Opole, 2005

COUNTER-IMAGES OF EUROPE IN THE UTTERANCES OF SELECTED CHARACTERS IN CONRAD'S AFRICAN FICTION

Joanna Kurowska The Uruversiw of Chicago

tohts Heart of Darkln 19rl Chinua Achebe accusedConrad of not conferring, " 'rudimentary souls' of Africa'" In piace of rhe faciliq,. of language on the zr-r.r. "a violent babble of uncouth sounds" speecir the Africans ,n th" novel make instancesis g'hen l1-5;.1Thev speak rntellieiblv onl,Ytwice' One of the \.n.i. from the shore attack the \{arlow approaches I(..rtz's inner station. As the natives headman of his crerv' For ship, Nlarlov iniuates a conversation rvith the black ..go.,afelloir,'shp,ssake,,'hesal,s:..Ahal''Theheadmanreplies:..Catch.im.Gil .tm to us.,, Marlorv u,t.,. ..To vou, eh? \X,hatwouid vou do with them?,, The head_ .,Ear 'iml" (HD i03). According to Achebe, the fact that, excepilonman ans\r.ers: consututes one of conrad's :rilr,,in rhls con'ersation the headman uses English speak Enghsh qrearesrracist assauits(115). Allegedlv, Conrad makes the African or, as Achebe (paracrnlv to enable the western reader to glimpse the barbarism "trre unrpeakable ctavingsof fthe African] hearts" (ibid'; emphasis doxicallr,) puts it, defending a noble cause, added).Peter Fircho.r.'has.onvincinglv arguedthat, rvhile narrative.For example,he disreAchebe iqnores the broader context of conrad's important details, qards Conrad,s use of contrast. As a result, he overlooks manv crav'ling on all four in the the tor ir-rstance reverse svmmetrv betq'een the sick men "out of his own choice" (cf' srove oi death, and l{urtz cra$rling on all four
l trchnu l() . utrerances of the natives galn ln tn Heart of Darkness seem to lndc-ed, the EngLlsh

of con*,hen one considersthem in the Iight of Conrad's emPloYment sr,nitlcance

i'1[s phrlsc comcs lrom rhci snokc..." (92) ".\n outpost oi Progrcss": "Thcv madc an uncouth babbling rrolse

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trast' Before exploring that significance, mat' be worrh\vhile to juxtaposetl-reutit terancesof Conrad's African charactersto those appearinein othcr-conremporan. adventure novels. For example, in King J'o/onzon's Nlines, Haggard describes an cncounter befween rhe Engl.ishmanQuatermain and the Zulu Umbopa. euatermain initiates a conversarion by asking the Zulu patronizinelr,:
. . what is vour namc?" '\ monrcnt latcr hc eddrcsses Umltopa: "\t'l-rv do v,u esli whithct r v c g o ? \ \ ' h a t i s i t t o t h c c ? " ' l h e Z u l u r c p l i c s :" l t i s t h r s , ( ) u ' h i t c m c n . t h a t r [ r r r d c c d \ , o u r r a v r ] s ( ) far I would trevcl rvith vou." (265) "\X,'ell,

Haggard does not inforn dre readertn rvhat tonsue rhe conrrersarion takesp)acc but norvheretn the narrativedoes he sugest thar his English charactersspeakanv "snaps" African language.2 compared to rhe headrnan's in broken English, Umbo pa's utterancesstrike the readeras grammaticailvand sn'lisucallvelabor:rte. Consrcienng that both men use a language foreign (non-nauve) ro them, the headn-rar-r's short, fractured senrences are more real-rstic than Umbopa's hish-flou,n, roundccl utterances.The outcomes of the fwo conversationsare also strikingiv diffcrent. The laconic communicarion of the headman makes Nlarlou.'reflect thar the men of his creu' are starving.On his part, Quatermain reminds the Zulu of his racial inf-errorit1,':"You forget r.ourself a litde. ... That is not the \liav ro speak" (265). In Heart oJ'Darknets Conrad emplovs precisely that conrrasr berween the ilou'e n language of the E,uropeans and the brief, arvku.ard, fractured, and \ret exrremely precise and unambiPous urterances of his Africans. i\s if exemplifilne Conracl's own oxvmorons included in the descriptionof the "lmmense foresrs .. [thatl lav rn the eloquent silenceof mute greatness" ("An oupost of Proqress"94), rhe senranoc force and precision of the utterances of the characters in Hearr aJ Darkne-r-s grov, counter-Propottionallv to the rrolume and grandiosrtv of the language those charrc ters use. The headman u'ith rvhom N'Iarlou' speaks uses erght u'ords altogether tcr convev borh rhe messagedrat he and his men are hungfl,and a solution to the prob "emplo\.ers" lem. His utterance aiso suggestst}at his r,"'hire har-emistreatedhirn ancl his men, u'hrch undermines lvlarlov/s iruual declaradon of "good iellou'shlp." The second instance of the use of English b,v the Aflicans occurs u'hen rhe manager'sbor' "puts his insolent black head in the doonvar'" and savs"in a rone of scarhingconrempr": "NIisrah iiurtz - he dead" (150). Despite rhe brevrn,and in comPleteness that senteflce(it lacks the predicate),it convevs its messa-{e of u'lrir superb precision.The non-r-erbalaspectsof the bor"s utterance hrs insolenceanci contempt contrast r,vithIiurtz's seemingpo)iteness and compassion,s'hich in fact disguisehis arro{ance and contempt. Again, the most important aspectof the con. trast bet$'een the utterancesof the Africans and those of the rvhites is their em
On anothcr occasicrr-r fagr1:rrdmcntrolrs a Zulu (othcr than Llrnbope) "u'i,o ]rad tirc nrclr li [ spcalur-rgLtngtish pcrfccdr " (264) 2

t-ounrerlmrqcs oI l'.ur.pc

tol

plolmenr oi lanquage. The narrative'sinsistenceon presenung the lavishnessand gr-andiositv I{urtz's language is remarkable.N{arlow's majn aim in pursuing of i.'r,rrtz ta/kingrvith him. Iiurtz's "gift of expression" (113;1al rs pialfullv deis "the most exalted" and "the scribed as both "bervildering" and "illuminating," rnost contemptible" (113-4).As Bonnev has obsen'ed,rvhile describins Kurtz's use "must invaLidate of lanpuage,N{arlou' the verv act of defining in order to demonsfrate through his ou'n lineuistic activifi, the supposed quahties of I(urtz's speech" "puisating stream of light, ,138). That speech is rendered paradoxicalll. as either a rrr the deceitful tlou, from the heart of impenetrabledarkness" (113-14).Its ven ii"alJ iurnination turns it into clarkness. Considering that Europe contributed to the "heart mrrirtng of I{urtz" (117), the narradve locates the of darkness" rvithin l..tirtz's mind as u'eU as at the core of E,uropeandiscoursethat he articulates.In "documents I.ord's rvords, Hean o;fDarkne.rs the transformation of cir.ilized ideals rnto rt"'ordsthat stand alone, divorced from a meaningfr-rlrelation with their refer' c n r b l t . l ( u r t z ' s u ' o r d r ' ,e l a b o r a r em o v i n g . e l e g a n rp r e r n ' a n d m e a n i n g l e s s l u r . , ierances are the exacr opposite of those of the Africans. To I{urtz, language "sen'es ... as a vehicle,metaphor, and paradigm of the pretencesand deceptionsof colonial expansron" (Lord 67); rvhereasthe headman and the serirantbo,v restore the straightfonvardnessof languaee in communicating needs and idenufving facts. Characteristically, lookine back, Nlarlou'remembersI{urtz's and the other Europeans' utrerances(includine the utterancesof Iturtz's Intended) as "one immense or iabbcr, sillv, atrocious,sordid, savage, simplv mean, rvithout anv Hnd of sense" (115). This stavs in contrast with Nlarlow's lasting memon' of characteristicallv
n o n - r - e r " a" h l m - "q q . -r b -e o "'c conr-eved rn him hv his d'ino helmcmqn'"rhe intimare nrn-

tundtrr, of [his] look ... remains to this day in mv memor\' lke a claim of distant l i r n s h r pa f f i r m e d i n a s u p r e m e m o m c n r " ( 1 1 9 ) . As Petersobsen-es, loose in Africa l{urtz "finds nothing underlving ftis] idelet r l : e n d n r r t l ^ u n r o e n f o r c et h e m . a n d h e n c ec h e r h a r - e o p o \ \ ' e ro v e r h r s I i f e " ( 5 6 1 . q n ( onsidering rl.remanifest discrepancvberween "words and their referent" in the Europeans' use of language,Lord asks:Does this mean that the ideals and values ,,f Europcan civilizadon, u'hich those rvords pronounce, are merelv nominal? Or 21re thev substantial?(cf. 61). Conrad's employment oi contrast in juxtaposing Iiurtz's use of laneuageu'ith that of the Africans suggesrs restoratjon of at least a o t l e v a l u e :s i n c e r i n ' o f e - r p r e s s i o n \ p p a r e n t l r , t h e A f r i c a n s r e t a i n a v a h r et h a t r h e .. Ilr-rropeans including N{arlou', Conrad, and Conrad critics recognize as their ou'n. I r o r e r a m p J e , \ n d r e a \ \ 1 . r i t e r q r . i er h a t " i t w a s p o s s i b l ef o r s o m e o n c i n C o n r a d ' s r a s unique posiuon to see ... dre disparin benveen the [imperial] discourseand the acI Writt",r in "burning, noblc rvortls. Kurtz's rcport oflcrs "no prectical hints t() intc{rupt thc n r a g l cc u r r c n t o f p h r e s c s " i 1 1 3 ' .

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tualrv of grabbing'for the sakeof what courd be gor"' (1g4). To be able to nouce a disparifi' one must have a nodon of a norm, in this casethe norm of concurrence beru'een sign Qanguage)and referent (reahq).a consequently, Heart of Darkne.rs rer.'ealsthe moral bankruptcy of European civilization of rvhjch language is mereh a mask, and therefore it is also bankrupt. on the other hancl, as Lord argues, rhe novella reflects Conrad's struggle to save meaning.5 But is this norm of sincerity or srraightforwardnessa genuine value of Atlican culture? Or does Conrad simply use the Africans to deal wrth hrs disuncuvciv "E,uropean" frustrations? Do we learn anvthing about the congolese irom Cc,nl rad's African pieces or rs Africa in both Heart of Darknessand,,An outpost of pro_ sress" merely the "props for the break-up of a petry European mind," as Chjnua Achebe has put it? (cf. 117). These questionsevoke the fundamenral problem of the possibilitv of knou'ing a different culrure.A number of scholars took Conrad at his word regarding the "essential [and allegediy irreconcilable] difference of the races" (cL2 402). For example, IGajka arguesthar in Heart of Darkness,'re^\ inrerraciai communication does not take place,as rhe culture of the black people is not explored in anv depth" (245). Naipaul claims that "I{arain" shorvs men as ,,pnsoners of their cultures" (191). John Griffith has stressedConrad's pessimismregar.cling dre possibillw of "cross ethnic encounrers." on the other hand, rhere ,rre thinkers who obsen e that knowing a different culrure is a necessarvprecondruon to knowing one's own culture. For example, Bakhtin maintains that "rr is onlr in the eves of another cuburt that foreign culture rer.,eals itself iullv and profour-rdli," and that a "meaning onlv revealsits depths once ir has ... come into contacr g,ith znother, foreign meaning" (7). Marv Louise Pratt helps to solve this parackrx by proposing the idea of the "conracr zotre." She argues that even in the (frequent) case of cultures clashing in the conditions of a dominated domineering re.iauon ship, the results of the clash are necessarilv e','en if unintentionally reflecred in both cultures, for example in the ethnographic rexts of the conquerors as u.ell as in the autoethnographictexts of the conquered.6Pratt has demonstratedthat a colo nialist describingalleged"barbarism" of the reluctant colonized,in his descripdorrs unwiilinglv includes hts fears and thus his acknowledgment of the value of the oth-'Ihis 5'l'hc puning esidc various Iinsuistic cluandar.icthat that rclationshrp cngcndcrs. s

"lNlarlow'sl crrtic argues that rncaning lics in (--onrad'sa.ctrrli) tnzg/e tbr it: wrlhngr.ress tciJ to a talc that undcrmincs thc valucs accc.rrding whicl-r hc livcs as wcll as tl.rc languaqc in whicb hc to mLrsr spcah sr.rggcsrs that thc mearring lics in the eftbrC' (124). d c h n c s c t h r t o g r a p h i c t c x t a s a t c x t " i n w h i c h l i u r o p c a n m c t r ( ) p o l l t a l rs u b ; c c t sr c p r c s c n t r ( ) r l . r c m s c l v c sh e i r o t h c r s ( u s u a l l vt h e i r c o n q u c r c c lo t h c r s ) " ; a n d a u t o c t h n o g r a p l r i ct c x t r s o n c " i n w l r i c h t pcoplc undcrtake to dcscribe thcrnselves iu uavs that cngagc rvith rcprcscr.rtat,()ns othcrs hevc nredc " '['l]us. of thcnl autocthnographic tcxts are "rcprcscntations that thc so-tlcihcd othcrs construcr rp rcsp()nsc to or rn dialoguc with" thc crhnographrc tcxts (35). 6l)ratt

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ers' svstemsof sienificance. On rheir side, the dominated mav use rhe lanquageof the domineering to "construct a parodic, oppositional representarionof the conqueror's ou'n speech" (35) In the non fictional world, Chinua Achebe, Franz I t a n o n .a n d \ d a m N h c k l e r t " ' j c z e mr o b e d i s t i n c te x a m p l e s f r h i s . 7 \ ' i r h r c q a r dt o se o \ Heart af Darkness,6oth Conrad and his creadons, N{arlou' and Iturtz, have tbund themselvesin a "contact zone." If the questron of language did not borher Haggard, who sacrificed probabihty rn order to present his image of Africa in the allegedlv inter-racial dralogues of his characters,for. Conrad the ianguage barrier was a fundamental issue. With the exception of N{akolain "An ourposr of Progress,"none of Conrad's Africans speak anv E,uropean language sufficiendv to give a substantial accounr of their culrure. \\ rth the exceptron of I(urtz, none of his Europeans speak anv African language sufficientlv to learn about the local culnrre. Conrad's recognition of language barrier is muludirectional.If N{arloq' suspecrs that "there [rs] a meaning" in rhe "pas sionate uproar" of the Africans, this situarion becomes reversed in An Oatcast the of Ir/attds, u'hcrc in a ]ocal ravern Chinamen grou'dred at r}le "buzzing monoronv oI rJ-re unintelligiblesrreamof u'ords poured our bv rhe u-hite men" (6).uConrad's frequent theme of unintelligibie human voices reflects his authentic experienceof a person not understandrng the language of his environment. Anvone u'ho has learned a foreign languaee knows that there is a u,orld of difference beru,'een "knou'ing" a language and the actual encounter with native speakersusing it. conrad must have experienced that in Engiand, in Indonesia, in Africa, and as a child in Russia. If, as manv critics ha'e arg;ued,Conrad was preoccupied with seeing, hearing seems ro have concerned him as rvell. For example, in Alruayer'sFo/fi, he describesa scenein rvhich Babalatchi and Mrs. A.lmaver[sten from a distance to the "confused but loud utterancecoming in bursts of unequal strength,.,vithunex pected pausesand noisv repetitionsthat made some rvords and sentences fall clear and distinct on rheir ears out of the meaninglessjumble of ercited shourings" (136).9 InThe Niger oJtbe 'Narcissus"Comad,describes"the feverish and shriil babble of Eastern language" strugJling "aEainst the masterful tones of ripsv seamen" (4). When the Narntsus enters London, an "immense and lamentable murmur the
l.'anon's studv T,4e W-retched the Earth, Achcbc,s novcl of Thin,4s Fa//Apar^/, and \lickicu'tcz's drama ForeJalhers'Eue articulatc thcir authors' reacdons r() thc cor] gucrors' rcprcscntations of thcrr rcspcctivc nationa.l ot cthnic communrties. f'o some cxtcnt, cach *'ork cxposcs and moclis thc languagc and rhetonc of thc concluerors. Iianon tacklcs thc problcm of teprcscnfatron at thc thcorctjcal lcvel: "Coloniahsm is not satisfied mcrclv with holding a people in its gtip end empwing thc nativc's brain of all form and contcnt. Rv a llnd of pcrvcrtcd logrc, it turlrs tc) thc past of thc opprcsscd pcoplc. and dist.rts, drsfigurcs, and dcstr.rs tt', (.21C)). ' ,\ leadrng spcakcr amongst thosc rvhitc men is thc cocky ancl rnsrnccrc \\'rllcms, who "musr tali<" "cxpounds and h i s t h c o r v o f s u c c c s so v c r t h c L n l c t a b i e s " ( 6 ) . 9'l'1.".."n" takcs placc d'.nq tlrc 'rsit of thc I)utch offrccrs at -\lmar.cr's ptacc. '1-hough nor strictlr' "cthnographic."

tk"

murmur of mrllions of lips praving, cursing, sighing, jeering the undr,ing murmur of folly, regret, and hope exhaled by the crou,ds of the anxjous earth,' comes fronr the ciw (163-4). Heart of Darknessis a case studv of the situation of berng forced to perform the exasperaung task of guessing a meaning in the flou' of a tbreign language.Nlarloq,' repeatedivstresses two aspectsof such a situat.ion: rhe lack of comprehensionot. and the implled meaning in what he hears.He is immersed in ru,o krnds of selnant1c sy,55srn5' r'isual and aural, often working simultaneouslv. Both w-or:ds(,.sr,m bols") and images ("icons") consrituteimportant aspectsof commurucatior,.l0Fo, examPle> Jakobson suggests,everv building is both a lund of a shelter and a kind as of a message;clothes, besideshaving a strictiv utihtarian purpose, displav various semantic characterisdcs(cf. 61). Hence, "utrerance" may include non verbal aspects of communication, such as movement, apparel,make-up, etc. In his contact zone, N{arlou'registersst'mbols in whar he hears as weLlas rcons and also svn-rbols rn whar he sees,for example:
-\long thc rivcr. thrcc mcn, plastcred with bright rcd carth from hcacl to ioot, strurtcd to antl frr-r 'fhci' rcstlcsslv . facccl thc river, stampcd thcir fect. nodded theu horncd heads. swavcd thcrr scarlct bodics, thcv shook towards tl-rc fiercc rivcr-demon a bunch of black fcathcrs .. thcl slrouted pcrlodically togcthcr strings of a,mazingrvords that rescmblcd no sounds of human len guagc. (145-6)

Impeded bv b-isimperiai preconceptions regardrngAfrica and its inhabirants, ex posed to various s,ystems sigruficancein the "contacr zofle," N{arlou, rries ro u1 of derstand his surroundings through his use of inagtnatiue conzprehension example, Iior describing the scene in rvhich a "loud cry of infinite desolation" is being hearcl from the thicket, hc observes:"to me it seemed as rhough the mist irself had screamed, so suddenlv, and apparently from all sides at once, did this tumulftrous and mournful uproar arise" (102). Madow first interprers the utterance as "moufnful"; then, loolirng for clues, he carefullv observ-eshis surroundrngs:
thc whitcs . . l'rad ... a curious look of bcing painfullv shoclicd bv such an ourragcous tox.. I'hc othets had an alert- naturallv intercsted cxprcssir>n ... Scvcral cxchangcd short. grunting phrascs. u'hrch seemed to sctrlc thc marrer to their satisfaction. (103)

As this excerpr shows, Conrad not only "conferred the facihn' of speech" on hjs black characters,but also excluded his Europeans from comprehensjon of that speech.The contrast berw'eenthe behavior of the Africans and rhat of rhe Europeans is magnified also bv ridicuhng the preconceprions oi rhe latter. Without curios"' . - \ c c o r d i n gr o , f a k o b s o n , t h c " i c o n s " p r e v a i l a m o n g t h c p u r c l r , s p a t r a l v i s u a l s i 1 5 n s , h d c " s l n r w bois" prcvail among thc purclv tcmporel aural signs (65: "Przcwaga znakou. it<onrcznvch *'irod czvsto przcstrzcunvch zr-rak<-rw wizualnvch i przcwaga symboLi w(rrid czvsto czasown'ch zrrako*, sluchour"ch").

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are unable to lexrn anYthlnq; in' and lmaglnative comprehension, the Europeans "painfullv shocked." Imaginat-ivecomPrehension is a precondition to ther. are onlr' "tmaginaflve svmp;thv"'u'hich Marlou'- occasionailv displavs' the \\"ordsw-orthian Helooksathisnatir-e..".u.u...voo.vouldonanyhumanbeins,rvithacuriosiwof (105)' Upon hearing the sound of \&'eaknesses" their impulses,motives. capacities, "profound a meaning as the as African drums, he describesit as possiblv having SoundofbellsinaChrisuancountrv,,(71).Thisconcessionnoton]vdisclaimsthe ..barbarism,, of African culture, but leaving room for its otherness acal]eged to that of Furopean culrure' Thls knrtrvledgesits depth and significance as equal "carefullv situated the conrad exccrpr also confirm, Hu..rp-so.r'sobsen'atrionthat For example' $'ith reqard to action Lof l,risno'elsl in the material world" (101).11 ..A good African drummer can ]iterallv make Afrtcan drums, Davrdson crbserves:

htsdrumspeakrnwo(dsandSentencesbyr,aryingthestrengthandpiacementof histappingtoreproducethesoundsofi\fricanspeech,'(149).Duringspecialocca. "dancers and drummers engage in a ritual dialogue' and sions or religtc)usrltes, ,talk, contrnuouslv to the auclience" (150). N'Iarlou"s imaginarive comPrehen both African drums are also meanlngsion allowshrm to p".."ir'. that the sounds of the "utterances" even though he does not understand them' iul C o n r a d , s g l r m p s e s a t A f r i c a n o r N { a i a v c u l u r e o f t e n"Ann g t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n i l o n bri outpost of Prosress'" in back to Europe. A good example of this is Gobila him blacks in Heart of Darknus, Conrad conffasts Srmilarlv to hrs t..otlenr of thLe associatedu'ith inter-racial to the u,hite coiorusts and reverses stereotvPeswpicallv "cir.ilized" and "savage." Gobila sPeaksa ianguage that the encounters berween "indisunguishablv whites to be Europeans clo not understand. H. regurds the

a l r k e , , ( 9 5 ) . T h e E u r o p e a n s , b e h a v i o r a m u s e s h i m : ."*'as r l i e r s l a p p e d h i m o n t h e .Ca ahva)'s readY to let ,iro.k off matches," *,hile l(averts back, and recklessiy himhaveasniffattheamoniabottle,'(96).AlthoughGobiladoesnotutteran\' discourse enables the reader to sentencesdirectlv, Conrad's use of free indirect "in short, the rr"'hites behaved iust Like that other knov, some of Gobila's reactions: (ibjd')' ln Gobila's rvhjte crearure rhar had hiclden itself in a hole in the sround" can recognize characterisconduct towards I{at,ert. and Carlier, manv Europeans Gobi]a treats the v'hites rvith ucs of rherr ou,.n standard of civi[zed behavior. which rs a condiuon frrendliness and narural curiosir\.'.He offers them hospitaliq'', to the "The v'omen of Gobila's r.'illage [brought] even'mofning of their sunivai: a goat" (96)' On sration.fou,is,and sweet poraroes,and palm wine, and somedmes and betral' him bv selltheir part, I(averts and Carlier regard couitu with contempt the advise of his rt'.orriers ing hrs peopie to siave deaiers. Gobila refuses to follorv
,t (-f. (-onrad's "attcmPt to intcgrxtc his fiction into thc rcll wotlcl ts ^lso Berthoud's tcmerk that rvclthcr' plant and animel li{'c' clcmr'qrlphv' : r s t o o l s i l r g l ,c o r n p r c h c n s N c . c n c o m p a s s i n g l e n d s c a p c ' t " tlrcss' ctc (xi) r . f i t a t c r l e . r c s o L l r c c s c ( ) I n r n c r c c .l ( ) l 1 t l C S . c l i g i O n . l r c h t t c C t U r c ' i

to take revenge through "burning and lulling." He resolves that rhe v'hites ',sho*l<l be left alone" and simpll'rerminates any further conracrs rr,-iththem (cf. 107). If I{averts and Carher represent"civihzation," Gobila both represents and enacrsciviiiw, a virtue long valued by the Europeans. Ultimatelr', conrad's exposure to 'arious "contact zones," his fidehw to the ma_ terial, non-fictional world that he had seen, and his remarkableimasrnatlve comprehension, enabled him to undersrand and tell the so,called civihzed men of Europe that thev could and sdll can rearn from non-Europeans ho\r, to be ci'rr. U/ORKSCITED
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J'ord, Ursula. Sa/itllie V'er"stiSo/irtaii in the Norc/s of Inp/)tahont JosephConratl: Poliltta/ and Epi.rlemo/ogtta/ af |ianatirc Innoua/ton. l\{ontrcal: \{c(irll-euecn,s LtP. 199g. Neipaui. \r. S. "(-onrad's Darkncss." Jotepl:Conrad: Thint Vor/d Per.Vectiur.trd. llobcrt I). llammrr. -I-hrce Washington D.C.: Contrncnrs i)rcss, 1990. 199_200. l)etcrs, John. Conrad and Irnpresstonism. (iambridgc: CUp, 2001. ",\rts l)ratt, N{arv l-ouisc. oi tlrc Contact Z,ooc.', prolettiaz 92. Ncu,\'.rk NIl,1\.1991.31,,+0 !!i,htt. Ian. "(-orrrad's Hnrt o;f Darkness and thc critrcs." Es.;ayr on Canrar!. (-embldgc: C.LlP. 2000 85-96 Whitc, i\ndrca. .lo:qh Conrad aud the aduenturctra(litiLn toulracling Cambridgc: CLll), 1993.
anrl rleconstmrling lhe tmpeial sableti