Temperature

and

Heat
Heat is a form of energy associated with changes in temperature and phase change.

Temperature
Temperature is qualitatively described as having to do with the hotness or coldness of an object. It is related to the average kinetic energies of the molecules of an object. It is important to remember that hot and cold are relative concepts. An object is considered hot when

its temperature is greater than some reference temperature. An object is considered cold when its temperature is less than some reference temperature.

Temperature
The two common temperature units or Temperature Scales are Celsius Scale (e.g. 20C, 50C) and Fahrenheit Scale (e.g. 20F, 50F). 9 TF = TC + 32 5 Another temperature scale is the Kelvin Scale (e.g. 50K, 100K), the Absolute Temperature Scale for the Metric System.

TK = TC + 273 .15

Temperature
At Absolute Zero (T = 0K), the lowest temperature in the Kelvin Scale, a system of molecules has its minimum possible energy. A Temperature Interval occurs when the temperature of an object changes or when there is a difference in temperature between two objects.

While temperature is written down like 20C, a temperature interval is written down like 20C.
A system in a state of Thermal Equilibrium has the same temperature as its environment.

Thermal Expansion
Most materials have been observed to expand when their temperatures increase (and contract when their temperatures decrease). This phenomenon is called Thermal Expansion. Linear Expansion
LO = original length L = new length L = L LO = change in length T = change in temperature = coefficient of linear expansion

L = LO T
LO L

Thermal Expansion
Area (Surface or Cross-Section) Expansion
AO = original area A = new area A = A AO = change in area = coefficient of area expansion T = change in temperature

A = AO T

Volume Expansion
VO = original volume V = new volume V = V VO = change in volume = coefficient of volume expansion T = change in temperature

V = VO T

Thermal Expansion
The coefficient of expansion, whether linear, area, or volume, is constant for a material and has a unit of K1 (= (C)1). Each material has its own set of

linear, area, and volume coefficients of expansion. Any holes in the object expand or contract with the object. It is better to think of it as replacing the
object with a bigger or smaller version of itself.

= 2
3 = 3 = 2

Example 1
A copper rod is initially at 20.0C. At what temperature will its length be 0.1% larger than it is at 20.0C? The coefficient of linear expansion of copper is 1.7 x 105 K1.

LO

= 0.1% = 0.001
5 1 5

copper = 1.7 x 10 K = 1.7 x 10

Ti = 20C T = T f Ti

(C )

L = copper LO T = copper LO (T f Ti ) T f Ti =

copper LO

Example 1 (cont.)
Tf = 1

copper

L + Ti LO

1 (0.001) + 20C = 1 1.7 x 105 (C ) = 78.82352941C

Tff = 78.824C = 351.974K T = 78.824C = 351.974K

Example 2
A glass flask whose volume is 1,000.0 cm3 at 0.0C is completely filled with mercury at this temperature. When flask and mercury are warmed to 55.0C, 8.95 cm3 of mercury overflow. If the coefficient of volume expansion of mercury is 18 x 105 K1, compute the coefficient of volume expansion of the glass.

VO1 = 1,000 cm = initial volume of flask

3

VO 2 = 1,000 cm 3 = initial volume of mercury Ti = 0C T f = 55C

5 1

mercury = 18 x 10 K

= 18 x 10

(C )

Example 2 (cont.)
V2 V1 = 8.95cm V1 = VO1 + V1 V2 = VO 2 + V2 VO 2 + V2 VO1 V1 = 8.95cm V2 V1 = 8.95cm V1 = glassVO1T V2 = mercuryVO 2 T T = T f Ti = 55C 0C = 55C mercuryVO 2 T glassVO1T = 8.95cm
3 3 3 3

Example 2 (cont.)
glassVO1T = mercuryVO 2 T 8.95cm
3

glass =

mercuryVO 2 T 8.95cm
VO1T
5

(18 x 10 =

(C )

(1,000cm )(55C )
3

)(1,000cm )(55C ) 8.95cm

3

glass = 1.727 x 105 (C)1 glass = 1.727 x 105 (C)1

Quantity of Heat
Heat is the energy that is transferred from one system to another due solely to the temperature difference between the two systems; in contrast, no such energy is transferred between two systems that are in thermal equilibrium with each other (i.e. they have the same temperature). Heat is often referred to as energy in transition as it is not considered to be contained within objects or systems. No object possesses or contains heat

energy!

Quantity of Heat
The direction of heat transfer is typically from hot to cold. It takes a certain amount of work to reverse the direction of heat transfer (i.e. from cold to hot) (consider air conditioners and freezers). Heat can either change the temperature of an object or change the phase of an object. Heat loss can result in the decrease of the objects temperature or it can result in a gas becoming liquid (condensation) or a liquid becoming solid (freezing).

Quantity of Heat
Heat gain, on the other hand, can result in the increase of the objects temperature or it can result in a solid becoming liquid (melting) or a liquid becoming gas (boiling or evaporation). The unit of quantity of heat is the calorie, defined as the amount of energy required to raise the

temperature of 1g of water from 14.5C to 15.5C.

1 calorie = 1cal = 4.186 J 1 food calorie = 1Cal = 1kcal = 1,000cal = 4,186 J 1 British thermal unit = 1Btu = 256cal = 1,055 J

Specific Heat Capacity

When a certain amount of heat dQ is associated with an infinitesimal change in temperature dT (whether increase or decrease) of an object of mass m, dQ is related to dT as follows:

dQ dT dQ m dQ mdT

dQ = mcdT Q = mcT

dQ c=m dT

c = specific heat capacity of the material of the object = a property of the material of the object = varies by less than 1% between 0C and 100C

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific Heat Capacity, or simply Specific Heat, describes how well a material converts heat into a change in temperature (or vice versa). Objects

with smaller specific heat are easier to increase than objects with bigger specific heat.
Q = positive = heat gain T = positive Q = negative = heat loss T = negative cwater = 4,190 J kg K = 1cal g C cice = 2,100 J kg K = 0.501cal g C

Phase Change
When an object gains or losses energy in the form of heat, it may undergo a Phase Change or Phase Transition under the right conditions. Heat of Fusion, Lf A solid object will melt when it gains a certain amount of heat while it is at its Melting Point temperature. A liquid object will freeze when it loses a certain amount of heat while it is at its Freezing Point temperature.

Tmelting = T freezing

Phase Change
Q = mL f
m = mass of the object Lf = heat of fusion of the material of the object Q = + = heat gain = solid-to-liquid transition Q = = heat loss = liquid-to-solid transition

L f water ice = 334 10 J kg

3

Twater freezing = 0C = 273.15 K = 32 F Tice melting = 0C = 273.15K = 32 F

Phase Change
Heat of Vaporization, Lv A liquid object will vaporize when it gains a certain amount of heat while it is at its Boiling Point temperature. A gaseous object will condense when it loses a certain amount of heat while it is at its Condensation Point temperature.

Tvaporization / boiling = Tcondensation

Twater boiling = 100C = 373.15 K = 212 F Twater vapor condensation = 100C = 373.15 K = 212 F

Phase Change
Q = mLv
m = mass of the object Lv = heat of vaporization of the material of the object Q = + = heat gain = liquid-to-gas transition Q = = heat loss = gas-to-liquid transition

L f water ice = 334 10 J kg

3

T 100C

Temperature change & phase change do not occur at the same time. Either the temperature changes or the phase changes.

0C t

Calorimetry
Calorimetry literally means measuring heat. It is the study of heat measurement, particularly in terms of how heat gain and heat loss leads to changes in temperature and phase of objects in a system. Calorimetry is grounded on the Conservation of Energy Principle.

Q gain + Qloss = 0

mc T + ( mL ) = 0

Example 1
A nail being driven into a board increases in temperature. If we assume that 60% of the kinetic energy delivered by a 1.80-kg hammer with a speed of 7.80 m/s is transformed into heat that flows into the nail and does not flow out, what is the temperature increase of an 8.00-g aluminum nail after it is struck ten times? caluminum = 910 J/kgK

v = 7 .8 m s Q = 0.6(KE tot ) KE tot

mhammer = 1.8kg caluminum = 910 J kg K

mnail = 8 g = 0.008 kg

1 2 2 = 10 mhammer v = 5(1.8kg )(7.8 m s ) 2

Example 1 (cont.)
Q = 0.6(547 .56 J ) = 328 .536 J Q = mnail caluminum T Q 328 .536 J T = = mnail caluminum (0.008 kg )(910 J kg K ) = 45 .12857143 K KE tot = 547 .56 J

T = 45.129K = 45.129C T = 45.129K = 45.129C

Example 2
An ice-cube tray of negligible mass contains 0.350 kg of water at 18.0C. How much heat must be removed to cool the water to 0.0 C and freeze it? Express your answer in joules, calories, and Btu.

mwater = 0.350kg

T = 0C 18C = 18C = 18 K L f :water = 3.34 x 105 J kg

cwater = 4,190 J kg K

Qgain + Qloss = 0 Qgain + mwater cwater T mwater L f :water = 0 Qgain = mwater cwater T + mwater L f :water = 143,297 J

Qgain = 1.433 x 105 JJ = 3.423 x 104 cal Qgain = 1.433 x 105 = 3.423 x 104 cal = 135.827 Btu = 135.827 Btu

Example 3
A copper pot with a mass of 0.500 kg contains 0.170 kg of water at a temperature of 20.0C. A 0.250-kg block of iron at 85.0 C is dropped into the pot. Find the final temperature, assuming no heat loss to the surroundings. ccopper = 390 J/kgK, ciron = 470 J/kgK

m pot = 0.500 kg

mwater = 0.170 kg

mblock = 0.250 kg

T1 = 20 C = 293 .15 K c copper = 390 J kg K c iron = 470 J kg K

T2 = 85 C = 358 .15 K cwater = 4,190 J kg K

Qgain + Qloss = 0 m pot ccopper (T f T1 ) + mwater cwater (T f T1 ) + mblock ciron (T f T2 ) = 0

Example 3 (cont.)
m pot ccopper T f m pot ccopper T1 + mwater cwater T f mwater cwater T1

(m

+ mblock cironT f mblock cironT2 = 0

pot copper

+ mwater cwater + mblock ciron )T f =

m pot ccopper T1 + mwater cwater T1 + mblock cironT2 Tf = m pot ccopper T1 + mwater cwater T1 + mblock cironT2 m pot ccopper + mwater cwater + mblock ciron

57 ,164 .25 J + 208 ,810 .745 J + 42,082 .625 J = 195 J K + 712 .3 J K + 117 .5 J K

Tff = 300.603K =27.453C T = 300.603K =27.453C

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

There are 3 mechanisms by which heat is transferred: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. Heat Conduction The mechanism of heat conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact. For example, if you hold an iron crowbar on one end and put the other end of the crowbar in direct contact with fire, the your end will eventually get hotter and hotter even though it is not in contact with fire.

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Consider a rod, the ends of which have different temperatures TH and TC, wherein TH > TC. The Heat Transfer Rate or Heat Current, H, defined as the amount of heat transferred per unit time, is then:
H = heat current through the object dQ A = cross-section area of the object H= dt L = length of the object TH = temperature of the hot side of the object TC = temperature of the cold side of the object A k = thermal conductivity of the material TH The unit for heat current is: 1 J/s = 1 watt = 1 W

TH TC = kA L
L TC

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

When heat flows through two different materials in succession, the heat current H is the same for both H H materials.
1 2

H1 = H2

On the other hand, if there is two (or more) parallel heat flow paths, the total heat current H is the sum of heat currents passing through the two H heat flow paths.
1

H = H1 + H2
H2

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Heat Radiation Radiation refers to the transfer of heat through the motion of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves include visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared light. Radiation is the mechanism through which energy in the form of heat travels from the Sun to Earth. All objects emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. For example, objects emit infrared waves at ordinary temperatures.

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Heat current via radiation is:

H = AeT

H net = H emit H absorb = AeT

4 obj

AeT

4 surroundin g

A = total surface area of the object = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67051 x 108 W/m2K4 T = temperature of the radiating body in Kelvin e = emissivity of the material of the object 0e1 e = 0 = perfect reflector of heat e = 1 = ideal black body = perfect emitter and absorber of heat

Example 1
One end of an insulated metal rod is maintained at 100C, and the other end is maintained at 0C by an ice-water mixture. The rod is 60.0 cm long and has a cross-section area of 1.25 cm2. The heat conducted by the rod melts 8.50 g of ice in 10.0 minutes. Find the thermal conductivity of the metal rod.

TH = 100C

TC = 0C

L = 60cm = 0.6m m = 8.5 g = 0.0085kg

5

A = 1.25cm 2 = 0.000125m 2 t = 10min = 600 s Q = mL f :water

L f :water = 3.34 x 10 J kg

TH TC Q H = = kA L t

Example 1 (cont.)
mL f : water TH TC = kA L t mL f : water L At (TH TC )

k=

(0.0085kg )(3.34 x 105 J kg )(0.6m ) = 2 (0.000125m )(600s )(100C )

= 227.12W m C

k = 227.12 W/mC =227.12 W/mK k = 227.12 W/mC =227.12 W/mK

Example 2
The emissivity of tungsten is 0.35. A tungsten sphere with a radius of 1.50 cm is suspended within a large evacuated enclosure whose walls are at 290 K. What power input is required to maintain the sphere at a temperature of 3,000 K if heat conduction along the supports is neglected?

e = 0.35

r = 1.5cm = 0.015 m A = 4r T
4 walls 2

Twalls = 290 K

Tsphere = 3,000 K = Ae T

4 4 H total = H emit H absorb = AeTsphere AeTwalls

4 sphere

= 4,544 .955573W

P = 4,544.956 W P = 4,544.956 W