CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Nowadays, research into marital relationships is far broader and presents a much more

complex picture of human relationships. It includes not only the positive elementsthe delights, laughter and joy of friendship, romance and familybut also the negative elementsthe irritations and annoyances that we all recognise as part and parcel of relationships. It also tends to look at the course of real life relationships over a considerable period of time and thereby investigates the factors that contribute to satisfaction, dissatisfaction and the means by which we deal with the changes in our feelings towards other people. Such research has a wide variety of practical applications and contributes greatly to our understanding of what makes us happy and what makes us profoundly miserable. As with many areas of psychology, much of the research on relationships is limited to very few cultures. Moghaddam et al. (1993) point out that most research in this area has largely ignored those that are important in Eastern collectivist societies and has been concerned almost exclusively with relationships that are important in Western, individualistic culturesthose of initial attraction, friendship choices and mate selection.
1

These relationships are those which are most important in the mobile, urban, Western world in which new acquaintances are made on an almost daily basis, the media flaunts sex and passion and the selection of a heterosexual partner is based on a belief in romantic love. The focus is very much on choice and on the buildup and breakdown of relationships which are regarded as temporary. In contrast, little attention has been paid to such relationships as kinship and community, the relatively permanent, compulsory relationships which are central to many Eastern, collectivist cultures in which group goals rather than personal goals are paramount. Although some recent research, especially in Britain (e.g. Argyle and Henderson, 1986), has taken a cross-cultural approach and looked at both kinship and the norms and rules of relationships in a variety of cultures, the research has a long way to go before we can formulate any universal theories concerning all types of interpersonal and intergroup relationships.

Marital

researchers

variously

characterize

couples

as

maritally

dissatisfied, distressed, or discordant, often using these terms interchangeably. However, categorizing couples as discordant versus nondiscordant implies that a qualitative distinction can be drawn
2

between distressed and nondistressed couples. Further, categorization itself, regardless of the label used, implies a belief that researchers are able to correctly assign couples to the appropriate category using currently available measures.

2.1

THEORIES OF CONFLICT

Theories have been posited to account for conflict in social interaction mostly in marital relationship. Some of which include conflict spiral model, structural change model, aggressor-defender model, and exchange equity equality theory. 2.1.1 CONFLICT-SPIRAL MODEL This theory posits that conflicts bring conflicts in social interaction mostly in marital relationship. Each partner will be trying to react in a defensive manner to the other partners behaviour. As a consequence there is spiral conflict, which unfolds that drops on both parties. In this theory, instead of focusing on the first cause as in aggressor model, it describes the changing nature of spiral hostilities continuing going upwards.

According to this theory, failure to recognize that is hot in all cases that action result in reaction, it has given a profitable account of violence that often accompanying conflict especially if there is no third party intervention and the situation remains conclusive for the conflict to keep going on. 2.1.2 STRUCTURAL CHANGE MODEL The structural change model posits that the dynamic nature in human society is inevitable and it is this dynamic nature that brings conflict. The changes can occur in social setting, peoples beliefs, goals, values, attitudes and perceptions. This theory also because of the changes bring development and industrialization in the family structure and society and the role it played in interpersonal transactions are expectations. In this theory, it is not all the time that the changes will bring development and growth rather conflict may result in marriage partner not all conflict accompanying changes, some of the conflict may continue to lead to another conflict, which resulted into divorce, childs delinquency, truancy and socially undesirable behaviours.

2.1.3 AGGRESSOR-DEFENDER MODEL This theory posits that when there is conflict in a material relationship, one person perceives the other as an aggressor and depending on this or her biases, aggressor is seen as motivated by ignoble, evil and illegitimate aims while the defender (e.g. partner) is moved by noble morally correct and legitimate aims. This follows that the defender must increase the deterrent power to ensure that peace prevails. For example, a man may tell his wife not to visit her parents that particular day the woman said that she wants to visit her parents. The woman may see the husband as being developing hatred to the In-laws but what the man did is just to exercise autocracy as the head of the family. This is the typical marital relationship conflict. The woman may stick to her own thought thereby visiting her parents without regarding the talk of the husband which proves that the man will not be hindrance to her own personal opinion and conflict will occur. And the blame will now be on the partner conceived to be aggressive. So in marital relationship, one partner should be perceived as initiating conflict if the other partner is interfering with the spouses goals and values.

2.2

Types of relationships

We experience a large number of relationships in our lives. For many of us, the first important ones will be those with our parents and other close relatives. As we grow up, other relationships become important: we make friends, we go to work, we have romantic liaisonsall of these everyday life events involve interpersonal interactions which greatly influence the quality of our lives. We will start by considering affiliation, our basic need to associate with others and then turn our attention to some specific relationships that are likely to be of significance to us.

2.2.1 Affiliation Affiliation is the basic need for the company of others. One of the most devastating punishments we can inflict on humans is to place them in solitary confinement, thereby forcing them to be completely alone. Across most societies and situations, humans show gregarious (sociable) tendencies, indicating that the need to affiliate is at least in part instinctive. We live and work in groups rather than in isolation; indeed, our very survival depends on it. We affiliate in all manner of circumstances such as to have fun, to gain approval, to alleviate fear and to share sexual intimacies. The motivation to be with others comes from
6

both the inside and the outside in that it depends on both personality and circumstances. Certain situations that we face, especially new, frightening or ambiguous ones, lead us to seek out others. However, people also differ in their need for affiliation, some being far more sociable than others.

2.2.2 Personality factors in affiliation Even though there are situations in which we are more likely to seek the company of others, some people will always be more inclined to socialise than others. There are essential differences in the characteristics and behaviour of people who have a high need to affiliate as opposed to those who are low in this need. In general, people who are high in the need to affiliate are concerned about establishing and maintaining positive relationships with others and tend to watch other people closely in social interactions. They are friendly towards others and tend to be popular. Perhaps because they are concerned to be accepted by others they are fearful of rejection, are careful not to offend others and show high levels of anxiety in social settings. Essentially, then, although the need to affiliate is a basic one, this need is greater for some people than for others.
7

2.2.3 Friendship Friends are people we like and with whom we enjoy doing things. The well-known saying, you can choose your friends but you cannot choose your family, reflects the fact that, unlike kinship, friendship is entirely voluntary. Friendship is universal: at all ages, in all classes and cultures, men and women, boys and girls, form bonds of friendship. Argyle and Henderson (1985) outlined the norms and rules that are most important in friendship. Friends freely help in times of need; they trust and respect each other and share confidences while respecting each others privacy. They do not criticise each other in public and will not tolerate others being unpleasant about friends who are not there to defend themselves. There is considerable variation in the degree of intimacy and the stability of friendships. Childhood friendships tend to be fairly unstable, while those made during adolescence and early adulthood are often the closest and most enduring.

2.2.4 Changes in friendship with age Until recently, psychologists have paid little attention to peer relationships in childhood, concentrating instead on parent-child relationships. Now the focus is changing. It has become clear that peer
8

relationships play a significant and unique role in childrens development, helping them in the transition from the dependence of childhood to the independence of young adulthood. Friendships take different forms and serve different purposes at various stages of life. Although preschool children show more intimate behaviour with some peers than with others, at this age they have no concept of friendship as an enduring kind of relationship: friends are essentially playmates. From about the age of 8, children begin to see friends as people who can be trusted to be loyal, kind, cooperative and sensitive to the others needs (Pataki et al., 1994). In adolescence there is an emphasis on friends being people who truly understand each others strengths and weaknesses and are willing to confide their innermost feelings (Hartup, 1992). During adolescence, same-sex friendships are probably more intense than at any other age. As people grow older and marry, friendship becomes less central to their lives and not as close. Adults tend to draw their friends from the immediate neighbourhood and from work; these relationships are usually less intimate than those based on early attachments (Argyle and Henderson, 1985). Contrary to popular belief, most older people (those above the age of 60) are not lonely and friendless; the vast majority have at least one close
9

friend. Friends in late adulthood provide intimacy, people with whom to share activities, and are a source of excitement and joy (Adams, 1986). Friends are especially important to elderly women who are more likely to be widowed than men. From an early age and throughout life, males and females show significant differences in styles of friendship. These are discussed in

2.3

Relationships with relations

For the vast majority of people, relationships with our family members, especially with our parents and children, are a vital feature of our social network from the cradle to the grave. However much they may at times cause intense irritation, our families serve a vital function in our lives, providing us with a shared identity and a safe base. Despite the popular stereotype of the isolated nuclear family in the Western world, links between family members in different geographical households are often very closeespecially in these days of telephones, faxes and e-mails. Finch and Mason (1993) found that the majority of adults have some contact with their mothers at least once a week and over 10 per cent see them daily. No matter how great the distance between parents and children, links remain strong, the strongest typically being with mothers.
10

There is a sense of obligation to remain in touch with all immediate family members, but especially with parents. However, this sense of obligation does not detract from the fact that links are also maintained through mutual enjoymentwe do not only keep in touch because we have to but because we want to. Sibling relationships are often the most enduring of all relationships in our lives and are exceptional for the sheer amount of shared experience. Although the intensity of sibling relationships varies enormously, most people report feeling close to their brothers and sisters at least in some respects (Bank, 1992). Relationships between sisters are by far the strongest, but all of them provide a great deal of emotional support and warmth despite the fact that there may also be some rivalry. Often the closest relationship with relatives outside the immediate family is that between grandparents and grandchildren. Grandparents are quite close to their grandchildren because they have little disciplinary responsibility and can simply enjoy the company of the young. From the grandchilds perspective, grandparents are people with whom you can have fun and to whom you can sometimes turn when you are in mum and dads bad books. 2.3.1 Romantic relationships

11

According to Hatfield and Rapson (1987), the earliest stages of a passionate relationship involve quite spectacular and specific cognitive, behavioural and emotional aspects. When we fall in love we are at first totally preoccupied with the object of our passion and have a great desire to get to know them and be known to them. Emotions run high and may be positive or negative. If everything is going well, we are likely to be on top of the world but be plunged into the depths of despair if our love is not reciprocated. Either way, there is a high level of physiological arousal and a certain degree of uncertainty and anxiety. We have a fascination with the object of our love, a great sexual desire for them and feel the need to cherish and care for them. In the early stages, lovers whose passion is mutual want to spend as much time as possible together, often becoming absorbed in each other to the exclusion of everyone else. Walster and Walster (1978) claim, as have many others, that passionate love is extremely fragile and unenduring, in contrast to other types of love which may last a lifetime. Many studies have indeed shown that romantic love fades over time, sometimes, but certainly not always, to be replaced by companionate love.

12

2.4

FACTORS INFLUENCING DIVORCE

Poverty according to Haralambos, (1980), can cause divorce. He went further to explain that there is a relationship between income and divorce. Low income place strain on marriage especially on the husband who failed to live up to his role as a father, and as a bread-winner. 2.4.1 DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS 1. Social Integration: Social integration is the degree of interaction between individuals and the larger community is emerging as an important factor related to the incidence of divorce. In addition, the rates of divorce increases from east to west. The highest rate is found in California, where two divorces currently occur for every three marriages. The greater likelihood of divorce in the west and Southwest may be caused by the higher rate of residential mobility and lower levels of social integration with extended families, ethnic neighborhoods and church groups (Robert, 1991). 2. Socio-economic Status: This is probably the most important

correlate of divorce. Overall, the higher the socio-economic status comprised of employment status, income and education (which

13

tend to be interrelated). The lower the likelihood of divorce (Otite and Ogiowo, 1999). 3. Employment Status: Among whites, a higher divorce rate is more characteristics of law status occupations, such as factory worker, than of higher status occupations such as executive.

Unemployment which contributes to marital stress is also related to increased divorce rates. Conflicts arise as to whether employed wives are more likely than non-employed wives to divorce. Overall, thought the findings seem to suggest that female employment contributes to the likelihood of divorce, because the employed wife is less dependent on her husbands earnings (Witte and John, 1997). Wives employment may lead to conflict about the traditional division of household labour, child-care stress and other work spill over problems that in turn, create marital distress. 4. Income: The higher the family income, the lower the divorce rate for both whites and African Americans. The higher a womans individual income, the greater her changes of divorce, perhaps because with greater incomes, women are not economically

14

dependent on their husbands or because conflict over inequitable work and family role increases marital tension (Haralambos, 1990). 5. Education Level: For whites, the higher the education level the lower the divorce rate. Divorce rates among African Americans are not as strongly affected by educational levels. Education level has been deemed as a strongest effect on divorce rates. Statistics have shown that women who have gone on a graduate school have a greater likelihood of divorce than some less educated women. This is mainly because women who went to graduate school mostly go into the work-force and they can stand on their own and do not need to rely on their husbands finance. 6. Ethnicity: African Americans are more likely than whites to divorce. The relation between ethnicity and divorce is not

surprising because of the strong correlation between socioeconomic status and divorce, the lower the socio-economic status and divorce, the lower the socio-economic class, the more likely a person is to divorce (Pett, 2002). 7. Religion: Frequency of attendance of religious services (not necessarily the depth of beliefs) tends to be associated with the

15

divorce rate (White and John, 1997). Among white males, the rate of divorce for those who never attend religious services is three times as high as for those who attend two or three times a month. John (1992) observed that when husband and wife belong to the same religious faith that the rate of divorce is lower than if they belong to different religious faith. He maintained that divorce among Catholics is lower than compared with that of the Protestant and Baptist churches.

2.5

FAMILY PROCESSES

The actual day-to-day marital processes of communication-handling conflict, showing affection and other marital interactions may be the most important factors holding marriages together or dissolving them (Ventura, 1995). Marital Happiness: Although it seems reasonable that there would be a strong link between marital happiness or, rather, the lack of marital happiness and divorce. This is true only during the earliest years of marriage. Those who have low marital happiness scores in the first year of marriage are four or five times more likely to divorce within three years than those with high marital happiness (Rosenblatt and Paul,
16

2006). In fact, alternatives to ones marriage and barriers to divorce appear to influence decisions more strongly than does marital happiness. Children: It is not clear what relation, if any children have to the likelihood of divorce (Haralambo, 1990). Children were once considered a deterrent to divorce. People stayed together for the sake of the

children but 60 percent of all divorces now take place among couples who have children. The birth of the first child reduces the chance of divorce to almost nil in the year following birth. This preventive effect does not hold true, however, for subsequent births (Diouf and Nafi, 2004). Parents of sons are less likely to divorce than parents of

daughters. The research suggests that daughters participated more in the parenting of sons than daughters, thereby creating greater family involvement for the man (Diouf and Nafi, 2004). In some instances, the presence of children may be related to higher divorce rates. Premarital conceived (during adolescence) children and physically or mentally limited children in general contribute to marital dissatisfaction and possibly divorce.

17

Changed Nature of the Family: The shift from an agricultural society to an industrial one undermined many of the familys traditional functions. Schools, the media, and peers are now important sources of child socialization and child care. Hospitals and nursing homes manage birth and care for the sick and aged. Due to this fact, that the family pays cash for goods and services rather than producing or providing them itself, its members are no longer interdependent. As a result of losing many of its social and economic underpinnings, the family is not a necessity. It is now simply one of the many choices we have. Marital Problems: If you ask divorced people to give the reasons for their divorce, they are not likely to say I blame the changing nature of the family or it was demographics. Personal characteristics leading to conflicts are obviously very important factors in the dissolution of relationships. Studies of divorced men and women cite such problems as alcoholism, drug abuse, marital infidelity, sexual incompatibility and conflicts about gender roles as leading to their divorces. Ventura, 1995 found that the four most common reasons given were in descending order of frequency, personal problems, home life, authoritarianism and differing values. Extramarital affairs ranked seventh. Complaints

associated with gender roles accounted for 35 percent of the mens

18

responses and 41 percent of the womens responses. But because studies included only divorced respondents, it is difficult to tell whether the presence of these factors can predict divorce. We know from studying enduring marriages than marriages often continue in the face of such problems. Muslim Marriage Customs and Laws: The dowry plays a key role in arrangement of marriage on Bangladesh. The dowry is an arrangement between the brides and grooms family whereby the brides family agrees to pay certain amount of money and/or goods in kind to the grooms family (Pett. 2002). Though the practice if illegal under Muslim and state law, it is widespread in Bangladesh. consequences for the risk of divorce (Pett. 2002). Marriages as well as divorces can be registered with the government through the civil registration system but most of those events are not registered. In cases where they are not, they are enacted through The practice has

marriage ceremonies following existing religious and social customs and procedures.

19

Marital Infidelity: Infidelity is a breach of good faith that applies in a number of contexts. In the context involving a close relationship,

infidelity is referred to as cheating which is any violation of the mutually agreed upon rules or boundaries of a relationship. It does not require sexual behaviour to qualify as infidelity. The definition of what constitutes infidelity varies between and within cultures. Another term for marital infidelity is adultery. The facts about marital infidelity (sexual unfaithfulness to a spouse) are outstanding. Polls show that although 905 of marital people disapprove of extramarital relationships, statistics from a national survey indicates that 15% of wives and 35% of husbands have experienced extramarital sexual affairs. These numbers increase by 20% when emotional affairs and sexual relationships without intercourse are included. So studies have shown that marital infidelity (sexual unfaithfulness to a spouse) can influence divorce among couples. Polygamy: Polygamy increases the possibilities of marriage and

remarriages for women. It reflects a grooms personal taste. Polygamy marriages are likely to be less stable than monogamous marriages. For several reasons competition between co-wives for husbands love and affection may raise tensions leading to quarrels at home. A polygamous
20

man, on the other hand, may view wives more as bed-partners than life partners. If this is the case, keeping the marriage intact may be less important to him (Wallerstein and Kurdek, 1989). This kind of view weakens the bonds of marriage and marriage and divorce are reduced to mere formalities leading to high probabilities of remarriage and divorce. Divorce when instituted, however has much effect on the family both on the children and on the couple.

2.6

The Effect of Marital Discord and Divorce on Adolescent Children

Many

researchers

have

demonstrated

link

between

marital

conflict/divorce and child behavior problems (e.g., Jenkins & Smith, 1991; Cummings, Goeke-Morey, & Paap, 2003). The type, frequency, and intensity of marital conflict and the perceptions of children are all important factors that help shape childrens reactions to conflict between their parents.

Research indicates that marital conflict is related to childrens cognitive and affective functioning. According to Grych and Fincham (1990), childrens internal processing of marital conflict involves two steps: (a)
21

children recognize that there is some sort of disruption and respond emotionally to it, and (b) children attribute meaning, understanding, causality and responsibility for the conflict. Children then develop responses to the conflict and learn by trial and error the most effective means of coping. Grych and Fincham argued that there are distal and proximal factors that influence the cognitive and affective processing of the conflict. Distal factors are relatively stable qualities such as gender, temperament and previous experience with marital conflict. Proximal factors include expectations of the conflict and parent mood.

Plomin and Daniels (1987) found that after controlling for genetic similarities, siblings vary drastically in their reactions to marital discord. Turkheimer and Waldron (2000) differentiated between the observed environment and the effective environment. The observed environment refers to the observable and measurable environment in which the children live, and is separated into aspects that are unique to each child and aspects that are shared across siblings. The effective environment is the differences between siblings that cannot be measured directly, such as behaviour and personality. Factors that might explain individual differences in the development of behaviour problems in the face of
22

marital conflict are attachment orientation, birth order, early childhood experiences and different environments (Plomin and Daniel, 1987). Evidence indicates that different types of marital conflict are associated with increased behavior problems in children, especially internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Marchand, Schedler, & Wagstaff, 2004; El Sheikh & Elmore-Staton 2004; Neighbors, Forehand, & Bau, 1997). Negative conflict behaviours are maladaptive means of solving marital disputes, such as yelling, name-calling, demeaning comments and physical aggression. Many researchers have hypothesized that it is the aggressive nature of fighting that affects children, whereas a calmer, more productive means of working out disagreements may conversely have a positive effect on children. Martin and Clements (2002) found that children who witness inter-parental aggression react more strongly and in more negative ways than children who do not witness violent interactions between parents. Conversely, if parents engage in positive conflict behaviours (e.g., compromising, calm debates, exhibiting love despite differences in opinion), children are not as likely to exhibit externalizing behaviour problems (Marchland et al., 2004). Moreover, externalizing behaviours are more likely if a parent shows overt hostility and anger; whereas, internalizing behaviours are more likely if the
23

parent demonstrates avoidance and withdrawal (Marchland et al., 2004).

Jenkins and Smith (1991) identified three different dimensions of disharmony that could negatively affect childrens behaviours. First, overt parental conflict may be distressing and encourage similar behaviour in the children. Second, covert parental conflict (i.e., disharmony that distorts family relationships) could impair childrens adjustment. Finally, marital discord could affect the way parents interact with their children, thus encouraging each parent to behave in a different manner toward the children, which was termed parental discrepancy in child-rearing. Webster-Stratton and Hammond (1999) found that critical parenting and low emotional responsivity of parents were strongly predictive of child conduct problems and thought to stem from the marital conflict. Cummings, Goeke-Morey, and Papp (2004) also studied three aspects of marital conflict: conflict tactics (constructive versus destructive); parental emotions (positive versus negative); and conflict topics (child, marital, social, and work). Cummings et al. found that marital aggression increased aggression in children, especially when parents tactics and emotions were negative and the children were the object of the argument.
24

While the link between marital conflict and behavior problems in children has been well established, less research has focused on the mutual influence between these two phenomena. There is some evidence suggesting a bidirectional relationship between childrens behaviour and marital functioning. At the broadest level, Ryder (1973) showed that couples without children have higher marital satisfaction than couples with children. Relatedly, Cowan and Cowan (2000) demonstrated that the birth of a baby marks a decline in marital quality and an increase in marital distress. Other studies have reported that the parents of challenging children, whether in temperament (Leve, Scaramella, & Fagot, 2001) or physical health (Gaither, Bingen, & Hopkins, 2000), also show less marital satisfaction. In a longitudinal study over three years, OConner and Insabella (1999) found that marital conflict predicted an increase in adolescent behaviour problems, and that adolescents externalizing behaviour predicted a more negative rating of the marital relationship by fathers. These findings do not indicate a clear causal relationship, but do lead one to believe that the interaction between marital conflict and childrens behavior problems is significant.

25

2.7

SEXUAL INTIMACY

The guiding framework for the study of libido and intimacy in the postpartum period is adapted from work by Rosemary Basson, a researcher from the University of British Columbia. Her model, called the alternative model of female sex response cycle (2001), identifies three factors that influence the receptivity for sexual stimuli: 1. the wish to enhance intimacy; 2. the anticipation of a satisfying emotional and physical experience; and, 3. the presence of sexually specific and other intimate stimulus that are necessary for each individual woman. The appeal and effectiveness of the stimulation may well depend more on its context; for example, caring, consideration, safety and privacy, than on the details of the physical stimulation itself. This model shows a receptive type of desire stemming from arousal which itself results from the deliberate choice to find and be receptive to sexual stimuli (Figure 1).

Masters and Johnson (1966) described a linear type of sexual response which assumes orgasm as the goal. This may not be the case for all women, as physical pleasure may occur in the absence of orgasm (Bernhard, 2002). If one accepts this assumption, Bassons (2001) framework can be appropriately applied to a population of postpartum
26

women. The researchers clinical experience has provided significant anecdotal evidence that many women feel abnormal due to a lack of sexual desire, especially during the first year postpartum. One goal of this study was to measure and explore the degree and extent of lack of desire in the postpartum period.

Figure 1. Alternative model of female sexual response cycle (Basson, 2001).

27

2.7.1 Postpartum Sexuality Although there has been an increase in research regarding sexual health after childbirth, the sexual adjustment of new parents, especially fathers (Ahlborg, et al., 2005; Fischman et al., 1986) is still under-studied. Studies to date primarily address the time to resumption of sexual intercourse (Ahlborg et al., 2005; Connolly et al., 2005; Reamy &White, 1987; Signorello et al., 2001; van Sydow, 1998) which has generally been found to be by four months for most postpartum women, and the prevalence of dyspareunia (Barrett et al., 1999; van Brummen, Bruinse, van de Pol, Heintz & van der Vaart, 2006; Byrd, Hyde, DeLamater & Plant, 1998; Connolly et al.; Lumley, 1978; Signorello et al.).

Research in other areas of postpartum sexuality includes examination of psychological factors (DeJudicibus & McCabe, 2002; Otchet et al.,1999); general health status (Otchet, Carey & Adam, 1999; Saurel-Cubizolles, Romito, Lelong & Ancel, 2000), orgasm (Connolly et al.); and, relationship quality (Ahlborg et al.; Dixon et al., 2000). Childbirth brings about a change in the sexual relationship (Barrett et al., pg. 180; Fischman et al., 1986) of new parents. However, sexual satisfaction has not been found to be related to mode of delivery (van Brummen et al.).
28

Overall, the literature on postpartum sexuality supports the hypothesis that there is a relationship between libido and intimacy issues (Ahlborg et al., 2005; DeJudicibus & McCabe, 2002; Dixon et al., 2000). Depressive symptoms may interfere with a return to intimacy, both sexual and emotional. Issues of postpartum sexuality encountered by clinicians every day in routine gynaecologic care include womens reports of feeling fat, leaky and without energy or sex drive. Many parents are unprepared for the physical and emotional changes that occur after the birth of a child. As noted by Ahlborg and colleagues, sexuality is just one part of the intimate relationship of couples. Many complex factors affect the couples experience, especially when they enter parenthood. This study contributes to the evidence base by addressing these issues in postpartum couples.

2.7.2 The Role Libido in Sexual Intimacy Libido is a Latin word that means desire, and has been defined as the urge for, interest in, or drive to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activity (Barton, Wilwerding, Carpenter, & Loprinzi, 2004; Diamond, 2003). It is a species-typical phenomenon, a complex construct that includes generation of spontaneous sexual thoughts and fantasies,
29

attentiveness and responsiveness to erotic stimuli, awareness of sexual cues and the arousal response to sexual stimuli; these elements are strongly influenced by social and cultural factors (Levine, 1984; Soran & Wu, 2005).

The first step in the traditional model of sexual arousal and orgasmic release is the occurrence of sexual thoughts, fantasies or neediness and hunger. This is the psychological stimulation necessary to experience the build up and release of sexual tension for both the physiological enjoyment of that process and the avoidance of negative feelings associated with its deprivation (Arcos, 2004; Carson, 2006).

Males and females experience pleasure from different stimuli owing to the interplay of the differing sex hormones (Salamon, Esch, & Stefano, 2005). Physiological processes play an important role in human libido as humans learn to feel sexual desire in certain situations and at certain times (Diamond, 2003).

A spontaneous sexual act represents the final manifestations of a series of complex and meticulously synchronized processes (Soran & Wu,
30

2005, p. 28). Multiple studies associate libido with the peri-menopausal or menopausal states, or relate it to disorders of sexual desire or female sexual dysfunction (Basson, 2001; Dennerstein, Lehert, & Dudley, 2001; Graziottin, 2000; McCoy, 2000; Wiegel, Meston, & Rosen, 2005).

2.8

Intimacy as a concept

Intimacy is a broad concept commonly used in practice disciplines but rarely succinctly defined. The context around the word intimacy is often the key to understanding the definition. Our culture, unlike others, places a high value on intimacy, and although not restricted to marriage, most get married to seek and maintain it. It is considered to be the reward and benefit of friendship (Schaefer & Olson,1981, p. 47). In 2006, there were more than two million marriages in the United States, or 7.5 per 1,000 total population (USDHHS, 2006). Intimacy is an integral part of every relationship, whether by its presence or its absence.

Recent empirical evidence points to the importance of intimate relationships for adult personality development. The ability to form intimate relationships is critical for personal well-being (Katz & Joiner, 2002). Intimacy among couples is an important focus for research since
31

the postpartum period is a time of increased stress for couples (OBrien & Peyton, 2002). Intimacy quality is an indicator of relationship strength, and it is the foundation upon which strong relationships are maintained and enhanced (OBrien & Peyton). In order to help couples adjust their relationships to the new family configuration, one must have a measure of the intimacy level of that couple. A working definition and comprehensive understanding of the concept of intimacy is, therefore, essential to this work.

There are several types of intimacy discussed in the literature, with its most general meaning providing a common thread: the depth of exchange, both verbally and/or nonverbally, between two persons, which implies a deep form of acceptance of the other as well as a commitment to the relationship (Gilbert, 1976, p. 221). Schaefer and Olson (1981), Timmerman (1991), and Heller and Wood (1998) all propose definitions of intimacy. Specific types of intimacy found in the literature include romantic intimacy (Katz & Joiner, 2002; Moss & Schwebel, 1993), physical or sexual intimacy (Ahlborg et al., 2005), emotional intimacy (Schaefer & Olson); and other-validated and self-

32

validated intimacy (Schnarch, 1997). Each type of intimacy has its own definition; however, some constructs are common to all types.

Constructs commonly associated with intimacy are self-disclosure (Gilbert, 1976; Timmerman, 1991), self-esteem (Gilbert; Katz, & Joiner, 2002), commitment (Heller & Wood, 1998; Katz & Joiner; McCabe, 1999; Moss & Schwebel, 1993; White et al., 1990), closeness (Bagarozzi, 2001; Moss & Schwebel; Timmerman), relationship satisfaction (Ahlborg et al., 2005; Katz & Joiner; McCabe; Schafer & Olson, 1981; Schnarch, 1997; White et al.), and sexual activity (Ahlborg et al.; McCabe). There is an extensive body of literature on the psychological factors that affect intimacy; however, a more detailed review of this literature is beyond the scope of the current study. Future research on intimacy should incorporate the associated concepts of self-disclosure, self-esteem, commitment, closeness, relationship satisfaction and sexual activity, in order to deepen the clinicians understanding of relationship dynamics and provide direction to move relationships toward higher quality and deeper intimacy. Especially in the postpartum period, when relationships can be strained by multiple concerns, intimacy is an important and salient concept and an important
33

area of research for nurses and other health care providers of new families. Clinicians need tools and knowledge to help couples function as they build new relationship formations.

With an increased understanding of what drives intimacy needs and issues, public policy makers can incorporate this knowledge into the development of policies which support the young and growing family unit and increase the success of couples in relationship building and maintenance. These are important areas for future research and practice as the integrity of the family is strained and the divorce rate is climbing, now at 3.6 per 1,000 population (USDHHS, 2006).

2.9

Marital Satisfaction

Marital satisfaction is thought of as an attitude of greater or lesser favourability towards ones own marital relationship (Roach, Frazier & Bowden, 1981, p. 537) and is an important topic to many people (Case, 1998; Miller, 1976). The concept of marital quality, defined as a subjective evaluation of a married couples relationship (Arrindell, Boelens, & Lambert, 1983, p. 293), reflecting numerous characteristics of marital interaction and functioning, is concerned with how a marriage
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or long lasting intimate relationship functions and how the partners feel about that relationship. The term is often used interchangeably with marital satisfaction, marital adjustment, marital success and marital happiness (Arrindell, et al.).

The concept of marital satisfaction has a prominent place in the study of marriage and family relationships and is probably the most frequently studied dependent variable in this field, despite disagreement over its defining criteria (Arrindell et al., 1983; Spanier, 1976). Marital satisfaction has a central role in individual and family well-being and benefits to society; thus, there is a large body of research on factors that influence marital satisfaction; however, much of it focuses on newlyweds or couples in counselling (Apt, Hurlbert, Pierce, & White, 1996; Kurdek, 1998; Miller, 1976). Factors that influence marital satisfaction include the ability to give and receive positive support, the use of blame, anger or rejection in conflict resolution, self-disclosure and partner disclosure, ethnicity, sexual satisfaction, presence of children, number of marriages and length of marriage (Jose & Alfons, 2007; Kurdek, 1995; Schneewind & Gerhard, 2002).

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There appears to be no good clinical or theoretical reason to believe that the quality of ones sexual or marital relationship is markedly affected by age, gender, or socioeconomic status or by either a liberal or conservative stance concerning human sexual expression (Hudson, Harrison, & Crosscup, 1981). People have certain expectations of what their intimate relationship will be like, and how these expectations are met often determines how much pleasure one gets from that relationship (Case, 1998). There is a decline in positive feelings regarding the marital relationship among first-time parents and a normative decline in marital satisfaction in the early years of marriage (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Kurdek, 1995). Sexual satisfaction is related to relationship satisfaction; sexually satisfied women were found to have higher relationship satisfaction than sexually dissatisfied women according to Hurlbert and Apt (1994).

Postpartum women and their partners with less sexual intimacy and greater conflict appear less satisfied with the marital relationship (Hackel & Ruble). It has been reported that the presence of children decreases marital satisfaction, while increased child spacing increases satisfaction; socioeconomic status has an indirect effect on marital
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satisfaction (Hatch & Bulcroft, 2004; Miller, 1976). Role transition, or role strain, is one aspect which could affect marital satisfaction, and it appears that those couples who prepare for the transition to parenthood often have decreased marital satisfaction. A likely explanation for this apparent contradiction is expectancy disconfirmation; these couples have higher expectations; so when unmet, they experience greater dissatisfaction (Hackel & Ruble). Age appears to have a negative effect on sexual satisfaction among first married as does ones level of education (Jose & Alfons; Gold, 2006).

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2.10 MARITAL PROCESSES IN CONTEXT: A POSITIVE CONTEXT MATTERS As we entered the new millennium, divorce continued to replace death as the most frequent end point of marriage (Pinsof, 2002). It is therefore not surprising that long-standing interest in negative marital processes such as conflict has continued. The extent to which researchers have begun to shift their attention to consideration of the impact of positive context on marital outcomes is striking, however. This shift has set the stage for the emergence of a more nuanced depiction of the temporal course of marital processes. Research focusing solely on couple processes and conflict is less prominent and less cohesive than it once was, as the attention to the context in which conflict occurs continues to grow (see Karney & Bradbury, 2005). For example, relevant studies appear under the rubrics of stress and coping (Bodenmann, Pihet, & Kayser, 2006; Neff & Karney, 2007), the transition to parenthood (e.g., Kluwer & Johnson, 2007), and biological processes in relationships (e.g., Loving, Heffner, KiecoltGlaser, Glaser, & Malarkey, 2004).

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Affirming the importance of the affective climate in which conflict takes place, M. D. Johnson et al. (2005) showed that the interaction between positive affect and negative, conflictual behavior was particularly important for understanding changes in marital satisfaction over 4 years: Low levels of positive affect and high levels of negative behavior foreshadowed rapid declines in satisfaction, whereas high levels of positive affect buffered the effects of high levels of negative behavior. This more subtle contextual information, however, did not predict levels of marital satisfaction over and beyond the main effects of affect and behaviour. Janicki, Karmarck, Shiffman, and Gwaltney (2006) showed that the intensity of contemporaneously recorded, everyday conflictual interactions with the spouse predicted marital satisfaction but did not do so when positive partner interactions were also considered (conflict frequency was unrelated to marital satisfaction).

Strikingly, intensity and frequency of nonspousal conflict interactions predicted marital satisfaction even when nonspousal positive

interactions were considered. Such findings underline the importance of the affective climate, both within and outside the dyad, for understanding its impact. Similarly, the historical context spouses bring
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to the marriage was also shown to be important in forecasting later relationship processes. Building on early work showing continuity in hostility during family interactions in adolescence to interactions with a romantic partner, Whitton et al. (2008) found that observed hostility in family of origin at age 14 was related to hostility displayed in marital interactions 17 years later.

Finally, differences among newlyweds who remained married predicted the nature of their marriage over a decade later (Huston, Caughlin, Houts, Smith, & George, 2001). Further emphasizing the importance of context is the finding that the accumulation of multiple risk factors uniquely predicted marital satisfaction over and beyond individual risk factors. Moreover, cumulative risk moderated associations with marital satisfaction in that it exacerbated the associations between individual risk factors and relationship satisfaction (Rauer, Karney, Garvan, & Hou, 2008). In a similar vein, Schulz, Cowan, Cowan, and Brennans (2004) investigation of spillover effects showed that negatively arousing workdays were linked to wives angrier marital behavior and to less anger and greater withdrawal in husbands, a finding that was amplified in satisfied marriages.
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Conclusion Bassons 2001 Alternative model of female sexual response serves as the framework for this study of intimacy, libido, depressive symptoms and marital satisfaction in postpartum couples. The literature on postpartum sexuality has traditionally focused on adjustment after having first babies and time to resumption of intercourse in postpartum women. Recently, the focus of study has included fathers. Libido is a complex construct including both physiological and psychological components. The concept is often studied in terms of dysfunction, especially in perimenopausal and post-menopausal women. Intimacy is commonly used in practice disciplines, but with little agreement on the definition. An integrative review of the literature was undertaken for this study yielding a definition for research: "an exchange between two persons which implies deep acceptance of the other as well as commitment to the relationship". Commonly associated constructs were reviewed and areas for future research were delineated especially as pertaining to advanced nursing practice. Depression in the postpartum period occurs in one of eight women within six to eight weeks of giving birth, and with approximately four million births per year in the United States, has the potential to affect nearly one-half million women and
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their families. It is a public health crisis which demands attention, as it has been shown to affect intimate relationships as well as early childhood development. Finally, marital satisfaction is a commonly studied concept in marriage and family relationships. It plays a central role in individual and family well-being and has benefits to society. The depth of literature on marital satisfaction spans more than fifty years and includes definitions of marital satisfaction as well as factors which influence martial satisfaction. There is a lack of recent literature in the area of postpartum couples marital satisfaction.

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CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In this chapter the methods adopted in carrying out research are presented. Among the topic presented in the chapter include research design, data collection method, the study population and sampling design and procedure. Other topics presented include data collection instrument, administration of instrument, data analysis method and limitation of the methodology.

3.1

RESEARCH DESIGN

The descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study in which a structured questionnaire will be used to elicit information from the target respondents who were staff of Kosofe Local Government Area of Lagos State. Primary data will be collected and processed in the study. The survey research design adopted becomes imperative because of the population characteristics and a representative nature of the sample of the population for the study.

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3.2

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

There are two sources of data which were used in this study; the data are primary and secondary sources. The major data used in this study is primary data and the findings of the study are based on this data. The primary data were collected through the administration of a structured research questionnaire which was self-administered on the staff of Kosofe Local Government Area of Lagos State. Secondary source of data collection formed the theoretical framework of the study. The secondary sources include textbooks, journals, internet, magazines and

newspapers. 3.3 POPULATION OF STUDY

The population for this study was the entire staff of Kosofe Local Government in Lagos metropolis. The population is put at about one thousand (1000). The population comprises the management employees, senior staff and junior staff. This population was selected based on the fact that they are the staff that formulate and implement the day to day activities of the organisation.

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3.4

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE

As a result of the population of this study, and the time frame given for the completion of this study the sample size for this study was 100. This was arrived at based on the researcher judgment, which though is subjective was found simple to arrive at and more importantly, is a representative of the population. The sample size will covers 30 managers, 30 senior staff and 40 junior staff. The sample will be selected using simple random sampling techniques.

3.5

DESCRIPTION OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The instrument for collection of data was a structured questionnaire. The questionnaires will be administered to the respondents by hand. This was because the time frame available for the researcher to complete the project was short. The questionnaire will be constructed to contain questions base on the personal data of the respondents as well as the questions on the subject matter of the study. Some of the questions in the questionnaire were constructed based on the 5 point Likert scale to seek the respondents opinion in which they strongly agree (5 point), agree (4 point), undecided (3 point), disagree (2 point) or strongly disagree (1
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point). Section one of the questionnaire consists of variables measuring the respondents demographic issues. Section two consists of the main questions design to elicit relevant information which resulted into providing answers to the research questions, testing of hypotheses and resulted into the accomplishment of the objectives of the study.

3.6

ADMINISTRATION OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

The questionnaire was self-administered on the respondents who are the staff of the studied organization. The questionnaires were selfadministered to the sampled population. Some of the respondents collected the questionnaire and asked the researcher to come back in one week for the collection of the completed questionnaires. Others completed the questionnaire and returned it immediately.

3.7

METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The completed questionnaires will be sorted, coded, processed and processed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) computer programme. The information extracted from the administered

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questionnaire was presented in the form of frequency distribution table showing the frequencies and percentages. Tables will be used to present responses to the questionnaires. The authenticity of the hypotheses will be tested by using Chi-Square statistical test. Chi-Square is a test of independence and homogeneity and it deals with estimating the difference between expected and observed frequency. The test was conducted and processed with the aid of SPSS computer package.

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