PREFACE

Teaching as a profession has been universally recognized and accepted as a science and an art. Throughout the ages, it has been practiced by professionals in the field of education as such. A more serious look at its effects on the population being taught, points to a greater emphasis on the methodologies and various ways of imparting knowledge to the young. They search for the facts and information through natural explorations and systematic inquires that lead to inductive and deductive reasoning. So much attention and discussions have been given to the ways of teaching rather than the personal dimensions that facilitate learning. The tremendous influence of the values and attitudes that affect the absorption and assimilation of ideas is relegated to the sides. The qualities and traits of teachers that create the emotional and intellectual climate conducive to learning are not given due recognition. This compilation was written with a strong belief and conviction that teaching is more of an art than a science. As an art it highlights the human-to-human nature of the teaching process. As a science the thoughts and actions about teaching adhere to logical step-by-step procedures which may not easily carried on if the more facilitative attributes of teachers are not elicited to open the gates towards learning.

INTRODUCTION

Teaching, in traditional usage, simply means giving instruction. The act of teaching is akin to tutoring or training. It is interchangeably used to mean educating as schooling. Some use the term pedagogy. Teaching as a profession assumes different meanings and definitions depending on the practitioners ultimate goal. Pursued as a lifetime career, some take it as a solemn vow to offer enduring love and care for the betterment of the countrys youth. Some are impassioned to share their acquired knowledge and developed skills to equip the citizenry towards literacy and enlightenment. Aimed at molding childrens minds and hearts, teaching is pursued as a lifetime career with passion. Others are moved by compelling life plan to guide the learning, growth and advancement of children who are entrusted to their tutelage. Still others accept it as the best means of livelihood leading to a comfortable lifestyle and economic growth. Those with a strong sense of nationalism feel duty bound to develop, through their teaching, love of country, civic mindedness and respect for their fellow men. For s long as teaching is identified as ones chosen, vocation or profession, all endeavors in terms of time, effort and unwavering dedication are guaranteed to bring forth the fruition of their dreams and aspirations, definitely a self-fulfilling and a crowning lifetime achievement to cherish. In the end, successful teaching develops a characteristic culture of a caring-and-sharing outlook and a passion for learning about life and the world.

Modes of Instruction

Theory of Instruction

Jerome Bruner, another psychologist who supports cognitive theories of learning, is more emphatic than Ausubel in terms of the developmental aspects of learning and its implications for teacher.

An Understanding of Bruners Theory of Instruction depends on an understanding of three related matters:

a. Modes of Learning b. Functions of Categorization c. Principles of Instruction Modes of Learning

Three modes of learning are:

1. Enactive 2. Iconic 3. Symbolic Enactive Mode of Learning is a way of learning by doing, by acting, by imitating and manipulating objects. This is the ode most often used by young children.

Iconic Mode of Learning involves the use of image or pictures. This mode becomes increasingly important as a child grows and is encouraged to learn concepts and principles that are not easily demonstrated.

Symbolic Mode of Learning is nearly synonymous with learning through the use of the written and spoken word.

Functions of Categorization

Categorization can be defined as a process of organizing and integrating information with other information that has been learned earlier.

Five disadvantages of being able to classify events in terms of conceptual categories (according to Bruner, 1956)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Classification helps to simplify the environment Classification helps us find similarities Classification eliminates the needs for constant relearning Classification allows eliciting a given behavior under many different conditions. Classification improves our ability to relate object and events. Principles of Instruction

Burners theory of instruction is characterized by four major principles related to motivation, structure, sequence and reinforcement. Principles of motivation emphasizes that learning depends on the learners state or readiness or predisposition towards learning. Principles of Structure stresses that learning can be increased by selecting modes of instruction that fit the learners level of cognitive development and level of understanding.

Principles of Sequence states that the ordering of content influence the ease where the learning takes place.

Principles of reinforcement emphasizes that responding favorable to a person affects that person later behavior.

Evaluating Lesson
Is where the teacher evaluates if the learner had learned through giving test or participation. Levels of Learning Outcomes Knowledge This refers to the acquisition of facts, concepts and theories. Comprehension refers to the same concept as understanding of facts and principles, interpretation of materials. Application refers to the transfer of knowledge from one field of study to another or from one concept to another concept in the same discipline. Analysis refers to the breaking down of concept or idea into its components and explaining the concept as composition of these concepts. Synthesis refers to the opposite of analysis and entails putting together the components in order to summarize concept or principle. Evaluation refers to the valuing and judgment or putting together the worth of a concept or principle.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Appropriate Assessment Tools and Techniques Two major issues to consider when choosing on Assessment tools. 1. Direct measure are those in which the products of student work area evaluated in light of learning outcomes of the program. 2. Indirect measure are not based directly on student academic work but rather on the perception of the student. Appropriate Assessment Techniques 1. Concept Test one or more questions are presented during class involving key concepts, doing with several possible answers. 2. Mathematical Thinking are designed to promote and assess thinking skills in mathematics, specially helping students recognize and solve problems that arent identical to the ones they saw in the book. 3. Minute Test are concise, written answer by students (individually or in groups).

School Services
A. Office of the Counseling and Guidance (OCG) (Human resources and Development Center) 1. Objectives a. Helps the pupils/students with the teachers cooperation to develop his/her skills and talents to the fullest, thus become a productive citizen. b. Helps students/pupils have positive emotional and mental attitudes so as to develop a wholesome relationship and feeling towards others and to his/her own self. c. Provides pupils/students profession guidance and counseling to form sound and acceptable mental and social necessary for healthy development. d. Provides pupils/students the information and guidelines necessary for career choice. e. Assists the pupils/students in his/her Christian formation. 2. Services to Students a. Individual inventory services. b. Testing services. c. Counseling formation services. d. Follow up service through home visitation. e. Pear counseling training program. f. Services to school personnel. 1. for instructional staff Counseling and information services. 2. for the administration Information services Research and evaluation B. Library The library plays a vital role in helping students find materials to help them carry out assignment, task and researches. C. Medical/ Dental 1. Medical A school physician is available to attend student with minor ailments. 2. Dental A school dentist is available to give dental services to students with minor dental problem.

D. Office of the Cashier 1. Responsible for the collection of fees and payments from the students. 2. Dispose statement of account of students before every period of time. 3. Issues statement of account to students who want to avail of a scholarship from a company or prospective agent. E. Office of the Registrar 1. Serves as the repository of all students records. 2. Determines admission/enrolment requirements. 3. Plans and executes registration procedure in coordination with proper school authorities. 4. Informs students of records deficiencies and enforce graduation requirements. 5. Makes request for transferees and as certain compliance thereof. 6. Attends to promote compliance of requests for permanent records (form 137), certification. Grades, eligibility to transfer, diplomas, annuals and other pertinent paper.

Teaching Method Lardizabel, et.al (1991) state that the concept of method is probably as old as education itself. A. Inductive Method Induction is simply defined as the process of arriving at a given generalization. It starts from the known to unknown, from the specific to the general, from the particular to the universal, from the simple to the complex, and from the concrete to the abstract. 5 Steps of the Inductive Method 1. Preparation 2. Presentation 3. Comparison and Abstraction 4. Generalization 5. Application B. Deductive Method Is a process of starting with a generalization and arriving at a specific statement or conclusion namely; one which is not applicable to a class of the deductive method. Steps of the Deductive Method 1. Introduction 2. Statement of generality 3. Explanation of a general idea 4. Illustration 5. Evaluation C. Integrated Method Process or practice of combining different elements and presenting them as one unifying whole. 1. lecture discussions 2. demonstration lecture 3. film showing discussion 4. reporting discussion 5. inductive deductive D. Lecture Method It is a teaching method procedure for explaining and clarifying. Steps of the Lecture Method 1. Preparation 2. Introduction of the Lecture. 3. Giving the body of the Lecture. 4. Conclusion of the Lecture.
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E. Type study Method It is an inductive procedure except that they only one case is studied. Steps of the Type study Method 1. Selection of the topic. 2. Apperception and Motivation 3. Statement of a typical case. 4. Study of details. 5. Comparing details. 6. Generalization F. Problem Method - gives direction to a discussion and prevents wandering off the topic. - it stimulates reflective, thinking and furnishes a guide for organizing ideas. Steps of the Problem Method 1. The selection of the subject matter to be studied. 2. Apperception and Motivation 3. The model or a typical case that will be studied of comparison. 4. Study of details. 5. Comparison of details and other characteristics with the model. 6. Generalization G. Project Method It is significance, practical unit of activity of a problematic nature, planned and carried to completion by the student in a natural manner and involving the use of physical materials to complete the unit of experience. Types of Project 1. Construction 2. Employment 3. Problem 4. Learning Another Classification of Project 1. Physical on material 2. Learning 3. Intellectual or problem

Steps of the Project Method 1. Purposing 2. Planning 3. Executing 4. Evaluating H. Laboratory Method Is a teaching procedure dealing with firsthand experiences regarding materials of facts obtained from investigation or experimentation. Types of Laboratory method 1. Experimental 2. Observational Steps in Laboratory method 1. Introduction step for orientation and motivation. 2. Work of period. 3. Culminating activities. I. Demonstration Method - Basically the showing method. - it is a learning method through imitation. - Sometimes called the imitative method. Steps in Demonstration Method 1. Purposing 2. Planning 3. Demonstration proper 4. Executing 5. Evaluation J. Expository Method Is closely akin to the showing of telling method. Steps of the Expository Method 1. Approach 2. Presentation 3. Application K. Morrisonian Technique or Unit Method Process of taking the contests of a particular subject as big blocks and not as isolated and fragmentary bits of information.

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Steps in Unit Method 1. Exploration 2. Presentation 3. Assimilation 4. Organization 5. Recitation

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Approaches in Teaching Introduction Aside from personal and professional characteristics, the student teachers have to acquire mastery various teaching approaches, strategies and methods of teaching. A teaching profession is a term that indicates the nature of teaching learning situation. It indicates how teaching is to be conducted and how learning is to be acquired. It is also a procedure that employs a variety of strategies to access better understanding and effective learning. 1. Conceptual approach is the process of deriving ideas, rules, concepts, principles or generalizations from a given set related facts. (According to Garcia) It is not a particular teaching method with specific steps to follow. 2. Problem Solving approach is a teaching approach that employs the scientific method in searching information. This approach is used most often in science and mathematics classes. 5 Basis Steps of the Scientific Method Sensing and defining the problem. Formulating hypothesis. Testing the likely hypothesis. Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence. Formulating conclusion. Advantages of Problem Solving Approach It is not effective in developing skill in employing the science process. Develop higher level thinking skills. The students become appreciative and grateful for the achievement of scientists. The student learns to accept the opinion and evidence shared by others. It is a general procedure in finding solution to daily occurrences. 3. Brain Based approach Includes: 1. Authentic Problem solving 2. Using projects to increase meaning and motivation. 3. Simulations and role plays as meaning makers. 4. Classroom strategies using visual processing. 5. Songs, jingles, and raps. 6. Mnemonics strategies assist student in recalling important information. 7. Writing strategies it makes students write their own problems and make them ask their classmates to solve them.
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8. Active review review days are planned and organized to give enough time for students to prepare for the having of a review. 9. Hands on activities.

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Private Schools
Private school also known as independent school or nonstate school, are not administered by local, state or national agreement. Ex. Harvest Christian School International (HCSI) Located at Cebu City. Mission: Partnering with parents to aid them in their God given responsibility to train up their child in a Godly and responsible manner. Vision: HCSI strive to develop discerning individuals who are spiritually equipped, academically competitive and globally aware of any cultural differences. Goal: HCSI help parents with choices of meeting individual needs of each individual child in the way the parents best see fit. Teaching method one on one method where the teacher instructs a number of individual students at different levels. Assessment Tool: The school incorporates individual and group projects to stimulate the development, creative and imaginative thought of the student which also leads to self discipline. Instructional Program: Traditional/ Conventional Academic Program where students grouped together by chronological grade level progress seldom experienced by all students in such program. Grading System Grade Equivalent 1.5 - 1.0 95 - 100 Superior 2.0 1.6 90 - 94 Very Good 2.5 2.1 85 - 89 Good 3.0 2.6 80 - 84 Average 3.5 3.1 75 - 79 Passing 5 Below 75 Failure

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W Official withdrawal from subject. D (5.0) Dropped with failure due to violation attendance policies and prescribed procedures on withdrawal. Support to Student Learning 1. Student Support Office aims to complement the academic programs in the promotion of human and Christian Education of the gospel values. - Offer student related services aimed at developing the total personality of the student. 2. Campus Ministry Center aims to foster holistic development of the students giving them opportunity to share time, talent and treasure in service Christ as displayed through the school community and society. Students are provided with the opportunities for: a. Spiritual formation through retreats and recollections (as per schedule) and paraliturgical services. b. Involvement in the Diocesan activities.

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Six Methods of Teaching

Introduction Methods that matter agrees passionately that teaching does matter and that the methods teachers employ not only affect students achievement but also condition the quality of human relationships in the classroom and beyond. Teaching methods do matter with reference to the current national standards of teaching and learning in each of the main curriculum fields. So there are six key teaching methods or structures used by teachers who are reaching for new standards. 1. Integrative Units Asserts the importance of dissolving traditional subject matter boundaries and engaging students in broad, lifelike, interdisciplinary inquiries. Describe a continuum of thematic teaching that runs from common teacher created units on topics of perennial interest to students all the way to purely negotiated curriculum, where students, questions become starting point for extended investigations that may or may not be back mapped to content area or mandates. 2. Small Group activities Teachers who are reaching for new standards must have ways of descent rating the classroom, making it smaller, enlisting students, peer, and teachers, forming a variety partnerships, teams and task forces. Collaborative Teamwork Skills are just as important as basic academic skills in helping people succeed as workers, citizens and parents. 3. Representing to learn In traditional schooling, the students job was to receive: to sit still, absorb and somehow remember information being transmitted by the teacher. Students to engage deeply in the ideas of the curriculum, they need to act upon its content (talking, writing, drawing, dramatizing, singing, and dancing the ideas they encounter. 4. Classroom Workshop The workshop is both a metaphor and a model for turning classrooms into learning laboratories. In the ancient crafts workshops, the teacher was a master craftsperson. In contemporary classrooms, we borrow the workshop metaphor to create writing workshops, science workshops, and other workshops across the curriculum.

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5. Authentic Experiences Successful teachers have ways of making school real. They open the classroom door both ways bringing the world into the school and getting the kids out. 6. Reflective Assessment Teachers, who are reaching for new standards, systematically help students to become self assessors. They are helping them to learn to run their brains.

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Teaching Categories and Models of Teaching

This study focuses on the use of and rated importance of four basic categories of teaching models provided by a large sample of Saskatchewan teachers. 1. Information Processing Model are those which characterize the mission of education as a facilitation of cognitive development. 2. Personal Instruction Models - characterize the mission of education as one that assists people in developing their personal potential as human being. 3. Social Interaction Model - it is associated with the social interactions which are focused on developing concepts and skills needed to work in group. 4. Behavioral Models the focus of the methods associated with this category is on observable skills and behaviors. Process Approach The process approach teaches student how to acquire skills. Process approach is a powerful way of organizing and managing activities to create value for the customer and other interested parties. The process approach utilizes the principle of learning by doing.

Problem Solving Method Problem solving method is a sophisticated form of trials and error learning, providing the students a chance to learn from their successes and failures. Five Basic Steps in Problem Solving method Selecting the problem. Defining the problem. Searching for clues. Hypothesizing and solving the problem. Testing the proposed solution. Inquiry Method Sometimes know as the Inquiry education, it is a student centered method of education focused on asking questions. The method was advocated by Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner in their book Teaching as a subversive Activity

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Discover Method Discover method is a teaching technique that encourages students to take a more active role in their learning process by answering a series of questions or solving problems designed to introduce a general concept. Three principles guided Jerome Bruners Consideration should be given to experienced and contexts There should be a spiral organization of the material forcing students to build upon previously acquired information. The instruction should facilitate extrapolation. Three levels of Guidance in Teaching Pure discovery Guided discovery Expository

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Fieldtrip
A. Fieldtrip It is a journey by a group of people to a place away from their normal environment. The purpose of the trip is usually observation for education and non experimental research. Things to consider before having a Fieldtrip 1. Location. Select the location of class fieldtrips based on the topics covered in the classroom. 2. Making the connection. Creating a strong connection for the students between the fieldtrip and classroom study increases the educational value of the activity. 3. Extension activities. Plan classroom activities to extend the learning of the fieldtrips. B. Demonstration - A method of teaching by example rather than explanation. - use the demonstration or doing method to teach skills. Characteristics of an Effective Demonstration It is clear. It is complete. It gains confidence. C. Question and Answer It is the initial recognition that learning takes place when students are verbally as well as intellectually involved in the educational situation. Principles for Improving Questions and Answers 1. Plan in advance. 2. Look out for the teachable moment. 3. Gives the students the question ahead of time. 4. Ask questions understandable to the student. 5. Direct the question to the whole class. 6. Reinforce the response. The 5Es in Teaching 1. Engage This phase of 5Es starts the process. 2. Explore This phase of the 5Es provides with a common based of experiences. They identify and develop concepts and skills. During this phase, students actively explore their environment or manipulate materials.
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3. Explain This phase of the 5Es helps the students explain the concepts they have been exploring. They have opportunities to verbalize their conceptual understanding or to demonstrate new skills or behaviors. 4. Elaborate This phase of the 5Es extends the students conceptual understanding or to demonstrate and allows them to practice skills and behaviors. Through new experiences, the learners develop deeper and broader understanding of major concepts, obtain more information about areas of Interest and refine their skills. 5. Evaluate This phase of 5Es encourages learners to assess their understanding and abilities and lets teachers evaluate students understanding of key concepts and skill development.

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The Ground Lund Instructional Model Ground Lund (1974) views the instructional model as a systematic approach to the teaching learning process and as a method of appraising and improving instruction. His instructional model consists or four components namely: 1. Specify Objectives Specifying instructional objectives in measurable (or behavioral) terms classifies the type of student performance that is expected to result from the instruction. 2. Administer Pretest The pretest helps to determine the (1) whether the students have the prerequisite knowledge and skills needed to profit from the instruction, and (2) what students entry levels of achievement are on the intended learning outcomes. 3. Provide Instruction The instructional process provides the teaching acts and learning experiences that enable students to achieve the intended learning outcomes. 4. Evaluate Outcomes Evaluation of the final outcomes of instruction can be used to determine the extent to which student performance meets the standards that have been set or to determine the amount of learning gain that has taken place. Such results provide. Feedback to the students concerning their learning strengths and weaknesses, Information for making needed revisions in the objectives, content, methods and materials of instructions, and Information for use in an accountability program. Specify Objectives Administer Pretest Provide Instruction Evaluate Outcomes

Feedback to student Improve instruction

Accountability purpose

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Project Method
Introduction According to traditional historiography, the project idea is a genuine product of the American Progressive education movement. The idea has thought to have originally been introduced in 1908 as a new method of teaching agriculture, but educator William H. Kilpatrick elaborated the concept and popularized it worldwide in his famous article The Project Method (1918). More recently, Michael Kroll has traced the project of method to architectural education in sixteenth century Italy and to engineering education on eighteenth century France. This illustrates that the project of the architect like the experiment of the scientist; the sandbox exercise of the staff officer, and the case study of the jurist originated in the professionalization of an occupation. Project method is an educational enterprise in which children solve a practical problem over a period of several days or weeks. The method is based in progressive education, is child centered, and is in used by teachers worldwide to this day. Four classes of Projects devised by Kilpatrick for his method Construction Enjoyment Problem Specific learning Two basic approaches for implementing the project method 1. Historically Older approach the student take two steps.

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Instructional Objectives
Lesson 1 Introduction Using the Pre reading strategy, students brainstorm ways in which the earths surface can change. Ask students to share their responses and record them on the overhead, chalkboard or chart paper. Show students the PowerPoint presentation. Discuss and elaborated on the ideas presented during the brainstorming. Students revisit their brainstorming to add, delete or modify ideas. Then, students generate a list of questions they have about the ways in which the Earths surface is changing. Encourage students to discover the answers to the questions on their list as they complete the unit. Lesson 2 Instruction, large group and independent practice Introduce the major concepts of the unit by sharing the Inspiration Map. Distribute copies to the students. Using the survey technique, students complete a preview of the chapter from the textbook on constructive and destructive forces. Students complete the reading from the text. After students have completed the reading, they create a graphic organizer to differentiate between constructive and destructive forces. Lesson 3 Checking for understanding and small group practice Student examines the vocabulary from chapter by completing a Feature Analysis matrix on constructive and destructive forces. When a group of students has completed the matrix, conference with the group to check if students have obtained a clear understanding of constructive and destructive forces. Students create an electronic image collage using images from the American Memory collection. Lesson 4 Instruction and independent practice Students complete a pre - reading activity in which they identify with a story character to introduce ways in which human activities have affected Earths surface. Students then read the article from the American memory collection on conservation in the Progressive Era. Lesson 5 Unit Assessment Students will complete the Web Quest activity in which they investigate ways that human activities have affected Earths surface. Students will then evaluate the measures taken to control the impact, to conserve natural resources and/or repair environmental damage.

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Instructional Method Madeline Hunters Model Developed a teacher decision making model for planning. Her model is called ITIP (Instructional Theory Into Practice). Three Categories which considered basic to ITIP lesson design: 1. Content 2. Learners Behaviors Direct Instruction The framework of planning, the teacher increases his or her effectiveness. Seven Elements the Teacher needs to consider 1. Learning Objectives select an objective at an appropriate level of difficulty and complexity. 2. Anticipatory Set motivate instruction by focusing the learning task, its importance or the prior knowledge or experience of the learners. 3. State the lesson objective(s) to the students. 4. (Input) Indentify and teach main concepts and skills emphasizing clear explanations. 5. Check for understanding. 6. Provide guided practice. 7. Assign independent practice. The following questions are from Madeline Hunter and can guide in making questions. 1. What instructional input in needed? 2. What type of modeling will be most effective? 3. How will I check for understanding? Some ways of determining when and how? 1. Sampling means posing questions to total group, allowing them time to think and then calling in class members representative. 2. Signaled response 3. Group Choral Response this method usually does not give information about individuals. 4. Individual Private Response a brief written or whispered to teacher response makes students accountable for demonstrating possession of, or progress toward, achievement of the needed information or skills. 4. How will I design guided/monitored practice?
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3. Teacher Behaviors

5. What independent practice will cement the learning? 6. Should the students be made aware of the lesson objectives and its value? 7. What anticipatory set will focus students on the objective?

Rosenshine Model Classroom instruction Name and define specific events of instruction that would be included in your model of direct instruction and give an example of a teacher behavior and a student behavior. Direct instruction Most often used measures of student learning are scores on standardized test of basic skills. Seven events of Rosenshines Model of Direct instruction 1. Provide overview. 2. Review, checking previous days work. 3. Present new content and skills. 4. Initial student practice, checking for understanding, feedback and correctives. 5. Independent practice. 6. Frequent test. 7. Homework; weekly, monthly review. Transactional Model of Direct Instruction focuses on the interactions of teachers and students.

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Developing a Lessons
Instructional planning

-This involves the preparation necessary to meet the individual needs of the classroom members. A lesson evaluation is included to show the ability to interpret goal, strengths, and weaknesses of a lesson plan. -It also provides several opportunities for assessment of the students, understanding of the concepts that are being presented and the effectiveness of the teaching. Organizing the learning content - It is most focused on the information, meaningful information helps to comprehend and retain the content as well as helping them quickly find the content they need. - In organizing learning content it should be in a high level to give it a meaningful structure. Steps to be considered in organizing the learning content. Alphabetical A conventional but important organizing principle for content is alphabetical order. Alphabetical order allows for quiet and easy access to information. Categoral Some content has a flat structure. There is no hierarchies no sequence and all of the topics are more less at the same level of difficulty with no prerequisites. Cause and Effect Organizing content by cause and effect may not be the first approach you think of, but it can be effective when used for the right purpose. Inherent Structure Often content has its own structure that is cognitively natural to the subject. If the content presents events in a timeline, then a chronological order is self- evident. Order of Importance In a flat structure without hierarchy, the most effective approach for organizing content might be by the order of its importance. Because learners usually pay the most attention to the beginning and end of the topic, you have quite option for arranging the content. Simple to Complex Instructional content can be organized from the simple to complex even when the simpler content is not subordinate or prerequisite to the complex content. This strategy provides a slow initiation into a subject, building the learners confidence and knowledge base. Sequential When youre representing a process or procedure, its often most effective to structure the content as a series of steps. The structure of sequential content provides hooks for learners to remember the steps of the procedure.
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 Spiral A spiral approach might be difficult to implement in a single course, but it is certainly appropriate for a curriculum. A spiral structure revisits its topic in a systematic way at more detailed and complex level each time. Subordinate to High Level (Hierarchical) When the content requires that a learner master subordinates skills or knowledge to advance to a higher level skill, a hierarchical structure is effective. This is one of the well-used structures for courses because much of what people learn is based on prerequisite knowledge and skills. Whole to Parts An excellent approach to organizing content is to introduce the big picture or system view first and then to delve into the parts of the system. Providing the big picture helps learners make sense of information. It is also provides a framework for fitting information together in memory. The whole parts organization is similar to a general to specific structure.

Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives may also as performance objectives, behavioural objective, or simply objectives. Objectives are specific (this means that they should describe precisely what the learner is expected to do), outcome based (this means that the objective is going to state what the learner should be able to do after the instruction is complete), measurable (this means that the objectives should describe outcomes that can be measured; objectives should be seen or heared). The Procedure Learning Activities 1. Instructional Strategies Effective instruction depends on learning experiences appropriately facilitated and designed by knowledgeable educators. Learners have different learning styles educators should design activities that address their modes of learning in order to provide significant experiences for class participant.

Multiple Instructional Strategies Learning Contracts Leaning contracts connect educational needs to individual student and are useful when there is diversity in learner needs and interest. A learning contract is a formal agreement written by a learner which details what will be learned, how the learning will be accomplished, the period of time involved, and the specific evaluation criteria to be used in judging the completion of the learning. Learning contracts helps the educator and learner share the responsibility for learning. Lecture

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The lecture is one of the most frequently used instructional methods in education. It assumes the learners to be the expert and is an efficient way of discriminating information. Educators agree that the purpose of lecture is to lay foundations as a student works through the subject. Discussion Discussion is the instructional strategy most favoured by learners because it is interactive and encourages active, participatory learning. The discussion encourages learners to analyze alternative ways of thinking and acting and assist learners in exploring their own experience so they can become better critical thinkers. The discussion is often the heart of learning. Self- Directed Learning Self- directed is learning initiated and directed by the learner and can be include self-paced, independent, and individualized learning as well as self-instruction Mentorship The aim of mentorship is to promote learner development drawing out and giving form to what the student already knows. Small Group Work In small groups learners can discussed content, share ideas, and solve problems. They present their own ideas as well as consider ideas put by others. Project Project gives the students an opportunity to pursue their special interest and can be done individually or within groups. Projects also provide students with practical experiences and a sense of accomplishments. Collaborative Learning Collaborative learning is the process of getting two or more students work together to learn. Case Study The case study is a teaching strategy which requires learners to draw upon their past experiences, is participatory and has action components which are links to future experience. The key to a successful case study is the selection of appropriate problem situations which is relevant both to the interest and experience level of learners and to the concepts being thought. Forum The forum is an open discussion carried on by one or more recourse people and entire group. Conclusion The learning environment allows educators and students to exchange ideas and information, work together on projects, around the clock, from anywhere in the world using multiple communication modes.

2. Evaluation or Assessment Procedures Setting and Managing Learning Goals The first step in conducting assessment is setting the learning goals. Once the learning goals are formulated and agreed upon, multiple forms of assessment will occurs. My Learning Contract Learning goals, each student must fill out his/her learning goals. Students commitment is very important for achieving the learning goal that specifies what is too achieved in the future.
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Types of Conference The learning goals are created and discussed in three types; a goal setting conference, a progress assessment conference, and post-evaluation conference. Tome doesnt allow teachers to have conferences to its individual students. Test and Examinations Test and examination are given to assess the how much is student knows and what the students still need to learn. Portfolios A portfolio as an assessment procedure is a collection of a students work in an n area, showing growth, self reflection, and achievement. Portfolios can also show cooperative groups. Lesson Plan -is a teachers detailed description of the course of instruction for one class. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class instruction. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered and the need or curiosity of the children. They maybe requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan.

Types of Lesson Plans * Five-Step Lesson Plan - is a form of daily lesson planning that includes the following component: anticipatory set, instruction, guided practice, closure or assessment and independent practice. *Five- E Lesson Plan -formats ask the teacher to list components that deals with engaging, explaining, exploring, elaborating, and evaluating. *Weekly Lesson Plan - is an ideal format for teachers who are converting a similar a similar topic throughout the week. *Unit Lesson Plan - is a simple way to guide instruction for teachers who do not work well with elaborate plans. Each day a teacher presents lessons to the students with that unit in mind.

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EXEMPLAR LESSON

Exemplar is the mental conception or image of something to be produced.

Personalized learning

David Miliband, minister of state for school standards, made personalized learning the central plank of his speech to the North England conference in January. He added, means assessment, teaching to insure that the talents of every individual can be fully realized.

Ofsted Summary Documents These summary documents of ofsteds finding provide and excellent reference point for teacher and seeking to improve the teaching of mathematics and provides a good reference point against which to measure the quality of teaching while providing guidance of the steps.

Lesson Planning Proforma This combines the best of practice in Suffolk schools and was based upon a successful model used for Ofsted in November 2009. Lesson observation sheet this is based upon Ofsteds 2009 criteria. Ofsteds Lesson Criteria this picks out some of the key description from the evaluation schedule criteria 2009.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning Approach makes use of a classroom organization where students work in groups or team to help each other learn.

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Two important components: A cooperative incentive structure one where two or more individuals are interdependent for a reward. A cooperative task structure is a situation in which two or more individuals are allowed, encourage or required to work together on some tasks.

Approaches used

1. Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) The teacher gives new information to students for a week. The class is divided into four or five member teams. Each member try to learn the materials and then help each other master the materials through tutoring, testing one another or carrying on group discussions. Individually, students take weekly quizzes on the academic materials. The team with the highest scores and the member with the high improvement scores are recognized.

2. Think-Pair-Share Thinking Phase The teacher poses a question about the lesson. Students spend time thinking of the answer alone.

Pairing Phase Each student pairs with another and discusses the answer together. This interaction leads to sharing of ideas.

Sharing Phase The teacher asks the pair to share their answers with the whole class.

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3. Buzz Groups Groups of 3 to 6 discuss al their ideas about a topic. Then a recorder summarizes the ideas arrived to the class.

4. Jigsaw The student are assigned to 5 or 6 study teams .then a topic is presented to them and each is responsible for a portion. Members from different teams with the same topic meet together t o study and help each other learn their own topic. Then each returns to their home teams and discuss their topic. After discussions each member takes a quiz. Teams score are obtained and the high scoring team and each member are recognized.

Pointers:

1. Heterogeneous grouping has been found out to affect the performance of the members. High achievers can tutor the other members thus raising the achievement level of the group. 2. Make sure that the student can work w ell in group situation. This would need an observation of their social skills and willingness to cooperate. 3. Provide sufficient working tools so as not to be hampered by time that might be spent wasting. 4. Provide adequate space for ease and speed of movement.

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7 Es of Learning Cycle
The model differs from the 5e Learning cycle in two ways. The engage element is expanded into elicit and engage. This places a greater emphasis on prior experience and eliciting tacit knowledge that can be used as a foundation for the learning to come. Elaborate and evaluate are expanded into elaborate, evaluate and extend. This mostly aims to differentiate between the 2 types of 'elaboration' possible in the 5e model. The elaboration phase of the 7e Learning cycle is limited to elaborating on the current situation (e.g. introducing/changing parameters), while the post-evaluation extend phase involves transferring newly acquired skills and knowledge to new situations within the domain.

The 7e Learning cycle is an expansion of the 5e Learning cycle. Comparison of the 5e and 7e learning cycles 7e Learning 5e Learning cycle cycle elicit engage explore explain elaborate/extend evaluate engage explore explain elaborate evaluate extend

Phase 1: Elicit Determining prior knowledge: What do you know about..? Phase 2: Engage Arouse student interest by using a discrepant event, telling a story, giving a demonstration, or by showing an object, picture, or brief video. Motivate and capture student interest.
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Phase 3: Explore Have students work with manipulative (e.g., natural objects, models) to make observations, investigate a question or phenomenon. Have students make predictions, develop hypotheses, design experiments, collect data, draw conclusions, and so forth. Teacher role is to provide support and scaffolding. Student role is to construct their own understanding through active experience. Phase 4: Explain Students report findings and discoveries to the class. Teacher allows opportunities to verbalize and clarify the concept; introduces concepts and terms and summarizes the results of the exploration phase. Teacher explanations, texts, and media are used to guide learning. Phase 5: Elaborate Have students apply the newly learned concepts to new contexts. Pose a different (but similar) question and have students explore it using the concept. Phase 6: Evaluate Use the formative assessment from Elicit Phase and assess: for example, the design of the investigation, the interpretation of the data, or follow-through on questions, looking for student growth. Growth is the desired change in the students understanding of key concepts, principles, and skills in a differentiated classroom. Expectations vary according to the students beginning point. Summative assessment may be used here to measure achievement and assign a grade. Phase 7: Extend Lead students to connect the concept to different contexts, transfer new learning.

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Problem-Base Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject in the context of complex, multifaceted, and realistic problems. Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor is that of facilitator of learning who provides appropriate scaffolding of that process by (for example), asking probing questions, providing appropriate resources, and leading class discussions, as well as designing student assessments.

Cognitive effects of problem-based learning The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in PBL is thought to work through the following cognitive effects (Schmidt, 1993):

initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network social knowledge construction learning in context stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem

Other Outcomes of Problem-Base Learning One of the aims of PBL is the development of self-directed learning (SDL) skills. In Loyens, Magda & Rikers' discussion (2008), SDL is defined as a process in which individuals take the initiativein diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material resources, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. By being invited into the learning process, students are also invited to take responsibility for their learning, which leads to and increase in self-directed learning skills. In Severiens and Schmidts study of 305 first year college students, they found that PBL and its focus on SDL led to motivation for students to maintain study pace, led to social and academic integration, encouraged development of cognitive skills, and fostered more study progress then students in a conventional learning setting (2009). PBL encourages learners to take a place in the academic world through inquiring and discovery that is central to problem-based learning

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INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING

Writing Lesson Objectives refers to student mastery of the content such as fact, concepts, skills and generalization.

Performance Objectives also called lesson or instructional objectives, behavioral objections and specific objectives.

Process Objectives It focus on mental skills like observation, organizing, categorizing, evaluation, drawing, inference and the like.

Characteristic of Performance Objectives

S Specific M Measurable A - Attainable R result-Oriented and reliable T Time-Bound and terminal

Task Analysis a learners task ma y be quite complex thus the need to break it down into logical sequence of steps to achieve the intended outcome.

Enabling Objectives Subtasks

Taxonomy of Objectives:

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3 Domains:

1. Cognitive thinking Ability a. Knowledge or Recall knowledge of terminology convention, trends, sequences, classification, categories, criteria, methodologies, principles, theories, and structure. b. Comprehension relate to translation, interpretation and extrapolation.\ c. Application use of abstraction in particular situation. d. Analysis objectives relate to breaking a whole into parts. e. Synthesis - putting parts together in a new form. f. Evaluation judging in term so interval evidence or logical consisting and external evidence or consisting with facts developed elsewhere. 2. Affective -interests, attitudes and feelings. a. Receiving awareness, attitudes and feelings. b. Responding willing response, feelings of satisfaction. c. Valuing acceptance, preference, commitment d. Organization conceptualization of values, organization of a value system. e. Characterization generalized set of values characterization or philosophy of life. 3. Psychomotor a. Reflexive movements relate to reflexes. b. Fundamentals movement relate to walking, running, jumping, pushing, pulling, manipulating. c. Perceptual Abilities objectives relate to kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile, and coordination abilities. d. Physical abilities relate to endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, and reaction response time. e. Skilled Movements objectives relate to games, sports, dances and the arts. f. Non discursive communication expressive movements through posture, gesture, facial expressions, creative movement.

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METACOGNITION TEACHING METHOD this is an instructional method where learners are trained to become aware of and control over their learning by utilizing metacognition process.

Five Steps in Teaching Approach

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Planning involves the method of thinking out actions and purposes. Deciding What knowledge and resources are needed? Monitoring it is important to know whether you are going in the right direction. Evaluating How am I doing? How well did I do? Terminating this is the step when the objective have been met.

Metacognition means reservoir of knowledge Means that central idea is to help the individual think about the nature of learning and develop conscious control over tools of learning. It is sometimes called cognitive strategy instruction (Geskin and Elliot,1991) Planning Homework

Function of Homework

Homework is the last but not the least part of a lesson plan. It is our way of extending the school day by providing pupils/student the opportunity to refine and extend their knowledge.

Research has proven that for every 30 minutes of additional homework a student does per night, his or her overall grade point average (GPA) increase about half a point.

Homework also helps cultivate good study habits.

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Teacher it is a tool to assess the learning needs of learners with multiple intelligences and varied learning styles by way of creative subject requirements and authentic assessment techniques such as video-tapes, posters, artworks, skills, poetry writing, and song or jingle composition which cannot be done within the limited class time.

Teachers guide in the use of Homework

For pupils to get the most from homework, the following guidelines may be of help: 1. The amount of homework assigned to students should be different form primary to intermediate to high school. 2. Parent involvement in homework should be kept to a minimum. 3. The purpose of homework and outcome of homework should be identified and articulated. 4. It homework is assigned, it should be commented on of what use is homework if it is not read, evaluated and return? 5. Establish and communicate a homework policy. 6. During PTCA meetings share tips on how to make homework time successful such as the following: 1. Designate a well lit space for homework. 2. Establish time to do the work or use the calendar to plan when the work can be done if schedule vary. 3. Ask students specific about the school day and what needs t o be done each night. 4. Tell them the numerous benefits of homework and provide statements that parents can use with their child. 5. Assure parents that you want to hear if the student needs a lot of coaching from parents.

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Differentiated Instruction

Programmed Instruction is a technique of self-instruction. This form of instruction is considered as one of the novel developments in education, an analysis of the procedure involved will reveal that there is nothing new in pedagogical concepts and principles, but perhaps only in application. Program refers to a coordinated group of activities to be performed. This planned learning pattern is presented to the pupils/students in a sequential manner. Programming the technique of planning the instructional materials for use in this type of teaching. Programmed Instructional materials the end-product of the planned materials.

Two Types of Programmed Instructional Devices

1. Teaching machine is a mechanical device which presents the learning material to the pupils test him on his mastery of this material, and provides for the immediate correction of his wrong responses. 2. Programmed textbook presents the programmed exercises not through a machine but by requiring the pupils/students to read prepared materials in the book. In the following principles of learning with the use of programmed instruction may be illustrated in the following learning experiences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Learning by doing is effective. Learning is best facilitated when psychological feed-back are conferred the learners. Pupils/students learn only when they master ideas and skills step by step. Knowledge is facilitated when new techniques for teaching are important. Creativity is promoted because the teacher becomes free from tedious routine and will have to stimulate pupils/students. 6. The use of programmed learning materials will certainly motivate and encourage team teaching. 7. Programmed learning will allow pupils/students to participate actively in class activities at all times.

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Evaluation

Evaluation is a continuous process of inquiry concerned with the study, appraisal and improvement of all aspects of the educational program.

Evaluation is important to the teacher, the child, the parent, the administrator, and the profession as whole.

General Principles of Evaluation

1. Evaluation should be terms of the extent to which the pupils have attained the objectives of education. Objectives include not only mastery of the subject matter but also the major aspects of growth. 2. Evaluation is an integral part of the educative process. The teacher should guide every experience in terms of the needs and interest of the group as seen in life situations. 3. The evaluation program should be cooperative. Learners, teachers and parents should participate in the process of evaluating educational objectives. 4. Records should give a complete picture of each child. Records should not be considered as ends but as services tools to help the teacher understand the learners with whom he is working, to help the learners to interpret behavior, and to define immediate and long-term needs. 5. Evaluating should be comprehensive. Records should show the learners positive and negative aspects of development. 6. Evaluation uses a variety of instruments, tools, and techniques. The teacher should choose the techniques suited to the individual pupil concerned and to the specific purpose for which the evaluation is being made. 7. Objective measurement and subjective judgment are both essential in evaluation. Records should be specific and, as far as possible, objective. 8. Diagnosis and remedial work are phases of the evaluative process. Test results should be carefully interpreted and the necessary follow-up work should be done accordingly. 9. Evaluation should be descriptive. A descriptive concrete statement about the child is more meaningful and significant to teachers, to parent, and to children than any blanket judgment that merely indicates that the child has passed.

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Major Aspects of Growth to be evaluated

For evaluation to be improves there must be agreement on what are to be evaluated.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Mental and physical health Social adjustment Purposes and activities Intelligence and readiness Quality of thinking Integrative knowledge and skill Interest in many fields of knowledge and endeavor Individual aptitudes and creative arts

Evaluation Devices

1. Self-evaluation techniques. Self-evaluation develops in the child self-control, selfdirection, and wise judgment. 2. Teacher evaluation. Evaluation includes a variety of methods of securing and recording the evidence needed to provide information on pupil progress. 3. Observational procedures. The teacher, in his daily contacts with pupils, collects information as revealed in discussions and other situations. 4. Anecdotal records. Designed for two kinds of entries: what happened and what it probably means. 5. Checklist. A list of the kind of behavior to look for.

6. Rating scales. It is also used aside from checklist in order to record an appraisal along with behavior observations.

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Socratic Symposium

Symposium is a form of meeting or a conference for the discussion of some important subjects, at which several speakers discus atopic before an audience.

Symposium is more formal in terms of format and presentation. Symposium is a public-speaking program different from a panel discussion. The number of invited speakers will depend on the numbers of important sources of information that should be considered.

There are certain points to consider in preparation of symposium program and these are:

The purpose of the Conference Choosing the topic that arouse and sustain interest Choosing the speakers Briefing the speakers on the objectives of the symposium and the procedures to be observed. The criteria used in the selection of the speakers are degree of prestige and recognition in his field, knowledge of the subject and the facility of the language.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Speakers are presumed to have adequate preparation for the audience experts well-organized and meaty speakers. Moderator should arrange a briefing session with the speakers which should include arrangement of time limit of speeches and the procedures to be observed during the forum. The purpose of the symposium is to help the listeners analyze the problem. After the speeches of the speakers, the moderator starts the open forum where questions are directed to the speakers. When there are no questions the forum is adjourned.

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Predict, Observe, Explain (POE)

The POE strategy was developed by White and Gunstone (1992) to uncover individual students prediction, and their reasons for making these, about a specific event.

When to use: POE is a strategy often used in science. It works best with demonstrations that allows immediate observations, and suits Physical and Material World contexts. A similar strategy also works well in mathematics, particular in statistics. It can be used for finding out students initial ideas Providing teachers with information about students thinking Generating discussion Motivating students to want to explore the concept. Generating investigations

The Theory

Constructivist theories of learning consider that students existing understandings should be considered when developing teaching and learning programmes. Events that surprise create conditions where students may be read y to start re-examining their personal theories.

How the Strategy works

Unless students are as ked to predict first what will happen. They may not observe carefully. Writing down their prediction motivates them to want to know the answer Asking students t o explain the reasons or their predictions gives the teacher indications of their theories. This can be useful for uncovering misconceptions or developing understandings they have. It can provide information for making decisions about the subsequent learning. Explaining and evaluating their predictions and listening to others predictions helps students to begin evaluating their own leaning and constructing new meanings.

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Step 1: Predict

Ask the students to independently write their prediction of w hat will happen. Ask them what they think they will see and why they think this.

Step 2: Observe

Carry out the demonstration Allow time to focus on observation Ask students to write down what they do observe

Steps 3: Explain

Ask students to amend or add to their explanation to take account of the observation After students have committed their explanations to paper, discuss their ideas together to be doing.

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References

Amador, J.A., Miles, L., & Peters, C.B. The Practice of Problem-Based Learning: A Guide to Implementing PBL in the College Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. 2006. Armstrong E: A hybrid model of problem-based learning. In: Boud D and Feletti G (editors): The challenge of problem-based learning, 137-149. London, Kogan Page, 1991 Barr RD and Tagg J: From teaching to learning - a new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change, Nov/Dec.1995:13-25 Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In Wilkerson, L, & Gijselaers, W.H. (eds.). New directions for teaching and learning, vol. 68. Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and pracice, pp. 3-13. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Boud, D., & Feletti, G.I. (eds.). The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning, 2nd Ed. London: Kogan Page Ltd., 1997. Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University for the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (1998). Reinventing Undergraduate Education: A Blueprint for America's Research Universities. URL: http://notes.cc.sunysb.edu/Pres/boyer.nsf. Duch, B.J., Groh, S.E., & Allen, D.E. (eds.). The Power of Problem-Based Learning, Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2001. Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). "Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn?". Educational Psychology Review 16 (3): 235 266.doi:10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3. Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. 21-39. Loyens, S., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. (2008). Self-Directed Learning in Problem-Based Learning and its Relationships with Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 411-427. National Research Council (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

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