manajemen Dari Wikipedia, ensiklopedia bebas Manajemen di semua kegiatan bisnis dan organisasi adalah tindakan membuat orang

bersama-sama untuk mencapai tujuan yang diinginkan dan tujuan menggunakan sumber daya yang tersedia secara efisien dan efektif. Manajemen terdiri dari perencanaan, pengorganisasian, staf, memimpin atau mengarahkan, dan mengendalikan sebuah organisasi (kelompok dari satu atau lebih orang atau entitas) atau upaya untuk tujuan mencapai tujuan. Meliputi sumber daya penyebaran dan manipulasi sumber daya manusia, sumber daya keuangan, sumber daya teknologi dan sumber daya alam. Karena organisasi dapat dipandang sebagai sistem, manajemen juga dapat didefinisikan sebagai tindakan manusia, termasuk desain, untuk memfasilitasi produksi hasil yang berguna dari sistem. Pandangan ini membuka kesempatan untuk 'mengelola' diri sendiri, pra-syarat untuk mencoba untuk mengelola orang lain. Sejarah Kata kerja mengelola berasal dari maneggiare Italia (untuk menangani - terutama alat), yang pada gilirannya berasal dari bahasa Latin manus (tangan). Para mesnagement Kata Perancis (kemudian mnagement) mempengaruhi perkembangan dalam arti manajemen kata Inggris pada abad 17 dan 18. [1] Beberapa definisi manajemen adalah: Organisasi dan koordinasi kegiatan perusahaan sesuai dengan kebijakan tertentu dan dalam pencapaian tujuan jelas. Manajemen sering dimasukkan sebagai faktor produksi bersama dengan mesin, bahan dan uang. Menurut guru manajemen Peter Drucker (19092005), tugas dasar manajemen adalah dua: pemasaran dan inovasi. Direksi dan manajer memiliki kekuasaan dan tanggung jawab untuk membuat keputusan untuk mengelola perusahaan suatu saat diberi wewenang oleh pemegang saham. Sebagai suatu disiplin ilmu, manajemen terdiri dari fungsi saling merumuskan kebijakan perusahaan dan pengorganisasian, perencanaan, pengendalian, dan mengarahkan sumber daya perusahaan untuk mencapai tujuan kebijakan. Ukuran manajemen dapat berkisar dari satu orang dalam sebuah perusahaan kecil untuk ratusan atau ribuan manajer di perusahaan multinasional. Dalam perusahaan besar direksi merumuskan kebijakan yang dilaksanakan oleh chief executive officer. [Sunting] Ruang lingkup Teoritis Pada awalnya, satu pandangan manajemen fungsional, seperti mengukur kuantitas, menyesuaikan rencana, pertemuan tujuan. Hal ini berlaku bahkan dalam situasi perencanaan tidak terjadi. Dari perspektif ini, Henri Fayol (1841-1925) [2] menganggap manajemen terdiri dari enam fungsi: peramalan, perencanaan, pengorganisasian, memimpin, mengkoordinasikan dan mengendalikan. Dia adalah salah satu kontributor

paling berpengaruh pada konsep manajemen modern. Cara lain berpikir, Mary Parker Follet (1868-1933), yang didefinisikan manajemen sebagai "seni mendapatkan sesuatu melalui orang". Dia digambarkan sebagai filosofi manajemen. [3] Beberapa orang, bagaimanapun, menemukan definisi ini berguna tetapi terlalu sempit. Ungkapan "manajemen adalah apa yang manajer lakukan" terjadi secara luas, menunjukkan kesulitan mendefinisikan manajemen, sifat pergeseran definisi dan sambungan praktek manajerial dengan eksistensi kader manajerial atau kelas. Salah satu kebiasaan manajemen berpikir dianggapnya sebagai setara dengan "administrasi bisnis" dan dengan demikian tidak termasuk manajemen di tempat di luar perdagangan, seperti misalnya dalam amal dan dalam sektor publik. Lebih realistis, bagaimanapun, setiap organisasi harus mengelola pekerjaan, orang-orang, proses, teknologi, dll untuk memaksimalkan efektivitas. Meskipun demikian, banyak orang merujuk ke departemen universitas yang mengajarkan manajemen sebagai "sekolah bisnis." Beberapa institusi (seperti Harvard Business School) menggunakan nama itu sementara yang lain (seperti Yale School of Management) mempekerjakan istilah yang lebih inklusif "manajemen." Penutur bahasa Inggris juga dapat menggunakan "manajemen" istilah atau "manajemen" sebagai kata kolektif menggambarkan manajer dari suatu organisasi, misalnya dari suatu perusahaan. Historis ini penggunaan istilah itu sering dikontraskan dengan "Buruh" istilah untuk mereka yang dikelola. [Sunting] Sifat pekerjaan manajerial Dalam mencari keuntungan kerja, manajemen telah sebagai fungsi utamanya kepuasan dari berbagai pemangku kepentingan. Hal ini biasanya melibatkan membuat keuntungan (bagi pemegang saham), menciptakan produk senilai dengan biaya yang wajar (untuk pelanggan) dan menyediakan kesempatan kerja bermanfaat (bagi karyawan). Dalam manajemen nirlaba, menambahkan pentingnya menjaga iman donor. Dalam kebanyakan model manajemen / tata kelola, pemegang saham suara untuk dewan direksi, dan dewan kemudian merekrut manajemen senior. Beberapa organisasi telah bereksperimen dengan metode lain (seperti karyawan-voting model) memilih atau meninjau manajer, tetapi ini hanya terjadi sangat jarang. Di sektor publik negara-negara dilantik sebagai demokrasi perwakilan, pemilih memilih politisi untuk jabatan publik. Politisi seperti mempekerjakan banyak manajer dan administrator, dan di beberapa negara seperti Amerika Serikat ditunjuk politik kehilangan pekerjaan mereka pada pemilihan presiden baru / Gubernur / Walikota. [Sunting] Sejarah pengembangan Kesulitan timbul dalam melacak sejarah manajemen. Beberapa melihatnya (dengan definisi) sebagai konseptualisasi modern akhir (dalam arti modernitas akhir). Pada istilahistilah itu tidak dapat memiliki sejarah pra-modern, hanya pertanda (seperti pelayan).

Lain, bagaimanapun, mendeteksi manajemen-seperti-pikir kembali ke pedagang Sumeria dan pembangun piramid Mesir kuno. Pemilik budak selama berabad-abad menghadapi permasalahan eksploitasi / memotivasi tenaga kerja yang bergantung namun terkadang tidak antusias atau bandel, tapi banyak perusahaan pra-industri, mengingat skala mereka yang kecil, tidak merasa terdorong untuk menghadapi isu-isu manajemen sistematis. Namun, inovasi seperti penyebaran angka Arab (5 untuk abad 15) dan kodifikasi dari double-entry pembukuan-(1494) disediakan alat untuk manajemen, perencanaan penilaian dan kontrol. Mengingat skala operasi komersial yang paling dan kurangnya mekanik pencatatan dan perekaman sebelum revolusi industri, masuk akal bagi sebagian besar pemilik perusahaan di saat-saat untuk melaksanakan fungsi manajemen oleh dan untuk diri mereka sendiri. Tapi dengan ukuran pertumbuhan dan kompleksitas organisasi, perpecahan antara pemilik (individu, dinasti industri atau kelompok pemegang saham) dan hari-hari manajer (spesialis independen dalam perencanaan dan pengendalian) secara bertahap menjadi lebih umum

Early writing
While management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a background of works that assisted in modern management theories.[4] [edit] Sun Tzu's The Art of War Written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War is a military strategy book that, for managerial purposes, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.[4] [edit] Chanakya's Arthashastra Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra around 300BC in which various strategies, techniques and management theories were written which gives an account on the management of empires, economy and family. The work is often compared to the later works of Machiavelli. [edit] Niccol Machiavelli's The Prince Believing that people were motivated by self-interest, Niccol Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513 as advice for the city of Florence, Italy.[5] Machiavelli recommended that leaders use fearbut not hatredto maintain control. [edit] Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations aims for efficient organization of work through Specialization of labor.[5] Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While

individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.[5]

[edit] 19th century

Classical economists such as Adam Smith (17231790) and John Stuart Mill (1806 1873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (17651825), James Watt (17361819), and Matthew Boulton (17281809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production. By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (18421924), Lon Walras (18341910), and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881.

[edit] 20th century

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first management consultant of the "Japanesemanagement style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance. The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (18411925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (18911973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo (18801949), Mary Parker Follett (18681933), Chester Barnard (18861961), Max Weber (18641920), Rensis Likert (19031981), and Chris Argyris (1923 - ) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker (19092005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (18901962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations. Some of the more recent developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as group management theories such as Cog's Ladder. As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management. Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely:

Human resource management Operations management or production management Strategic management Marketing management Financial management Information technology management responsible for management information systems

[edit] 21st century

In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management. Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship. Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism. As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers,

each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majority support to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-andcontrol organization structures remain commonplace and the de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control can be seen in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels. In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses after laying off level workers.[6] According to leading leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, it's almost inevitable these days that there will be some personality disorders in a senior management team.[7]

[edit] Topics
[edit] Basic functions
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/directing, controlling/monitoring and motivation.

Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next five years, etc.) and generating plans for action. Organizing: (Implementation)pattern of relationships among workers, making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans. Staffing: Job analysis, recruitment and hiring for appropriate jobs. Leading/directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it. Controlling/monitoring: Checking progress against plans. Motivation: Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because without motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation does not take place in an organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually set by top-level management).

[edit] Basic roles

Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees. Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information. Decisional: roles that require decision-making.

[edit] Management skills

Political: used to build a power base and establish connections.


[8]

Conceptual: used to analyze complex situations. Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate. Diagnostic: the ability to visualise most appropriate response to a situation .

[edit] Formation of the business policy

The mission of the business is the most obvious purposewhich may be, for example, to make soap. The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination. The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain task is aimed. The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees. The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managers decide on what type of business they want to form.

[edit] Implementation of policies and strategies

All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff. Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies. A plan of action must be devised for each department. Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly. Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes. Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level managers. A good environment and team spirit is required within the business. The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analysed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission. The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment. A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.

All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is required in the execution of any departmental policy.

Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency, get the

vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don't let up, and make change stick.[9] [edit] Policies and strategies in the planning process

They give mid- and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization. A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made. Mid- and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategic ones.

[edit] Levels of management

Most organizations have three mangement levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.[10] [edit] Top-level managers Consists of board of directors, president, vice-president, CEOs, etc. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They develop goals, strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the direction of the business. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources and are accountable to the shareholders and general public. According to Lawrence S. Kleiman, the following skills are needed at the top managerial level. [11]

Broadened understanding of how: competition, world economies, politics, and social trends effect organizational effectiveness .

[edit] Middle-level managers Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance. Some of their functions are as follows:

Designing and implementing effective group and intergroup work and information systems.

Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators. Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among work groups. Designing and implementing reward systems supporting cooperative behavior.

[edit] First-level managers Consist of supervisors, section leads, foremen, etc. They focus on controlling and directing. They assigning employees tasks, guide and supervise employees on day-to-day activities, ensure quality and quantity production, make recommendations, suggestions, and upchanell employee problems, etc. First-level managers are role models for employees that:

Basic supervision. Motivation. Career planning. Performance feedback.

[edit] See also

Main article: Outline of business management

Scientific management Human relations movement Strategic management Total quality management

[edit] References
1. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2. ^ Administration industrielle et gnrale - prvoyance organization commandment, coordination contrle, Paris : Dunod, 1966 3. ^ Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People by Richard Barrett - Business & Economics - 2003. - Page 51. 4. ^ a b Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York, New York USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 19. ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2. 5. ^ a b c Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York, New York USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 20. ISBN 978-0-07-302743-2. 6. ^ Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill Bonus Case Widens as Deal Struggles. Wall Street Journal. [1] 7. ^ Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries The Dark Side of Leadership - Business Strategy Review 14(3), Autumn Page 26 (2003).

8. ^ Kleiman, Lawrence S. "Management and Executive Development." Reference for Business: Encyclopedia of Business (2010): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar 2011. [2]. 9. ^ Kotter, John P. & Dan S. Cohen. (2002). The Heart of Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing. 10. ^ Juneja hu Juneja, FirstHimanshu, and Prachi Juneja. "Management." Management Study Guide. WebCraft Pvt Ltd, 2011. Web. 17 Mar 2011.[3]. 11. ^ Kleiman, Lawrence S. " MANAGEMENT AND EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT."Reference for Business:Encyclopedia of Business(2010): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar 2011