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Contents
1 Notes
1.1 Composition of air
1.2 Fractional distillation to separate
components of air
1.3 Percentage Composition of Oxygen in
Air
1.4 Oxygen
1.4.1 Uses of Oxugen
1.5 Oxides: oxygen combined with
elements
1.6 Air Pollution: Harmful substances in
the air
1.7 Main Pollutant gases:
1.8 Natural compounds of carbon
1.8.1 Carbon Cycle
2 MCQ Questions
2.1 MCQ Answers
3 Structured Question Worked Solutions

Classrooms
Home
Contact M e
Daily Reading Notes
Study Tips
Additional Math
Coordinate Geometry
Composition of air
Differentiation
Indices, Surds, and
Logarithms
Kinematics
M ath M ini Tests
Quadratic Equations
Remainder and Factor
Theorems
Trigonometry
Biology
Biotechnology
Cells
Coordination and
Response
Diffusion, Osmosis,
Active Transport
Ecology
Effects of human
activity on the
ecosystem
Enzymes
Excretion
Food Tests
The atmosphere is a layer of air containing mixture of several gases. This mixture composition varies
Genes and Inheritance according to time and place.
Homeostasis The composition of water vapour varies from 0-5%, depending on the humidity of air.
Human eye
Human Nutrition Fractional distillation to separate components of air
Human Reproduction
Human Transport
Nutrients Air is the main source of oxygen, nitrogen, and noble gases.
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Nutrients Air is the main source of oxygen, nitrogen, and noble gases.
Plant nutrition These are separated by first liquefying the air and then separating the components of liquid air by
Plant Reproduction fractional distillation.
Respiration
Transport in Plants 1. air is filtered to remove dust
Chemistry 2. any carbon dioxide or water vapour in the air must be removed, otherwise when air is cooled, they
Acids, Bases and Salts would solidify and block up the pipes.
Air, Oxygen, 3. Carbon dioxide gas is removed by bubbling the air through an alkali like sodium hydroxide.
Atmospheric 1. 2NaOH + CO2 --> Na2CO3 + H2O
Pollutants
4. Water is removed in a drying tower with a drying agent such as silica gel.
Bonding and Structure
Electrolysis/Electroc… 5. The air is then compressed to about 200 atmospheric pressure. On compression, a gas becomes
Elements, Compounds hotter. The compressed air is then suddenly allowed to expand through a fine nozzle and it becomes
and M ixtures colder. This cold air is returned to the compressor, and on its way, it helps to cool more incoming air.
Kinetic Particle This process of compression and expansion is continued until the temperature drops to -200oC (73K).
Theory, Gas Law
At this temperature, all the gases except neon and helium would have been liquefied.
M easurements
6. The liquid air is pale blue because of the presence of liquid oxygen. It is passed into a fractionating
M etals
tower, where it is slowly warmed up. This first gas to boil off is nitrogen (-196oC).
M ethods of
Purification 7. When all the nitrogen has been given off, the temperature rises to -186oC and argon gas is boiled off.
Organic Chemistry 8. Oxygen is next, at -183oC. The gases are boiled off separately and are collected and stored under
Qualitative Analysis pressure in cylinders.
Rate of Reactions
Redox Reactions
Stoichiometry
Percentage Composition of Oxygen in Air
The Periodic Table of
Elements
A known volume of air is passed through tube with burning copper powder and oxygen in air will react
Elementary Math

Questions Unclassified with hot copper powder to produce black copper oxide:
Similarity/Congruency 2Cu(s) + O2(g) --> 2CuO(s)
& Ratios of length,
area & volume If oxygen is depleted, the readings on both syringes will be steady and the reaction has completed.
English Hence, to find the volume of oxygen in air collected in syringe:
Composition writing Volume of O2 = Initial volume of air – Final volume of air
Functional Writing For instance, the initial volume of air in one syringe is 80cm3 and the final volume is 64cm3. Hence,
Grammar the percentage volume of O2 in air is:
Useful vocab for
composition writing
Words!!!
Writing Skills
Physics
All Physics Formula
and Glossary
Electricity
Oxygen
Electrostatics
Forces, Vectors, Work,
Energy, Power A. Respiration
Heat and Temperature
Heat Capacities
Oxygen is essential for all plant and animal life on earth. The process by which living organisms produce
Heat transfer
energy from their food is called respiration. Oxygen is essential for this process:
Kinematics: Speed,
Velocity, and
Acceleration sugar + oxygen ---> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Kinetic Theory of
M atter When we breathe in, we take air into our lungs.
Light oxygen from the air dissolves in the blood in our lungs
M agnetism & the dissolved oxygen is then taken to the cells in all parts of our body
Electromagnetism oxygen reacts with sugars in the cells to produce energy
M easurements of
Length, M ass, B. Combustion/Burning
Density, and Time
M elting, Boiling and
Evaporation 3 things are required for combustion
Pressure
1. fuel
Radioactivity
2. heat
Turning Effects of
Forces / M oments 3. oxygen
Wave and Sound
MOST substances react with O2 to in exothermic reaction, which is called combustion. If flames are
S ocial S tudies & History
produced during combustion, it’s called burning.
S itemap
ALL carbon compounds burn in O2 to produce CO2 while ALL hydrogen containing compounds burn in
Stressed from Studying?
O2 to produce H2O.
Check out Freakstimes Blog When adequate supply of oxygen is available during burning, it will create a complete combustion. If
for many spoof news, otherwise, the combustion is incomplete.
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for many spoof news, otherwise, the combustion is incomplete.
satires, and jokes! E.g. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) --> CO2(g) + 2H2O(g), makes up a complete combustion

Test for combustion

When air hole is closed, air cannot enter supplying oxygen, and hence soot (unburnt carbon) and CO
is produced from incomplete hydrocarbon gas combustion.
As a result, flame is yellow due to glowing specks of hot soot in heat and the flame is not hot.
When air hole is opened, air supplies plenty of oxygen, allowing complete combustion.

Uses of Oxugen

As rocket fuel
In steel making, to burn off impurities
In oxy-acetyline cutting and welding
In oxygen tanks for deep sea divers and mountain climbers to provide oxygen
For respiration for most animals
Used as oxygen tents in hospital to aid patients with respiratory problems

Oxides: oxygen combined with elements

Oxygen is a reactive gas and will combine directly with most metals and non-metals to form oxides

Reaction with metals

Most metals, except silver and gold, combine directly with oxygen to form metal oxides.
Most metal oxides are basic oxides
those that dissolve in water form alkalis
eg sodium + oxygen --> sodium oxide

Reaction with non-metals

non-metals like carbon, sulphur and phosphorus burn in oxygen to form acidic oxides
eg carbon + oxygen --> carbon dioxide

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Many elements burn in oxygen with colored flames to produce the corresponding oxide.

Across the periodic table, the properties of the oxides of these elements change from basic to acidic in
nature (metals to non-metals)

Basic oxides are formed by metals in Groups I, II, and III.

They are generally ionic oxides and are white solids.

Metal oxides
Element Reaction Product Equation pH in solution

potassium burns with a lilac-colored potassium 4K + O2 --> 2K2O 12

flame and forms a white oxide
smoke
sodium burns with a yellow-colored sodium oxide 4Na + O2 --> 2Na2O 11
flame forming a white smoke

magnesium burns with a brilliant white- magnesium 2Mg + O2 --> 2MgO 8

colored flame forming a oxide
white smoke
iron glows red hot and burns iron(II) and 3Fe + 2O2 --> Fe3O4 insoluble
with white sparks iron(III) oxide

copper just glows red hot, and copper(II) 2Cu + O2 --> 2CuO insoluble
when cooled is covered with oxide
a black coating of the oxide

Non-metal oxides
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Non-metal oxides
Element Reaction Product Equation pH in solution

phosphorus - white phosphorus: phosphorus(V) P4 + 5O2 --> P4O10 3

catches fire & white smoke oxide
- red phosphorus: slower
reaction
sulphur burns easily with a blue sulphur S + O2 --> 2O2 3
flame, producing a pungent dioxide
gas
carbon glows red, but the reaction carbon dioxide C + O2 --> CO2 5
is slow. a colorless gas is
produced

The non-metals in Groups IV, V, VI and VII form covalent oxides.

Such oxides are mainly gases or liquids but giant covalent oxides like silicon dioxide are solids

Aluminium oxide is both basic and covalent and is therefore an amphoteric oxide.

Air Pollution: Harmful substances in the air

Main Pollutant gases:

1) carbon monoxide, CO

Comes from:
- When fuels like petrol and diesel are burnt in an internal combustion engine, the amount of oxygen present

is limited, so carbon monoxide gas is formed, instead of carbon dioxide gas.

- Unburnt hydrocarbons
- forest fires

Hazards:
- Combines with haemoglobin when inhaled, which produces carboxyhaemoglobin that reduces efficiency of
haemoglobin to transport oxygen.
- Cells then die.

Prevention:
- Install catalytic converters in cars
- Reduce number of cars on road
- Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete hydrocarbon combustion

2) sulphur dioxide, SO2

Comes from:
- Combustion of fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities
- volcanic eruptions

Hazards:
- Lung irritant
- eye irritant
- acid rain

Prevention:
- Prevent using fuels containing sulphur impurities, e.g. coal
- Reduce the sulphur impurities inside fossil fuels
- Spray exhaust gases from factories with water/hydrated CaO/alkalis to absorb sulphur dioxide before it’s
released into the atmosphere
- Add CaO to soil and rivers to neutralize acid rain

3) oxides of nitrogen, NO

Comes from:
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- Lightning activity
- forest fires
- internal combustion engines (as nitrogen oxides are formed by oxygen and nitrogen under high temperature)
--> Poisonous oxides of nitrogen are also formed from the electrical spark which passes through the
air/petrol mixture.
- power stations

Hazards:
- Eutrophication
- lung damage
- acid rain

Prevention:
- Install catalytic converters in cars
- Design car engines which run at lower temperatures

Notes: Reactions of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen

The oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are acidic gases and are water-soluble. They dissolve to form acid rain.
The main source of these pollutant gases is from the burning of fuels, especially those in petrol and diesel
engines.

All oils and fuels contain sulphur, and when they are burnt, sulphur dioxide gas is formed. In power
stations, large quantities of this gas are produced, which dissolve in water in the atmosphere to form
sulphurous acid (sulphuric acid)

SO2 (g) + H2O (l) --> H2SO3 (aq)

4) Methane

Comes from:
- Decomposition of vegetable matter
- rice field
- cattle ranching
- natural gas
- mines

Hazards:
- highly flammable
- greenhouse gas

Prevention:
- Cattle and other ruminant animals should be given improved diet
- Animal manure and rotting vegetation can be used as biomass fuel

5) Unburnt hydrocarbons

Comes from:
- Internal combustion engines
- Because of the limited supply of air inside the engines some of it remains unburnt and escapes as gaseous
hydrocarbons.

Hazards:
- Carcinogenic
- forms photochemical smog
- can act as greenhouse gases contributing to global warming.

Prevention:
- Install catalytic converters in cars
- Reduce number of cars on road
- Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete hydrocarbon combustion

6) Ozone

Comes from:
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Comes from:
- It is formed when an electrical spark passes through air. This is because it reacts with the UV radiation in
sunlight to produce a 'photochemical smog'.
- It is an allotrope (two/three different forms of a pure element) of oxygen having structural formula O3 having
characteristic odour.
- High up in the atmosphere ozone is beneficial as it helps to filter out high levels of UV radiation

Hazards
- It reacts with unburnt hydrocarbons to form photochemical smog that causes headache, eye, nose and
throat irritation.
- It corrodes and kills plants and trees

Prevention
- Don’t use CFCs/replace it with HCFCs which destroys faster.

Notes: Catalytic converters

- One way to reduce pollution from cars is to fit catalytic converters to our exhausts.
- Inside the converter is a special metal-like platinum which acts as a catalyst.
- It converts the poisonous exhaust gases of CO and oxides of nitrogen into harmless gases like carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.
- It does this by transferring oxygen atoms from the oxides of nitrogen to the CO.

2CO (g) + 2NO (g) --> 2CO2 (g) + N2 (g)

7) Dust and Smoke

- The larger, heavier dust particles will settle quickly but the smaller particles may remain suspended in the
air for a long time.

Comes from:
- building work
- mining activities
- forest fires
- incomplete combustion of fuels.

Hazards:
- irritate lungs, causing bronchitis and other lung-related diseases.

8) Lead compounds

Comes from:
- Combustion of leaded petrol in car engines
- lead compounds are added to petrol to make it heavier so that it does not ignite too soon.

Hazards:
- when breathed in can build up inside the body and are toxic and poisonous
- Causes lead poisoning which leads to brain damage.

Natural compounds of carbon

Carbon Cycle

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- Carbon dioxide is produced mainly by respiration. Here, sugars such as glucose are converted into carbon
dioxide and water, giving out energy (exothermic)

Respiration of glucose equation:

- Carbon dioxide is also produced by combustion of fuels, in factories, and in the home

- The carbon dioxide is then absorbed by plants, by photosynthesis. Energy is absorbed (endothermic) from
the sun, and used to build up simple sugars.

Photosynthesis equation:

- Animals eat plants, and in turn, they themselves get eaten by other animals. So the carbon originally in the
atmosphere ends up in every living plant and animal. Upon death, the carbon is released by bacteries and
fungi, to return to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

The cycle is then repeated.

MCQ Questions

1. Which atmospheric pollutants, emitted by internal combustion engines, are reacted together to convert
them to less harmful products?
a. carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide
b. carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons
c. nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide
sulfur dioxide and unburned hydrocarbons

2. The global atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased in the last 200 years. What could be
causing this increase?
1 emissions from motor vehicles
2 photosynthesis
3 power stations using coal and oil

a. 1 and 2 only
b. 1 and 3 only
c. 2 and 3 only
d. 1, 2, and 3

3. Which statements about the pollutant carbon monoxide are correct?

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1. it is a colourless, odourless gas
2. it is formed by incomplete combustion of natural gas
3. it reacts with haemoglobin in the blood

a. 1 and 2 only
b. 1 and 3 only
c. 2 and 3 only
d. 1, 2, and 3

4. Which gas is not produced when hydrocarbons are burnt in the internal combustion engine
a. carbon dioxide
b. carbon monoxide
c. hydrogen
d. nitrogen oxides

MCQ Answers

1. a
2. b
3. d
4. c

Structured Question Worked Solutions

1. The exhaust gases of a motor car contain several pollutants, among them carbon monoxide and
oxides of nitrogen. The flowchart below shows the arrangement of a two-stage catalytic converter
in a motor car engine and exhaust system.

In the first converter, carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen.

In the second converter, nitrogen oxides decompose into nitrogen and oxygen.

ai. Explain how carbon monoxide is produced in a motor car engine.

aii. Give the name of the gas that is produced in the first converter. Write an equation to show its
production.

aiii. Why is carbon monoxide a pollutant?

b. Two oxides of nitrogen are nitrogen dioxide, NO2, and nitrogen monoxide, NO.

i. Write an equation to show the decomposition of one of these oxides.

ii. Why are oxides of nitrogen pollutants?

ci. What is a catalyst?

cii. Suggest why the catalysts in the first and second converters are different.

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Solution

1ai. As a result of incomplete combustion of petrol

1aii. carbon dioxide

2CO (g) + O2 (g) --> 2CO2 (g)

1aiii. Carbon monoxide, when breathed in, prevents blood from transporting oxygen. This is because CO can
become strongly bonded to haemoglobin (present in red blood cells) and thus prevents the haemoglobin from
transporting oxygen. The victim may die after some time due to lack of oxygen.

1bi. 2NO2 (g) --> N2 (g) + 2O2 (g)

1bii. They are acidic and cause acid rains, thereby corroding buildings and killing plants.

1ci. A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a reaction and itself remains chemically unchanged at
the end of the reaction.

1cii. Because different catalysts catalyse different reactions. The catalyst that catalyses the production of
CO2 from CO may not catalyse the decomposition of oxides of nitrogen and vice versa.

2a. Pure oxygen is obtained from air and is used as an aid to breathing in hospital oxygen masks.

i. describe in outline how pure oxygen is obtained from air

ii. give a commercial use for oxygen other than as an aid to breathing

b. One problem with oxygen is that it is the essential element in causing corrosion of metals. One
method of limiting corrosion is known as 'sacrificial protection'. Explain what is meant by sacrificial
protection.

Solution

2ai. By fractional distillation of liquid air. Fractional distillation is a method used to separate liquids based on
the difference in their boiling points.

2aii. acetylene in welding

2b. A metal more reactive than the metal to be protected is connected to the metal to be protected. This
more reactive metal corrodes in preference to the protected metal. This is called sacrificial protection.

3. Complete the following table about atmospheric pollutants.

atmospheric source of pollutant effect of pollutant

pollutant
carbon dioxide complete combustion of
fossil fuels
carbon monoxide
methane
sulphur dioxide

Solution

atmospheric pollutant source of pollutant effect of pollutant

carbon dioxide complete combustion of fossil greenhouse effect
fuels
carbon monoxide incomplete combustion of fossil poisonous to human because it prevents
fuels haemoglobin in red blood cells from transporting
oxygen
methane decomposition of sewage and a greenhouse gas which traps radiation by
vegetation reflecting it back to earth. This causes a rise in
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the earth's temperature resulting in global

sulphur dioxide combustion of fossil fuels
containing sulphur and sulphur
compounds in power stations
and motor vehicles
warming
dissolves in rain to form acid rain. Also lowers
pH of water in rivers and soil causing harm to
both animals and plants

4. Ozone occurs in the upper atmosphere.

a. why is ozone in the upper atmosphere important?
b. state one type of compound that is responsible for ozone depletion

Solution

4a. The ozone layer acts as a barrier that absorbs harmful UV rays from the sun, preventing it from reaching
earth.

4b. chlorofluorocarbons

5. Coal-burning power stations produce sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. These two gases
cause acid rain.

a. Nitric oxide, NO, is made in a power station when nitrogen and oxygen react together. Write the
equation for this reaction.

b. Many coal-burning power stations are now fitted with a flue gas desulphurisation plant which
removes sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide from the gaseous emissions. In a flue gas
desulphurisation plant, powdered calcium carbonate reacts with sulphur dioxide as shown.

SO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) --> CaSO3 (s) + CO2 (g)

i. suggest why the calcium carbonate is powdered

ii. calculate the mass of calcium carbonate needed to react with 8000 kg of sulphur dioxide

iii. nitrogen dioxide also reacts with calcium carbonate. suggest the name of the solid product of
this reaction.

c. In the air sulphur dioxide reacts with nitrogen dioxide forming sulphur trioxide. The reactions
that take place are shown in the equation

SO2 + NO2 --> SO3 + NO

2NO + O2 --> 2NO2

Suggest the role of nitrogen dioxide in these reactions. Explain your answer.

d. Sulphur dioxide is used in the Contact Process to make sulphuric acid. Describe the conditions
and name the catalyst in the Contact Process.

Solution

5a. N2 + O2 --> 2NO

5bi. To increase the surface area in order to absorb more SO2 gas

5bii.
Mr of SO2 = 64

no. of moles of SO2 = (8000 X 103) / 64 = 1.25 X 105

no. of moles of CaCO3 reacted = 1.25 x 105

mass of CaCO3 reacted = 1.25 x 105 x 100 = 1.25 x 107 = 12500 kg

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5biii. calcium nitrate

5c. As an oxidising agent because it oxidises SO2 to SO3 in reaction 1

As a catalyst because NO2 is reformed at the end of reaction 2 and therefore, the original role of NO2 in
reaction 1 has not been used up at the end of the reaction.

5d. 450oC, 2 atmospheric pressure

catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

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