scaling,
shearing, Reflection

Global, Local and Composite Transformations

Transformation can be divided into two categories based on their scope: global and
local. In addition, there are composite transformations. A global transformation is
applicable to all items of a Graphics object. The Transform property of the Graphics
class is used to set global transformations.

A composite transformation is a sequence of transformations. For example, scaling
followed by translation and rotation is a composite translation. We can set up a matrix
for any sequence of transformation matrix by calculating the matrix product of
individual transformations forming these products is called composition. Multiply
matrices in order from right to left. Each successive transformation matrix
premultiplies the product of the preceding transformation matrices.


ALGORITHM:

1. Input the object coordinates.
2. Translation
a) Enter the translation factors tx and ty.
b) Move the original coordinate position (x,y) to a new position
(x1,y1).ie. x=x+x1, y=y+y1.
3. Rotation
d) Enter the radian for rotation angle .
e) Rotate a point at position (x,y) through an angle about the origin
x1=xcos - ysin , y1=ycos + xsin .
4. Scaling
d) Input the scaled factors sx and sy.
e) The transformed coordinates (x1,y1) , x1=x.sx and y1=y.sy.
5.Reflection
Reflection can be performed about x axis and y axis.
d) Reflection about x axis : The transformed coordinates are x1=a and
y1=-y.
e) Reflection about y axis : The transformed coordinates are x1=x and
y1=y.
6. Shearing
h) Input the shearing factors shx and shy.
i) Shearing related to x axis : Transform coordinates x1=x+shx*y
and y1=y.
j) Shearing related to y axis : Transform coordinates x1=x and
y1=y+shy*x.
k) Input the xref and yref values.
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l) X axis shear related to the reference line y-yref is
x1=x+shx(y-yref) and y1=y.
m) Y axis shear related to the reference line x=xref is x1=x and
y1=y+shy(x-xref)
7.Finally display the transformed object after the successive transformations.

QUESTIONS

1. What is Transformation?
Transformation is the process of introducing changes in the shape size and orientation
of the object using scaling rotation reflection shearing & translation etc.
2. What is translation?
Translation is the process of changing the position of an object in a straight-line path
from one coordinate location to another. Every point (x , y) in the object must under
go a displacement to (x|,y|). the transformation is: x| = x + tx ; y| = y+ty
3. What is rotation?
A 2-D rotation is done by repositioning the coordinates along a circular path, in the x-
y plane by making an angle with the axes. The transformation is given by: X| = r cos
(q + f) and Y| = r sin (q + f).
4. What is scaling?
A 2-D rotation is done by repositioning the coordinates along a circular path, in the x-
y plane by making an angle with the axes. The transformation is given by: X| = r cos
(q + f) and Y| = r sin (q + f).
5. What is shearing?
The shearing transformation actually slants the object along the X direction or the Y
direction as required. ie; this transformation slants the shape of
an object along a required plane.
6. What is reflection?
The reflection is actually the transformation that produces a mirror image of an object.
For this use some angles and lines of reflection.




















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EX NO 5 Cohen Sutherland 2D clipping

AIM:
To write a C program to perform cohen Sutherland 2D clipping and window
viewport mapping.

ALGORITHM
1. Enter the line end points and the window coordinates.
2. Every line end point is assigned a code that identified the location of the point
relative to the boundaries of the clipping rectangle.
3. Check whether the line lies inside the window then it is entirely drawn.
4. Check whether the line lies outside the window then it is entirely clipped.
5. Otherwise check whether the line intersects the window:
a) Calculate differences between end points and clip boundaries.
b) Determine the intersection point and how much of the line is to be
discarded.

QUESTIONS


1. What is pixmap?
Some system has multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred to as
pixmap.
2. Write the types of clipping?
Point clipping, line clipping, area clipping, text clipping and curve clipping.
3. What is meant by scan code?
When a key is pressed on the keyboard, the keyboard controller places a code carry to
the key pressed into a part of the memory called as the keyboard buffer. This code is
called as the scan code.
4. List out the merits and demerits of Penetration techniques?
The merits and demerits of the Penetration techniques are as follows
It is an inexpensive technique
It has only four colors
The quality of the picture is not good when it is compared to other techniques
It can display color scans in monitors
Poor limitation etc.
5. List out the merits and demerits of DVST?
The merits and demerits of direct view storage tubes [DVST] are as follows
It has a flat screen
Refreshing of screen is not required
Selective or part erasing of screen is not possible
It has poor contrast
Performance is inferior to the refresh CRT.







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EX NO:6 Sutherland Hodgeman Polygon clipping Algorithm
AIM
To write a program for implementing Sutherland Hodgeman Polygon clipping
Algorithm
ALGORITHM
The Sutherland - Hodgman algorithm performs a clipping of a polygon against each
window edge in turn. It accepts an ordered sequence of verices v1, v2, v3, ..., vn and
puts out a set of vertices defining the clipped polygon.

This figure represents a polygon (the large, solid, upward pointing arrow) before
clipping has occurred.
The following figures show how this algorithm works at each edge, clipping the
polygon.

a. Clipping against the left side of the clip window.
b. Clipping against the top side of the clip window.
c. Clipping against the right side of the clip window.
d. Clipping against the bottom side of the clip window.

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Four Types of Edges
As the algorithm goes around the edges of the window, clipping the polygon, it
encounters four types of edges. All four edge types are illustrated by the polygon in
the following figure. For each edge type, zero, one, or two vertices are added to the
output list of vertices that define the clipped polygon.

The four types of edges are:
1. Edges that are totally inside the clip window. - add the second inside vertex
point
2. Edges that are leaving the clip window. - add the intersection point as a vertex
3. Edges that are entirely outside the clip window. - add nothing to the vertex
output list
4. Edges that are entering the clip window. - save the intersection and inside
points as vertices

How To Calculate Intersections
Assume that we're clipping a polgon's edge with vertices at (x1,y1) and (x2,y2)
against a clip window with vertices at (xmin, ymin) and (xmax,ymax).
The location (IX, IY) of the intersection of the edge with the left side of the window
is:
i. IX = xmin
ii. IY = slope*(xmin-x1) + y1, where the slope = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
The location of the intersection of the edge with the right side of the window is:
i. IX = xmax
ii. IY = slope*(xmax-x1) + y1, where the slope = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
The intersection of the polygon's edge with the top side of the window is:
i. IX = x1 + (ymax - y1) / slope
ii. IY = ymax
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Finally, the intersection of the edge with the bottom side of the window is:
i. IX = x1 + (ymin - y1) / slope
ii. IY = ymin
QUESTIONS
1. What is run length encoding?
Run length encoding is a compression technique used to store the intensity values in
the frame buffer, which stores each scan line as a set of integer pairs. One number
each pair indicates an intensity value, and second number specifies the number of
adjacent pixels on the scan line that are to have that intensity value.
2. What is point in the computer graphics system?
The point is a most basic graphical element & is completely defined by a pair of user
coordinates (x, y).
3. Write short notes on lines?
A line is of infinite extent can be defined by an angle of slope q and one point on the
line P=P(x,y). This can also be defined as y=mx+C where C is the Yintercept.
4. Define Circle?
Circle is defined by its center xc, yc and its radius in user coordinate units. The
equation of the circle is (x-xc) + (y-yc) = r2.
5. What are the various attributes of a line?
The line type, width and color are the attributes of the line. The line type include solid
line, dashed lines, and dotted lines.


























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EX NO 7 3D Transformations

AIM:
To write a C program to perform 3D transformations such as translation
rotation and scaling.

ALGORITHM:
1. Translation
a) A point is transferred from position (x,y,z) to position (x1,y1,z1) with
the matrix operation
X1 1 0 0 tx x
Y1 = 0 1 0 ty y
Z1 0 0 1 tz z
1 0 0 0 1 1
b) The values are x1=x+tx ,y1=y+ty and z1=z+tz.
c) Display the translated object
2. Rotation
a) Coordinate axes rotation
X1=x-cos -ysin
Y1=xsin +ycos
Z1=z
b) Y axis rotation
Z1=zcos -xsin
X1=zsin +xcos
Y1=y
c) X axis rotation
Y1=ycos -zsin
Z1=ysin +zcos
X1=x
d) Display the rotated object
3. Scaling
a) Translate the fixed point to the origin
b) Scale the object
c) Translate the fixed point back to its original position.
d) Display the scaled object


QUESTIONS
1. What is fixed point scaling?
The location of a scaled object can be controlled by a position called the fixed point
that is to remain unchanged after the scaling transformation.
2. What is Bezier Basis Function?
Bezier Basis functions are a set of polynomials, which can be used instead of the
primitive polynomial basis, and have some useful properties for interactive curve
design.
3. What is surface patch?
A single surface element can be defined as the surface traced out as two parameters
(u, v) take all possible values between 0 and 1 in a two-parameter representation.
Such a single surface element is known as a surface patch.
4. Define B-Spline curve?
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A B-Spline curve is a set of piecewise(usually cubic) polynomial segments that pass
close to a set of control points. However the curve does not pass through these
control points, it only passes close to them.
5. What is a spline?
To produce a smooth curve through a designed set of points, a flexible strip called
spline is used. Such a spline curve can be mathematically described with a piecewise
cubic polynomial function whose first and second derivatives are continuous across
various curve section.
6. What are the different ways of specifying spline?
Using a set of boundary conditions that are imposed on the spline.
Using the state matrix that characteristics the spline
Using a set of blending functions that calculate the positions along the curve path by
specifying combination of geometric constraints on the curve






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EX NO 8 Composite 3D Transformation

AIM:
To write a program to perform composite 3D Transformation.

Composite transformation
Here we multiply the matrix representations for the individual operations in the
transformation sequence. This concatenation is carried out from right to left. A
sequence of 3 basic transformation is carried out to produce the composite
transformation
ALGORITHM

1. Translation
a) A point is transferred from position (x,y,z) to position (x1,y1,z1) with
the matrix operation
X1 1 0 0 tx x
Y1 = 0 1 0 ty y
Z1 0 0 1 tz z
1 0 0 0 1 1
b) The values are x1=x+tx ,y1=y+ty and z1=z+tz.
2. Rotation
a) Coordinate axes rotation
X1=x-cos -ysin
Y1=xsin +ycos
Z1=z
b) Y axis rotation
Z1=zcos -xsin
X1=zsin +xcos
Y1=y
c) X axis rotation
Y1=ycos -zsin
Z1=ysin +zcos
X1=x
3. Scaling
a) Translate the fixed point to the origin
b) Scale the object
c) Translate the fixed point back to its original position
4. Finally display the object after the sequence of transformation

QUESTIONS
1.Define Projection?
The process of displaying 3D into a 2D display unit is known as projection. The
projection transforms 3D objects into a 2D projection plane
2. What are the steps involved in 3D transformation?
Modeling Transformation
Viewing Transformation
Projection Transformation
Workstation Transformation
3. What do you mean by view plane?
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A view plane is nothing but the film plane in camera which is positioned and oriented
for a particular shot of the scene.
4. Define projection?
The process of converting the description of objects from world coordinates to
viewing coordinates is known as projection













































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Ex NO 9 Drawing three dimensional objects and Scenes

AIM
To draw 3D objects and scenes

ALGORITHM:
1. Parallel Projection
a) Enter the boundary coordinates of the object.
b) Define the direction of the projection line.
c) Align the projection plane so that it intersects each coordinate axis in
which the object is defined at the same distance from the origin.
d) The projection is perpendicular to the view plane
e) If the view plane is placed at position Z1 along the z axis , then any
point (x,y,z) in viewing coordinates is transformed to projection
coordinates xp=x and yp=y.
2.Perspective Projection
a) Enter the boundary coordinates of the object.
b) Define the projection reference point and thus the direction of the
projection lines.
c) The projected view is obtained by transforming points along projection
lines that meet at the projection reference point.
d) Calculate the intersection of the projection lines with the view plane.
e) Parallel lines in the object that are not parallel to the plane are
projected into converging lines.
f) Parallel lines that are parallel to the view plane will be projected as
parallel lines.

QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by Perspective projection?
Perspective projection is one in which the lines of projection are not parallel. Instead,
they all converge at a single point called the center of projection.
2. What is Projection reference point?
In Perspective projection, the lines of projection are not parallel. Instead, they all
converge at a single point called Projection reference point.
3. What you mean by parallel projection?
Parallel projection is one in which z coordinates is discarded and parallel lines from
each vertex on the object are extended until they intersect the view plane.
4. What is tweening?
It is the process, which is applicable to animation objects defined by a sequence of
points, and that change shape from frame to frame.
5.Define frame?
One of the shape photographs that a film or video is made of is known as
frame.
6. What is key frame?
One of the shape photographs that a film or video is made of the shape of an object is
known initially and for a small no of other frames called keyframe
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EX NO 10 Generating Fractal images

AIM: To generate fractal images.

ALGORITHM


The sierpinski triangle-A fractal image
1.The sierpinski Triangle is created by infinite removals
2.Each triangle is divided into 4 smaller upside down triangles
3.The center of the 4 triangles is removed
4. As the process is iterated infinite number of times, the total area of the
set goes to infinity as the size of the each new triangle goes to zero
5.After closer examination magnification factor is 2.
6.With each magnification there are 3 divisions of a triangle
Dimension D=ln(3)/ln(2)
D=1.5850


QUESTIONS

1.What is a fractal image
Fractal is "a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into parts, each of
which is (at least approximately) a reduced-size copy of the whole,"
[1]
a property
called self-similarity.
2. Define the following:
(i) X-height (ii) Set (iii) Kerning
X-height: The X-height is the measurement of the height of the character
X, in other words of the middle bit without any ascender or descender.
(ii) Set: The width of the letters is called the set and is fixed relative to the
point-size.
(iii) Kerning: The spaces between letters in one world (tracking) can be
adjusted in a process called kerning.
3. Define the following respective to sound:
(i) Waveform (ii) Frequency (iii) Amplitude
i) Waveform
Sound is produced by the vibration of matter. During the vibration pressure variation
are created in the air surrounding it. The pattern of the oscillation is called a
waveform.
(ii) Frequency
The frequency of the sound is the reciprocal value of the period. It represents the
number of period s in a second and it is measured in Hertz
(Hz) or cycles per second.
(iii) Amplitude
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A sound also has amplitude. The amplitude of a sound is a measure
of the displacement of the air pressure wave from its, or quiescent state.
4. Define quantization (or) resolution?
The resolution (or) quantization of a sample value depends on the number of bits used
in measuring the height of the waveform. An 8-bit quantization yields 256 possible
values, 16-bit CD-qudra quantization results in over 65536 values.
5. What are the types of sound objects that can be used in multimedia production?
There are four types of sound objects that can be used in multimedia production:
_ Waveform audio
_ MIDI sound tracks
_ Compact disc (CD) audio
_ MP3 files
6.What are the applications of fractal image?
Produces visual effect. Hence used in film industry
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