CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, we explain about non-Formal definition, procedures in Establishing Non-Formal Education, the main aspects in Organizational

Management, Marketing, and The Design of Learning Program.

2.1 Definition of Non Formal Education Sudjana (2001:63) He says that non formal education presents when we are interacting by the invironment where this education presents in our society as the result of our socialization. According to Coombs (Trisnamansyah, 2003:19) that nonformal education is every activity that is organized outside of school system and all of the activities are doing by people or an organization that have obligation to give

service for student to achieve the goal. Based on those teories, non formal education is a program that is organized outside of school and formed by the human.

2.2 Procedures in Establishing Non-Formal Education There are three process of establishing course. Firstly, the owner of course has to go to the Implementation Unit of the District Agency for Education at the Sub District level (UPTD) in every city. This coffice has a function to response all of people who want to establish a course. In this office the owner has to submit a recommendation letter from village office and a registration letter for UPTD. UPTD will organize the observation to that course. This way ensures and proves that course still exist or no and the establishment of course depends on the result of observation. After getting the recommendation letter from UPTD, the owner has to consult that course for the Indonesian Association of Non-Formal Course Operators (HIPKI) to get another recommendation letter.

Secondly, after going to the Implementation Unit of the District Agency for Education at the Sub District level (UPTD), the owner has to go to the Indonesian Association of Non-Formal Course Operators (HIPKI). In this office, the owner has to submit the recommendation letter from UPTD. This agency has a function as the consulter. The owner has to submit another requirement. Those are the recommendation letter which is issued by the Technical Implementation Unit of the District Agency for Education at the Sub District level (UPTD), a copy of notary act for the shape of the foundation, a photo copy of ID card of the owner, a photo copy of portfolio of the owner, the biography of the owner, a certificate of good personality (SKCK) of the owner which is issued by police office, the curriculum of the courses, the rules of the course, the map of course location, the photograph of the owner which the size 4 X 6 (2 pieces), photo of the course, the business domicile certificate from the district, a copy of education certificate of the founder, organization structure of the course and stamp. After gave all of the requirements, HIPKI will organize second observation to ensure and prove the real condition in that course and next HIPKI will issue a recommendation letter for the owner of the proposer as one of requirements to the last procedure. That is submitting the application to obtain legal permit to District Agency for Education. Finally, the owner has to go to the District Agency for Education. In this agency, the owner has to submit some requirements also. Those are: Filling out the form provided in the office of District Agency for Education, a copy of ID card the founder, a copy of education certificate of the founder , a CV of founder , a SKCK of the founder ,a curriculum of the course, rules of the courses, a map of course location, a copy of notary act, land certificate, 5 photos of the owner size 4 X 6, the result of survey from HIPKI, recommendation letter from HIPKI and a stamp Rp. 6000. If the owner has completed all of the requirement, th District Agency for Education will give a permission for establishment of course. But the owner will get status as long as 6 months. These are all the steps to establish of course:

HIPKI (the Indonesian Association of Non- Formal UPTD Jember Course Operators) (the sub Distric Level)

the Distric Agency for Education

2.3 Management According to Dr.SP. Siagian (2008), management is a skill or an effort to achieve the result or the goal by another people helping. Different from Dr.SP. Siagian, Marry Parker Follet (1999) says that management is an art to finish the job from another peoples effort. James A.F. Stonner (2001) argued that management is the process of planning, organizing, direction and observation for the efforts from the members of company and using of the human resources in other that the goal can be achieved. Ordway Tead and Drs. H.E. Rosyidi (2005) says in a book is named of Organization and Management, management is a process and an effort to be a leader to achieve the goal of company. From those oppinions, there are functions of management and these are the explanation: 1. According to George Terry (1966): a. Planning Planning is all main ideas of determining about the events that will be organized in the future as the goal of company.

b. Organizing Organizing is all process of grouping person, tools, duties, responsibility, and the right of establishing an organization that can achieve the goal that was fixed. c. Actuating Actuating is all designing program for the employers who are ready to work and achieve the compnys goal. d. Controlling Controlling is the process of observation all activity and that has a function to controll all duty as appropriate as plan. 2. Handoko (2000:21) says: a. Planning Planning is a choice or decision the policy of strategic as the procedure of estimate that is needed in achieement of companys goal. b. Organizing The decision of sources and activities those are needed for achiving of companys goal. Planning and developing of organization those can achieve the goal. Giving an assignment Delegating for every employer to do their job. c. Staffing Staffing is training and developing of recruitment, staffing and giving orientation for the employer those are causing the employer to enjoy a profit and productive. d. Leading

Leading has function that is making or getting the employer who has a responsibility. e. Controlling Controlling is the process of observation all activity and that has a function to controll all the job as appropriate as plan. So, management is a job that has to do by people who have a relationship by the company to achieve the goal. Besides, management also has a function. There are 5 functions to achieve the companys goal. From those definitions and functions, management has 3 parts of management. These are:

2.3.1

Organizational Management Pfiffner and Sherwood (1955) say that the organization is the way of making a

communication and meeting complectively in restructure the goal of organization systematically. Bakke (1970) argues that the organization is a system continuosly from the using of coordination that consist of human, material, capital, argument, and resource to solve all the problems. Allen (1980) has argument that the organization is the process of identification and forming job, defining and delegating the duty or responsibility of job, and those processes have a goal to make teamwork to achieve the goal of company. Dr. Hanif Ismail, Akt and Dr. Darsono Prawironegoro, SF, M.M.,MA (1999) argued that Organizational Management is process and structural sistematically to achieve the goal effectively, efficiently, and economically. Organizational management must be appropriate for the strategy of company. Because when an organization does not has a good structural or management design that will influence for companys planning. Financial management and Human Resource Management are components of Organizational management those have function for the endurance

of company. All of the systems must be planned maximumly to reach the result satisfiedly. So, Organizational management is managing all the activities, employers, and functions for every job in the office systematically to achieve the goal.

2.3.2

Financial Management Every company has a financial management. According to

Gitosudarmono,I,M (2001:233) that we can classificate it as 2 kinds. Those are operational need and funding need. Operational need is necessity of the office that has made an agreement and used to fund the office. Funding need is all the funds that are got. From that statement, financial management has formula to account all of the profit or detriment of the office. It is BEP (Break Event Point). Many of specialists argued about BEP. Include Alwi (1994:265) said that BEP is one of the activity of company is not getting a profit or detriment. Different from Alwi, Mulyadi (1997:72) argues BEP is one of the conditions that a company has not a profit or financial loss. Although the company does not has a profit or financial loss, it means that all of the results just fulfill the variable cost. Hansen and Mowen (1997:230) have argument that BEP is when total revenues equal total cost, the point of zero profits. Ross, Randolph and Bradford (1998:309) think that Break Event Analysis is a popular and commonly used tool for analyzing the relationship between sales volume and profitability. So, break event point is the way to determine that is our companys condition has a profit or zero profit. This is the formula of BEP:

Variable Cost BEP (unit) = Unit Price Price per Unit

According to Alwi (1994:724) said that the formula of BEP in Rupiah is:

Constant Cost BEP (Rupiah) = Variable Cost 1Revenue Cost So, financial management is one of the necessity in the office that has influence for processing of achievement the companys goal. Generally, it can in the form of money or fund.

2.3.3

Human Resource Management Leonard Nadler (1998) argues Learning activity that resource management is

organized on certain term to improve their expertise. Jack Welh (1998) says that without the right person, the strategic of company does not work. The Executive Director of Starbucks, Howard Schultz said that take smarter person and let them work by themselves.

Human resource management has 2 devisions. These are Functional devisions and Product devisions.

A. Functional Divisions DR. Sedarmayanti, M.Pd. (2001:150) says the functional divisions are one of the parts in the organization that help the organization can achieve the goal. In this organization, we explain divisions of our organization. Firstly, Director as the leader of organization who gives orders to divisions for achievement the organization. Secondly, Human Resource is a division who gives an attetion to customer and another division who need an helping. This division is so important for the organization. Because, it will help the organization to understand what they should so

to achieve the goal. Thirdly, Financial Development is a division who has a job to manage the income and expulsion in that organization. Not only manage the income and expulsion the organization, but also this division will help the organization to develop all of the organizations necessity. Fourthly, financial management is devision that has to manage all of the income from the customer and give the report for Financial Development. Finally, marketing is the most important division in an organization. Because, marketing division will help the oranization to look for the customer and if marketing does not work that will be influencing the organization.

B. Product Divisions Philip Kotler (1997) explains that A product is anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy a want or need, product that are marketed include physical goods, services, experiences, events, persons, places, properties, organizations, informations and ideas (Kotler : 200:234). According to J. Stanton, product is a set of tangible and tangible attributes, including packaging, color, price, manufacturers prestige and manufacturers and retailer which the buyer may accept as offering want-satisfaction (W.J.Stanton, 1981:192). He says that the product division is producing all the products that can be sold in the market which the company would get the profit.

2.4

Marketing WY. Stanton (2000) argues that marketing a sytems in organization has a goal

to plan and determine a price of thing or service until how to promote and distribute it in other that the customer can satisfied. WY. Stanton, H. Nystrom (2001) says that marketting is a ditributing of a product or service from the producer to customer. According these oppinions, marketting is the activity of producer to promote and distribute all of their product or service to customer in other to make the customer satisfied.

Based on Mr. Dr. M. Mursid (2005), marketting is not only an organization that is producing a product to fulfill the customer necessity, but also how to offer the product better than the competitor. Because,customers can buy a product from another organization as appropriate as their necessity. Kotler (1999) says that marketing is one of the human activity has a goal to make the customer satisfied their willingness and necessity from Exchange method. And Drs. Basu Swastha DH., M.B.A (1998) has oppinion that marketing is one of the activities in Economic and help companies to create economize. American Marketing Association (1950) thinks that marketing is just a selling of product or service and the main purpose is distribution. Different from Philip and Duncan (1980), they argue that steps are used or needed to put all of the products or services those are tangible on customers oppinion. So, marketing is a System that is focused on distribution of product or service and making the customer believes.

2.5

The Course Design .According to Ryder (2003) the design of Course Design is method or model

that can help us to understand an explanation. Every design of learning program has characteristic for making the learners understand and the design of learning program is offering structural and comprehension it self. It makes the developer of education can understand specifically and solve all the problems in eduction easier.

2.5.1

Syllabus BSNP defines syllabus is a planning of material for teaching and learning and

those have competency standart, base of competency, teaching material, teaching activity, indicator, assesment, time limitation, and source/ material/ tool for teaching and learning activity.

According to GBPP or Broad Outline of the Teaching Program, Syllabus has 3 functions. Those are: a. Preventive To preven the lecturer or teacher is doing unnecessary and not suitable with the curriculum. b. Corrective A SAP (Satuan Acara Perkuliahan) is the rule which it is obeyed by the teacher and as an orientation. c. Constructive An SAP (Satuan Acara Perkuliahan) gives the specify information about the organizing and developing of education that is appropriate by Curricullum. From those fucntions, there are some of the principals of syllabus determining. Because,it will help us to arrange the syllabus. a. Relevancy 1. It means that the syllabus has to appropriate by the environment of student. 2. Syllabus has to relevance by the developing of Technology. 3. The last is syllabus has to appropriate by the demand of Job world. b. Effectivity 1. Teaching effectively by the teacher. 2. Learning effectively by the student. c. Effeciency To efficient for education that means: to efficient in time, fee, tools, and energy. d. Continuity Every material has relation by another material or activity. e. Comprehensive

All of the activity and components in SAP (Satuan Acara Perkuliahan) are the unity that is interacting and interfucntion as integrated as and harmonious to achieve a goal of teaching. f. Flexybility A SAP (Satuan Acara Perkuliahan) is not clumsy, but it has to smooth and has a freedom of action that is caused by the situation and condition in teaching proses. 2.5.2 Instructional Methods According to Nana Sudjana (2005:76) Learning method is the way of teacher by making a relationship between teacher and student in teaching and learning. Different from Nana Sudjana, M. Sobri Sutikno says that (2009:88) learning method is the way to inform the knowledge for student and in other that is happened learning process for student to achieve the goal. From above statements, Benny A. Pribadi (2009:11) argues that the goal of learning is ordering to student can achieve the goal, there is needed a teaching and learning systematically. In teaching and learning there are needed an approach for student and Newman and Logan (Abin Syamsuddin Makmun, 2003) says four strategics for approching the students. These are: 1. To identify and take the specification and output with the target within consider the aspiration and the necessary of public 2. To consider and choose the basic way effectively 3. To consider and take steps for approching the student from the first time until the last 4. To consider and take criteria and standart to measure the achievement. Nuneaton Squadron, Air Training Corps (121) says that Instructional Methods is the basic approach used by the instructor, for example, lecture, demonstration, or guided descussion. The following methods of instruction can be used by the instructor to achieve the training objectives:

a. Lecture A Lecture is a verbal and visual presentation of information by an instructor with little or no response requirred from the students. Characteristics The major characteristics of the lecture method are: Straight talk or exposition by the instructor. No questions until the end of the lesson. No student participation during the lecture. Heavy reliance on frequent progressive summaries. Heavy reliance on training aids to support teaching. Uses The lecture method is used when: The audience is large, The time is restricted, There is a considerable amount of factual information. Types of information The lecture method should be used to provide information on: Rules Policies. When a briefing or general overview is required. Advantages The main advantages of the lecture method are: A large amount of information can be given, There is no limit to class size, The instructor is totally in control of sequence and content, Any area can be used providing hearing and visibility are sufficient. Disadvantages The major disadvantages of the lecture method are: One-way communication

 Inappropriate for teaching skills Impact on the learner is mainly aural Learner is encouraged to be passive Instructors responsibilities The responsibilities of the instructor / presenter during a lecture is to: Continually check for non-verbal feedback. Use training aids of high visual quality. Vary voice quality (pitch and volume). Motivate students.

b. Group Discussion Group Discussion is Two or more people who come together to discuss a topic.Experiences are shared, opinions expressed, alternatives discussed, and action is planned. Interaction between individual members or between similar groups may provide the catalyst for problem solving and for effective planning. Uses Group (or Guided) Discussions are used to: Identify, explore, and seek out solutions to problems - problem solving. Develop plans for action. Develop attitudes - where necessary, to change attitudes through an amicable examination of the evidence. Develop leadership skills. Supplement other methods of instruction. Encourage use of higher mental skills - analysis, evaluation. Provide feedback on students and previous instruction. Advantages The following are the main advantages of group discussion: Provides a stimulating instructional environment.

 Such a group pools experiences, abilities and knowledge in order to reach recognised objectives. Provides for the full participation of every member. Increased student participation increases learning and retention. Students are more likely to accept validity and importance of the content if they are involved. Disadvantages Following are the major disadvantages of group discussions: Can be time consuming, particularly if persons with strong convictions or widely different backgrounds are involved. Requires highly experienced staff. Only useful for small groups. More suited to mature or experienced students. Instructor responsibilities The responsibilities of the instructor during a group discussion are to: Ask questions, redirects answers, extracts information/opinions, avoids offering own opinions. Encourage student participation. Keep the discussion moving and on track.

c. Tutorial Tutorial is Tutoring (coaching) is usually defined as a method of instruction in which the instructor works directly with an individual student or small group of students. It may involve lecture, demonstration, theory, guided discussion or any combination of these. Uses Tutorials are used to: Teach highly complex skills and operations which involve dangers to men or to expensive equipment.

 Provide individualised remedial instruction. Advantages The following are the main advantages of the tutorial: Individual student needs can be diagnosed and instruction designed to meet those needs. Provides the highest degree of student participation and instructional effectiveness. Close supervision and control in hazardous situations limits the risk of injury. Disadvantages Following are the major disadvantages of the tutorial: Requires a complete mastery of subject matter. Expensive in time and manpower. Requires extensive preparation. Instructors responsibilities The responsibilities of the instructor are: Thorough preparation and planning of tutorials. Establishment and maintenance of communication

d. Demonstration The Demonstration method involves both giving information to students and showing them either how something ought to be done or what will occur as a result of an action. In teaching a motor skill this method is the link between explanation and practice. The Demonstration highlights the skill but does not challenge the student to perform the task. Uses Demonstrations are used to provide students with: Guidance to the skill or task. An overview of the skill to be acquired. A model to be imitated. Advantages

The following are advantages of the demonstration: Promotes understanding of skills. Promotes visual interest for the students. Students are shown a step-by-step approach to the skill. Useful for all types of skills where the visual presentation of a procedure or activity will enhance learning. Disadvantages Following are disadvantages of the demonstration: The Instructor must provide a good model for the students to follow. A demonstration is difficult for large class sizes due to possible visibility problems. Needs to be a simple process. Instructor responsibilities The following are the responsibilities of the instructor during a demonstration: Needs to be a Subject Matter Expert. Must accurately perform the demonstration. Must present demonstration in an accurate and structured manner using easily assimilated steps. Should focus attention on key points during demonstration and repeat key points where necessary.

e. Role Play A Role-Play, whilst similar to a simulation, doesnt use any props. Normally the only items required are a script, or an idea, and one or more participants. The situations that the participants act out are usually related to those that the players might be involved in. Uses The following are uses of role play: Good for developing attitudes. Students apply cognitive areas of knowledge to real life situations.

 Increases student involvement in the learning process. Advantages The following are the main advantages of the role play: Provides confidence for real-life situations. Efficient in changing attitudes and behaviours. Adaptable to most situations. Can be fun. Disadvantages Following are the main disadvantages of the role play: Time consuming and unpredictable. Feedback must be handled well. Threatening for some students. Instructor responsibilities The following are the instructor responsibilities during a role play: Plan and control conduct of the session. Conduct briefs and debriefs of the exercise. Ensure that session objectives are met. Ensure the involvement of all students (Players and observers).

f. Simulation Simulation is a real life situation, which must be resolved by acting out the roles of those concerned. Uses The following are uses of simulation: When learning involves decision-making, problem solving or judgment. To examine a problem in human relationship - for example, an interview with a problem student. To develop and practice new skills.

 When the real environment has uncontrollable variables, involves high risk or involves high cost. Advantages Some advantages of simulation are: Students learn and are assessed in realistic, but safe conditions. Faults/problems can be controlled. Inexpensive compared to learning by mistakes in the real situation, A rapid task role change is possible. Disadvantages Some disadvantages of simulation are: Students can become used to the safe environment of simulation and react badly in the real environment. Requires experienced, active, well prepared instructors. Can be expensive to set up in terms of time, money and manpower. Instructor responsibilities The following are instructor responsibilities for simulation: Preparation must be thorough. Problems to be solved must be structured and managed. The situation must be closely aligned to the 'real' situation.

g. Individualised Learning lndividualised learning incorporates a self instructional program from which a student can learn efficiently with little or no outside help. There are two types: Self Paced learning which permits students to proceed through course material at their own rate whilst demonstrating a required level of achievement in each unit before proceeding to the next (includes computer based training Self Directed learning which involves the students efforts to achieve specified objectives in as autonomous a manner as they are able, within a particular time. Uses

Individualised learning can be used for: Provision of remedial instruction. Maintenance of levels of proficiency in infrequently practiced skills. Filling in gaps in instruction caused by late arrival. Acceleration of able students, thus permitting early completion of training. Consolidation of learning by review and practice of knowledge/skills. Advantages The following are some advantages of individualised learning: Self-pacing exposes students to subject matter at a rate which is appropriate for the individual. Students accept responsibility for their own learning. Active student involvement. Disadvantages Following are some disadvantages of individualised learning: Independent study requires well motivated students. Student may just be waste time. Difficult to assess level of retention without implementing tests.. Instructor responsibilities The following are the instructor responsibilities during individualised learning: Facilitate and manage learning (providing assistance as required). Advising students of future study requirements.

h. Lesson The Lesson Method involves student participation and gives a good indication of whether the message is being received or not. It may indicate that some areas need to be revised. The instructor should ask questions of the group often, making sure that they are relevant to the topic. The questions must be spread evenly around the group so that all the students are participating. If people are having trouble answering the

questions the instructor must not give them the answer. The question can be rephrased or redirected. Characteristics of the Lesson Method The Lesson Method uses the technique of questions and answers to: Obtain feedback to guide students thoughts, Encourage instructor/student Interaction, Check understanding, and Build up Key Points. Uses of the Lesson Method The Lesson Method is best used when: The instructor carefully plans and sequences the use of questions (use the students opinions, common sense, or material they already know to arrive at a new concept); Time is available to establish the Key Points; Class size is not excessive ( 20 students); Establishing concepts and background information. Advantages of the Lesson Method The advantages of the Lesson Method are that it: Makes learning easier for students to accept answers if they solve the questions / problems themselves, Thoroughly teaches the concepts, Has a logical step approach, Provides instant feedback, Promotes active student participation.

i. Instructor responsibilities The instructor must: Ask questions to: Involve, Motivate,

 Test the students. Use training aids: o To emphasise, amplify and clarify, o To interactively build up ideas and solutions, and o For variety. o Amplify and positively reinforce students responses, both verbally and visually. Note The lesson is usually the most suitable instructional method for Air Cadet Classroom activities. The techniques used by the instructor during a lesson will be covered in more detail within the following sections of this course material.

In every teaching that needs the strategy systematically. Because of that Kemp (Wina Senjaya,2008) argues that the strategy of teaching is an activity that is doing by teacher and student to achieve the goal effectively and efficiently. Next is J. R. David (Wina Senjaya, 2008) thinks that the strategy of teaching is conceptuallistic for taking the decitions I teaching and learning. From those statements, the classifications of teaching strategies are: 1. Exposition discovery learning 2. Group individual learning (Rowntree dalam Wina Senjaya, 2008) So, learning method is the program that is arranged sistematically and has to implementate in real condition to achieve the goal. There is some method we can use in teaching and learning and KBMD (Kegiatan Belajar Mandiri Desa) has 8 methods of teaching and learning. Those are speech, demonstration, Discussion, Simulation, Brainstorming, Role Play, Drama and Games. These are the definitions from each learning method: a. Speech Speech is the physical production of sound using our tounge, lips, palate, and respiratory system to communicate idea. It means that this method stimulates the

audience to think and argue about something (Brain storming, Case study, etc). Besides, speech is not only used to inform the information, but also to make interaction between the presenter and audience. This method is using facilitator like handouts, OHP, LCD, etc.

b. Brainstorming Brainstorming is a process for generating creative ideas and solutions through intensive and freewheeling group discussion. Every participant is encouraged to think aloud and suggest as many ideas as possible, no matter seemingly how outlandish or bizarre. Analysis, discussion, or criticism of the aired ideas is allowed only when the brainstorming session is over and evaluation session begins. See also lateral thinking and nominal group technique c. Discussion This method is used to two or more than two people who are exchanging their ideas to solve a problem. This method has goals to unite the idea from each people and makes a decision to solve that problem. Discussion also can build a solidarity to build strong argument by understanding about each oppinion. Genrally, this method is used to in meeting or formal condition.

d. Role Play Role play is a method to present a character that is from real condition into fiction. This method is used to give assesment about the weakness and superiority from another audience. For example: an audience gives an assesment to his/her friend about the weakness and superiority in himself/herself. After gave an assesment, he/she has to give a solution or alternative way to disappear that problem.

e. Simulation Simulation can improve the learner skill in learning something (physically and mentality). This method will bring all of the real situations into teaching and learning

when the learner feels difficult to practice it in real condition. For example, when a learner wants to learn how to take off the plane, he/she has to practice in simultion room that cans help the learner to learn the real condition from that room. This method is close same as Role play.Because, both of them use the fiction.

f. Drama I believe that you know what Drama is. Because,many kinds of Drama are showed in Televission. This method just takes a part or all of parts story in an exhibition. Drama method has goals to improve the discussion and analyze a case. Those are as the literature or reflection to show what did happen. Because of that, this method is wished to improve the awareness and analyze skill.

g. Demonstration Demonstration is just a method by using telling or exhibiting of steps of something.demonstration is cassificated two. Those are Demonstration for steps and Demonstration for result. Demonstration for steps is showing the steps of a process. Different from Demonstration for steps, Demonstration for result is just showing the results of that process. In generally, the audience will follow the presenters way about those demonstrations. Finally the audience will get the experience from those practices.

h. Games Almost people like a game.Because it can build a dynamic situation and disappear seriousness. There is a famous game. That is Icebreaker game. It is about how to make the situation in teaching and learning can be easily and enjoyed. This game has spiritness, dynamic, and enthusiasm. Besides, game makes the passive conditioon into active condition. This game is also used for making the student can understand easier.