Faculty of Engineering ENGG152 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Laboratory Handbook Weeks 5 to 11

Spring Session 2011

Student Name: Student Number:

TABLEOFCONTENTS

PAGE

InformationaboutPreLabs 3 GeneralInstructions 4 GeneralLaboratoryHealthandSafetyProcedures 6 Experiment1:RealWorldImpactsBilliardBallMotion 9 Experiment2:PolygonofForces 17 Experiment3:EnergyBalance 21 Experiment4:CentrifugalMotion 27 Experiment5:DeterminationofCoefficientofFriction 31 Experiment6:GovernorRig 35 AllexperimentswillbeheldintheSMARTInfrastructureBuilding6G09N,shownin thefigurebelow.

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Youmustbringthislabmanualeachtimeyouattendthelaboratorytorecordyour experimentalfindings.
UpdatedbyDavidHastie,August2011 2

InformationaboutPreLabs
Prelabs have been developed for all 6 experiments and are accessible via the ENGG152 eLearning site. These prelabs provide valuable information on how to conduct the experiments and carry out the required analysis. These prelabs also includeanonlinemultiplechoicequiz.YoumustreviewthePrelabsandcomplete theonlinequizzesBEFOREyourexperiments,scoringatleast90%(14/15).Multiple attemptsareallowed. YouMUSTbringyourstudentcardtothelabwithyouastherewillbeanelectronic scanner to check that you have successfully completed the prelab quizzes for the experimentsyouarescheduledtodo.Failuretoscore90%willresultinyou(asan individual) incurring a penalty of 50% of the group mark you obtain for that particularexperiment. Pleasereadalloftheinformationcontainedinthishandbook.Ithasbeencompiled toassistyouinyourlearningofstaticsanddynamics.Assessmentinthissectionof thesubjectwillassumethatyouareawareoftheinformationprovidedhere.Donot hesitate to raise any questions you may have with the coordinator or lecturers involved.

YOUARENOTPERMITTEDTOPRINTFROMTHE SMARTLAB.

GeneralInstructions
It is generally considered that learning and understanding Statics and Dynamics is greatly enhanced by way of experiments or through experience. The most notable reminderofthisphenomenonistheexperienceincurredbyNewtonwhichresulted in the subsequent great contribution by Newton to the field of Dynamics. To this end, the Faculty of Engineering has introduced a major laboratory component into theassessmentof100levelStaticsandDynamics.Itisalsotheintentionthatstudents enjoy and gain greatest benefit from this effort and experience. To ensure greatest benefit, it is recommended that each student comply with the following housekeepingdetails. Each student enrolled in ENGG152 is required to complete SIX specified experiments, between weeks 5 and 11. These experiments will be conducted in thenewSMARTInfrastructureBuilding(6.G09N). Students will be assigned to lab groups by the subject coordinator to carry out theseexperiments,and willattendthree2hoursessions.Twoexperimentswill becompletedduringeachsession.Makesureyouarefamiliarwiththetimetable andscheduleforyourgroup(availableontheeLearningsiteforENGG152). The need to complete two experiments in one session demands every group commence punctually, work effectively and leave equipment in the same conditionastheyfoundit,withintheallocatedtimeperiod. Notingthedemandfortimeefficiency,itisrecommendedthatallstudentspre readandfamiliarisethemselveswiththeexperimentdetailsbeforeattendingthe laboratory session. This should be achieved by reading the relevant sections of this laboratory manual and completing the prelabs and corresponding online quizzes. Obviously poorly prepared students will experience difficulty completingtheexperimentsintheallocatedtime,generatelaboratorycongestion and subsequently eliminate opportunity to complete the followon experiment. Failuretocompletetheparticularsettaskswillalsoresultinlowermarksforthe experimentalreport. Other than in exceptional circumstances, students must complete the experimentsinthespecifiedlaboratorysessions.Ifyoumissyourscheduledlab class, you DO NOT need to lodge an academic consideration but you MUST contactthesubjectcoordinatorassoonaspossibletoallocateyouanalternative labtime. DONOTJUSTTURNUPTOANOTHERLABCLASS!

LabAssessmentRequirements
Therewillbethreecomponentsthatwillmakeupthelabassessmentcomponentof ENGG152. 1.Successfulcompletionofprelabquizzes As previously mentioned, you will need to complete the prelabs and associated quizzesbeforeattendingyourlabsessiontocompletetheexperiments.Yourstudent cardwillbescannedasyouenterthelabandthescoreyouobtainedintheprelab quiz will be recorded. If you fail to achieve a score of at least 14/15, you (as an individual) will incur a penalty of 50% of the group mark you obtain for that experiment. 2.Experiments1,2,3and6 Youwillberequiredtosubmitagrouplabreportforexperiments1,2,3and6.This will involve completing the relevant report submission sheets in this document. Where written answers are required, use only the space provided. One group member will be required to submit the report to the EEC, the details can be found below. 3.Experiments4and5 To reduce the number of submitted reports, the report submission sheets for experiments4and5mustbecompletedduringthescheduledlabsessionandwillbe markedimmediatelybythedemonstratorsupervisingtheexperiments.Yourgroup willberequiredtocompleteonesetofcalculationsforeachexperimentandthenyou canusethesuppliedspreadsheetstoentertheremainingdata.Thiswillbechecked bythedemonstratoraswellasanyrequiredwrittenresponses.

SubmissionofLabReports
Every group report must include a barcoded cover sheet, printed via the CoverIt webpage on the Engineering homepage. A link to this page is provided on the ENGG152eLearningsiteandthesubjectoutline.Notethatforexperiment2,youwill have additional A3 sheets that must be included with your submission. It is suggested that you submit your experiment 2 lab report inside a plastic sleeve to avoidsheetsgoingmissing.Alsoensurethatallgroupmembersnamesarelistedon thecoversheettoensuremarksareawardedtoallconcerned. DateDue:Thelabreportsaredueoneweek(7days)afterthescheduledcompletion of your last lab class (check the due date on the CoverIt sheet). They must be submittedtotheEngineeringEnquiryCentre(EEC).Ifyourlabisscheduledinweek 9,youwillhaveuntilweek10tosubmityourlabreport. LateSubmissionPenalties:Latesubmissionofreportswillattracta5%penaltyper workingdayforeachgroupmember.

GeneralLaboratoryHealthandSafetyProcedures
1. INTRODUCTION Laboratoriesandworkareascontainmanypotentialsafetyhazards.However,with proper control these hazards can be eliminated. The following guidelines are intendedtooutlinebasiclaboratoryandworkareasafetyrequirements. ThestudentmustalsobeawareoftheUniversityofWollongongsafetyandsecurity rulesthataregivenonnoticesdisplayedthroughouttheUniversity. 2. GENERALPROCEDURES:LABORATORYANDWORKAREASAFETY Practicaljokesandunauthorisedexperimentsareforbidden. Smokinginlaboratoriesisnotpermitted. Eatingordrinkingisnotpermittedinthelaboratory. Personsworkinginalaboratorymustwearsuitableclothing. Suitable footwear that fully encloses the feet must be worn in laboratories and workareasatalltimes.Sandalsorthongsarenotpermitted. Safetyglassesmustbeworninlaboratoriesoranyotherworkareawherethereis ariskofdangeroussubstancessplashingintoeyesorofobjectsimpactingwiththe eye. Longhairshouldbetiedbackwhenworkingnearmovingequipment. Otherprotectiveclothing(PPE)mustbewornwhereappropriate. Bags must not be placed on the benches but stored in the space provided underneath. 3. REPORTINGOFACCIDENTSANDPOTENTIALHAZARDS Any accidentsthatoccurmustbereportedto laboratorystaff and supervisorswho are then required to inform the Head of School. Direct reporting to the Head is required in the absence of the appropriate laboratory staff or the supervisor. Studentsalsohaveadutytoreportanyoperationalprocedureswhichareconsidered tobeunsafeorpotentiallyhazardous,usingthereportingsequenceoutlinedabove. 4. EMERGENCYPROCEDURES IntheeventoffireorotheremergenciesinBuilding6thatmayendangerstaffand students,thefollowingproceduresapply 1. (a)Intheeventofafire,alertothersintheimmediatearea (b) Notify security by dialling extension 4555. Security will then contact the relevantemergencyservices(ifrequired)
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2.

Whenanalarmsounds,followthedirectionsoftheBuildingWarden(s). Thepriorityistoleavethebuildingimmediatelyviathenearestexit Asafeexitfromthebuildingrequiresanorderlyandpromptresponse Inthecaseofanemergency,donotusethelift,usethestairwellandproceedto AssemblyPointAasshownbelow. Watchoutfortrafficasyoucrosstheroad(s)totheassemblypoint.

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Staff and students are not to reenter the building until advised by building wardens(theywillbewearingorangevests)orSecuritythatitissafetodoso Also,familiarizeyourselfwiththeStandardFireOrderswhichshouldbedisplayed ineveryroomaroundcampus PleasenotethatsomemobilephonecarriershavelimitedservicewithintheSMART Infrastructurebuildingandyoumayneedtoexitthebuildingifyouneedtomakea phonecall.

Experiment 1 : Real World Impacts - Billiard Ball Motion

Aim: To explore oblique impacts of spheres, the principles of the conservation of energy and momentum by examining the motion of colliding billiard balls. Significant Properties/Phenomena: Potential Energy, Kinetic Energy (linear and rotational), Conservation of Energy, Conservation of Momentum, Mass, Inertia, Friction, Oblique Impacts and Rebound Angles, Rolling Resistance, Elastic Impacts, Coefficient of Restitution. General Procedure: One billiard ball (the impact ball) will be released from a known height on the chute. It will impact with a second ball (the target ball) placed on the trajectory table. The time of the collision and the subsequent impacts of both balls, with the fence around the trajectory table, will be recorded via a microphone and a LCD voltmeter. The distance the balls travel after the collision and the angles of impact will also be noted. The experiment is to be repeated for a number of different release heights and impact locations. The order of impact with the fence (target ball or impact ball first) should also be noted to ensure that the correct times are allotted. In addition, the offset of the target ball required to cause the target ball, following the collision, to roll through a "gate" positioned at a specified angle will be found by trial and error. Nomenclature: g Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s-2) Mass moment of inertia of the billiard ball (units) m Mass of the billiard ball (0.141 kg) R Radius of the billiard ball (0.02615 m) V Velocity of the billiard balls (m/s) Vc Corrected velocity of the billiard ball at chute exit (m/s) Vm Measured velocity of the impact ball at chute exit (m/s) VI Average velocity of the impact ball after the collision (m/s) VT Average velocity of the target ball after the collision (m/s) Release height of the ball on the chute (distance above the trajectory table) (mm) h Angular velocity of the billiard ball (radians/second) Analysis: The main aim of this experiment and subsequent analysis is to estimate the energy available at the collision, and compare it to the subsequent energy stored in the balls (indicated by the sum of their kinetic energies as they reach the fence). Some insight into the practical operation of the conservation of energy principle, and the magnitudes and mechanisms of energy losses should be gained as a result. Using the conservation of energy principle, it is possible to estimate the velocity of the impact ball prior to the collision, as the potential energy (m.g.h) is converted to kinetic energy. It is noted that the kinetic energy of a rolling billiard ball is stored in 2 components: a linear component (0.5 m V2) and a rotational component (0.5 I 2). The rotational component accounts for the energy in the spinning ball and is analogous to linear kinetic energy. I is the mass moment of inertia of the ball. It is a parameter representing the resistance of the body to being rotated (in the same way that the mass of a body is a parameter representing the resistance of a mass to being accelerated). It can be
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found by carrying out the following integration, or (the course probably favoured by most engineers) by looking up an engineering handbook.
I = r 2 dm
0 R

Eq 1

For a solid sphere, the result is: I = 2/5 m R2 For a rolling sphere the angular velocity () is directly related to the velocity and radius of the sphere (i.e. =V/R), therefore, with appropriate substitutions of this and the inertia result, the following expression relating the initial potential energy and the subsequent kinetic energy components can be obtained: This equation can be used to determine a theoretical velocity for the impact ball resulting from the release height (h). m g h = mV 2 mV 2 R 2 7mV 2 7V 2 or g h = + = 2 5R 2 10 10 Eq 2

However there are some further complications. Measured velocities of the ball exiting the chute are significantly less than those determined from Equation 2. This is a result of friction and rolling resistance in the chute, and the fact that whilst descending the chute the ball is rolling about a smaller radius (it sits down in the rails). This second factor causes more energy to be stored in the rotational component than would be the case for pure rolling (think of a yo-yo descending the string as an extreme case of this effect). To account more accurately for the energy distribution in this experiment it is necessary to determine a corrected velocity as this excess rotational velocity is converted to linear velocity. Ideally you would measure and determine these parameters as part of this experiment. However, in this case it will be necessary to make use of the results presented in Figure 1.1.
1.6 1.4 Billiard Ball Velocity (m/s)

Theoretical
1.2 1 0.8

Corrected
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 Change in Height (m)

Measured

Figure 1.1: Impact Ball Velocities at Chute Exit

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For a particular release height, the corrected velocity curve from Figure 1.1 can be used to estimate the impact ball velocity prior to the collision. This velocity can also be substituted into Equation 2 (i.e. Vc in place of V) to estimate the energy in the system immediately prior to the collision. The energy in the system after the collision may be estimated by determining the average velocities of the impact and target balls (VI and VT) from the distance travelled and the time between the collision and impact with the wall. These can then be used in Equation 2 to find the kinetic energy in each ball, and added to estimate the total energy in the system post collision. This energy, as a proportion of the initial theoretical energy (m.g.h) and the system energy prior to the collision, calculated as suggested in the previous paragraph, can then be found. Equipment: Felt surfaced semi circular trajectory table fitted with a ball chute. Tektronix digital storage oscilloscope Microphone and power supply Two billiard balls Tape measure Bulls Eye level Perspex target ball placement guide gate Procedure: Check that the trajectory table is level, adjust as required Turn on the Microphone Power Supply Conduct some trials confirming trigger setting on oscilloscope, and that the impacts are being recorded Place the target ball at a known offset on the trajectory table using the target ball placement guide (the offset is at the discretion of the group). Note the offset used. Place the impact ball at one of the marked positions up the chute. NB a number of dots have been placed along the chute, such that h = 15, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 and 160mm (the impact balls must be placed in "tangential alignment" with these dots to achieve the listed h). Ensure that the oscilloscope is ready to trigger. Release the impact ball. Note and record the angular position of the balls as they reach the fence. Note the time of travel post collision from the oscilloscope display. Reposition the balls at the impact point and measure the distance of travel for each ball. Repeat the above procedure for a total 5 different impact and target ball settings and record the results in Table 1.1 of the report submission sheets. For each test, carry out the analysis outlined in the Analysis section. Record the results in Table 1.3 of the report submission sheets. The tutor will nominate two angles (between 10 and 50) for your group to place the "gate". Centre the gate on the specified angle and then determine by trial and error the offset required to cause the target ball to roll through the gate following a collision. For each specified angle repeat this for both a clockwise and anti-clockwise angular offset of the gate. Record the results in Table 1.2 of the report submission sheet, including the offset you calculate would be required to achieve this outcome.

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(NB consideration of Figure 1.2 indicates that: sin () = Offset / ( 2 R ).

Offset

R26.15 mm

Figure 1.2: Oblique Impact Geometry

Respond to the questions and issues raised in the report submission sheets. *****

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Experiment 1 : Real World Impacts - Billiard Ball Motion

REPORT SUBMISSION SHEET: Group Members 1: _____________________ Lab Group: __________ Aim: (1 mark):

2: _____________________ Date: ______________

3: _____________________ Tutor: _____________

Table 1.1: Recorded Test Data (2 marks):

Test No. Release Height (mm) Target Ball Location (eg 10 mm Left) Time (ms) 1 2 3 4 5 Post Collision Travel Details Impact Ball Target Ball

Angle at Fence (deg)

Distance (mm)

Time (ms)

Angle at Fence (deg)

Distance (mm)

Gate Angles specified by Demonstrator: Angle 1: Table 1.2: Target Ball Offset Found (4 marks):
Gate Location Angle 1: .. Angle 2: ..

Angle 2:

Target Ball Offset Required (mm) Clockwise angle offset of gate Anti-clockwise angle offset of gate

Calculated Offset Required (mm)

Observations of Impact Ball Behaviour at and after the collision (1 mark):

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Observations of Target Ball Behaviour at and after the collision (1 mark):

NB the energy accounted for in Table 1.3 is to be expressed as a percentage of the initial energy, i.e. for the theoretical energy case: = (Energy Post Collision + Rolling Resistance Loss) / (Theoretical Energy) x 100 The rolling resistance loss may be estimated from the height up the chute that the ball must be released from to just reach the fence. (The 15mm h marking is approximately this value). Table 1.3: Analysis of Results (5 marks)
Energy Prior to Collision Theoretical (Nm) Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 K.E. (from Corrected Velocity) (Nm) Energy Post Collision Impact Ball K.E. VI (Nm) (ms-1) Target Ball VT K.E. (ms-1) (Nm) Rolling Resist. Energy Loss (Nm) Energy accounted for, based on: Theoretical Corrected energy energy (%) (%)

Due to the number and repetitive nature of the calculations involved in completing Table 1.3 it is strongly recommended that you set up a spreadsheet for this purpose. What is the average proportion of energy that you could account for over these tests ? (1 mark) Theoretical Basis: Corrected Energy Basis: What aspects of the experiment and or analysis procedure may contribute to any energy losses not accounted for ? (2 marks)

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How and where would you expect frictional forces to act significantly ? (1 mark)

Do the rebound angles and corresponding target ball offsets (experimental and calculated) noted in Table 1.2 match your expectations? Comments (2 marks)

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Experiment2:PolygonofForces
Aims: To be able to use graphical methods and analytical methods to solve 2D static equilibrium problems. To use the polygon of force vectors to determine an unknown mass. To demonstrate the vector addition of two forces. Significant Properties/Phenomena: Equilibrium of coplanar forces on a particle (Chapter 3.3) Free body diagrams (examples 3.2 and 3.3) Vector addition of forces (Chapter 2.3 and 2.4) Experimental Procedure: Equipment: 1 pegboard stand with three 50 gram hangers, 11 off 50 gram masses, 1 unknown mass (approx 150 gram), 1 cord with two rings attached, 1 cord with one ring attached, two pulleys. In addition 1x A3 drawing board, 2x A3 sheets of white paper, 30cm ruler, 250mm 45 deg set square, protractor.
Figure 2.1 Task 1 Unknown weight

Task 1: Determine the weight of an unknown mass Use the cord with two rings and attach the end loops to the bolts at A and D as shown in Figure 2.1. Hang a 50 gram hanger with a 50 gram mass (100 gram total) from the ring at B. Hang the unknown mass (it is approximately 150 grams) from the ring at C. Attach an A3 sheet on the white face of the pegboard behind the cords and masses. Using a ruler, and taking care to view each line of the cord normal to the board (to avoid parallax errors), draw the direction of each vector (cord). Draw the vertical vectors directions also. You should have 5 vector directions. Mark a horizontal reference line on the A3 sheet from the pegboard holes. Transfer the A3 sheet to the drawing board taking care to line up the horizontal and vertical directions correctly. Using the T square, set square and protractor, measure the angle of each vector to the horizontal. Label each line and note the angles. Now draw a vertical line in the middle of the sheet at a scale of 1mm = 1 gram. This represents the vertical force at B (W1 = 0.1 x 9.81 = 0.981N). From the bottom of this line draw the vector for the force FAB at the correct angle. From the top of the vertical line draw a line parallel to FBC. Form the triangle W1, FAB and FBC. Use the ruler to measure the length of each side to get the forces (remember 1mm = 1 gram force = 0.00981N). Note the three forces and their directions on a free body diagram for the point B.
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The line for FBC is the common one between the two free body diagrams for B and C. Draw a vertical line at the right hand end of FBC for the mass of W2. Draw a line through the left hand end of FBC parallel to FCD. Complete the new triangle of vectors FCD, FBC and W2. Measure the lengths to find the forces. Note the forces and directions on a free body diagram of the point C. Note the mass in grams for the unknown. Also solve the equilibrium of point B analytically by resolving the forces into i and j components. Similarly solve for the equilibrium of point C to find W2. Compare this with the answer obtained graphically. Task 2: Demonstration of vector addition. Hang 200 grams (including hanger) over the right hand pulley, E, 250 grams over the left hand pulley, F, and 200 grams from the ring, G, between the two pulleys. Attach an A3 sheet on the white face of the pegboard behind the cords and masses. Carefully draw lines parallel to the three vectors at G. View the cords normal to the pegboard so as to avoid parallax errors. Make sure that the masses are not touching the peg board. Note the relative locations of the points E, F and G. Transfer the A3 sheet to the drawing board and carefully measure the angles of each vector relative to the vertical and horizontal. Draw a triangle at a scale of 1mm = 1gram. Use the vector GE and the vector GF. The third side is equal but opposite to the vector sum of the two diagonal forces. Compare the length of this side and its direction to the known value of the central force. F E G 250g

200g 200g

Figure 2.2 Masses over pulleys E and F

Analysis for Tasks 1 and 2 From the geometry of the triangles of forces, calculate the theoretical force value for the unknown mass in Task 1 and calculate the resultant of the forces FGE and FGF in Task 2. Compare both of these theoretical results with the values obtained graphically. *****

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Experiment2:PolygonofForces
REPORT SUBMISSION SHEET: Group Members 1: _____________________ Lab Group: __________

2: _____________________ Date: ______________

3: _____________________ Tutor: _____________

Submit your two A3 drawings from tasks 1 and 2, including the original vector directions, and the polygons of forces. (5 marks each) Accurate free body diagrams need to be drawn for particles B and C in task 1 and G in task 2. Task 1 Analysis Equilibrium of point B: (2 marks)

Fx = 0 : Fy = 0 :
B

FBA = FBC =

N= N=

i+ i+

j N j N

Figure 2.3 Free body diagram for point B

Equilibrium of point C: (2 marks) Fx = 0 :

Fy = 0 :

FCD = Force W2 = Mass of W2 =

N=

i+ N g

j N

Figure 2.4 Free body diagram for point C

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Task 2 Analysis Equilibrium of point G: (2 marks)

Fx = 0 : Fy = 0 :

FGE = FGF =

N= N= Resultant =

i+ i+ i+

j N j N
Figure 2.5 Free body diagram for point G

j N = i+ j N

Difference from graphical value from experiment

Discuss the sources of error in this experiment and the magnitude of each. Estimate the overall effect of these errors. (2 marks)

Comment on the graphical versus analytical results of your experiments. (2 marks)

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Experiment3:EnergyBalance
Aims: To examine the transfer of energy between linear and rotational components within an apparently closed system through the application of the principle of conservation of energy. To obtain an appreciation for balancing energy in a practical system. Significant Properties/Phenomena: Conservation of energy, rotational and linear kinetic energy, potential energy, mass moment of inertia, measurement. Requirements: In this experiment you have to determine the energy balance for 2 states of the system indicated in Figure 3.1, and to compare them. The first state is with the drop mass and the rotor stationary and the drop mass situated approximately 1 metre above the floor. The second state is immediately prior to the drop mass hitting the ground after falling 1 metre.
Attachment lugs Small hub diameter

Rotor

2
Rotation Axis

string Separation Point ion Axis Drop Mass h 1metre

1

Floor Datum (a) Rotor Release Configuration (state 1) (b) Configuration at string disengagement (state 2)

Figure 3.1 System States Nomenclature and given information: Description Parameter
Vrotor Trotor Vmass Tmass g Izz Md MR dR dS Potential energy of the rotor (J) Rotational kinetic energy of the rotor (J) Linear potential energy of the drop mass [mgh] (J) Linear kinetic energy of the drop mass (J) Acceleration due to gravity Mass moment of inertia of the rotor Mass of the drop mass Mass of the rotor Diameter of rotor Diameter of shaft Density of steel Release height of the drop mass Linear velocity of drop mass (m s-1) Angular velocity of rotor (rad s-1)
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Assumed values

h1 v

9.81 m s-2 0.1638 kg m2 0.5, 1 and 3 kg 20.312 kg 0.254 m 0.038 m 7860 kg m-3 Approximately 1 m

General Problem: The principle of conservation of energy states that the sum of all energy forms is constant for a closed system. When considering 2 states of a closed mechanical system, this may be stated as, simply: V1 + T1 = V2 + T2 In the case of the system concerned: (Vrotor + Trotor)1 + (Vmass + Tmass)1 = (Vrotor + Trotor)2 + (Vmass + Tmass)2 The process of accelerating or decelerating a mechanical system, containing rotating elements, requires an understanding of the energy required to change the angular velocity of the system. This relationship between rotational kinetic energy, T, and angular velocity, is governed by the mass moment of inertia about the polar axis of rotation, Izz, where:

T=

1 I 2 2 zz

Eq 1

This can be compared with the equation for linear kinetic energy: 1 m 2 2 (where v = r ) T= Eq 2

For regular shapes the value of Izz can be calculated by well-known formulae derived from first principles. In particular, rotating-solid-discs of radius r, have a mass moment of inertia about their polar axis given by: m r2 I zz = Eq 3 2 It may also be useful to represent the rotational behaviour of a body by a concentrated mass operating at a particular 'radius of gyration', kg. In that case:
I zz = m k g 2

Eq 4

Test Procedure 1. The experiment calls for you to attach drop masses of varying mass, being 0.5kg, 1kg and 3kg and to observe the different behaviour of the system. In particular you have to calculate an energy balance for the system between states 1 and 2, for each of the drop masses.

2.

Just for fun, before you do the experiment, make a prediction as to the trend in 1 as the drop mass is increased from 0.5 to 3kg; and the difference when the string is wrapped around the shaft and the outside of the rotor. Give the reason for your prediction (this will not be marked!!)

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3. Do the experiment: General method: a) Attach and hold string to outer lug (the one on the major rotor diameter) and rotate the rotor anti-clockwise to raise the drop mass approximately 1 metre off the tray. (NB - If there is not enough room to raise it 1m, then try 0.9m. Ultimately, the height used does not matter, as long as you record the actual value in the table and use it for later calculations.) b) Ensuring that the mass will not hit your foot, and that the lug does not catch your hands, release the rotor. c) Record the maximum speed of the rotor with the tachometer. (Maximum speed will occur when the drop mass hits the floor, however, the tachometer is slow to update so you may find the maximum speed occurs a short period after the drop mass hits the floor). d) Repeat steps (a) to (c) utilising all 3 drop masses provided and using the lugs on the shaft and the outside of the rotor to attach the string. There will be 6 results in all.
4.

Noting the change in potential energy of the system between states 0 and 1, calculate the theoretical kinetic energy in the system as the drop mass hits the ground. Compare this with that obtained by utilising the measured speeds and equations 1 and 2. Comment on any differences found. Use the report submission sheet.
*****

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Experiment3:EnergyBalance
REPORT SUBMISSION SHEET:

Group Members 1: _____________________ Lab Group: __________

2: _____________________ Date: ______________

3: _____________________ Tutor: _____________

Test Procedure Just for fun, before you do the experiment, make a prediction as to the trend in 2 as the drop mass is increased from 0.5 to 3kg; and the difference when the string is wrapped around the shaft and the outside of the rotor. Give the reason for your prediction (this will not be marked!!)

Determining the rotor speed (2 marks)

Test String Position Drop Mass (kg) Release Height (m) Rotor Speed (RPM)

(2 marks)
Rotor Speed (rad/s)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Rotor Shaft Rotor Shaft Rotor Shaft

0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0

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Noting the change in potential energy of the system between states 0 and 1, calculate the theoretical kinetic energy in the system as the drop mass hits the ground. Complete the table below showing the results of these calculations.
(2 marks)
Test Initial Potential Energy (J)

(2 marks)
Rotor angular velocity (rad/s)

(2 marks)
Mass Final Velocity (m/s)

(2 marks)
Rotor Final KE (J)

(2 marks)
Mass Final KE (J)

(2 marks)

( PE KE ) 100
PE

% Error

1 2 3 4 5 6 Compare this with that obtained by utilising the measured speeds and equations 1 and 2. Comment on any differences found. (4 marks)

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Experiment4:CentrifugalMotion
Aim: To investigate the dynamics of an object moving in a circular motion. Introduction: Rotational motion is a fundamental aspect of the universe. Our model of the atom is one in which electrons orbit a nucleus. The earth rotates about the sun, which in turn rotates and orbits the galaxy. Many mechanical devices involve some form of rotational motion. In all rotating systems a body only moves in a circle because a constant force acts to accelerate it towards the centre of that circle. Should this centripetal force cease, the moving body will fly off at a tangent. Theory: If a particle is to move in uniform circular motion it must experience a net acceleration directed towards the centre of the circle. The force that produces this acceleration is called a centripetal force. The acceleration a has a magnitude given by:

v2 a = r where v is the instantaneous velocity of the particle, and r is the radius of the orbit. The angular velocity is given by = v/r. The central force giving the acceleration may be provided by a string or a rod attached to the particle. If this force is F, then F equals the mass, m, times the acceleration i.e. F1 = ma = m v2 r

The period, T, of the uniform circular motion of the particle is given by T= 2 r circumference 2 = = v tangential velocity

Thus in terms of the period of the motion, which is more easily measured than the velocity, the centripetal force is given by F2 =
Experimental Setup and Procedure: Part 1: Disconnect the spring from the suspended mass, m, and balance the top horizontal rod by adjusting the position of the countermass. Then align the radius indicator with the tip of the suspended mass so that they are all vertically aligned. Re-attach the spring and attach the mass carrier to the suspended mass and place the string over the pulley. Add small masses to the mass carrier so that when there is a convenient mass on the mass carrier, the tip of the suspended mass lines up with the radius indicator (as shown in Figure 4.1). Record the force necessary to stretch the spring by this amount, F1.

4m 2 r T2

Eq 1

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Part 2: Detach the mass carrier and string from the suspended mass. Leave the spring attached and rotate the vertical shaft until a sufficient angular velocity is attained so that the suspended mass passes exactly over the previously set indicator at a constant angular speed. Record the time required to complete 10 revolutions. Once this has been done, Equation 1 can be used to determine the centripetal force, F2.

Stationary system

spring

Mass, m

position over which mass passes when system is rotating Mass, M F = Mg Figure 4.1

From Equation 1 it will be seen that a determination of the centripetal force responsible for this particular circular path of the suspended mass can be made by measuring the period of this motion and the mass of the suspended body. Compare this computed force with the force required to extend the spring the same amount when the system is not rotating. Are the results in agreement within experimental error? Carry out the tests and analysis as outlined in Part 1 and Part 2 above for three different settings of the radius indicator and record the results in Table 4.1. For each radius indicator position, measure the time for 10 revolutions three times to determine the average.
*****

28

Experiment4:CentrifugalMotion
REPORT SUBMISSION SHEET:

Group Members 1: _____________________ Lab Group: __________

2: _____________________ Date: ______________

3: _____________________ Tutor: _____________

Table 4.1 (6 marks 2 marks for each column) Observation Number Mass for Spring Extension M (kg) Spring extension force, F1 (N) Suspended mass m (kg) Orbit radius (m) Time for 10 1 revolutions of 2 mass centre (s) 3 AVERAGE Time period T (s/revolution) Centripetal force F2 (N) Percentage error F1 F2 100 F1 Discussion of Results: 1 2 3

On the next page, add the forces to the Free Body Diagrams of (a) the suspended mass m, in the Part 1 set up arrangement (spring being stretched due to the hanger masses) (2 marks) (b) the suspended mass m, in the part 2 set up arrangement (spring being stretched due to rotation) (2 marks)

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(a) Part 1

(b) Part 2

If the suspended mass, m, does not hang vertically down, what effect will this have on the experiment ? (4 marks)

Discuss the results of your experiment. (3 marks)

Comment on the accuracy and the variation in percentage error. (3 marks)

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Experiment5:Friction
Aim: The following experiment illustrates a few techniques that may be used to determine the coefficients of friction under different circumstances. Introduction: Friction is a feature of all real mechanical interactions. It is an integral part of out everyday life. Many of the greatest problems involve the elimination of friction and yet most of the apparatus we use depends upon it. Friction is the cause of most wear and often results in unnecessary amounts of energy being wasted. For these reasons we often wish to eliminate it.

In other applications, though, friction is a vital quantity for it is the most common means of transmission of mechanical power. It is the friction between the tyres of a car and the road that enables a motor vehicle to move and the friction between the rubber and the metal that allows pulley systems to transmit power. For all of these reasons it is obvious that an understanding of friction and a knowledge of measurement techniques involving this physical phenomenon are important. Friction is a very difficult quantity to measure accurately but by means of a few simplifying assumptions, reasonable values can be obtained.
Nomenclature: fs Maximum value of static friction (N) g Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s-2) Length of incline (mm) L m Mass of block A (plus additional 50g masses etc as appropriate) N Normal force between bodies A and B (N) h Height of incline (mm) Angle of incline (radians) Coefficient of static friction s Determination of coefficient of static friction Theory: If a force, F, is applied to a body A resting on body B as shown below, then body A will remain at rest below a certain critical value of F. F A B Figure 5.1

This can be explained by the fact that a force of friction acts to oppose the applied force F. The force of friction reaches a maximum just before movement occurs. It is found experimentally that the friction force may be closely represented by the following formula: f s = s N
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Eq 1

where

fs is the maximum value of static friction s is the coefficient of static friction N is the normal force of body B upon body A

The coefficient of static friction, s, is found to be dependent on the nature of the contact surfaces of A and B. We investigate whether s depends upon the load (i.e. force per unit area) on the surfaces in contact. Consider the block resting on an inclined plane in Figure 5.2.

L N

fs h mg

Figure 5.2

When the block is just about to move

mg sin = f s mg cos = N
h = L cos h

Eq 2 Eq 3

then because

f s = s N

s = tan =
Where

(L

Eq 4

= sin 1 L

Experimental a) Using the metal slide and blocks supplied, determine the maximum angle for which the blocks can sit on the incline without slipping. Measure the height (h) and the length of the slope (L) of the incline. From this determine the coefficient of static friction. Obtain a mean value for this quantity by repeating this measurement five times. Repeat the procedure for each block (aluminium, brass, wood and steel). b) Add 50g, 100g, 150g and 200g masses to the block, and again obtain values for s. Carry out one reading only for each mass in this case. From these results determine whether s is independent of mass (hence the magnitude of the normal force between the two bodies). Equipment metal slide aluminium, brass, wood and steel sliding blocks set of weights (50g, 100g, 150g and 200g) measuring rule *****

32

Experiment5:Friction
REPORT SUBMISSION SHEET:

Group Members 1: _____________________ Lab Group: __________ Aim: (1 mark)

2: _____________________ Date: ______________

3: _____________________ Tutor: _____________

Table 5.1: Static Friction - Aluminium Sliding Block: (L = (2 marks) Test Number Height (mm) (radians) s 1 2 3 4 5 Table 5.2: Static Friction - Brass Sliding Block: (L = (2 marks) Test Number Height (mm) (radians) s 1 2 3 4 5 Table 5.3: Static Friction - Wood Sliding Block: (L = (2 marks) Test Number Height (mm) (radians) s 1 2 3 4 5 Table 5.4: Static Friction - Steel Sliding Block: (L = (2 marks) Test Number Height (mm) (radians) s 1 2 3 4 5
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mm)

Mean value of s

mm)

Mean value of s

mm)

Mean value of s

mm)

Mean value of s

(2 marks) Table 5.5: Static Friction Adjusting the Normal Force, Data: (L = 50g Load 100g Load 150g Load Material Height Height Height (mm) (mm) (mm)
Aluminium Brass Wood Steel

mm)

200g Load Height (mm)

(2 marks) Table 5.6: Static Friction Adjusting the Normal Force, Results: (L = No Load 50g Load 100g 150g 200g (Tables 1-4) Load Load Load Material s s s s s
Aluminium Brass Wood Steel

mm)

Average

What do you conclude regarding the effect of normal force on the maximum static friction force? (2 marks)

What relation do you use to determine the coefficient of static friction? (2 marks)

Give three everyday examples where a low coefficient of friction is important? (1 marks)

Give three everyday examples where a high coefficient of friction is important? (1 marks)

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Experiment6:GovernorExperiment
In 1788 Matthew Boulton and James Watt invented a regulating system with a governor to control the speed of a steam engine, see Figure 6.1. This device made it possible to effectively control the speed of steam engines. A similar type of governor is still being used for a number of high pressure fuel injection pumps of diesel engines.

Pivot Points

Ball Slides on shaft

Ball

To steam valve

Shaft driven by engine

Figure 6.1 Steam engine governor

Aim: In this laboratory experiment we will investigate the operation of a governor. The static behaviour of the governor, that is, the governor height versus rotational speed is to be examined, comparing measurements from the experiments with a theoretically calculated value. Significant Properties/Phenomena: Centrifugal Force, Gravitational Force. General Procedure The governor will be rotated at a certain angular velocity by adjusting the voltage control knob on the power supply. The height of the sliding collar will then be determined using the scale on the rotating shaft. The measurement results will then be tabulated, plotted and compared to a theoretically determined value. Equipment: Governor driven by a DC motor Power supply with voltage control knob to regulate the angular velocity of the governor Tachometer to measure the rpm of the governor and determine the frequency at which the governor rotates, thus the angular velocity Small wooden set square 30cm metal rule (or similar)

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Experimental Procedure (relating to Tasks 2 and 3) Before turning the power supply on, adjust the peg marker on the support leg to line up with the sliding collar. Measure the distance from the base plate to this marker and record the measurement as h0 in Table 6.1.

The power supply and tachometer need to be used in unison for this part of the experiment. Referring to Table 6.1 and starting with the highest rpm, use the tachometer to measure the rpm of the governor and adjust the power supply voltage dial to obtain a reading as close to the target n as possible. Record this value in the actual n. At this setting, adjust the peg marker to again align with the sliding collar (now further up the central rod). Measure the distance from the base plate to the marker and record the measurement as h1 in Table 6.1. Determine the change in height of the sliding collar h = h1 h0. Repeat the above for the other angular velocities of Table 6.1, reducing the rpm each time. Turn the power off to the Governor power supply when you are finished with your measurements.
*****

36

Experiment6:GovernorExperiment
REPORT SUBMISSION SHEET:

Group Members 1: _____________________ Lab Group: __________

2: _____________________ Date: ______________

3: _____________________ Tutor: _____________

Task 1 (2 marks) Derive the formula relating the angular velocity of the rotating shaft n in revolutions per minute [rpm] with the frequency of rotation f in [Hz], and derive the formula which relates f [Hz] with the angular velocity in [rad/s].

Formula to compute f from n:

Formula to compute from f

Task 2 (4 marks) Follow the procedure as discussed previously in Experimental Procedure to fill in columns 2, 5, 6 and 7. Use the equations derived in Task 1 to fill in the columns for f and . Table 6.1, Measurement results Target n [rpm] 125 Actual n [rpm] f [Hz] Initial height, h0 [mm] = ________ Voltage h1 h [mm] [V] [rad/s] [mm]

150 175 200 225 250 300 350 400 450

Task 3 (2 marks) Determine experimentally n [rpm] for which the angles of the arms are approximately 45 [deg] with the rotational shaft. Note: use the small wooden set square as an aid for this task.

n=
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Task 4 (4 marks) Plot the results of Table 6.1 in Figure 6.2. Indicate your measured values with a * and draw a smooth line through the points. Label the axes appropriately.
d

500

g
400
l

300

m, r
200

m, r

100

0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

M
d

Figure 6.2 Plot of results Figure 6.3 Model of System

Table 6.2, Data for Model Variable Description d Distance of arm joints g Gravitational acceleration l Length of arms M Total mass of sliding collar m Mass of one ball r Radius of ball

Value 26 [mm] 9.81 [m/s2] 65 [mm] 90 [g] 60 [g] 0 [mm]

The governor can be approximated by a model as shown in Figure 6.3. The data relating to this model is given in Table 6.2. Note that the mass of the arms is assumed to be negligible and the balls are modelled as point masses.

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Task 5 (4 marks) In Figure 6.4, a free body diagram with the forces acting on the upper and lower left arms of the model are shown. The arms are at an angle of 45 with the rotating axis. Compute the following forces using this free body diagram. Write down the equation(s) that you used to compute these forces. If you are uncertain of the FBD analysis, review the online Pre-Lab for this experiment.
d/2

Computation of Fvc: Ans:

Fv3 g Fh3

Computation of Fhc:

m Fh2 Fv2 Fv1

Ans:

Computation of Fv2:

Fh1

Ans:

Fvc

Fhc

Computation of Fh2: Ans:

d/2

Figure 6.4, Free Body Diagram

Task 6 (4 marks) Given that Fh2 = Fcentrifugal - Fh1 , with Fcentrifugal = 2 r m and r [m] the distance from the rotating shaft axis to the ball, compute n [rpm] for which the arms will be at an angle of 45 to the rotational shaft axis. Compare this value of n with the value measured in Task 3.

Computation of n:

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