1 Biochemistry, Cell Structure and Function 2.1 Cell Structure and Function Objectives i.

Identify some basic properties of cells Identify the differences between features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes iii. Differentiate cellular components of prokaryotes iv. Differentiate between plant and animal cells Identify cellular components and their function in animal and plant cells vi. Describe the animal tissues and organ system

ii.

v.

Basic Properties Complex and highly organized - Similar organelles and processes. Information to build a cell is encoded in its gene. Cell reproduces by cell division - Content from a mother cell is distributed into two daughter cells following duplication of genetic material within mother cell. Cellular activity is fuelled by chemical energy. Light energy trapped in plants carbohydrate via photosynthesis fuel activities of almost all organisms. Cells perform enzyme-controlled chemical reactions - Cellular metabolism Cells perform mechanical activities - Transport of material Cells respond to stimuli - Most cells covered with receptors that interact with specific stimuli Cells are capable of self-regulation Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Cells are divided into Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Share similar basic structures 1. A boundary that separates intracellular from extracellular 2. Contain a set of genetic information 3. A cell body containing cytoplasm and ribosomes General feature of Prokaryotes 2 common features lack of nucleus absence of membrane-bound organelle DNA not enclosed by nuclear membrane Primitive, simple, small Examples are bacteria and cyanobacteria Eubacteria: live in water, soil or within other organism Archaebacteria: live in inhospitable environment (thermoacidophiles, halophiles)

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Cellular Components in Prokaryotes 5 main cellular components Cell wall Plasma membrane Cytoplasm DNA Ribosome 1. Cell Wall Rigid cell wall, made up of peptidoglycans Maintain cell shape, protect from injury Carbohydrate content of peptidoglycanantigenic property of cell wall Host organisms produce antibodies to neutralize antigens Gram negative bacteria possess outer covering consisting lipid bound to protein and carbohydrate Other structures: flagella and pili (pilus).

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3 2. Plasma Membrane Consist mainly of lipid and protein components(different ratio depending on types of bacteria) Invagination of plasma membrane(mesosome)helps respiration Some contain lightabsorbing pigments on plasma membrane for photosynthesis

3. Cytoplasm Appears grainy due to protein-synthesizing unit called ribosomes Also contains other factors: RNA, enzymes, glycogen, polyphosphates and DNA 4. DNA Single, circular naked DNA Located in nucleoid Also contain plasmids Plasmid can replicate independently of the main DNA 5. Ribosomes Smaller 70S (rate of sedimentation )ribosomes occur as free particles in cytoplasm Ribosomes contain two subunits. In prokaryotes, these subunits are 50S (large) and 30S (small). (less when the subunits are bound then when they are separated).

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General Features of Eukaryotes DNA can be found in the chromosomes which are surrounded by a membrane nuclear envelope Many organelles Examples are protoctists, fungi, animals and plants

Animal Cells Typical animal cells consists of: Plasma membrane Nucleus Mitochondria Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes Golgi apparatus Secretory vesicles Cytoskeleton 1. Plasma Membrane Separate from external environment Provide mechanical strength Provide shape Composed of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates Semi-permeable Functional peripheral and integral membrane proteins(transport, receptors, nerve conduction, contraction) Model of biological membrane Fluid mosaic model Proposed by Singer & Nicolson (1972)

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5 Plasma membrane is not static but a dynamic fluid system where globular proteins and other components can move laterally and intermix freely. Main features of Singers model. Most cell membrane thickness~7-8nm Phospholipid bilayer: oily, giving membranes flexibility and fluidity Membrane proteins form the mosaic part 2 types of membrane proteins: peripheral and integral Membrane carbohydrates: glycoprotein, glycolipids (receptors, cell-cell recognition) Contain cholesterol, interspersed among phospholipids (less fluid at higher temperature) Cell membranes are asymmetric Main Functions of Membrane Forms boundary Gives shape, mechanical strength, protection Regulates and control in-and out-flow of materials Receptor site Cell- cell recognition In nerve cell: insulation and transmission of impulse Linked with neighboring cell with junctions 2. Nucleus Largest organelle Contain hereditary information Consist of nuclear envelope-bound nucleoplasm, with network of chromatin fibres and histone proteins Nuclear pores for protein movement, RNA and other molecules Nucleolus is spherical, visible only upon staining: synthesis rRNA

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6 3. Mitochondria Site for aerobic respiration Bounded by two membranes: -Porous outer membrane permeable to most small molecules -Inner membrane Inner membrane form cristae containing respiratory complexes Inter membrane space contain enzymes of nucleotide metabolism Matrix: gel like, consisting enzymes, ions, small organic molecules, cDNA

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum Extensive and inter-connected membrane system constituting more than half of the cell total membrane Encloses an internal space: ER lumen or cisternae space 2 forms of ER -RER (synthesis of membrane protein and secretory proteins) -SER(lipid synthesis and biotransformation)

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5. Ribosome Small cytoplasmic organelle Function in protein synthesis Two subunits, work as one during translation

6. Golgi Apparatus For sorting, packaging and distribution of several types of proteins, small molecules and new membrane to internal and external compartment. Has two faces -Cis: cisterna positioned close to ER -Trans: closest to cell plasma membrane Budding off small vesicles from ER will fuse with cis Golgi membrane, then process from one sac to another till reaching trans face for distribution. Secretory products (digestive enzymes and hormones) concentrated within secretory vesicles or granules that bud off from trans face, followed by exocytosis.

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7. Secretory Vesicles Have two : a) Lysosomes b) Peroxisomes a) Lysosomes Spherical organelle bounded by single membrane Contain granules or aggregates of digestive enzymes Function in digestion of food, worn out cell components and extracellular molecules Leakage in arthritis, gout b) Peroxisomes Small, spherical Containing oxidative enzymes Function in breakdown of toxic peroxide molecules i.e hydrogen peroxide esp important in hepatocytes and renal cells In plants, peroxisomes in leaves important for photorespiration (formation of CO2) In germinating seeds, peroxisomes (glyoxysomes) involved in conversion of lipid to carbohydrates 8. Cytoskeleton Intricate supportive network of proteinaceous fibres and filaments in cytoplasm Maintain overall cell shapes Facilitate cellular movement Provide supporting structure for movements E.g. microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate fibres

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Plant Cell Cell wall Chloroplast Plastid Vacuoles

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1. Cell Wall Surrounded plant cell outside plasma membrane Generally made of insoluble cellulose fibres in a matrix of polysaccharide and protein Cell wall composition varies from cell to cell and species to species Adjacent plant cells fused together through middle lamella which is formed from calcium pectate (pectin) Functions of cell wall Provide form Support structure Protection from injury Physical barrier from pathogen invasion Osmotic entry of water in plants Removal of cell wall results in protoplast which is vulnerable to changes in surrounding Exposure of protoplast cell burst 2. Plastid Found only in plants, algae and some protists Bounded by double membrane Three types: a) chromoplasts b) leucoplasts c) chloroplast Involved in storage of substances such as starch or proteins, accumulated pigments responsible for the color of leaves, petals and fruits a) Chromoplasts Does not contain chlorophyll Yellow, orange or red due to the presence of caratenoids pigments synthesized and stored in it. Give color to young leaves, flowers and ripening fruits Can be formed from chloroplasts that have lost their chlorophyll and internal membrane( during ripening of fruits) b) Leucoplasts Storage plastids for nutrient such as starch, oil and protein granules Not colored Plastid full of starch: amyloplasts, found in root sand tubers such as potatoes, carrots Elaioplasts are leukoplasts that store oil Aleuroplasts are leukoplasts that store proteins Prolonged exposure to light, leukoplast can become chloroplast c) Chloroplast A type of plastid Specialized for conversion of light energy into chemical energy Structurally similar to mitochondria The outer membrane is highly permeable Inner membrane relatively impermeable Inner membrane contains carrier protein to control molecules movement Contains chlorophyll molecules, bound to thylakoid membrane proteins

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11 Chlorophyll capture light energy during photosynthesis Portions of thylakoid membranes form tightly stacked structures : grana ( increase surface area for attachment of chlorophyll) Space enclosed by thylakoid membrane: thylakoid lumen Surrounding thylakoid membrane: stroma Stroma contains enzymes, DNA, RNA and ribosomes

3. Vacuoles Fluid-filled sac surround by single membrane (tonoplast) Clearly seen within the cytoplasm Most mature plants have one large central vacuoles Store amino acid, sugars, ions and toxic waste Help cell growth Central vacuoles expand during growth process and fluid pressure builds up inside the cell, forcing its flexible wall to enlarge Central vacuoles can increase and occupy 50-90% of cells interior

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Animal Cell VS Plant Cell Animal Cell NO cellulose cell wall NO chloroplasts Small, temporary vacuoles Centrioles present Carbohydrate storage glycogen Some cells have cilia or flagella Lysosomes present Smaller than plant cells VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS VS Plant Cell Have rigid cellulose cell wall Chloroplasts present in photosynthetic plants Large, permanent vacuoles No centrioles Carbohydrate storage starch No cilia or flagella Lysosomes usually absent Often larger than animal cells

Specialised Animal Tissue and Organs Multicellular organisms perform different functions Cells becoming specialized during development Cells adapted and achieve particular structure suitable for their function i.e. size, shape, internal structure and content Group of cells performing similar functions tissues which act as a unit Several types of tissue that work together to perform specific function is organ 1. Epithelial Tissue I. Simple Epithelia Composed of closely aggregated cells arranged in flat sheets

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13 Lines the body, blood vessels and surface of organs and cavities with one or more layers (stratified epithelia) Main functions: protection, absorption, secretion, sensation and contractility Classified into three most common cell shapes: -Squamous (flattened) -Cuboidal (cube-shaped) -Columnar (tall, thin)

a) Squamous Epithelium A thin flat layer of cells attached to a basement membrane Usually less than 2.0 mm thick Cell outline is irregular Cells are closely packed Normally found in areas that require protection and a lining that permeable to solutes Blood capillary walls, alveoli,mouth cavity Facilitate diffusion, lubricate movements across adjacent surfaces

b) Cuboidal Epithelium Made up of cells that have similar height and width Roughly pentagonal or hexagonal Contain nucleus in the centre Fond in glands or duct of glands i.e. Salivary glands, sweat glands, tubules of nephron Functions: secretory or absorptive, or both In intestine, these cells secrete digestive enzymes and absorb product of digestion

c) Columnar Epithelium Made of cells that are taller compared to their width Nucleus normally found lower in cell, closer to cell base

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14 Found as lining layer in intestine and other parts of alimentary canal Cell surface facing lumen has many microvilli Ciliated columnar epithelium has many fine hair-like structure(cilia) aids movement of substances such as mucus and secretory substances throughout the surface

I.

Mucus found on ciliated epithelial cells secreted by goblet cells (located between ciliated cells) Ciliated columnar found in cavity of the nose, trachea and spinal canal Pseudostratified Epithelium Appears to be layered, but true layers do not exist because each cells touches the basement membrane that join epithelium to connective tissue Found in inner most layer of trachea, bronchi and bronchioles Stratified Epithelium Made up of several layers of cells Form a tough barrier Provide protection from abrasion Outer most layer of cell, generative layer, is in active state of mitotic cell division Stratified squamous can be found in epidermis of skin, lining the inner most layer of oesophagus Stratified cuboidal can be found in excretory ducts of sweat glands Stratified columnar can be found in secretory ducts of mammary gland

II.

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III.

Glandular Epithelia Contain secretory cells Multicellular glands contains specialised secretory cells A cord of cells formed from the surface epithelium, and invaginate inward, resulting to : i) Exocrine gland (salivary gland, digestive gland) ii) Endocrine gland (pituitary gland, thyroid gland)

2. Nerve Tissues Neurons Glial cells I. Neurons/ Nerve Cells Highly specialized for conduction of nerve impulse 3 common features: 1. A cell body that contain nucleus

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16 2. A number of short fibres, dendrites, extending from cell body, that receive messages from other neurons and send messages towards cell body 3. Axon, single long fibre which takes impulses away from cells

The tips of axon meet Other neurons at junction called synapse Muscles(neuromuscular junction) Glands Three types of neurons: Motor neurons (efferent) Sensory neurons (afferent) Associative neurons (interneurones)

1. Motor neurons transmit impulses along the axon from nervous system to muscles and glands

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17 2. Sensory neurons (afferent) Conduct impulses from the receptor organ to the central nervous system 3. Associative neurons (interneurones/ intermediary/ relay neurons) Occurs within the central nervous system (CNS) or sympathetic ganglia Receive impulses from sensory neurons or other intermediary neurons Exist in various shapes with one or more dendrons or axons

II.

Glial Cell Neuroglial cells/ Neuroglia Provide support, protection and nourishment to the neurones Also functions to Stimulate formation of new synapse Modulate the activity of neurons Repair damage Supply neurons with materials from blood

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18 -Types of neuroglial cells Schwann cells that produce myelin sheath which surrounds many axons in PNS Myelin sheath is separated at nodes of Ranvier, to facilitates faster movement of impulse

III.

Muscles Tissues Muscle cells To produce motion 3 types: smooth, striated (skeletal) and cardiac muscle Form muscle fibres specialized for contraction

1. Smooth muscle cells (involuntary) Variable length Found in digestive tract, walls of trachea, uterus, bladder Contraction controlled by brain via autonomic nervous system Contracts rhythmically, producing waves of contraction such as peristalsis

2. Striated muscle (voluntary) Skeletal muscle Large number of muscle fibres Multinucleated (have more than one nucleus per cell) Each fibres has alternating dark and light bands Attached to bones via tendons

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19 Essential part of organ of support and motion

3. Cardiac muscle (involuntary) Only found in heart Cells have single nucleus and many mitochondria Also striated, but different from skeletal, because it is: Mechanical contraction last longer Does not require impulse from brain Myogenic, has its own pacemaker

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20 IV. Connective Tissues Made up of variety of cells embedded in a large amount of intracellular substance called matrix and fibres, which are non-living products of the cells Roles: - Protect and support the body and internal organs - Act as connecting systems, binding all other tissues together - Form surrounding sheaths to separate the various organs Examples: 1. Bone 2. Cartilage 3. Blood

1. Bone Compact bone consists of living cells, about 30% collagen and glycoprotein fibres, and about 70% inorganic substances Made up of numerous cylinders; each cylinder is a Haversian system or osteon Each osteon is made up of concentric circles called lamellae around a Haversian canal containing an artery, a vein, lymph vessels and nerve fibres Osteoblasts (bone cells) are found in spaces between lamellae called lacunae Fine channels called canaliculi, which contain cytoplasmic strands, connect to lacunae to each other.

The blood cells allow the exchange of materials with the bone cells Osteoblasts become less active when they mature, and known as osteocytes Volkmanns canals connects the Haversian canals of adjacent osteons to each other The Sharpey Schafer fibre connects the outer periosteum layer to the underlying bone Functions:

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21 1. Give body shape and provide framework for support (eg.skeleton) 2. Protect the internal organs (eg.the cranium protects the brain, the ribcage protects the heart) 3. Provide surfaces for attachment of skeletal muscles to enable movement 4. Act as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus 5. Site for blood cell production in the bone marrow Diseases related to bones Rickets (poorly calcified deformed bones) lack of calcium absorption from the intestines, due to the deficiency of vitamin D Osteomalacia (bones do not calcify properly in adults) prolonged deficiency of vitamin D Osteoporosis decreasing bone mass 2. Cartilage A connective tissue containing cells embedded in a matrix of chondrin 3 types: (i). Yellow elastic cartilage located in the pinna and epiglottis (ii).White fibrous cartilage in the ligamentous capsules surrounding joints and the intervertebral discs (iii). Hyaline cartilage Functions of hyaline cartilage: - Elastic compressible tissue located, such as cartilage of trachea and bronchi, to keep them open - Covers the ends of bones and reduces friction between joints during movement - Forms the embryonic skeleton in many bony vertebrates - Forms the skeleton of cartilaginous fish such as sharks and stingrays

3. Blood cells 3 main types: Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Granulocytes & Agranulocytes(white blood cells) Platelets (thrombocytes) Erithrocyte (red blood cell) - Lifespan 120 days - Diameter 7 8 m, 2m thick

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22 - Biconcave, disc-shaped, cell is covered by a thin, elastic plasma membrane - Functions: (i) Contain haemoglobin, to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide (ii) Act as buffers and helps to maintain the pH of the blood

Granulocytes (presence of granules) : 1. Neutrophiles (70% of the leucocytes) - Life span 6 hours to a few days - Diameter 10 15 m - Cytoplasm contains fine, non-staining granules - Functions: (i) Engulf microorganisms (eg.bacteria) by phagocytosis, and destroy them 2. Eosinophils (1.5% of the leucocytes) - Lifespan - Several days - Diameter 10 15 m - Cytoplasm contains fairly large granules - Functions: (i) To control allergic response 3. Basophils (0.5% of the leucocytes) - Lifespan - 1- 2 years - Diameter 14 -16 m - Cytoplasm contains fewer but larger granules - Functions: (i) Involved in inflammation and allergic reactions Agranulocytes (absence of granules): 1. Lymphocytes (24% of the leucocytes) - Life span several months to years - Diameter 9 16 m (smallest cells in the leucocytes) - Functions: (i) For specific immune response (ii) B-lymphocytes produce antibodies to destroy antigens (iii) T-lymphocytes attack and destroy infected cells 2. Monocytes (4% of the leucocytes) - Lifespan few days (blood), and several months (connective tissue) - Diameter 16 20 m (largest cell of the leucocytes) - Cytoplasm is non-granular - Functions: (i) Engulf antigens, and destroy dead/ damaged cells of the body

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Platelets (thrombocytes) - Lifespan 8 12 days - Diameter about 3 m - Irregularly shaped membrane-bounded cell fragments - Functions: (i) Important in the process of blood clotting

Functions

Transport

Homeostasis

Protective Functions

Hormones Insulin from pancreas to liver Absorbed substances Glucose, amino acids, mineral ions, vitamins from small intestines Respiratory gases Oxygen, carbon dioxide Excretory wastes Urea, creatinine, uric acid to the excretory organs

Helps to regulate and stabilise the internal environment Water content of the plasma helps to regulate body temperature Solutes in the blood such as plasma proteins, mineral ions (eg. Na+) affect the water potential of the blood and regulate diffusion of water between blood and tissues The hydrogen carbonate, some plasma proteins and haemoglobin act as blood buffers and help to maintain the pH of the blood

Leucocytes (neutrophils, macrophages) engulf antigens eg. bacteria by phagocytosis B-lymphocytes produce antibodies to destroy pathogens / to neutralize toxins Tlymphocytes destroy infected cells Platelets, fibrinogen and prothrombin involves in blood clotting to reduce blood loss and entry of pathogens

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