CIRCULATION -is the process of transporting nutritive fluids, waste materials, and water in the cells of living organisms.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ASSOCIATES INTIMATELY WITH ALL BODY TISSUES A circulatory system is necessary in any animal whose body is too large or too complex for vital chemicals to reach all its parts by diffusion alone. Diffusion is inadequate for transporting chemicals over distances greater than a few cells widths-far less than the distance oxygen must travel between our lungs and brain or the distance nutrients must go between our small intestine and the muscle in our arms and legs. Without our circulatory system, nearly every cell the body would quickly die from lack of oxygen. But to be effective, the circulatory system must have an intimate connection with the tissues. In the human body for instance, the heart pumps blood that has just been oxygenated in the lungs through a system of blood vessels into microscopic vessels called capillaries. A particular capillary supplies freshly oxygenated, A capillary in muscle tissue nutrient-rich blood to smooth muscle cells. Red blood cells pass single file through the capillary. Each red blood cell comes close enough to the surrounding tissue that O2 can diffuse out of it into the muscle cells. The circulatory system has several functions in addition to transporting O2 and nutrients. It conveys metabolic wastes to waste disposal organs; CO2 to the lungs and a variety of other metabolic wastes to the kidneys. Diffusion between blood and capillary
tissue cells

The circulatory system also plays a key role in maintaining a constant internal environment. By exchanging molecules with the interstitial fluid, the circulatory system helps control the makeup of the environment in which tissue cells live. And it helps control the makeup of the blood by continuously moving it through organs that regulate the bloods contents. TERMS TO REMEMBER: Capillaries-microscopic vessels that form an intricate network among the tissue cells, such that no substance has to diffuse far to enter or leave a cell.

MECHANISMS OF INTERNAL TRANSPORT SEVERAL TYPES OF INTERNAL TRANSPORT HAVE EVOLVED IN ANIMALS Not all animals have a circulatory system like ours. Cnidarians, such as hydras and jellies for example, have no true circulatory system- that is, no organ system specifically for internal transport. For example, the body wall of a hydra is only two or three cells thick, so all the cells can exchange materials directly with the water surrounding the animal or with the water in the gastro vascular cavity. Water is drawn in through the mouth, circulates in the gastro vascular cavity, and then passes back out through the mouth. Hydras have no blood. A gastro vascular cavity provides adequate internal transport for such thin and flat animals, but it is not adequate for animals with thick, multiple layers of cells. Such animals have a true circulatory system containing a specialized circulatory fluid, blood. Two basic types of circulatory systems have evolved in animals. The first type is the open circulatory system, which most mollusks and all arthropods have. Vertebrates, including humans, have a closed circulatory system, often called a cardiovascular system An open circulatory system because it consists of a heart and a network of tube like vessels. The blood is confined to the vessels, which keep it distinct from the interstitial fluid. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body; veins return blood to the heart; and capillaries convey blood between arteries and veins. Arteries and veins are distinguished by the direction in which A closed circulatory system they carry blood. Most arteries convey oxygen-rich blood and most veins transport blood depleted of oxygen. TERMS TO REMEMBER:
Blood-specialized circulatory fluid. Open Circulatory System-blood is pumped through

open-ended vessels and flows out among the cells.

 Closed Circulatory System-cardiovascular system

consists of heart and a network of tube like vessels Arteries-carry blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body Veins-return blood to the heart Atrium-receives blood from the veins Ventricle-pumps blood to the gills via large arteries Arterioles-small vessels that give rise to capillaries Capillary Beds-networks of capillaries

VERTEBRATE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMS REFLECT EVOLUTION The colonization of land by vertebrates was a momentous episode in the history of life, opening vast new opportunities for this group of animals. As aquatic vertebrates became adapted for terrestrial life, nearly all of their organ systems underwent major changes. One of the most drastic evolutionary changes was the switch from gill breathing to lung breathing, and this switch was accompanied by equally drastic changes in the cardiovascular system. Terrestrial vertebrates have a more complex cardiovascular system, which provides a more vigorous flow of blood to body organs. The mammalian heart has four chambers; two atria and two ventricles. Mammals have two blood circuits instead of the single one seen in fish. The pulmonary circuit carries blood Cardiovascular system of a fish between the heart and the gas-exchange and a mammal (bottom) the tissues in (top) lungs, and the systemic circuit carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body. Thus, the mammalian heart is actually two pumps in one, the right side pumping to the lung capillaries and the left side restoring to the systemic capillaries. TERMS TO REMEMBER: Pulmonary Circuit-carries blood between the heart and the gas-exchange tissues in the lungs Systemic Circuit- carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body

THE MAMMALIAN CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM THE HUMAN HEART AND THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM TYPIFY THOSE OF MAMMALS The human heart is about the size of a clenched fist. It is enclosed in a sac just under the breastbone. It is formed mostly of cardiac muscle tissue. Its thin walled ventricles pump blood to all other body organs. The valves in the heart regulate the direction of blood flow. The flow of blood through the entire circulatory system goes like this. Beginning with the pulmonary circuit, the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs via pulmonary arteries. Oxygen-rich blood then flows back to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins. Then blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle. Blood leaves the left ventricle through aorta. And lead to the head and arms. Then aorta supplies blood to abdominal organs and the legs. Oxygen-pure blood from the upper body is channeled into the superior vena cava. Then inferior vena cava drains blood from the lower body. The two venae cavae empty their blood into the right atrium. And to complete the circulation, the blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle. TERMS TO REMEMBER:
Aorta-is our largest blood vessel

THE STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS FITS THEIR FUNCTIONS Capillaries have very thin walls formed of a single layer of epithelial cells, which is wrapped in a thin basement membrane. The inner surface of the capillary is smooth and keeps the blood cells from being abraded as they tumble along. Arteries, arterioles, veins and venules have walls that are thicker than those of capillaries. The walls have the same epithelium as capillaries, but they are reinforced by two other tissue layers, both of which are thicker and sturdier in arteries
Structural relationship of blood vessels

than in veins. The middle layer, mainly smooth muscle, allows arteries and some veins to regulate blood flow by constricting. The thick muscle layer in the large arteries near the heart also allows these vessels to withstand surges of blood carrying the full force of the heartbeat. An outer layer of connective tissu7e is elastic and enables the vessels to stretch and recoil. Many of the veins have valves, flaps of tissue projecting toward the heart. THE HEART CONTRACTS AND RELAXES RYTHMICALLY The heart is the hub of the circulatory system. In a continuous cycle, it passively fills with blood and then actively contracts. A complete sequence of filling and pumping is called the cardiac cycle. The volume of blood per minute that the left ventricle pumps into the systemic circuit is called cardiac output. The heart valves prevent backflow and keep blood moving in correct direction. The closing of the AV valves when the ventricles contract keeps blood from flowing The cardiac cycle back into the atria. When the ventricles relax in diastole, blood in the arteries starts to flow back toward the heart, causing the flaps of the semi lunar valves to close and preventing blood from flowing back into the ventricles. The heart sounds we hear with a stethoscope are caused by these closings of the heart valves. The sound pattern is lub-dup, lub-dup. The lub sound comes from the recoil of blood against the closed AV valves. The dup sound comes as the semi lunar valves closed.

TERMS TO REMEMBER:
Cardiac Cycle-complete sequence of blood filling

and pumping Diastole-a phase when the heart is relaxed Systole-other main phase of the cardiac cycle Cardiac Output-volume of the blood per minute that the left ventricle pumps into the systematic circuit THE PACEMAKER SETS THE TEMPO OF THE HEARTBEAT

A specialized region of cardiac muscle called the pacemaker, or SA (sinoatrial) node, maintains the hearts pumping rhythm by setting the rate at which all the muscle cells of the heart contract. The pacemaker is situated in the wall of the right atrium. It generates electrical signals much like of those produced by nerve cells. The signals spread through both atria, making them contract in unison. The signals also pass (top) and therelay Hearts rhythm to a electrocardiogram the point called the AV (atrioventricular) node, in (bottom) wall between the right atrium and right ventricle. Specialized muscle fibers then relay the signals to the tips of the ventricles and up through their walls, triggering the strong contractions that drive the blood out of the heart. In certain kinds of heart disease, the hearts self-spacing system fails to maintain a normal heart rhythm. The remedy is an artificial pacemaker, a tiny electronic device surgically implanted near the AV node. Artificial pacemakers emit electrical signals that trigger normal heartbeats. TERMS TO REMEMBER: Pacemaker-(SA, sinoatrial node), maintains the hearts pumping rhythm by setting the rate at which all the muscle cells of the heart contract. Artificial Pacemaker-tiny electronic device surgically implanted near the AV node; emit electrical signals that trigger normal heartbeats CONNECTION: WHAT IS A HEART ATTACK? Like all of our cells, heart muscle cells require oxygen-rich blood to survive. When blood exits the heart via aorta, several coronary arteries immediately branch off to feed the heart muscle. If one or more of these blood vessels become blocked, heart muscle cells will quickly die. Such an event is called a heart attack. When heart muscle tissue dies, it cannot be Normal (left) and blocked (right) artery replaced, because cardiac muscle cells do not divide. Instead, the body covers the damaged area with scar tissue, which cannot contract. Heart attacks and strokes are the death of brain tissues, resulting from blockage of arteries in the head.

The suddenness of a heart attack or stroke belies the fact that the arteries of most victims become impaired gradually, by a chronic cardiovascular disease known as atherosclerosis. If you already have a cardiovascular disease, there are treatments available. Drugs can lower cholesterol. Angioplasty and stents can also help. Bypass surgery is a much more drastic remedy. Unfortunately, surgery of any kind only treats the disease symptoms, so problems will return if risk factors are not minimized. TERMS TO REMEMBER:
Heart Attack-subsequent failure of the heart to

function properly BLOOD EXERTS PRESSURE ON VESSEL WALLS Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts against the walls of our blood vessels. Created by the pumping of the heart, blood pressure is the main force dividing the blood from the heart through the arteries and arterioles to the capillary beds. When the ventricles contract, blood is forced into the arteries faster then it can flow into the arterioles. This stretches the elastic walls of the arteries. You can fell this effect of the blood pressure when you measure your heart rate by taking your pulse. It is the rhythmic stretching of the arteries. Blood pressure depends partly on cardiac output and partly on the resistance to the blood flow imposed by the narrow openings of the arterioles. These openings are controlled by smooth muscles. When the muscles relax, the arterioles dilate, and blood flows through them more ready, causing a fall in blood pressure. By the time the blood reaches the veins, its pressure has dropped to near zero. The blood has encountered so much resistance as it passes through the capillaries that the force from the pumping heart no longer propels it. Consequently, whenever the body moves, the muscles pinch the veins and squeeze blood along toward the heart. The large veins of mammals have valves that allow the blood to flow only toward the heart. Breathing also helps return blood to the heart. When we inhale, the change in pressure within our chest cavity causes the large veins near our heart to expand and fill. TERMS TO REMEMBER:

 Blood Pressure- the force that blood exerts against

the walls of our blood vessels Pulse-rhythmic stretching of the arteries CONNECTION: MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE CAN REVEAL CARDIOVASCULAR PROBLEMS Blood exerts a force on the inside walls of blood vessels throughout the entire circulatory system, bur the term blood pressure usually refers to the force pushing against arterial walls. A typical adult blood pressure is 120/80. The units are millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), indicating how tall a column of mercury the pressure could support. The first blood pressure number is called the systolic blood pressure and is a measure of the force during heart contraction. The second number is called the diastolic blood pressure and is a measure of the force during heart relaxation. Blood pressure is an important indicator of cardiovascular health, and abnormal blood pressure readings can indicate serious problems. Normal blood pressures fall within a range of values, but optimal blood pressure for adults is below 120 systolic and below 80 diastolic. Lower values are generally considered better, except in rare condition where lower blood pressure may indicate a serious underlying condition. High blood pressure is persistent systolic blood pressure higher than 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure higher than 90 mm Hg. High blood pressure adversely affects the cardiovascular system in several ways. Hypertension increases the risk of heart attack, heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure. Furthermore, the increased force on arterial aggravating atherosclerosis, reducing elasticity of the arteries and arterioles, is increasing the risk of blood clot formation. TERMS TO REMEMBER:
Hypertension-persistent

systolic blood pressure higher than 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure higher than 90 mm Hg

SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTROLS THE DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD

Smooth muscles in arteriole walls can influence blood pressure by changing the resistance to blood flow out of the arteries and into arterioles. The smooth muscles in the arteriole walls also regulate the distribution of blood to the capillaries of the various organs. At any given time, only about 5-10% of the bodys capillaries have blood flowing through them. However, each tissue has many capillaries, so every part of the body is supplied with blood at all times. Capillaries in a few organs, such as the brain, heart, kidneys and livers usually carry a full load of blood, but in many other sites, the blood supply varies as blood is diverted from one destination to another, depending on need. In addition to the smooth muscles that can constrict or dilate an arteriole leading into a capillary bed, a second mechanism regulates the distribution of blood. The contraction of the smooth muscles in both these mechanisms is under the influence of nerves and hormones. Next, we consider how substances are exchanged when these smooth muscles relax and blood is allowed to flow through a capillary.

CAPILLARIES ALLOW THE TRANSFER OF SUBSTANCES THROUGH THEIR WALLS Capillaries are the only blood vessels with walls thin enough for substances to cross between the blood and the interstitial fluid that bathes the body cells. This transfer of materials is the most important function of the circulatory system. The exchange of substances between the blood and the interstitial fluid occurs in several ways. Some substances, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, simply diffuse through the epithelial cells of the capillary. In addition, the capillary wall is leaky; there are narrowoutclefts Fluid moving into (red) and (blue) a capillary between the epithelial cells making up the wall. Blood cells and dissolved proteins remain inside the capillary because they are too large to pass through these passageways. In addition to the passive diffusion of substances out of the capillary, active forces also push fluid through the leaky capillary wall. Another is osmotic pressure, a force that tends to draw fluid inward because the blood has a higher concentration of solutes than the interstitial fluid. Proteins dissolved in the blood account for much of this high solute concentration.

The direction of fluid movement in or out the capillary at any point depends on the difference between the blood pressure and the osmotic pressure. At the upstream, end of the capillary, the blood pressure exceeds the osmotic pressure. At the downstream end of the capillary, the situation is reversed. The blood pressure drops so much in the capillary bed that the osmotic pressure outweighs it, and fluid reenters the capillary. Most of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of a capillary bed reenters the capillaries at the venous end. The remaining fluid returns to the blood by the vessels of the lymphatic system. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD BLOOD CONSISTS OF CELLS SUSPENDED IN PLASMA In an average adult human, the circulatory system contains 4-6L of blood. Blood consists of several types of cellular elements suspended in liquid called plasma. When a blood sample is taken, the cellular elements, which make up about 45% of the blood, can be separated from the plasma by spanning the sample in a centrifuge. Red and white blood cells and small cell pieces called platelets settle to the bottom of the centrifuge tube, underneath the transparent, straw-colored plasma. Platelets are bits of cytoplasm pinched off from large cells in the bone marrow. Plasma, making up just over half the volume of the blood, is about 90% water. The other 10% is made up of inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions, proteins, and various Composition of other substances being transported by the blood. blood The dissolved ions have several functions, such as maintaining the osmotic balance between the blood and the interstitial fluid and keeping the pH of the blood at about 7.4. Inorganic ions also help regulate the permeability of cell membranes. Plasma proteins work together with the salts in maintaining osmotic balance and pH. Various types of proteins have specific functions. The fibrinogen functions with the platelets in blood clotting, as we will see. Another group of plasma proteins, the immunoglobulin, are important in body defense (immunity). TERMS TO REMEMBER:

 Platelets- are bits of cytoplasm pinched off from

large cells in the bone marrow RED BLOOD CELLS TRANSPORT OXYGEN Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, are by far the most numerous blood cells. There are about 25 trillion of these tiny cells in the average persons bloodstream. Our red blood cells and those of other mammals lack nuclei and mitochondria, an unusual characteristic for living cells; these organelles are lost as the cells develop. The structure of a red blood cell suits its main function, which is to carry oxygen. Human red blood cells are small biconcave disks, thinner in the center than at the sides. Their small size and biconcave shape create a large surface area across which oxygen can diffuse. Each tiny red blood cell contains about 250 Mammalian red blood cell million molecules of hemoglobin. Its lack of a nucleus allows more room to pack in hemoglobin. Red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. On average, these cells circulate in the blood for 3 or 4 months before starting to wear out. Worn-out red blood cells are broken down and their molecules recycled in the liver. Much of the iron removed from the hemoglobin is returned two the bone marrow. Adequate amounts of iron, hemoglobin, and red blood cells are essential to the normal functioning of the body. An abnormally low amount of hemoglobin or a low number of red blood cells is a condition called anemia. Anemia can result from a variety of factors, including excessive blood loss, vitamin or mineral deficiencies, and bone marrow cancer. Iron deficiency is the most common cause. The production of red blood cells in the bone marrow is controlled by a negative-feedback mechanism that is sensitive to the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues via the blood. If the tissues are not receiving enough oxygen, the kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO) that stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. On the other hand, if blood is delivering more oxygen than the tissues can use, the level of erythropoietin is reduced, and erythrocyte production slows. (Patients on kidney dialysis often have very low red blood cells because their kidneys do not produce enough erythropoietin.) TERMS TO REMEMBER:

 Red blood cells-also called erythrocytes, are by far

the most numerous blood cells Anemia-a condition where there is an abnormally low amount of hemoglobin or a low-number of red blood cells WHITE BLOOD CELLS HELP DEFEND THE BODY There are five kinds of white blood cells, or leukocytes. As a group, leukocytes fight infections and prevent cancer cells from growing. Basophils help fight infection by releasing chemicals for example, histamine. Histamine dilates blood vessels and allows other white blood cells to move out of capillaries and into surrounding tissues. Two of the most common white blood cells that move into body tissues are neutrophils and monocytes. These are phagocytes; they eat bacteria, foreign proteins that enter the body through wounds and the debris from other body cells that have died. The blood carries large numbers of neutrophils and monocytes to sites of injury, where the cells combat bacterial infections and help the tissue heal by removing cellular debris. Less is known about a forth type of leukocyte, the eosinophil. Eosinophils kill parasitic worms. They may also help reduce allergy attacks. The fifth type of leukocyte, the lymphocyte, is the key cell immunity, the defense against specific invaders. Some White blood cells lymphocytes produce antibodies, proteins that react against foreign substances. Other lymphocytes attack pathogen infected body cells and cancer cells. As a group, white blood cells actually spend most of their time outside the circulatory system, moving through interstitial fluid, where most of the battles against infection are waged. There are also great numbers of white cells in the lymphatic system. Like red blood cells, leukocytes arise in bone marrow. Their numbers increase whenever the body is fighting an infection. BLOOD CLOT PLUG LEAKS WHEN BLOOD VESSELS ARE INJURED We all have cuts and scrapes from time to time, yet we dont bleed to death because our blood contains self-sealing materials that plug leaks in our vessels. The sealantsplatelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen- are always present in our blood. They are activated to form a clot when a blood vessel is injured.

A platelet plug provides fast protection against blood loss; a tiny wound, such as from a pinprick, might require nothing more. However, when damage is more severe, a chain of reactions is set off that culminates in the formation of a more complex Blood clotting process plug called a fibrin clot. The clotting mechanism is so important that any defect can be life threatening. In the inherited disease hemophilia, excessive, sometimes fatal bleeding occurs from even minor cuts and bruises. Another type of defect that can lead to a blood clot in the absence of injury; such a clot is called a thrombus. If a thrombus is carried in the blood to a coronary artery and is large enough to block it, a heart attack occurs. TERMS TO REMEMBER:
Fibrin-thread like protein

CONNECTION: STEM CELLS OFFER A POTENTIAL CURE FOR LEUKEMIA AND OTHER BLOOD CELL DISEASES The red marrow of bones such as the ribs, vertebrate, breastbone, and pelvis all contain a spongy tissue where blood cells develop. Here, unspecialized cells called stem cells can differentiate into red and white blood cells as well as the cells that produce platelets. After forming in the early embryo, stem cells continually reproduce themselves and create all the blood cells needed throughout life. Their use for treating human diseases, such as leukemia is promising. Leukemia is cancer of the white blood cells, or leukocytes. Leukocytes protect the body against infections and against cancer cells. Because cancerous cells grow uncontrollably, a person with leukemia has an unusually high number of leukocytes, most of which do not function normally. Bone marrow transplant Leukemia is usually fatal unless treated, and not all cases respond to the standard cancer treatments-radiation and chemotherapy. An alternative treatment is transplanting healthy bone marrow tissue from a suitable donor into a patient whose own cancerous marrow has been purposely destroyed. Bone marrow stem cells are rare but powerful. Stem cell research holds a great promise. In a few cases, researchers have been able to induce bone marrow cells to differentiate into more than just blood cells. Thus, these

stem cells may eventually provide cells for human tissue and organ transplants. TERMS TO REMEMBER: Leukemia-cancer of the white blood cells, or leukocytes Leukocytes-protect the body against infections and against cancer cells.