Nicolaus Copernicus University Faculty of Humanities Institute of Sociology

Yoshimi Ito
No. of album: 250026

Masters thesis in Sociology Faculty of Humanities

Work style and work ethic in intercultural working environment.

The case of Pomeranian Special Economic Zone

Thesis Supervisor dr Elbieta Watanabe Faculty of History Department of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology

Toru 2012

Thesis received and accepted ............................................................ date and signature of supervisor

Confirmation of thesis submission .......................................................... date and signature of Deans Office

Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3 1. Work style and work ethic ................................................................................................... 5 1.1 Attitude toward work, and working hours rough transition up to pre-modern ... 5 1.2 After the WW2 and Present........................................................................................... 9 2. Structure and Analysis in Poland and Japan ................................................................ 14 2.1 Polish peoples perception of work and work style ................................................... 15 2.1.1 Work before the transformation............................................................................... 15 2.1.2 After the transformation and present ....................................................................... 17 2.1.3 Summary of peoples perception of work and work style in Poland ...................... 27 2.2 Japanese peoples perception of work and work style .............................................. 28 2.2.1 Historical, religious, and cultural approach ............................................................ 28 2.2.2 Japanese postwar economic miracle ....................................................................... 35 2.2.3 Recent situations of work in Japan .......................................................................... 38 2.3 Comparative analysis ................................................................................................... 51 2.3.1 Analyze by comparative datasets ............................................................................ 51 2.3.2 Summary of results from comparative datasets ...................................................... 60 3. Perception of working in a Japanese company................................................................ 61 3.1 Japan as a business partner for Poland...................................................................... 61 3.2 Japanese firms in Poland Pomeranian Special Economic Zone ........................... 63 3.3 Interview and analysis ................................................................................................. 66 3.3.1 Reasons of working in a Japanese company and employment ............................... 67 3.3.2 Range or work in a Japanese company ................................................................... 69 3.3.3 A company as a community .................................................................................... 71 3.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of working in a Japanese company........................ 74 3.3.5 Summary of interview and its analyses ................................................................... 75 4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 77 Reference ................................................................................................................................. 79 Sources from Internet ............................................................................................................ 82 Tables ....................................................................................................................................... 85 Graphs ..................................................................................................................................... 86 Appendix 1. An interview with an office worker ................................................................. 87 Appendix 2. An interview with a manual worker ............................................................... 92

Introduction
Work has been, especially after considerable number of people began to work for the sake of their wage, one of the topics that are drawing much attention. Nowadays it would be very difficult for us, though not impossible, not to react to news regarding work even if it happened far from our home; news of lay-offs by big firms are announced in pitiful tone, and drops in unemployment rate often generate comfortable atmosphere. Whether one likes it or not, global economy is so dynamic that we - people living on the earth - will be more connected to and influenced by other far places and labor markets, on the one hand indirectly through buffers, and on the other hand in a crucially direct way. There would be little doubt if I say here that it is one of the effects derived from overwhelming stream of globalization. With quite a small number of exceptions applied to those need not work regularly, majority of people inevitably has something to do with work, and the world. The tendency mentioned above accelerates the intercontinental, international, and intercultural movement of capital and workers. Poland has been also accepting investments from foreign firms and some immigrants from other countries, particularly after socialist regime was replaced with new political institutions. Through this process of the transformation, this Poland has been adopting many new factors, which may stimulate Polish people. One of the factors is the way of working (in other words, work style or work ethic) in new circumstances, which I choose to deal with in this research. Also here, near Toru, Pomeranian Special Economic Zone holds some factories and offices run mainly by foreign firms, including Japanese ones. Within those, we can see a famous name like SHARP, one of leading companies producing liquid crystal. It was a timely occasion for me to implement this research. My main interest is when groups of people with different cultural background work together (in this case Polish workers and Japanese workers), what kind of reactions are occurring, and what are they based on? In order to launch on this research, after taking a look at birds-eye view of situations related to work in the world, I attempt to extract ideal types of perception of work in Poland and Japan through analyzing existing literature on this topic. At this point, the concept of Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (association) as a polar concept of Tnnies is used to grasp characteristics of a company as an organization.1 A company is basically an existence generating profit through business activities of employees who belong to it by
1

See Introducing Sociology, Osborne, Richard, and Van Loon, Borin, 1999, p.33.

contract between them and a firm. This kind of relations between people I will call an association. However, companies in Japan are often not only just an association but hold some functions of community. Ishikawa states that Japanese employees are taught the social rules and norms with which they are expected to comply and eventually they tend to regard their company as their reference group from which they lead their social life.2 How are Polish employees hired by Japanese firms reacting to this kind of working environment? Assuming that Japanese style of working is adopted, which part of it do they accept and which part do they refuse? A method used to collect information from workers is interview. A speaker and I basically faced each other and he or she answered my questions. Some references and opinions regarding relevant topics told by those I met unexpectedly or coincidentally are taken into considerations, too, although they are not in the form of interview. The language used was English, Japanese, and occasionally Polish, according to the speakers language skill. Analyze based on quantitative data is also used for in order to obtain whole image of work style of Polish and Japanese people.

Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, the person who allowed me to do my interview in his workplace, employees I could talk with, my family, and everybody who supported this study.

Akihiro Ishikawa, Work Identity in Japan, Alan Brown, Simone Kirpal & Felix Rauner (Eds.), Identities at Work, 2007, p. 316.

1. Work style and work ethic

Before embarking on comparison mentioned earlier, it seems worth giving some historical references and taking a glimpse at present situations happening worldwide concerning work, for almost all of the matters, if one takes any aspect of object to analyze, are never completely irrelevant today.

1.1 Attitude toward work, and working hours rough transition up to pre-modern He who does not work, neither shall he eat. (Second Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians, New Testament)

It is obvious that without accumulated work of people the world will stop functioning properly, as it produces foods, administer politics, educate students, judge criminals, and so forth. In short, work of people is one of prerequisite conditions for our everyday life, which includes from maintenance of subsistence to enjoy leisure time by cultural activities. Under the outcome there should be workers motivation making the whole cycle feasible, whether spontaneous or hesitant. What I would like to add here is that among ancient Greeks, when Plato, Aristotle, and many great philosophers lived, labor with special skills was commonly target of hatred. Only soldiers and farmers were not considered as humble.3 For sure it was entirely different system of society, but it looks for me implicative as a first reaction against labor which perhaps meant deprivation of time for philosophy and other activities. Work has been in front of us from the time when humans began to act. From ancient times up to middle age mobility of workers (farmers, handicraftsmen, and so on) seems to have been lower. It is developments of agricultural technologies to produce more foods for people that paved the way to the Industrial Revolution,4 which absorbed huge number of workers from farms and brought more modern way of working. However, though I do not dare to say that it is because of that, work had not been paid much attention of writers until 19th century.5 As we know, this period, from late 18th century to 19th century is the time of rise of capitalism and its institutionalization mainly in
Lafargue, 1883, p.69. Lutz, 2006, p. 93. 5 While much about peoples attitude in everyday life can be taken from written materials, work had not been regarded as an appropriate theme for literary expression. Ibid, p. 29.
4 3

western European countries which could establish colonies as results of the former Age of Discovery. This was a crucial turning point, many factors and notions brought since that time are still well functioning today. Because describing the whole dynamics of this era is outside the scope of this work, let us only give some remarkable points. Karl Marx, along with his patron, Engels, known for his tremendous, radical, and significant works, should also be mentioned in this genealogy. Having analyzed the structure of capitalism, he foresaw capitalism would be replaced with socialism by proletariat revolution, and finally communistic world would be realized in the future. Although he displayed a supportive orientation to wageworkers that were, he thought, being exploited, at the time he wrote Capital,6 he had never visited any factory in person.7 Much of his interest was not in describing their actual life but refuting capitalistic ideology with formulated theories and methodology concerning political field. However it is apparent his attempts to improve their repressed lives under crude capitalistic society had unprecedented influence literally on the world. Paul Lafargue, Marxs son-in-law, is one who tried to resist the torrent. Warning about the increasing tendencies to regard of employees working as natural or even sacred behavior, he insisted that all people should have The Right to be Lazy and that work should be limited to no more than 3 hours per day.8 Considering 15 working hours days were common in such industries like textile or mining in 19th century9, it is difficult to imagine that his argument were widely accepted. It was actually historical peak in terms of working hours. Although what Lafargue wished was rather extreme, it would be an illustrative opinion of sympathy from intelligent class from the era. A few years after, in 1866 at Geneva congress of International workingmens association daily 8-hours working was adopted as their fundamental demand.10 It is just after Marx and Lafargue, that Max Weber published The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905). In the light of attitude towards work or work ethic, above all, his notion of calling that is relevant to inworldly ascetism of Protestants is of great importance. He held that in the process of Luthers Reformation, ascetic attitude of Catholics concerted into secular world, and it led to enthusiastic accumulation of capital and
6

Capital : a critique of political economy was published in 1867 (first part), 1885 (second part), and 1894 (third part) respectively. 7 Courrier Japon December, 2011, p.49 8 Lafargue, 1883, p.37. 9 Jrme Bourdieu and Bndicte Reynaud, 1999, p.4. 10 Morioka, 2005 p. 150.

to dissemination of ethos of capitalism as a result.11 Therefore, working itself is not the purpose, because for Protestants, Calvinists concretely, it was a means of expressing religious feeling, and final goal was revelation. Even if capitalism is to pursue profit by rationalized ways, its rise had the ethical foundation on religion, which does not seem to be able to generate the dynamism alone. This was, by the way, the opposite viewpoint from Marx, who set economic conditions as a substructure and religion as superstructure, opium of the masses. Generation to generation, initial religious or holy motivation had become weaker and weaker, and eventually it began to function as a system regardless of peoples will. Passed through countless dilution, what they obtain is just an obligatory work. In 1910s and 1920s, during which the World War I occurred and Europe witnessed the emergence of Soviet Union, as industrialization and urbanization progressed, structural change of work had not slowed down and we can see seeds of common annoyance regarding work seen today too. The International Labor Organization (ILO) was created in 1919, as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I, to reflect the belief that universal and lasting peace can be accomplished only if it is based on social justice. 12 With its establishment, the first convention adopted was concerning working hours; principle of the 8-hours day or of the 48-hours week.13 Including the first fundamental convention, Japan has ratified none of those treating working hours. The way of working in Japan will be explained later on in coming chapter. This convention has symbolical significance as consensus confirmed internationally in order to ameliorate working condition of workers. Needless to say, the actual effectiveness is completely another topic. Countries seem to have been too keen on competing with each other rather than cooperate. One of the problems is for example a value or meaning of working without ideological background mentioned in previous paragraph. Just like the notion of alienation by Marx, though Marx seemed to mean rather for blue-collar workers in factories, the necessity to work before the value of working is put a high priority, and it had swallowed white-collar workers as well. As expressed in the movie titled The Crowd (1928) by King Vidor, workers had become increasingly similar not only in their lifestyles including work as appearance but also in thinking, and had begun pursuing success as an embodiment of being decisively different from majority of others, as well as of finding value for working. The
Weber, 1996 [1905], pp. 373-405. 12 http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/history/lang--en/index.htm, Origins and History, from website of ILO. Accessed on 12, Feb, 2012) 13 C1 Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919, from website of ILO http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C001, (C1 Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919, from website of ILO. Accessed on 12, Feb, 2012)
11

protagonist in the film, who was dreaming to be hired in adverting which he thinks much more modern and sophisticated than current job, was fired one day. He had no other choice than working of course. After undergoing hardships in several jobs, he finally found a job he had been longing for- sandwich man.14 In the last scene he goes to a theater with his family, seemingly in happiness. They laugh together, like a typical happy middle-class family. Next to him he found a man looking similar to him who also seemed to be happy. Both of them looked like they are enjoying lives alike in happiness. As the view draws back, the number of similar men increases and increases andit turns into a countless amount. The question whether he found what he had been looking for is thrown to us, watchers. However, is such a thing actually available and necessary? I think this seem still unsolved more than 80 years after the movie. Around and after The Great Depression triggered by sharp fall of stock market in 1929, huge amount of workers lost their jobs. It raised discussions concerning the degree to which government should intervene in labor market and in job creation. New Deal would be considered as an answer from Keynesian side, and was in fact implemented by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. As easily imagined, some of the policies were possible to be realized because they only suited situations at that period of time. The degree to which the government should supervise the domestic economy is one of eternal topics. Nevertheless, many people seem to blame politicians and government for bad handlings of labor market, and job creation can be main attraction for voters in elections. Regarding this point more explanation would be added in the following chapter. Partly being prepared to break out by The Great Depression, The Second World War, involving almost all big powers in the world, greatly stimulated world economy. In spite of the tremendous sacrifice, war is extremely profitable; weapons, fuel, food and etc. can sell well for massive consumption. There are compulsory demand and consume involving not only countries and organization concerned, but also others indirectly supporting. It seems that the incentive to have wars or battles is still incorrigible in the 21st century.

14 Sandwichman is a person carrying sandwitch board, that is a type of advertisement composed of two boards (holding a message or graphic) and being either.( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandwich_board )

1.2 After the WW2 and Present There would be little doubt if I state that the Cold War was one of the biggest aspects which characterize the postwar period.15 It was too tense for almost all countries and its politics to be free from the structure between United States and Soviet Union. It apparently influenced to shape work styles of countries or regions, depending on the side it belonged to. In Marxism tenet, workers were supposed to be the most important figure to control economy. It does not simplistically mean workers in United States did not have any right to join politics, but due to ideological necessity policy makers would certainly take it into considerations. However, despite idealistic slogans declared by authorities (mainly by Kremlin, Moscow), it was during the era of socialism that people had been exploited not in through relations of production, but in corrupt and institutionalized system, a structure fraught of hypocrisy. With very low expectation for materialistic comfort as well as for high salary in accordance with prominent work of individuals, majority of workers were nearly not motivated. As a means to know what workers were actually feeling or acting, joke (or humor) is one of useful sources to reach their voices.16

A Japanese lathe operator was invited to a car factory in Warsaw, in order to teach technologies to Polish workers. In the morning, Polish workers in lathe section gathered around the Japanese lathe man. Before starting to work, he made a short speech to them. He began working. Polish workers, all still standing there, observed his practiced operation until finishing time. The Japanese lathe man stopped operating a machine, made a small speech, and left his workplace. On the next day, the Japanese lathe man and Polish workers did the same thing. On the third day, he again made a small speech on the beginning and ending of work. However, nobody understood what he said in Japanese. Finally an interpreter was asked to come, and bashfully told it again the last short speech to the interpreter. The interpreter told it to Polish workers.
According to a dictionary (a dictionary of world history by Kadokawa Shoten, published in 2001), the Cold War, is the state in which tensions was continuing between Western world led by the United States and communist world led by Soviet Union, described by Lippmann in 1947 for the first time. As a definition it began just after the WWII and ended as revolutions happened in Eastern-European countries and Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. 16 Ziv, Avner points out one of the functions of humor as a social corrective; humor exposes ugly human phenomena (those that render the world almost unbearable) to mockery, in the hope of thereby eliminating themLaughter shared by the oppressed reduces fear and helps people to go on living under the regime with more ease. Especially when freedom of speech is severely limited and spying was not rare, jokes must be one of most reliable records though they are not authorized. Ziv, 2009, p.11.
15

Comrades, because I belong to a union in a different stream from yours and I am also not directed so, sadly, I cant join in your strike.17

At the May Day rally. Everything has changed. Yes surely. I used to join the Mayday with a resolution to be fired, but recently I need to join in order not to be fired!
18

Depictions in such jokes may sound exaggerated, but it is true that they are generated from actual lives from that era, therefore I suppose jokes hold relevance. Humorous or comic way of insight into objects is, as Peter L. Burger indicates upside-down and completely distorted, it is exactly the reason why it bears capacity to reveal a fundamental truth rather than conventional and straight viewpoint.19 Generally lifestyles in socialist countries were poor in terms of substance or consumption and there were countless inconveniences and disturbances, yet instead as a virtue of its system, employment was secured (firing in the second joke above seems to be meant rather social and ideological purge of individuals than firing due to their lack of competitiveness in the market). At least during cold war it carried a function as antithesis of capitalistic system. After the end of cold war, power map of world greatly changed. We can see in some countries like China and Cuba communist party is still ruling, but it is apparent that capitalistic principle is increasingly covering the world and becoming standard. In majority of countries where communism was adopted governments shifted the system into a free market. This unprecedented transition from communism to capitalism was what the world saw for the first time. Poland was one of such countries, and some explanations about it would be added in the coming chapter. A Canadian journalist and writer Naomi Klein described in her newest book, how people have been pursuing profit taking advantage of natural disasters, drastic political situations, and so on in ; Shock Doctrine.20 About the late-2000 recession she says, what we are seeing with the crash on Wall Street, I believe, should be for Friedmanism what the fall of
17 18

Yoshio Hirai, 1990, pp.224-225. Ibid, p.83. 19 Humor needs high level abstraction of empirical experiences. Peter L. Berger, 1997, p. 46. 20 As one of instances Polands case in which Shock Therapy was introduced by Balcerowicz during transitional time after communism regime is referred. Klein, Naomi, 2008, pp. 170 181.

10

the Berlin Wall was for authoritarian communism.21 She is known as one of bitter critics against Market Fundamentalism. Her tone of writings is full of resentment and somewhat journalistic which would provoke readers emotion to face the brutality. At any rate, the fact that The Shock Doctrine is translated into as many as 30 languages and recorded good sales would mean something.22 Michael Moor, known as Fahrenheit 9/11, appears in collaboration with her in lectures or venues of demonstration. What should not be overlooked in newest scene is the sequence of movements in Arabic countries, called Arab Spring, though it is still ongoing case, so we will have to wait for assessments. It has surprised the world that people, in which majority of them were ordinary, spontaneously made actions. The inception of uprisings happened in Tunisia; a street vendors self immolation on 17 December 2010. His death was the direct stimulus, and many aspects can be referred in the process, but deeply rooted lack of jobs and corrupt structure to find a way to be hired would have prepared the emotional explosion of his neighbors firstly, and later many of citizens in the country.23 After Tunisia it has spread almost all main Arabic countries like Egypt, Libya, Syria, and so on, with huge bloodsheds and we are not sure how the outcomes will be at the end.

The year 2011 did not end only the unprecedented shakes in Arabic countries. The movement called Occupy Wall Street, with the beginning in September 2010, is also stimulated by lack of jobs especially for the young, and wealth owned by few rich people. In the main website it states;

Occupy Wall Street is a leaderless resistance movement with people of many colors, genders and political persuasions. The one thing we all have in common is that We Are The 99% that will no longer tolerate the greed and corruption of the 1%. We are using the revolutionary Arab Spring tactic to achieve our ends and encourage the use of nonviolence to maximize the safety of all participants.24

21 http://www.democracynow.org/2008/10/6/naomi_klein Accessed on 17, Feb, 2012 From the lecture at the University of Chicago, October 06, 2008. Transcript of lecture at the University of Chicago. 22 http://www.naomiklein.org/main Her website. Accessed on 18, Feb, 2012. 23 http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/19/uk-tunisia-protests-bouazizi-idUKTRE70I7TV20110119 (Peddler's martyrdom launched Tunisia's revolution. Reuters UK. Reuters. Retrieved 1 February 2011. Accessed on 18, Feb, 2012) 24 http://occupywallst.org/ Occupy Wall Streets official website. Accessed on 18, Feb, 2012.

11

The fact that the concept spread over not only United States but also many countries will account for structural analogies between them in this current system. Internet has been functioned as a main medium to disperse information regarding coming protests or to share concept with potential participants.

However, what is the exact and concrete goal of the protest of Occupy Wall Street movement? A cue to grasp phenomena seems to be in this question, though it would be merely provisional.

A media theorist Douglas Rushkoff says;

Unlike a traditional protest, which identifies the enemy and fights for a particular solution, Occupy Wall Street just sits there talking with itself, debating its own worth, recognizing its internal inconsistencies and then continuing on as if this were some sort of new normal. It models a new collectivism, picking up on the sustainable protest village of the movement's Egyptian counterparts, with food, first aid, and a library And in the process, they are pointing the way toward something entirely different than the zero-sum game of artificial scarcity favoring top-down investors and media makers alike.
25

Wall Street is symbolic existence of monetarism and liberalism. It is one of objects for protesters to be against, but the orientation does not look like Marxism or the like. Hackneyed criterion to define such as right or left, or liberal or conservative would not be able to evaluate it, seemingly. What can be said here with great care is, at least, participants aspire to destroy status quo, under which many people have been feeling suffocated mostly economically, even if they have no common vision of future after destruction. As a way of expressing the attitude demonstration was taken along with the aid of interaction on the Internet. The world has not seen the size and effects caused by them. It may not reach any actual result in the end, but even so I see an embryo of new sort of spontaneous solidarity. Starting from regional (United States), now it has been penetrating other countries and cities. Joblessness is still serious in many countries and regions. It critically impacts peoples everyday life, economy, and society. There would be little doubt that unemployment (or unequal distribution of job opportunity) is one of principal factors which have contributed to happen in the both cases mentioned above.
25 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/05/opinion/rushkoff-occupy-wall-street/index.html Think Occupy Wall St. is a phase? You don't get it. By Douglas Rushkoff. Accessed on 19, Feb, 2012)

12

Some will consider that job just means to make their living, and others may regard it as the ultimate purpose of life (e.g. workaholic). Although the importance people hold regarding job would greatly vary, yet it tends to occupy a decisive part of life. Surely work is obligatory in many cases, but its societal aspects are also influential; through it many of us meet, talk, cooperate with others, earn money, and become an element of society. When one is fired or deprived of it, it is thinkable for him or her to be depressed and weary. Just as natural resources, this social resource is also limited, hence the more it is stimulating or exiting, the scarce it would be.

Ronald Dore cites a forecast of Keynes written eighty years ago; according to the development of technical progress, by the end of the current century, we should all be working something like five hours a week. Then he indicates Keyness mistake in that he assumed that necessary work would be fairly equally distributed.26 What we see today is intensifying polarization between the rich and the poor in terms of job opportunity. I am not sure whether it can be called progress or not.

In this chapter rough summary of work ethic from the past and recent global trend around work was depicted. In spite of the big wave, not all countries look heading toward the same direction, with each history and system developed through it being verified. Next chapter would be devoted to describe work styles and other relevant things of Japan and Poland.

26

Dore, 2004, p.10

13

2. Structure and Analysis in Poland and Japan

Trends written in previous chapter will certainly cause aftereffects in remote areas, for instance as a sudden rise of oil price. Countries and regions facing the waves shall try to protect themselves from potential damage or take advantage of it and make another source of generating profits with a number of peculiar variables. It is obvious that decisions made by national level are of great importance because the decisions (or policies) contribute to shape the stream of globalization, and then it will be reflected on peoples daily life. Affiliation to Euro-currency zone for Poland and participation in Trans-Pacific Partnership for Japan may be such a case. It is in this process, or at this stage, that global trends and powers are likely to be reinforced or weaken. In addition to that, on this level people are usually able to negotiate or make actions, by means of voting in elections and demonstrations on streets. I presume mutual interactions of regions or countries in international relations would prompt people to be more conscious of situations of a country where he or she resides. The main focus in this chapter is on structures shaping peoples work style within each country, Poland and Japan. Different countries, in accordance with many various conditions at that time, will react differently; if pretty similar policy was found in plural countries, there will be a rather overwhelming factor covering the both perhaps. It is not very unusual to find small and adjacent countries act similarly. By taking a look at materials, I attempt to make the images of work style in Poland and Japan clearer for coming analyze. At this step in which structure of these two countries related to work style and ethic are considered, it should be noted that there are tiers together forming the whole: national government, company (or economic institutions doing businesses), and individuals. Each level has impact on the others. Depth of impacts between them may be various, depending on country, industry, and company one belongs to. Regarding a question on between which and which the impact would be the greatest, it is difficult to define here because it really depends on respective situations. At least, however, many will agree that influences are recognizable. Additionally, individuals seem to be increasingly vulnerable to decisions from upper levels these days, taking a stream of progressive institutionalization into consideration. Launching (or even only attempting) negotiations in order to resist the wave within a bigger organization can be tough for an individual. It may be somewhat risky action for his or her employment especially if it is directed to his employer within an organization. The way of approaching to the structures in this chapter is deductive; based on some

14

works ever written mainly about work style or work ethic in Poland and Japan. They include different sizes of scope, from macro to rather micro. Hopefully, introduced by more than one viewpoint, it would help our understanding of their tendencies. We also keep it in mind that in every country extracted tendencies does not apply to some percentage of people. Unlike traditional or cultural symbols, such things as structures under which people work or their work styles are formed do not look to be enthusiastically recommended when one introduce facets from own country. In this sense, I believe insights regarding them can somehow keep a certain distance from arbitrary emphasis of aspects of a culture in a country or a region, even if it could be subsumed into a word, culture. In spite of that, on the other hand, it would be difficult to deny that there is an unavoidable interaction between the historically developed and deeply rooted norms and values of a culture, and the specific way of working of its economic institutions; cultural embeddedness of economic action.27

2.1 Polish peoples perception of work and work style 2.1.1 Work before the transformation Before directly going to contemporary situations, it would be worth taking a look at summarized insights on characteristics of organizational culture in Poland before the transformation. It may give clues if some features have been inherited or disappeared through the turbulent time. Katarzyna Gadomska-Lila, after compiling research projects investigating

organizational culture in Polish companies done during 1980s to 2000s, describe that enterprises operating before the transition were not independent organizations; they were a part of a bigger whole, a part of the system. It is sort of long citation but compactly and well depicted.
The managementwas strongly dependent on the central authorities. The management in those enterprises was very susceptive to steering from outside and experienced a strong need to submit to the decisions made at the central level. It was reflected in their role, which involved mainly supervision over plan execution, keeping employees at a distance, unwillingness to delegate authority, poor motivation system, lack of team working, etc. The attitude of management translated into the attitude of employees

27

Lhr and Horst, 1998, pp.10-11.

15

their passivity, pretending of activity, inefficiency. Moreover, social consent to demonstration of weakness, admittance of failures and complaints was also observed. Employees were mostly passive and demanding, and as a result they showed no respect to their customers or superiors (management had no standing among their subordinates) and did not identify themselves at work and as a consequence informal contacts were of highest importanceThe environment was perceived as stable and predictable, and the enterprises operated so as to keep the existing status quo Organizational structures were lean, centralized functionality was the main criterion for creation of organizational cells. The enterprises operating in the central planning system were rather uniform in terms of culture.
28

This description accords more or less to general image of firms under socialism. The mood of enterprises does not seem to be likely to create new and competitive ideas or products. In those days economy in Eastern Bloc being separated from Western, there would not have been high motive for innovation or to be competitive. Job was secure and as long as keep the existing state, somehow workers could manage to make their living (though sometimes extra efforts may have been necessary). With a result from a research executed in 1984 and 1985, Ishikawa points out that the sense of belonging both to management and to union is higher in countries under socialism (Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia), Japan, Sweden than West Germany and Italy.29 In Germany or Italy, this attachment is rather directed just to management. In the former group, the sense of belonging would be converged into the one to organization itself. It is consistent with a thesis that a company in socialism was not only an organization in which economic activities are achieved to support national economy and meet necessities of peoples to live, but also a social entity subsuming workers whole life.30 The general rough image of attitude at that time may be summarized as this: although workers are separated from actual managerial decisions, sense of belonging to organization itself and colleagues there was confirmed.

28 29

Gadomska-Lila, K., 2008. pp. 126 127. This research was done to explore characteristics of recognition to management and union in seven countries: Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia (Slovenia at this time), Japan, West Germany, Italy, and Sweden. 30 Ishikawa, 2009, p.3.

16

2.1.2 After the transformation and present

1989 was a year when Poland achieved institutional independence from influence of Soviet Union and started to shift its communistic system to democratic and capitalistic one. Obviously it was a remarkable turning point of contemporary history of Poland, and the impacts were wide on many aspects. Here is an available dataset from European Value Studies (EVS), which is covering currently 47 countries or regions.31 Table 1. Important aspects of work of Polish people*1) Aspect: (multiple answer) Good pay Pleasant people to work with Not too much pressure Job security Chances for promotion Respected job Good hours Use initiative Useful job for society Generous holidays Meeting people Achieving something Responsible job Interesting job Meeting ones abilities 47.4 57.1 24.3 55.9 35.4 38.1 33.4 15.8 31.1 48.1 33.3 58.6 53.2 63.1 79.6 49.7 66.6 50.0 56.2 48.0 30.5 52.0 66.5 53.2 74.3 66.0 36.0 66.0 44.0 46.0 51.0 49.0 43.0 31.0 49.0 57.0 44.0 66.0 61.0 33.4 28.7 30.8 49.4 38.4 62.1 39.0 27.7 60.0 39.4 41.3 54.8 66.7 Poland 1990 79.6 66.7 1999 93.0 74.4 Average 1999 81.0 71.0
*2)

Netherlands 1999 73.1 89.7

*1) This table is based on data from Sikorskas paper and EVS database ZACAT (http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/ Accessed on 25, Feb. 2012) *2) The first decimal place of 1999 was not available there. EVS was carried out for the first time in 1981 in the then 10 countries of the European Community. The main question to be answered was: which values do the inhabitants of various countries of the European Community share and which divide them? EVS took place in 1981, 1990, 1999, and 2008, according to website of EVS (http://www.europeanvaluesstudy.eu/evs/about-evs/ Accessed on 26, Feb. 2012)
31

17

According to a paper which is based on data from EVS in 1999 and is edited by Magorzata Sikorska in 2004, Polish people were considering work as one of the most important aspect of life; 78% of people answered work as very important, though the average for all countries was 57.6%. Above work is only family (91.1%). This is the highest percentage in all countries in this time.32 This high importance recorded by this year can be partly understood as a reflection of high rate of unemployment (cf. graph 1 below),33 as when it is scarce it tends to be regarded relatively more valuable, but it is remarkable that the percentage was the highest.
34

Graph 1. Unemployment rate in Poland 1990 2012 (%, registered unemployment)

52

applies to unemployed persons registered in powiat (county) labor offices and economically active who are the sum of registered unemployed persons and persons employed in public and private sector entities. The number of the employed does not include persons in active military service as well as employees of budgetary entities conducting activity within the scope of national defence and public safety.35 It does not include those who are not registered in powiat labor office.
32 33

Sikorska, 2004, p. 21. The transition of unemployment rate of Poland: 6.5% (1990), 16.0% (1994), and 13.0% (1999). Ibid. p. 34. 34 Data is from Central Statistical Office of Poland. (http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/index_PLK_HTML.htm. Accessed on 13, Apr, 2012) 35 http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/definicje_ENG_HTML.htm?id=ANG-866.htm. Accessed on 7, May 2012.

02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 91 91 91 91 91 91 91 91 91 91 11 01 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 00 99 89 79 69 59 49 39 29 19 09

02 51 01 5 0

According to Central Statistical Office in Poland, the definition of unemployment

18

In addition to the importance put on work, let us go on which changes in aspects of work were conspicuous between studies in 1990 and 1999. Data of Netherlands is put for the sake of comparison with a western country. As in table 1., we can see that Polishs high expectation in concrete aspects in work in 1999. In all aspects questioned percentages rose. The average number of aspects chosen by Polish people is 9.27, and it is 7.31 for Dutch people. Dutch people tend to choose aspects relevant to comfortable working environment (related to pleasant people to work with, not too much pressure), initiative, and meeting people than Polish. This is in accordance with the theory of Inglehart; in societies at a higher level of economic development, we can ascertain in the field of economic behavior a gradual change in that which motivates people to work: pressure is removed from maximizing income and work security to a growing attachment to work that is interesting and rational.36 In the light of this viewpoint, Polish data would be something between (or something out of the theory) at that time, such aspects as good pay and interesting job are both higher. It is also worth finding that large support was received in meeting abilities, achieving something, use initiative, and responsible job. These are relevant to social aspects, that is to say, self-realization. According to Sikorska, investigating about 900 articles from leading magazines widely read mainly by working class and issued then, work was allegedly described as a necessary element of life and something worth striving for. In descriptions of success, the necessity of hard work or the motif of overworking oneself for success was often emphasized, and they helped dissemination of such attitudes.37 Table 2. To what extent hard work is important for achieving success in life? *1) Answer of importance Necessary Very important Rather important Not so important Not important at all 1988 10.2% 28.1% 31.9% 22.7% 7.1% 1998 12.0% 33.4% 28.5% 20.4% 5.8% 2003 10.6% 38.2% 28.9% 18.6% 3.6%

*1) Data is based on the same question in Social Structure in Poland: POLPAN in 1988, 1998, and 2003 from Zacat (http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/ Accessed on 26, Feb. 2012)

36 37

Inglehart, 1997, p. 327. Analyzed articles are from Elle, Dlaczego?, Polityka, CKM, City, and Machina. Sikorska, 2004, p. 35.

19

Another data shows perception of Polish people concerning hard work, covering before and after the transformation. Data in table 2. is from Social Structure in Poland: POLPAN.38 There is a question with regard to achieving success in life ambition in terms of hard work. It can be noticed that categories reflecting high appreciation of hard work (necessary and very important) has gradually and steadily absorbed numbers from lower categories than them.

Table 3. Distribution of answers to the question about the major causes of poverty and about the possibility of forcing people to work*1) Poland Netherlands Western Europe 1990 People should not have to*2) work if they dont want to
*3)

1999 19.3

1999 2.1

1999 6.8

Why are there people in this country who live in need? *4)

- because they are unlucky - because of laziness and lack of willpower - because of injustice in our society - because it is an inevitable part of modern progress

5.6

5.8

32.8

15.5

31.4

22.6

14.3

24.1

38.4

50.4

25.8

33.9

16.6

19.4

17.5

22.8

*1) This data is based on a paper by Sikorska (2004). *2) Percentage of answers I strongly agree. *3) This question of answers not asked in 1990. *4) The percentages of first choice as the most important cause of poverty.

38

Data from researches proceeded in 1988, 1993, 1998, and 2003 is available on ZACAT, as EVS.

20

Now that we have seen rough data as to how willing Polish people were to work at the time when EVS was done in 1999, the other side of the attitude attracts our interest: unwillingness to work. Unemployment rate was still higher in 1999 (13%), accordingly, I suppose to have somebody without job in their family or among friends was not very deviant case. A table below includes data that will help have perspective if one should work or not, one being unwilling to work and what is to blame. Polish peoples larger acceptance of not to work in 1999, compared to the Western Europes average, is easily noticeable in the first question. In the second question, the growth in because of injustice in our society and because it is inevitable part of modern progress would be understood as an inclination to attribute poverty to its social structure. Very low number and decrease in answers which imply the poor state of life should be thought as individuals fault also correspond with to the thesis. Although work is valued as very important and high expectations are widely held, as saw, Polish people were apt to blame the system functioning in society. Sikorska asserts that despite the rise of significance of work, it was not accompanied by the emergence of a concise work ethic.39 She adds that there are nevertheless evidences of modernization process like high aspiration for self realization through working. As her conclusion, there was such co-existence between modernization and movement toward postmodern at that time, seemingly, still turbulent time.

During 1990s companies in Poland had to undergo structural change. It was a part of social restructure which was accompanied by severe decline of actual wage, skyrocketing of prices, unemployment, and so on. According to Jarosz, losing ones job may have caused the rise of suicide rate in villages where regaining job is more difficult than in cities through 1990s.40

Privatization of companies, which are formerly owned by states, was not a negligible activity not only in terms of institutional change but also of employees attitudes towards work. In the process of privatization, in many employee-owned companies, properties developed at the cost of the entire society begun to be given to or shared by personnel (in this case employees became shareholders of the company).41 The change of ownership fostered
39 40

Sikorska, 2004, P.35. Jarosz, 2008, pp.75 84. 41 Szostkiewicz, 1994, pp. 82-83.

21

independence in the managing of the company from orders from above and the actual participation of employee-shareholders in decision making which represents their influence on the managing of the company (according to a result from research conducted in 1993, 60% of those who noted changes claimed that the employees became and felt they were co-managers and co-owners of the enterprise). 42 The concepts of we and they had changed in companies which became employee-owned; we is the entire personnel with our management, and they on the other hand, are external factors, that is, the ministry and the government.43

The role of employee-ownership in the light of consciousness and attitudes of employees are perceived in the formation of positive phenomena: feelings of control over ones fate, interest in the results of work, better fulfillment of duties and responsibilities and so forth. Hopes of material benefits for employees themselves, counting on increase of wages and employee shares followed those. 44 According to the same source mentioned in the previous paragraph, the majority of the enterprises researched in 1993 were in a fairly favorable economic situation: 71% were profitable at the moment of transformation.45 However, they drastically reduced the level of employment, effecting 30-50% of the total employees.46 The respondents who were somewhat negative toward the companies claimed that the social affairs of the employees were not looked after, that there was even a loss of social rights, no possibility of defending against unjust treatments and work lay-offs.47 Trade unions were significantly marginalized in employee-owned companies,48 though 47% of the respondents reckoned it as necessary (41% said not).49

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

Ibid, 1994, pp. 83-84. Jarosz and Kozak, 1994, p. 110. Szostkiewicz, 1994, p. 83. Jarosz and Kozak, 1994, p. 109. Ibid, p. 119. Szostkiewicz, 1994, p. 83. In many of enterprises analyzed, there was no union. Gardawski, 1994, p. 100. Gardawski, 1994, p. 100.

22

Graph2. Trade Union Density in Poland from 1990 to201050

s ei rt nu o c DCEO dnal oP 0 1 02 8 00 2 6 00 2 4 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 02 8 99 1 69 9 1 49 9 1 2 9 91 0 9 91 8 89 1 68 9 1 4 8 9 1 2 8 91 0 89 1 53

well as average of OECD countries.

However remnants from ancien rgime had been there in many cases; organizational structures were still characterized by a high degree of centralization, which made them unable to adapt quickly to the changing environment.51 Employees were still passive and placed particular emphasis on the quality of human relationships at work, which resulted in emotional relations between individuals and the organization. Table 1. shows the percentage in meeting people rose around 19 % from 1990 to 1999, and it agrees, too. On the other hand the remnants can be recognized as cushion which absorbs the fury of social change between workers and authority52. Even if a structure has been replaced by new one, because of realistic necessity, people who render a function actually functioning are irreplaceable in a short time. And that was why, I suppose, the high attachment to their organization also remained.

50

http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=UN_DEN# (OECD Statexracts, Trade Union Density in Poland from 1990 to 2010, accessed on 22, Apr.) The data was available only after 1990 in Poland. 51 Gadomska-Lila, K., 2008 pp. 127 128. 52 Ishikawa, 2009, p.203.

03 52 02 51 01

Graph 2 indicates gradual decline of unionization rate in Poland in recent years, as

With these backgrounds, managers were clearly aware of need to reshape themselves.

23

As the last part in this subchapter, I would like to explore recent movement in perception of work in Poland by using as new data as possible. Main focus is whether attitude toward work has changed or not between 1999 and 2008. How important is work in your life? *1) 1999 78.5% 16.8% 2.4% 2.4% Average(1999) *2) 58.9% 31.5% 6.2% 3.5% 2008 56.2% 35.3% 5.6% 2.9% Average(2008) *3) 58.2% 31.4% 6.4% 3.9%

Table 4.

Answer of importance Very important Rather important Not so important Not important at all

*1) Shown data is Polands. Data source is ZACAT, as table 2. *2) Average data is total of 33 European countries at that time. *3) Average data is total of 47 European countries at that time.

Table 5. Work should always come first, even if it means less spare time *1) Answer Agree strongly Agree 1999 27.3% 37.1% Average(1999) *2) 16.1% 31.5% 19.7% 25.6% 7.1% 2008 9.2% 28.6% 29.3% 26.3% 6.5% Average(2008) *3) 18.7% 32.1% 21.2% 22.0% 6.0%

Neither agree nor disagree 16.1% Disagree Disagree strongly 18.2% 1.3%

*1), *2), and *3) are edited as same way as table 4.

From two tables above, particularly from table 5., we can promptly recognize sharp fall of Polish peoples importance of work. In 2008 agree strongly and agree are even below the average. It would be appropriate that the importance of work has dropped in terms of personal perception.

24

Table 6. Work is a duty towards society *1) Answer Agree strongly Agree Agree nor disagree Disagree Disagree strongly 1999 31.9% 42.3% 14.1% 10.3% 1.4% Average(1999) *2) 21.8% 42.3% 17.9% 14.0% 3.9% 2008 11.2% 36.1% 31.0% 17.6% 4.1% Average(2008) *3) 24.2% 40.2% 19.8% 12.7% 3.1%

*1), *2), and *3) are edited as same way as table 4.

Then here is another point of view; how Polish people recognize work in the light of relationship in society?

According to table 6., compared to 1999, less people seem to consider work as less mandatory in society in 2008. As a whole the attitude has become rather neutral than against the idea that work is a duty towards society. Table 7. is also showing similar trend, in which neutral stance has grown.

Table 7. People should not have to work if they do not want to *1) Answer Agree strongly Agree Agree nor disagree Disagree Disagree strongly 1999 19.3% 45.8% 14.5% 17.2% 3.1% Average(1999) *2) 7.2% 23.5% 17.8% 36.1% 15.4% 2008 15.8% 43.2% 27.1% 12.3% 1.7% N/A Average(2008) *3)

*1), and *2) are edited as same way as table 4. *2) From 2008 this question has been excluded from common questions for all countries.

We should note that 2008 was the time when unemployment rate in Poland was well recovering after a big wave of high rate which started to rise between 1998 and 1999 (cf. graph 1, p.19). It would be thinkable that relatively better atmosphere influenced to push down the importance of work among people. 25

Unlike table 5., big changes are not recognizable between 1999 and 2008. Only in useful for society (from 48.0% to 38.0%) and generous holidays (from 30.5% to 41.8%) more than 10% rise/drop can be seen. The aspect not too much pressure has risen again here to much higher position than average, though it is not as big increase as in average of all the countries. It should not be forgotten that this research itself expanded to include areas less industrially developed, where fundamental functions of work such as job security will be expected to be higher than more industrially advanced places. Table 8. Aspects (multiple answer) Good pay Pleasant people Not too much pressure Job security Use initiative Useful for society Generous holidays Meeting people Achieving something Responsible job Interesting job Meeting abilities 79.6% 66.7% 47.4% 57.1% 38.1% 33.4% 15.8% 31.1% 48.1% 33.3% 58.6% 53.2% 93.0% 74.4% 63.1% 79.6% 56.2% 48.0% 30.5% 52.0% 66.5% 53.2% 74.3% 66.0% What aspects in work are important for you ? 1990 1999
*1)

Average *2) (1999) 81.0% 71.0% 36.0% 66.0% 49.0% 43.0% 31.0% 49.0% 57.0% 44.0% 66.0% 61.0%

2008

Average *3) (2008)

93.5% 73.3% 70.5% 78.9% 48.6% 38.0% 41.8% 52.4% 67.2% 54.2% 76.5% 64.3%

84.4% 75.7% 46.7% 70.4% 49.6% 45.2% 37.2% 50.6% 61.5% 50.0% 68.8% 63.2%

*1) The percentage of those who mentioned the aspect is important. Data source is ZACAT, as table 2 *2) Data on 1990, 1999, and average (1999) are the same as table 1. *3) Average data is total of 47 European countries at that time.

From table 4., 5., and 8., importance of work as an aspect in life, which rose between 1990 and 1999, has dropped but what they expect in work has approximately in 2008 stayed in a similar shape which had formed from 1990 to 1999, and it is also closer to average (SD in 1999 is 3.9% and in 2008 3.0 %). This would be explained by what Inglehart maintains (cited in p.19 in this subchapter), as industrialization and modernization seems to have also

26

developed during the period of time, from 1999 to 2008. In this sense aspects relevant to self-realization are likely to be higher, and they are so as shown in table 8.

2.1.3 Summary of peoples perception of work and work style in Poland

With explanations and materials given in previous subchapters, here I would like to make a small summary about peoples perception of work and work style in Poland. It would be difficult to discuss it without the impact of transformation after 1989 in Poland. Since 1989, many of workers seem to have become more conscious of the fear of unemployment than before, when job was rather secured (cf. table 1. and graph.1., pp. 18-19). It led to high importance on work in many aspects after the time and this orientation is still lingering, though the trend appears somewhat weakened. As long as there are unemployment people in Poland and its rate is kept in not low,53 it would not be shifted from the newest stream to another direction, all of a sudden. The management style strongly controlled by central decision has started to change in accordance with demands of new economic system, with some remnants still being there. Despite the institutional change, the perceptional shift on the level of peoples mind seems rather gradual. As a factor that may influence the general attitude, big wave of good economy may come in near future, but of course it will be too difficult to foresee following outcomes. It would not be extremely nonsense or ridiculous to reckon that at least in coming some years the attitude of Polish people will continue to be firm. Another possibility is the perception of younger generations. If one has grown up under a society where unemployment is quite common unlike their parents, he or she may perceive work and situations around work in a different way. It seems probable. Additional to the possibility of younger workers, another value of work might be injected by different type of managers. It is not necessary to mention that, but the extent to which workers internalize what is taught by managers greatly differs, depending on each individuals. However, if work will continue to be important as before or even more important to reach ones ideal realized self, a manager who can be a good sample to subordinates shall

53

As shown in graph 1., recent unemployment rate is not low (between 10 and 15, with seasonal fluctuations).

27

influence them in workers perception of work. At the end of this chapter, comparative data of perception of work between Polish workers and Japanese workers will be shown, for further analyze.

2.2 Japanese peoples perception of work and work style The theme in this subchapter is way of working and perception of work of Japanese people, as described in previous subchapter concerning Poland.

2.2.1 Historical, religious, and cultural approach

One of the styles of Japanese work style is hard working. This is often referred not only when it comes to work style in Japan, but also as a chief impression of Japanese people. Especially after Japan achieved high economic growth in postwar period,54 this image has spread worldwide. The economic rise of Japan has been stimulated foreign interests as researches as well as interests within countries. Although in these days it is shifting towards new emerging regions like China, Brazil, or Southern Asian countries, many materials can be found about Japanese work style today. When Japan was developing after the war, one of the most important questions that drew attention from outside was: what made for Japan possible to achieve the high growth? Regarding this issue many accounts have been made. It includes alleged characteristics of Japanese management, indoctrination of work ethic, or structural advantages of Japanese companies, which make employees highly motivated. Bellah pursued the resource of rapid industrialization and economic development in smooth transition of authority from Tokugawa shogunate - feudal regime in Edo period (1603-1868) to Meiji period (1868-1912). His way of approaching is similar to Webers, in which he tried to find out affinity between dominant indoctrination widely accepted among people and progress in industrial system. Meiji period was apparently a big turning point in
The high economic growth is called Japanese Postwar Economic Miracle, and as a definition it is from 1955 to 1973. During that time economy in Japan had kept 10% of real growth rate and its size became the second biggest in 1968, only after the United States (according to a dictionary of world history by Kadokawa Shoten).
54

28

terms of modernization and industrialization in Japan, and it would not receive much disagreement that the systematic foundations built in this period have greatly contributed to make Japan modern nation, which is for example able to fight other competing powers in war. He points out the deep penetration of politys will into people to accumulate wealth for the sake of maintaining of its governance. 55 The attitude of ascetic life to limit personal hedonistic consumption was internalized by inculcation in a household or work place where filial piety and loyalty to superior were put ultimate emphasis. The word superior was including a father, a boss in ones workplace, and authority at the end of its hierarchy, and for subordinates (in this context it means all the people under Shogun, the top of the superiors) obedience to somebody upper, selfless devotion in their position were preferred. It was in Edo period that Japanese version of particularism saw its inception. The superiority of regime was later mythicized and legitimated by the Emperor when it was returned to him and its function to govern was also inherited. Benefit of non-Western society in that they could be industrialized by learning from West - already industrially developed - is also indicated, adding that unfortunately any strongly goal-oriented society is perilously close to totalitarianism, which may tend to intensify commitment to the central values. Bellah focused on religion, like Weber, as a function which helps developments of rationalization of economy and industrialization, citing the process of internalization of religious tenets at that time stressing diligence and frugality attained by sacred contribution to certain social entity. Maruyama, one of the most influential political scientists in postwar period, points out that Bellah overlooked how such motivations characteristic in Japan were actually reflected on internal structure of modernization and industrialization, which resulted in unilateral analysis making it difficult to wholly comprehend progresses and failures of Japan in modern period.56 Maruyama finds other ambiguities in Bellahs work but admits that these references are not the principal aim of it and shown insights are basically keen. This Bellahs work was written in 1957, during the time Japan was enjoying high economic development. After more than 50 years todays situations would not be the same as what he investigated, but such drastic organizational reforms as Meiji period have not being done after establishment of postwar regime. Some of factors or remnants of factors he pointed out may be seen still. It will be described later.

In order to analyze this he uses AGIL paradigm by Talcott Parsons, the mentor of Bellah. Maruyama, Masao, Concerning Tokugawa Religion by Bellah Maruyama Masao Complete Works vol. 7, p. 288.
56

55

29

Dore, a British sociologist, was one of scholars who were interested in work in Japan. Main curiosity on employment system in a British company and Japanese company, he executed a comparative research between them. In his work, British Factory-Japanese Factory (1987) [1973] he asserted late development effect; countries where industrialization began later than Western countries can avoid problems in earlier steps in its industrialization. He concluded that management of companies in advanced countries, including England, will be converged into similar style to Japans because of the effect mentioned above.57 It can be said inverse convergence. What we should be careful of here is that at that time despite some fluctuation of economic mood, Japanese economy was still healthy as a whole, and Japanese management had started to be attractive worldwide. As economy entered into 1990s Lost Decade, its appeal also considerably waned. On the one hand admitting advantages of Japanese management, on the other hand Dore himself expresses strong rejection to work in Japanese company.58 According to him, Japanese way of working will bring such merits as sense of rewarding, reciprocal help, sense of belonging and so on, however he states that he would not choose to work there. The long and hard work or commitment to a company with less leisure time for family will deprive him of freedom to choose the way of own life. Needless to say, this is merely his personal feeling and it has nothing to do with judging which is better or worse. Its competitiveness and effectiveness he thinks is referred in his work. Those who approached Japanese organization in terms of culture tended to have a denominator to explain Japanese work culture: cultural preference of group oriented forms of social organization. The orientation is expressed as a special attachment to vertical social linkages, which were contrasted to horizontal emphases believed to exist in an individualistically oriented West.59 Related to this, through researches in postwar period three factors in Japanese organization became dominant: lifetime employment, seniority wages, and enterprise unionism. The allegedly unique features in work in Japan still seem to be frequent and popular though some are criticizing it as holistic interpretation of Japanese society.60 Relying on the accomplishment, here I shall make a brief explanation of the factors for pragmatic purpose to grasp the image of work in Japan.

57 58

Dore, 1973, pp. ix - xiii. Ibid, p. x. 59 Mouer and Kawanishi, 2005, pp. 258 260. 60 Ibid, p. 54.

30

Lifetime employment derived from lifetime commitment (to a company one work at) by Abegglen in The Japanese Factory issued in 1958. It means, as written, the state in which employment begins in one company and it lasts until his or her retirement. It is considered that this functions to motivate each employee to work and strengthen the cohesion within an organization by greatly easing fear to be fired. 61 This cohesiveness within a company may be a point Bellah referred as well. Motivated workers will make effort to bring more prosperity to the company. Its success is what should be shared with workers belonging to it. Its good results in business may give a rise of its value as a brand and stabilization of their employment, that is to say, safety life for themselves and their family in the long run. Employment is a contract between a person and a company. Even if the lifetime employment is very frequent, a worker of course can quit a job if he or she wants. This is not an institutionalized regulation at all but an unwritten or implicit custom. Job changing can affect negatively for climbing up the ladder under this condition. If majority of colleagues have worked for the same period of time, than the short time of belonging may be regarded as ones relatively weak commitment or loyalty to an organization, though the disadvantage can be compensated with, for example prominent successes in business, reliable personality, and so on. Headhunting had been seen, but it is rather rare case. For most workers with similar competitiveness, the situations as a whole would seem to be enough to hesitate to change their job, which slows down mobility in society. Job change requires a firm determination in general, if we admit the tendency. Seniority wages (Nenko joretsu) system stands for a custom to promote and pay workers according to their length of working at a company and proximity to retirement. Under this system ones position in a company and salary will tend to be for older workers, though it is not completely regardless of ones achievements. In United States or England for example, this system can be found but the range of its application is not including the private sector; it is rather seen in public sector.62

Seniority wages will be more effective as a complement to the first factor, lifetime employment, by which workers will be provided with feeling safety on employment and reason to stay there for increasing salary. In contrast it could demotivate workers because wage will be raised not completely but more or less automatically as long as one does not bring a fatal loss for a company or have a crucial defect for complete their tasks. Splendid
61 62

Abegglen, 2004, pp. 117- 124. Dore, 2004, p. 50.

31

business results are highly welcomed, but not being deviant is equally valuable. It shall result in impetus to maintain the current state. For the ambitious who think wages should be given in accordance with contributions of each, this can be just an obstacle. For employers side, in addition to the effect for motivation, there is a possible advantage to employ a competitive subordinate whose value will be more in terms of meritocracy by relatively cheaper remuneration. The cost to maintain the wage system is huge, especially for older workers. During 1990s when Japanese economy entered the period of low or even minus growth rate, a wave of restructuring heavily hit small and medium-sized enterprises. After that time many enterprises which can not afford to keep it have been hesitating to apply it like in high growth era. With a principle of cost cutting in order to gain competitiveness to survive personnel cost was the first object to be reformed.

The last one is enterprise union. Labor union in general functions to adjust collisions between management and employees and help negotiation. Participants of enterprise union are basically full time workers within the same company they belong to. Through some fights for ideological and practical purpose in 1960s, up to 1970s it has been said that enterprise union facilitated the smooth operation of Japans labor market by cooperating extensively with management.63 Some argue that in terms of paternalism it is one of components of a firm, where workers hold sense of belonging to it and at the same time ties between them. As a comparison with industrially advanced Western countries the cooperative attitude has been often referred; in West more hostile stance was taken to management.

63

Mouer and Kawanishi, 2004, pp.202-203.

32

Table 9. Number of unions, unionists, and estimated rate of unionization in Japan

fo etar detamitsE 2.23 8.43 4.53 4.43 8.03 9.82 8.32 5.12 7.81 2.81 1.81 1.81 5.81 5.81 2.52 )%( noitazinoinu 741,01 506,11 095,21 963,21 814,21 562,21 416,21 935,11 831,01 140,01 080,01 560,01 870,01 450,01 266,7 rebmem noinu fo rebmuN )dnasuoht( snoinu fo rebmuN 759,12 525,72 850,03 424,33 232,43 935,43 072,33 560,23 581,13 972,82 705,72 622,72 569,62 696,62 763,62 raeY

Source: Basic survey of labor union, by Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (Japan). Available: http://db2.jil.go.jp/tokei/html/U4801001.htm [22, Apr. 2012]

Table 9. indicates steady decline in all categories after the peak in its rate in 1970s and in 1980s of number. The unionization rate has been less than 40 % even in its highest time. After looking at the estimated rate of unionization, it would not be unusual reaction to hesitate to call enterprise union is one of the biggest factors that are unique among companies in Japan. Discreetly speaking, it seems to be trying to survive. As graph 2 shows (p. 23), this tendency of fall of unionization rate is common in Poland and OECD average. As expressed in the title of Vogels book published in 1979, Japan as Number One: Lessons for America, Japanese management was being praised at that time as importance of Japan as an economic power had risen. According to Mouer and Sugimoto, much of the literature in the 1970s on Japanese-style management as a manifestation of peculiarly Japanese cultural traits needs to be understood in terms of a Japanese society that was at that time questioning its sense of national identity as Japans place in the changed world.64 Economy was already the primal facet to describe Japan, and combining unique culture and competitiveness in business is very seasonable solution.
64

Ibid, p. 49.

0691 5691 0791 5791 0891 5891 0991 5991 0002 5002 6002 7002 8002 9002 0102

33

Appropriateness of those three factors based on researches done until 1970s and 1980s seems being questioned, after some decades have passed since the researches, though it may not be thought as attractive or effective anymore as before. Probable consequence would be an inversion of purpose and method; apart from effectiveness, solely notions of peculiarities on collective national characteristics remain as symbolic framework, which would be shackles for themselves to prevent relative and objective understandings. Something traditional does not and should not mean it is to be preserved or taken over. For sure cultures and customs within a country or region will be defined by what has been inherited through generations, but it is a posteriori. Particularly certain facets called as peculiar to a certain people could not be treated as prerequisite and should be treated with a great care. Furthermore, those customs are not covering different clusters; they are often not applied to middle and small-sized companies,
65

part-timers,

and

temporary

workers.66According to a survey from Japanese government (table 10., 2006), the percentage of employees in small and middle-sized companies in employees in Japan is 87.1%. Taking that many companies and offices are hiring a lot of part timers whose wage is rather fixed into consideration, the range the customs are in effect will turn to be more suspicious.

Table 10. Size of companies in Japan

egatnecreP seeyolpme fo rebmuN egatnecreP eciffo fo rebmuN seeyolpmE fo eziS

Source: Statistics Bureau, Director-General for Policy Planning (Statistical Standards) & Statistical Research and Training Institute, in Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Japan). Available: http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/NewList.do?tid=000001019842 [22, Apr. 2012]
65

Following governments definition, here small and middle-sized companies are set to hold up to 299 employees. 66 Ibid, p. 64.

34

%9 21 %9 21 %9....21 %9 21

%8.31 %2.31 %5.51 %4.01 %7.11 %2.9 %0.9 %3.4

987 279 6 987 279 6 987,,,,279,,,,6 987 279 6

824,481,45

915,174,7 830,641,7 595,373,8 453,500,5 640,326,5 260,643,6 122,698,4 408,943,2

%2....0 %2 0 %2 0 %2 0

%0.16 %2.91 %9.01 %7.3 %6.2 %6.1 %6.0 %2.0

497 01 497 01 497,,,,01 497 01

769,226

300,112

985,941

240,784,3 525,690,1 018,617,5 121,39 920,63 047,9

991 ot 001 morf

992 ot 002 morf

003 naht erom 003 naht erom 003 naht erom 003 naht erom

91 ot 01 morf

92 ot 02 morf

94 ot 03 morf

99 ot 05 morf

4 ot 1 morf 9 ot 5 morf latoT

)6002(

2.2.2 Japanese postwar economic miracle

Before we proceed to the newest tendencies with regard to work happening in these days in Japan, it might be helpful to see what people were really feeling during the time of high economic development. Despite of structural change, I suppose, the basic system and ideological attitudes from that period of time has remained. Still some say Japanese workers should not forget the way or ethos in those days, though actually it does not seem to be a suitable and reasonable for present situations.

As an industrialized country, which had sought to make inroads into the great world powers, Japan had to give up its colonization in Asian countries by defeat in the Second World War. Time under occupation by winners was humiliating, and simultaneously was an occasion in which it was forced to direct itself to another direction. Solution by military forces being denied, the choice left was apparently economy. From that time for Japanese people economical development has been not only a concept. Pragmatically (materially, in terms of subsistence) and ideologically, it has become one and only priority. This replacement in national primal policy does not seem to have been carefully recognized by citizens, but it is reasonable. Infrastructures and means of productions were critically destroyed. Avoiding starvation due to lack of products was so crucial. New constitution was made and parliamentary democracy was introduced. Besides, Japan was given a function as a factory to provide industrial goods at this regime transition. Survivors from the war were assimilated into labor forces. At this point business could be the new field to fight for some former soldiers. Actually doing business in some parts resembles battles in wartime; competing with opponents and finding strategies to survive. Majority of those who worked enthusiastically after the War instead of fighting had smoothly succeeded with this transformation of the precept. Totalitarian education under wartime seems to have contributed to produce obedient people who are easy to control, yet probably it can be said that following commands from his or her upper position is easier or even comfortable for some people than always thinking about the meaning of everyday activities. Did the educational change bring emancipation for such persons, too? Reactions on what one saw and felt greatly vary. Collecting questionnaires from former soldiers about impact of experiences in wartime on their view of life and work after the War, Hazama assert that the most typical sort among survivors is a sense of guilt for their fellow soldiers. He adds that in many cases, the painful feeling was converted into efforts to 35

rebuild Japan instead of those who died.67 Pressing hunger rather united the people, beyond ideological differences, which at last could have been publicly expressed as they like. As geopolitical factor, the existence of Soviet Union was important. Soviet was geographically a neighbor, but the government of United States wanted to stop communism at Korean peninsula at any rate. Although communism as an ideal state had been attracting some percentage of people, specially intellectuals, positive images of American life gradually prevailed communistic ones. Along with its culture, plentiful new materials fascinated many, and America had been an embodiment of rich world which Japanese people should chase. For Japan the meaning of Korean War (1950-1953) was not a battle between Soviet and its ally, United States, but rather a precious and timely occasion to extend exportation. So called economic miracle from 1955 to 1973 was not linear. The tide included upward and downward. The word is comprehensive term to describe this period of time. After Korean War it experienced slight depression, but supported by firm tone of foreign demand, it could recover within a comparatively short time. Labor force was cheap and they are highly motivated as mentioned. Japanese central bank encouraged enterprises in successive investments. By Prime Minister Hayato Ikeda, income doubling plan was proposed in 1960, and it was actually realized even earlier than planned. This plan functioned to divert masss eye from politics. Economic development had become the national consensus. 68 Environmental pollutions aroused much attention in 1950s and 1960s, but it did not result in converting the basic policy.69 Under such backgrounds concerning work, many workers tended to stay longer in their workplace. In addition to that, they often go to eat or drink with their colleagues or occasionally superiors after working. If it is with a boss, such an opportunity can turn into a time for subordinates to listen to instructive stories, which they should not refuse - not because it is always profitable but it was a better choice for them to obey the custom in order to maintain amicable relationships between bosses. Long working hours (this will be mentioned later) and reluctance to decline an invitation from higher positions greatly invaded their private time with family. It was not very rare case at all a worker could not meet his or her child because of late arrival home. Thus, on the one hand, many workers became more

67 68

Hazama, p. 25. Ibid, p. 64. 69 It is during the time that nuclear plants were built, including Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station. It was unavoidable for government to promote use of nuclear energy.

36

separated from family and local community and on the other hand they got more embedded in a workplace. Of course some may have firmly refused such occasions. But as a newcomer to a big city to work without ties with neighbors, it seems rather inevitable and reasonable - at least to me. This can be understood as a company with functions of Gemeinschaft (or community); relationships are close, personal, and valued by their members. 70 A firm, fundamentally Gesellschaft (association) as an organization to pursue benefit, depending on each situation, can apply the both side of criteria to workers if it has the both function. It would be a beneficial to manage, even if it merely results in multiplication of rules to observe for majority of workers.

An internal report by a committee in European Community issued in 1979 depicts Japan as below. What brought rapid economic prosperity to Japan is industriousness, discipline, royalty to ones company, and managerial style of Japanese people who were just released from feudal remnant of past and are living in islands with fierce competition and overpopulation. To our, European eyes, Japan seems; a country of workaholics living a small house just like for rabbits, a country where executive employees give up vacations in order to meet companys expectation, and a country in which a strike can be halted because its participants are damaging impressions of Japan () It would be hard to compete with such a country for Europe, with our Protestantism work ethic being eroded by ideas likeearning money is antisocial.71 Dore recalls a comment by the CEO of Phillips subsidiary in Britain, given after his lecture on the Japanese community-like firm. Phillips, too, used to be a very Japanese sort of firm. Career employment, respect for seniority, keeping redundant workers on the books, etc. And we had the leeway to do it until, that is, we had to meet Japanese competition.72

In the process of penetration of governments policy, education plays crucially effective and important role. Based on a concept that subjects which should be reinforced in terms of industrial and economic competitiveness are not social science but natural science, Japanese technologies have been developing well. It led to relatively weakened position of such a subject like philosophy, for example, compared to natural science. Unlike physics or
70 71

Osborne and Loon, 1999, p. 63 Ibid, pp.6-7. This citation is translated by Ito. 72 Dore, 2004, p.44.

37

other subjects in natural science, achievements in social science by Japanese scholars are extremely few.73 Students are not required to be creative in Japanese educational system. It is a tool to produce workers easy to make work. Being different from majority of others is not favorable. Sugimoto describes the fear he felt when he decided to study in United States and left Japan, because it means becoming a deviant from Japanese society, Japanese system of life. He found the internalized norms that as a Japanese he should study, work, and die.74 Dominant attitude toward work and attitude toward work in Japan is a product of whole policy putting emphasis on industrial and economic development by government. Attribution of developments in these fields to cultural peculiarity may end up with standstill of discussion. It is quite thinkable and seems possible for somebody to feel satisfied with cultural explanations about particular aspects of certain group of people which he or she belongs to. It is also likely to happen that people within it behaved exactly as depicted in a book or other materials. This is not strange at all, as desire to understand self or to make self understood is instinctive. But in Japan such features toward working called as unique seemed to have been working just like self-fulfillment. Many of workers did not have any other choice than working hard at that time, and before one knows it had become like the norms without approval (though there were not such ways). It has been there or has been regarded to be there because it facilitates to govern in order to develop more. With these in mind, now let us go to recent matters.

2.2.3 Recent situations of work in Japan

During 1990s Japanese economy was so stagnant, that is called lost decade. The negative legacies of bubble economy forced majority of companies in all sizes to reconstruct management policies. Unemployment more than doubled in just over a decade, and the growth rate fell from over 5 % into negative territory.75 The newest unemployment rate is 4.6 % (January, 2012)76. Its transition is below.
73 74

Sugimoto, 1993, pp. 6364. Ibid, pp.113-116. 75 Mouer and Kawanishi, 2004, p. 253. 76 Source: Statistics Bureau, Director-General for Policy Planning (Statistical Standards) & Statistical Research

38

Graph 3. Unemployment rate in Japan

Source: Trading Economics.com. Available: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/japan/unemployment-rate [23, Apr. 2012]

We should be careful that the definition of unemployment, according to which the rate is calculated, is very narrow in Japan. To be counted as unemployed, a respondent must have been completely unemployed but actively looking for work during the last week of the preceding month. Those who are so unemployable that they have given up actively looking for work through the Employment Security Office are not counted as unemployed. In America, for example, all who have looked for work over the past month are counted as unemployed. In Germany and France the unemployed are those who have received unemployment benefit during the period covered by the survey.77 Because of this way of counting in Japan, the actual or more accurate number of unemployment is considered to increase. A large amount of people has stopped activities to be employed and they tend to merely live, mainly with their parents financial support.78

and Training Institute, in Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Mouer and Kawanishi, 2004, p. 103. According to a survey in 2010 by Cabinet Office, such people are estimated to be around 700,000. In their definition, they are called Hikikomori. It means that they meet one of conditions below and the state has lasted more than 6 months; basically living in their home and go out only when they have to do something for their hobby, basically living in their home and occasionally go out to go to a shop, living in their home and go out of their room but do not go out of their house, or Basically not going out of their room. Those who have schizophrenia, with physical disease, working or taking care of a child or children in their home are excluded.
78 77

39

Table 11. Rate of regular employees from 1997 to 2007 in Japan (in million) from 1997 to 2007

1997 Total Total employees White-collar (Male) White-collar (Female) Blue-collar (Male) Blue-collar (Female)
*1)

2007

1997

2007

Regular Regular Total employee employee 38,54 53,26 13,11 13,63 8,61 14,27 13,48 15,21 3,09 8,55 34,32 11,82 7,80 11,39 2,50

Rate of Rate of regular regular Difference employees employees 75.3% 93.3% 70.6% 69.8% 39.1% 64.4% 86.7% 54.7% 58.4% 29.2% -10.9% -6.6% -15.9% -11.4% -9.9%

51,15 14,05 12,20 15,82 7,91

*1) Directors are not included in employees. Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Basic survey of employment structure, 2007. Available: http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/NewList.do?tid=000001017285 [25, Apr. 2012]

This rise of unemployment rate during 1990s is one of results from cost reduction programs by many firms. Other significant impact of that is structural change of employment and downward movement of income. These trends have been hitting the both cluster of employees: white-collar workers and blue-collar workers. We can see the drop of full-time workers rate in general between 1997 and 2007, as shown in table 11. More and more, part-timers or short contract workers have replaced labor force. Apparently in terms of slashing labor costs hiring temporary workers is very effective. Many of non-full-time workers are out of enterprise union (there are other unions whoever wants can belong to). Lifetime employment and Seniority wages are not applied since in many cases the period of employment is fixed in contracts between them and employers and their wages are often based on hourly or daily calculation. They are free from many bonds firms naturally and implicitly demand from full-time workers. Especially for many women mainly dealing with housework at home, part-time can be attractive and rational

40

economic option with wider discretion.79 Graph 4. Number of furt from 1982

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare (Japan), Annual Health, Labor and Welfare Report 2009, p 152

Regarding part-time work as a type of employment, another explanation can be added to. Recent decline of full-time workers is on one side a result of decisions by firms, and on the other side some others, not only women as mentioned above but also some men, choose part-timer by themselves. After graduating high school or university, they become part-timer, known as furt.80 This type of employment itself is not new. It has increased during 1980s and 1990s in accordance with demand from employers side as cheap labor, as we can notice in graph 4. In a report of The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training in 2001, furt is divided into three conspicuous groups. Dream-pursuing type means one has a dream, for instance to be a famous musician, and for the present chooses part-time job to earn money to sustain the activities for the dream. Moratorium type is used to describe those who wanted to delay decisions to be a furt rather as a temporary choice. The last, unavoidably type is one who became friitaa because he or she could not find a full time job or due to other inevitable situations. Training for new and stable job is included in this category. Comparatively and potentially those in this would be in the closest position to full-timer.
Mouer and Kawanishi, 2004, p. 123. According to the definition by Cabinet Office, friitaa includes part-time jobber, contract workers, and those who want to work but not employed. Working students and housewives are excluded. Although definitions about furt do not seem to be fixed still, a sharp distinction between full-time workers and non-full-time workers are prerequisite. It is said that the word friitaa derived from two German words, frei (free) and arbeiter (worker) (Lutz, 2006, p.470)
80 79

41

Table 12. Percentage of types of furt Type Year 2001 2006 Dream-pursuing 14% 25% Moratorium 47% 44% Unavoidable 39% 31%

(Source: The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training Research Reports No.72, p. 65)

Except unavoidable, those categorized as the other type are regarded to be reluctant to be a full-time worker in its definition. It would be difficult to assess to have moratorium period of time to active choice, but in a sense it could be so, because the attitude is a kind of refusal of existing work style to work normally as a full-timer. Their main aim in life is not put on working one company as long as possible or on the work itself to do there. Working is a way to maintain a lifestyle in which they can chase other values. It is quite possible for not small number of them to have to give up their dream during the term or eventually find nothing after the moratorium. They seem to be conscious of the economic disadvantages furt have to face from reports from influential media and contract itself. Japanese Government is trying to support them to find a permanent job. As long as they choose to be friitaa by their own decision and companies are dependent on their cheap labor it will continue to be exist. In terms of stimulus to economy as a consumer furt is very tiny but its great contribution as labor force is not negligible, thought its effect is rarely visualized from companies profit.

Then, now apart from Friitaa, how workers have recently perceived working?

42

Graph 5. Reasons to work (multiple answers) *1)

(Source: Nihonjin no syuugyou keitai ni kansuru sg chsa (General survey concerning actual conditions of Japaneses work), The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training (JILPT), 2011, p.25) *1) Respondents are Japanese people both men and women between 20 and 65 years old. The method taken is stratified two-stage sampling.

Relatively big difference between men and women in perception of income (difference between in order to make a living and for additional income for living expenses) will be accounted for by percentages of sexes in full-time and part-timer; in all full-time workers, 39.4% is men (automatically, womens rate is 60.6%) and in part-timers 16.1% is men (women: 83.9%).81 Working men still tend to earn money as the breadwinner, and they are more aware of it than working women. But it should not be forgotten that even if not as a principal earner in a household, many women have been working for additional but also important income.

81

Ibid, p. 42.

43

It is very clear that obtaining money for own life and family is one of the important functions of work. For some it is no more than that. In Graph 4.. to meet an obligation as a member of society or to contribute to society, because work itself is interesting, and in order to ripen myself or develop skills and experiences would be indicators to tell how much they are conscious of other values concerning work. They are respectively 28.3%, 20.0%, and 29.6%. Those numbers are neither overwhelming nor negligible, but compared to practical aspects, in order to make a living and probably for additional income for living expenses rates are higher. It may not be extremely wrong to say that workers in Japan both men and women are putting rather practical and pragmatic priority on working than other values which merely salary does not and can not bring. Within this survey 71.9% of those who answered as being employed are full-time workers and among it 93.7% of workers are employed without time limitation of employment (regular employment as a full-time worker).82 While if the survey is asked only to full-time workers the rates of values which are not relevant to income may change, non-full-time worker is already not rare case of employment anymore; it occupies 28.1%. It is thinkable that the group of non-full-time jobber is reducing the mentioned rate.

Another question in this survey by JILPT is about work with another value; something one lives for.83 Graph 6. shows work is not a dominant when they are asked if it is something you live for. Leisure and hobby, or family is more popular in this comparison. Despite it we can see that work is not such unimportant as social activity like volunteer or work for regional communities and nothing specially. Among all respondents 76.5% answered as employed.84 Given that it is not likely that those who did not answer employed regard work as important, the rate of work as valuable activity may vary. At this point it does not seem very appropriate to assert that work is occupying a significant position of many people.

Ibid, p. 16. In the actual question, the word ikigai in Japanese is used. There is no exact word corresponding in English, but online dictionary (KAMUS: http://www.kamus.com) shows that in English it is something one lives for; purpose in life; raison d'etre. Here I shall take the first definition. 84 Ibid, p. 5.
83

82

44

Graph 6. Which is something you live for? (multiple answers)

(Source: Ibid, JILPT, 2011, p.26)

Graph 7. Age and sex specific rates of work as something one lives for *1)

(Source: Ibid, JILPT, 2011, p.26) *1) Respondents are those who answered as employed.

From Graph 7., at first glance, it is noticeable that difference in rate lies not in genders but rather ages. By and large, comparatively older generation tend to put another value on work, and vice versa. This is not contradictory to what we saw in the part of furt; hundreds of thousand of young workers have been choosing work styles in which their devotion to work is not as strong as full-time work. Many of people currently in their sixties spent their childhood and adolescence in 1950s and 1960s, during the time when Japan was rapidly growing in terms of 45

industrialization, the size of economy, and material affluence. Whereas it would be difficult to draw a line to divide rich and poor society in terms of amount of materials, the fact that Japan was growing in this direction is very crucial to approach peoples value, because it impacts powerfully on peoples existential conditions and their chances of survival.85 What was very scarce in ones parents generation can be quite natural in next generation from the time of birth. It is likely to happen that some components of value and norms are transformed in the stream of growth, although others may remain despite of the stimuli from outside. Inglehart and Welzel in their modernization theory assert the younger generations emphasize secular-rational values and self-expression values much more highly than older the older generations.86 Although there was economic incentive for firms to hire them, too, the rise of furt and their attitude toward work can be understood by that viewpoint. One of the things that made them choose to be so is, both actively and inactively, a state for pursuing dream or for moratorium. It may accord with a value relevant to self-expression, as moratorium period could be an occasion to find a more suitable subject or field where one can express oneself as well as pursuing a dream. Work becomes less and less important in this value system. However, if one could find an accord between work and something he or she lives for, it would be another form of self-expression in each life. The fact that still around 30 % of people consider work as a purpose of life in Japan should not be underestimated. It can be added that within older generations, 50s and 60s in Graph 7.., the impact explained as aspects of Gemeinschaft were relatively stronger and relatively bigger number of people followed the norms. On the other hand some of them may have kept or switched the priority on family, or leisure or hobby, seeing the balance of Graph 6..

85 86

Inglehart and Welzel, 2005, pp.22-23. Ibid, p. 94.

46

Graph 8. Income specific rates of work as something one lives for *1) *2)

*1) Respondents are those who answered as employed. *2) According to National Tax Agency, average income of Japanese worker is 4.06 million yen (man: 5 million yen and woman: 2.63 million yen). Exchange rate of Japanese Yen and Euro is 108.22 (as of 4th Apr. 2012, http://quote.yahoo.co.jp/m5?a=1&s=eur&t=jpy). The average income in Euro is approximately 37,516 euros (man: 46,262 euros and woman: 24,302). (Source: Ibid, JILPT, 2011, p.27)

Graph 8. indicates that as a whole the more workers earn the more they recognize its value as a purpose of life. It does not look strange. Money would be great motivation for eager workers because it can be shown to others with pride if it is greater and a large amount of savings will make him or her and its families feel safer. A possible hypothesis to account for this tendency is an incentive Seniority wage (mentioned earlier on in this chapter) perhaps arouses; older workers have worked for decades for one firm where they began working, and their sense of belonging grew up as wage had risen.

We saw in Graph 4.. working for income is frequent attitude both in working men and women. Taking it into consideration, although it is difficult to check from graph 8.

whether it is because they can earn more that they deem work is something he or she lives for, it looks to be quite probable. 47

George A. Akerlof and Rachel E. Kranton have recently proposed to deal with peoples identity as one of important factor when we think of productivity and function of an organization. According to them, instead of monetary inducement, workers identification with a firm can be an incentive for workers to exert more efforts (concretely, workers tend to be attached to their immediate workgroup rather than the organization as a whole, though identification with a whole firm would also be possible if they are highly proud of its products, for example).87 In their model, if an employee identifies himself or herself stronger with their firm, the pay differentials needed to induce high effort will be lower. Moreover, the difficulties that arise when employees game incentive systems are also greatly reduced; therefore making them so would be profitable.88 Akerlof and Kranton show the process of discipline in military as a case of very strict inculcation, by which the norms are internalized in many of new cadets. The inculcating seems to be working well (though some shall give up), because not only everybody is responsible for own violation, but he or she is supposed to report others violation to those who are in charge; mutual supervision. Actually many companies, mainly monster ones, have motto. Adidas has Impossible is nothing, LG has Lifes good, and Apple has Think different. Usually such slogans are abstract, not formulated like religious tenet which can give criteria to everyday behaviors of people. Nevertheless, because of its high abstraction level, it can be what theses can be deduced from and thus penetrate, depending on intentions of each. In short, consumers can easily worship it. The point of such mottos suggests a criterion of value. Basically the degree to which one adopts a motto into actual activities can be decided by discretion of each individual. Many Japanese companies still seems to be investing to make recruits believe in or support mottos of a company. It is common for many Japanese companies to hold an initiation ceremony usually on 1st April, when a business year starts and recruits begin to work. In ceremonies in many cases, a CEO or executives make speeches to fresh colleagues about incorporeal things like what is important to work or future visions of it. Some firms may have original project seemingly attempting to foster the sense of belonging to the firm and inculcate nobility of labor. Following such a ceremony, many companies send recruits to, so-called, training course. It is an occasion for them to learn correct business manners as a worker in Japan, like
87 88

Akerlof and Kranton, 2010, pp. 41-52. Ibid, p. 59.

48

proper way of exchanging business cards and bowing to customers. Firms often offer lectures by consultants from outside. Some companies are known (or they announce about it by themselves) for characteristic training course. E-CLASSIS,89 Inc, offering Internet service and located in Tokyo, has original training contents for recruits. It includes 10 km marathon with 10 kg sandbag, digging a hole (3m x 5m x 2m) on the ground, and so on. They are separated into some groups for the contests and made compete. According to CEO, there are two main aims in the course: acquiring immune strength against unreasonable situation they will encounter in business world, and reinforcing the sense of solidarity with their peers (it will eventually affect to whole company) by undergoing such a hard training together.90 It is physically tough, but is meant to be a training of their mentality. This kind of training is sometimes obligatory for new managers, too. NISSIN FOOD PRODUCTS CO., LTD., the world's first producer of instant noodle and one of the leading food companies in Japan, takes newly installed managers to an uninhabited island with limited equipments. The purpose is shown as bringing out Power to live of individuals and rethinking the importance of Food through a life of the uninhabited island.91 The chief purpose here is mental training as well as the case of E-CLASSIS. There cases seem ritualistic. A Dutch journalist, Karel van Wolferen, who has observed Japan for decades, describes in his work titled The False Realities of a Politicized Society (2000), such trainings are a kind of activities which can be experienced only in training for fresh conscripts in the military except in Japan.92 The mentioned cases above would perhaps apply to what he says. The two examples introduced are not very common; rather their trainings are well known for its tough way. But on the other hand it is true that the orientation of this sort of training is still widely being shared by many Japanese companies. Many recruits are sent to training in similar style, though less tough, after becoming an employee of each firm. These trainings may be regarded as kindness of firm in a way, as the participants of it are all already hired, therefore companies have to pay for the days of training, which are being believed to help their business life.

89 90

http://www.e-classis-com.co.jp/index.html (In Japanese only. Accessed on 4, Apr. 2012) http://blog.fideli.com/miyashita/monthly/200804/ (Blog of E-CLASSISs CEO, available on 4, Apr.2012) 91 http://www.nissinfoods-holdings.co.jp/news/news_release.html?nid=1974 (NISSIN FOODS HOLDINGS CO., LTD. From news release of its website. Accessed on 5, Apr. 2012) 92 Wolferen, 2000, p. 74.

49

My hypothesis about such training is that this kind of atmosphere, like the feeling of solidarity, remnant of creeds decades ago, has nowadays disappearing especially among younger generations, therefore some of those who want to maintain it can adopt in more intense way. As we saw in Graph 6... and 15., comparatively, younger workers have not regard work as important as older workers do. Such training may rather be functioning as a litmus paper to check the loyalty to firms even if young recruits following the rite is expressed only on a surface. Keeping themselves employed would outweigh the temptation to give it up. Of course this attitude implies the rational incentive to be qualified to receive the seniority wage each firm probably offers in the future.

2.2.4 Summary of peoples perception of work and work style in Japan

As we have seen, new values by which people put more importance not on work but on leisure or free time have emerged as industrialization developed especially after the sharp economic growth in Japan during 60s and 70s. Liberalized environment of human resource market stimulated the current. However, some customs will continue to function as long as it can keep workers motivated to devote more and eventually help to bring more profit. Among others seniority wage seems to be being adopted in many firms as monetary incentive. Even if certain custom might appear symbolic, it is thinkable that there is a structure which has allowed it to be there in order to reinforce ideological basement. Not surprisingly, work has been important in Japan as well as in Poland as a means of making a living. Its priority seems not as high as leisure, hobby, or family (cf. Graph 6.). For those earning more, work tends to be something more than just a duty for life, but this way of perceiving would not be regarded as general. If pay rise is promised condition for many of full time workers, not causing apparent problems and staying there shall be their rational decision of life.

In the coming part, comparative data concerning work in Poland and Japan measured by same criteria will be shown.

50

2.3 Comparative analysis 2.3.1 Analyze by comparative datasets

Here we have a comparative dataset from Denki Rengo Survey conducted in 1985 and 2000. This survey included 10 countries in 1985 and 16 countries in 2000, Poland and Japan being in both of them. Samples are employees in electrical machine industry. Part timer and temporary workers are not included. Number of samples are 1472 (1985) and 631 (2000) in Poland, and 3077 (1985) and 870 (2000) in Japan.93 First, comparatively, to what extent employees in Poland and Japan regard work as important activity? Table 13. Most Meaningful Activity (Denki Rengo Research, 1985) *1) Items Work Leisure Voluntary Religion Family Poland 24 16 1 10 45 Japan 27 32 3 1 33

*1) This table was presented during a lecture by Akihiko Ishikawa at Nicolaus Copernicus University from March to May 2012. Table 14. Work Centrality in Life (Denki Rengo research, 2000) *1) (Average in seven point scale: Very important=7; Not very important at all=1) Country Poland Japan Male 4.4 3.9 Female 4.7 4.0 Total 4.5 4.0

*1) Data source is the same as table 13..

Shown data were provided by Akihiro Ishikawa, one of conductors of this survey. Reports from the survey were published as Denki Roren Chousa Jihou (survey review) no. 212 (Jun. 1986), and Denki Rengo Chousa Jihou no. 315 (Dec. 2000) in Japanese. Workers, Firms, and Unions: Industrial Relations in Transition, by Roderick Martin, Akihiko Ishikawa, Csaba Mako and Francesco Consoli (Eds.), Peter Lang, 1998, and Workers, Firms, and Unions Part 2: The Development of Dual Commitment, by Akihiko Ishikawa, Roderick Martin, Witold Morawski and Veljko Rus (Eds.), Peter Lang, 2000, are works in English. Akihiro Ishikawa and Toshimasa Shirai, 2005, p 7.

93

51

Taking a look at table 13., compared to Japan, the rate of Leisure of Poland is lower than of Japan. Religion and Family are higher in Poland, instead. In both countries, work is in the middle level of importance in life. Except Religion, this seems to accord with what we have seen in previous sections; in family is more important in Poland and leisure is more important than work in Japan. Table 14. indicates that the rate of those who regard work as important is higher in Poland than Japan (in Male, Female and Total). We should not forget here that the importance put on work had increased in Poland after they started to find unemployment around themselves. Work in this comparison is, nevertheless, significant because Poland showed higher rate of work centrality than Japan.

Table 15. Work Centrality by Job Stratum (Denki Rengo research, 2000) (Average in seven point scale: Very important=7; Not very important at all=1) Country Poland Japan Manual worker 5.52 5.03 Admin. staff 5.58 5.01 Tech. staff 5.50 4.80 Supervisor 6.08 5.20

*1) Data source is the same as table 13..

Table 16. Comparison of Meaning of Work between Poland and Japan (Denki Rengo research, 2000) *1) (Average in five point scale: Very important=5; Not very important at all=1) Items Status and prestige Income Keeping occupied Contribution to society Work in itself Poland 3.04 3.27 3.25 3.34 3.41 Japan 2.39 4.31 3.14 3.39 2.97

*1) Data source is the same as table 13..

52

We can see that supervisors in Poland and Japan are relatively likely to regard work more important than other positions of employee from table 15., though the differences between other positions are not big. In all positions Poland shows bigger points than Japans (employees in Poland show 0.66 pts. bigger than Japan in average, Supervisor being the biggest difference, 0.88 pts.). But from table 15., what can not be read is in which sense they are feeling work centrality. Let us go to see the next table. In table 16., income as meaning of work in Japan is the most remarkable. While there are not such conspicuous difference as in Japan, in Poland the highest aspect is Work in itself. In both countries the lowest point is shown in Status and prestige. As we remember what we saw in previous parts (table 8., p. 27 for example), comparatively high expectations toward work of Polish workers are still kept in multiple aspects. The smaller difference between aspects as meaning of work in Poland would be understood as a reflection of the tendency. Shown numbers in the column of Japan in table 16. does not seem to be inconsistent with the result in graph 5. (p. 44); income is likely to be regarded as the strongest incentive to work in Japan. Of course it does not mean that Polish workers think income less important compared to Japanese workers. As shown in table 8. again, majority of people (93.5 %), considers income is important 2008 when the research was done. It is the also the highest percentage in the table in 2008 in Poland. Income as incentive is common in both countries. Taking this into account, data in the column on Poland, with smaller differences in numbers, would be considered as dispersed and multiple inclination of Polish workers towards work. Income as a central motivation to work is one of them, though in Japan this can be seen more clearly.

Next comparison is about contents of job and attitude. Data source is the same used in previous tables, Denki Rengo Survey, 2000. Table 17. indicates a clear tendency that workers are involved in multiple contents in job in Japan. Contents in table 17. shows concrete and exemplary items to be done in a firm. This categorization may not be covering all trivial tasks of individual workers, but other will hold majority parts of the contents which are not on the list. If contents of job are precisely divided and allocated to a certain employee, the total number will be closer to 100 %. Total percentage of each country is 120.6 % (Poland) and 280.0 % (Japan). If one of the job contents is shared and conducted by plural employees, the process to define a boundary between them will greatly depends on personal relationships in the firm and on capability of each, as long as it is not institutionalized. 53

Table 17. Job contents *1) Contents Machine work or assembly Maintenance or repairing QC (Quality Control) or inspection Sales, marketing or service Programming Administrative work (incl. data processing) Supervision Product development, research and related engineering task Process development, designing of production system Other University, on 27th Apr., 2012. Poland 61.5 % 33.1 % 8.2 % 0% 0.7 % 0.7 % 6.1 % 3.4 % 2.0 % 4.9 % Japan 52.9 % 48.4 % 49.0 % 4.5 % 16.8 % 31.6 % 23.9 % 13.5 % 16.1 % 24.3 %

*1) This table was presented during a lecture by Akihiko Ishikawa at Nicolaus Copernicus

The biggest difference we can see is in QC (Quality Control) or inspection. Small groups which help activities related QC in firms are often called as QC circle in Japan,94 though the frequency and importance are not standardized. While this table does not tell how often the researched firm holds a meeting or actual activity, it is probable that they have something to do with it. QC circle have been adopted in many firms, and some scholars pointed out high contribution of QC circle to productivity.95 Differences in other contents like Administrative work (incl. data processing), Supervision, and Other will support the tendency of having multiple tasks of workers in Japan as well.

According to Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers(JUSE), a foundation promoting QC circle, QC circle is: A QC Circle is a small group consisting of first-line employees who continually control and improve the quality of their network, products and services. These small groups operate autonomously, utilize quality control concepts and techniques and other improvement tools Tap members' creativity, and promote self- and mutual-development. QC Circle activities aim to develop members' capabilities and achieve self-actualization, make the workplace more pleasant, vital and satisfying, improve customer satisfaction, and contribute to society. Executives and managers ensure that QC Circle activities contribute to improving the health of the enterprise byt reating QC Circle activities as an important part of employee development and workplace vitalization, personally practicing company-wide improvement activities and providing guidance and support for total participation while respecting the humanity of all employees. From JUSEs website. (http://www.juse.or.jp/e/qc/01_qc.html. Accessed on 12, May. 2012) 95 Among them are for example Takeshi Inagami and Masami Nomura. Mouer and Kawanishi, 2004, pp. 59-62.

94

54

Table 18. Job characteristics *1) Explanations of characteristics

I can use my ability at work I can control my work to some extent My work is repetitive Any mistake is my work would produce serious consequences I can learn new things in my work I have opportunities to talk with others during work Efficiency of my work is dependent on the performance of others My work is directed by machinery My work is conducted in team work managed by team members themselves My work needs a constant updating of professional knowledge and skill

Poland 65.8 % 90.9 % 71.7 % 64.4 % 59.2 % 69.6 % 59.9 % 30.0 % 52.0 % 36.1 %

Japan 57.7 % 67.2 % 43.2 % 87.9 % 62.4 % 71.1 % 36.2 % 15.4 % 57.3 % 70.9 %

*1) Data source is the same as table 17..

In table 18., the high rate of Polish workers in I can control my work to some extent and My work is repetitive would be interpreted as a tendency of Polish workers to concentrate on ones own job and conduct it rather repeatedly compared to Japanese workers. Not small percentage of Japanese workers answered yes, too; in I can control my work to some extent 67.2 % and in My work is repetitive 43.2 %. It is thinkable that workers in shop floor would answer so.

Concerning a perception of responsibility, Any mistake is my work would produce serious consequences would be a criterion. Employees in both countries seem to feel their mistake can cause serious result (Poland: 64.4 % and Japan: 87.9 %). The rate is 23.5 % higher in Japan. On the other hand, taking a look at Efficiency of my work is dependent on the performance of others, 59.9 % of employees in Poland answer it is so (in Japan it is 36.2 %, 23.7 % lower than Poland). This result in Poland seems to be a little inconsistent. If one thinks that Any mistake is my work would produce serious consequences, in other words, if one is aware of their own responsibility, efficiency of his or her work would be regarded as in the range of ones responsibility to some degree, though it is probable that the efficiency of work is, structurally, dependent on others performances. In table 8. (p. 27), we saw rather high expectations for work have been kept in Poland. Although 54.2 % of surveyed respondents answers Responsible job as important, Not too much pressure marks 70.5 % 55

(average is 46.7%). My hypothetical explanation is that not small number of Polish workers consider they have own responsibility in their work and responsibility is important, they also tend to think its efficiency depends on others. Repetitiveness of work at rather fixed position seems to influence this. The lower rate of Poland (36.1%) in the description My work needs a constant updating of professional knowledge and skill would also support the narrower range of job in Polish employees compared to Japanese workers (70.9 %). The more skills and tasks a worker holds, the higher this rate will tend to be, as most parts of the method and knowledge of work would not remain the same when new technological or structural innovations happened, and multiple tasks would simply imply higher possibility of the necessary updating of them. Table 19. Present job of those who started occupational life as manual worker*1) Present job Manual worker Administrative staff Technical staff Supervisor, manager Other (Sample: Age of 35 years or more) *1) Data source is the same as table 17.. Poland 86.6 % 2.7 % 4.5 % 4.5 % 1.8 % Japan 47.7 % 19.4 % 16.7 % 11.0 % 5.2%

Dispersed rates of present job of those who started occupational life as manual worker in table 19. indicates the fluidity of job position within the surveyed Japanese firm, compared to the surveyed firm of Poland. Small numbers of transferring can be seen among Polish workers, but as a whole manual workers in the surveyed Polish firm tend to continue to work on the same position. Especially, the fixedness of manual workers in the column of Poland is remarkable (86.6%). The tendency of Japanese workers to do multiple tasks, what we have seen in former part, would accord with this result; doing and being capable of multiple tasks would prepare this fluidity between positions.

Keeping those in mind, we shall go to their attitudes toward company.

56

Table 20. Frequency of changing a firm*1) Frequency Never Once Twice Three times or more *1) Data source is the same as table 17.. Poland 32.7 % 29.3 % 22.7 % 15.3 % Japan 81.8 % 12.8 % 4.7 % 0.7 %

Table 20. can be used as a barometer to check fluidity of job. At first glance we can find that in Poland rates are dispersed and that in Japan a rate of those who never changed a firm is huge. It would be reasonable that in Poland fluidity of job is higher than in Japan. Then, how is the actual feeling of them? Table 21. If you have any opportunity of changing a job, I would like to*1) Action Stay in my present job Be promoted into a job with more responsibility Reach a supervisory or managerial position Run my own business Work no longer Other *1) Data source is the same as table 17.. Table 22. Thinking of quitting a firm*1) Frequency Often Sometimes Seldom Never Poland 8.7 % 28.7 % 30.0 % 32.7 % Japan 22.3 % 37.8 % 29.7 % 10.1 % Poland 55.7 % 15.4 % 6.0 % 15.4 % 5.4 % 2.0 % Japan 25.7 % 19.6 % 1.4 % 23.0 % 4.7 % 25.7 %

*1) Data source is the same as table 17..

We confirmed that changing job is more frequent in Poland. However, table 21. and table 22. show Polish workers stronger orientation to be willing to stay in their present job 57

than Japanese workers. It is remarkable that 55.7 % of respondents in Polish firms answered they will Stay in my present job even if they have an opportunity to change a job. On the other hand, in spite of the fact that Japanese employees tend to stay one firm, they are not reluctant to change a job at all. Table 22 indicates that almost 60 % of surveyed Japanese workers think of quitting a firm at least sometimes.

Table 23. Job satisfaction in general*1) Degree of satisfaction Satisfied More or less Dissatisfied Poland 43.6 % 49.7 % 6.7 % Japan 42.5 % 31.8 % 25.7 %

*1) Satisfied=Very satisfied + Fairly satisfied. Dissatisfied=Very dissatisfied + Fairly dissatisfied. Data source is the same as table 17..

The degree of satisfaction marks relatively higher in Poland. Around one in four employee is feeling dissatisfied with work in general. Concrete issues of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of employees are shown below.

Table. 24. Satisfaction by specific issues*1) Issue Working environment Working time Wage and allowance Employment security Trust to MGT Human relationship with boss Human relationship with coworkers Promotion Poland 43.6 % 81.4 % 18.4 % 28.5 % 51.7 % 72.0 % 86.3 % 13.0 % % Japan 43.9 % 50.0 % 23.0 % 31.3 % 31.1 % 40.6 % 56.3 % 16.2 %

*1) % =Very satisfied + Fairly satisfied. Data source is the same as table 17..

58

Table. 25. Dissatisfaction by specific issues*1) Issue Working environment Working time Wage and allowance Employment security Trust to MGT Human relationship with boss Human relationship with coworkers Promotion Poland 24.9 % 3.3 % 50.0 % 46.3 % 14.4 % 6.9 % 2.1 % 63.0 % Japan 34.5 % 29.7 % 51.3 % 19.1 % 28.3 % 28.1 % 8.1 % 39.2 %

*1) % =Very dissatisfied + Fairly dissatisfied. Data source is the same as table 17..

Necessarily, issues in which rates of satisfaction are higher will mark lower rates of dissatisfaction. Both employees in Poland and Japan seem to be relatively satisfied with Working time and relationships among boss and colleagues (though 29.7 % of Japanese employees expressed dissatisfaction with Working time on the other hand). Rates of Polish workers are higher in those issues than Japanese workers in general. It is not contradict with the result from table 23.. It would be worthy to notice that the biggest dissatisfaction of Polish workers was recorded in Promotion (63.0 %). As we remember, upward mobility in the surveyed Polish firm was far less than the counterpart of surveyed Japanese firm (cf. table 20.). It would be thinkable that those who are competitive enough, by any standard, to do not only manual work but tasks in other positions as well are feeling dissatisfied because there is little possibility to be promoted. Or, they may be just dissatisfied with the low mobility of positions because it means there is lower possibility of rise of earning. More Polish workers are dissatisfied with Wage and allowance: 50.0 % of Polish workers are dissatisfied with wage and allowance, though just 18.4 % is satisfied. It is hardly necessary to mention, but majority of workers would wish more salary universally. 46.3 % of Polish workers are dissatisfied with Employment security. This might be understood in the context of structural change in Poland, e.g., emergence of unemployment (cf. 2.1.2). We confirmed that Japanese employees are less satisfied with work compared to Polish workers as a whole. Looking at table 25, dissatisfaction among Japanese employees are 59

rather scattered, with Wages and allowance being the highest (51.3%, but this is lower of highest dissatisfaction expressed by Polish workers in Promotion). Of course fragmented dissatisfaction does not make contradiction with what we saw in table 23.; dissatisfaction of Japanese employees is accumulated more than Polish employees.

2.3.2 Summary of results from comparative datasets

As a short summary, here I shall make explanations about results from comparative analysis below. The extent to which Polish and Japanese employees consider work as important was middle in both. Family is more important for Polish workers as meaningful activity than work, and slightly more important than work for Japanese workers as well. For Japanese workers, leisure is as important as family. Work is not the first priority. As meaning of work, income is one of the most important parts for both, this tendency being stronger among Japanese workers. Probably reflecting it, they tend to be dissatisfied with Wage and allowances. Comparatively, Japanese workers are more likely to deal with multiple tasks than Polish workers. The range of actual job contents is narrower in the surveyed Polish firm. Partly related to this segmentation seemingly, fluidity among positions (upward mobility) is more likely to be found in Japanese firm. Not few Polish workers are dissatisfied with promotion in their firm. The possibility for manual workers in a Polish firm to be promoted into a higher position is lower than in Japanese firm. Changing their job is more frequent among Polish workers. Among Japanese workers, it is rather seldom, though Japanese workers tend to think of quitting their job. Polish workers are more willing to stay their present job in comparison with Japanese workers. The degree of satisfaction in work is higher in Polish employees than Japanese employees. What Polish workers are inclined to be satisfied with are working time and human relationships.

60

3. Perception of working in a Japanese company

3.1 Japan as a business partner for Poland In order to verify how is the position of Japan in Poland as a business partner, some data are available as below. Table 26. Main exports and imports markets of Poland in 2009*1)

*1) Data source: Investing in Poland 2012, p.8.

According to these data shown above in statistics, it would not be deviant to say that Japan is not one of the countries which are economically most important for Poland. While some Asian countries can be seen in the table of imports, main partners in trading for Poland are European countries and Russia. Recent amount of export to and import from Japan is as following. 61

Table 26. Polands export to Japan and total export (USD Million) *1) Year
Exp. to Japan Total export Share rate (%)

2001
65

2002
71

2003
94

2004
171

2005
180 89,378

2006
190

2007
295

2008
395

2009
303

2010
458

36,092 41,010 53,577 73,781

109,584 138,785 171,860 136,641 159,758

0.18

0.17

0.18

0.23

0.20

0.17

0.21

0.23

0.22

0.29

*1) Data source: Basic economic indicator by Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO) (http://www.jetro.go.jp/world/europe/pl/stat_01/ Accessed on 20, May. 2012) Table 27. Polands import from Japan and total import (USD Million) *1) Year
Imp. from Japan Total import Share rate (%)

2001
987 50,275

2002
1,039

2003
1,269

2004
1,711

2005
1,992

2006
2,077

2007
3,171

2008
4,381

2009
2,957

2010
3,613

55,113 68,004 88,156 101,539 125,645 164,173 210,479 149,570 178,063

1.96

1.89

1.87

1.94

1.96

1.65

1.93

2.08

1.98

2.03

*1) Data source: same as table 26.. Table 28. Major countries in foreign direct investments to Poland in 2010 *1)
Country Luxembourg Germany Italy Cyprus Switzerland United Kingdom Sweden Austria Spain Portugal Japan Value in EUR mn. 1,945 1,627 1,020 843 510 396 343 327 252 252 -172

*1) Data source: FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN POLAND 2010, National Bank of Poland. This document is available here: http://www.nbp.pl/publikacje/zib/zib2010.pdf/ (accessed on 20, May. 2012). 62

Table 26. and 27. would be enough evidence to assert Japan is not very crucial country for Poland in terms of trade. The rates against total deal of recent trade show only negligible increase, though amount of total export and import is steadily growing. Table 28. indicates that investment from Japan is in the red, and total deal with Japan is not huge amount. As shown, it seems reasonable to regard Japan as a less important partner in trade for Poland compared to adjacent European countries.

3.2 Japanese firms in Poland Pomeranian Special Economic Zone According to an article by Polish Ministry of Economy, as of August 2009, there are over 317,000 registered companies in Poland.96 JETROs report says that as of December 2010, the number of registered Japanese firms in Poland is 275.97 While these data are not exactly the same time, it will serve to grasp a general view. The component ratio of Japanese firms against the number reported by Ministry is merely 0.086 %. The rate does not include current fluctuations on each numbers. Assuming that it would not drastically increase or decrease in number, nevertheless, we can confirm that Japanese firms are minority existence in Poland.

As of May 2012, there are 14 special economic zones in Poland, each of them being with its own strengths, weaknesses, and particular focus. 98 My base in this work was basically on the one of them, Pomeranian Special Economic Zone (PSEZ), close to Toru, where Nicolaus Copernicus University is located in.

According to website of PSEZ, it is described as below.

96

Enterprise in Poland - a report by the Ministry of Economy, by Trade and Investment Promotion Sections of Polish Embassies (http://polska.trade.gov.pl/en/aktualnosci/article/y,2009,a,4406,.html. Accessed on 21, May. 2012). The overwhelming majority (97%) of active economic entities comprises of micro enterprises i.e. businesses employing up to 9 workers. In 2007 such entities made up 96% of active entrepreneurs. While small companies (10 - 49 workers) constitute 2.5%, the number of medium enterprises (50 - 249 workers ) account for less than 1%. The big companies offering employment to over 250 persons compose 0.2% of the total number of active enterprises. 97 JETROs annual report about Poland, p.4. This report was available here: http://www.jetro.go.jp/world/gtir/2011/pdf/2011-pl.pdf (Accessed on 21, May. 2012) 98 Kureth, Andrew (ed.), 2012, p. 88.

63

Pomeranian Special Economic Zone has been experiencing a very dynamic development and covers with its activities the area of three regions: Pomeranian, Kujavian Pomeranian and Westpomeranian. In 2007 two Japanese concerns of world reputation started production in the PSEZ: Sharp and Orion. There also took place the ceremony of placing a corner stone under constructing a new Bridgestone tire plant. Numerous other companies obtained licenses for running the business within the Zone or made a decision to locate their investments in its territory. All our investors are convinced that the Pomeranian Special Economic Zone guarantees their success()

(Extracted from About Pomeranian Special Economic Zone: http://www.strefa.gda.pl/90,About_Pomeranian_Special_Economic_Zone.php/ Accessed on 23, May. 2012)

As written, opening Japanese firms seems to be one of turning points in this economic zone.99 Big manufacturers are, in many cases, accompanied by affiliated firms: component supplier, trading, logistics, and so on. In this special economic zone there are not only Japanese firms, but they are forming a conspicuous cluster. The number of Japanese firms in PSEZ and affiliated firms of ones in PSEZ is more or less 20, as of 2012.100 One of the biggest influences foreign firms bring would be creation of employment. Each company usually establishes local subsidiary with a Japanese employee on a representative and hires Polish people, as an interpreter (from Polish to Japanese or vice versa), an office worker, or a manual worker in accordance with strategies of a firm. Big incentives which made Japanese firms decide to invest this region are basically labor cost and location of this special economic zone.

As an evidence of the impacts of opening Japanese firms in this special economic zone, Waldemar Achramowicz, former Marshal of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship states in an introduction of Toru ; Choosing our city to be the place of the biggest economic investment in Poland in 2006 building a Japanese company, Sharp has made Torus rank as an economic centre grow significantly. Taking into consideration the great chance of development of the Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeship, which appeared together with the investments made by Japanese potentates in electronics sector, with pleasure and satisfaction I acknowledge the establishment of Toru Convention Bureau Copernicus, which is going to acquire conference companies and provide service for them in a professional way (From website of Toru Convention Bureau, Recommendations. http://www.convention.torun.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id=50&Itemid=53/ (Accessed on 22, May. 2012) 100 Name of investors are shown here: http://strefa.gda.pl/115,Nasi_Inwestorzy.php (Accessed on 22, May. 2012) Some other firms are located in other but near location, the center of Toru for example.

99

64

Labor cost in Poland is still competitive; the average labor cost per hour annually is 7.83, compared to 17.92 in Western Europe. 101 The following graph is about its comparison (Poland is the fifth one from the right). Graph 9. Hourly labor cost in *1)

*1) Data source: Eurostat Newsrelease (24, Apr. 2012). This data was available here: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-24042012-AP/EN/3-24042012-AP-E N.PDF (accessed on 24, May. 2012)

In addition to it, we should take regional factor into considerations as well. According to a material issued by Central Statistical Office of Poland in April 2012, Kujavian Pomeranian voivodeship, in which Pomeranian Special Economic Zone is located, still holds higher unemployment rate as of 31 December 2011; 16.9 % (average of whole Poland is 12.5 %).102 On the other hand, unemployment rate in Toru is 7.7 % (June 2011).103 Even considering seasonal fluctuations and those who are not counted as unemployed, this is a big difference. Despite mechanization of faculties inside, factories still need hundreds of (or perhaps even thousands) of manual workers for its operation. Affiliated firms also hire some local staffs. Thus it is reasonable to reckon that some of those who were looking for job were
101

Kureth, Andrew (ed.), 2012, p. 11. Nevertheless, it is added that compared to the average for Central and Eastern Europe (4.90) labor costs are relatively higher. 102 EMPLOYMENT, WAGES AND SALARIES IN NATIONAL ECONOMY IN 2011, 2012, p. 69. This book was available on its website: http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/5840_685_PLK_HTML.htm/ Accessed on 23, May. 2012. 103 Kureth, Andrew (ed.), 2012, p. 33.

65

absorbed in Japanese firms, though it is not overwhelming huge number. Because many firms are very often adjusting the number of employees based on demands calculated from production, it is quite difficult the exact number of employment created by Japanese companies. But it can be said that in terms of the amount of employment, Japanese firms have been contributing to local labor market by bringing employments. As for location, it is clear that companies started operations in PSEZ are aiming at western market with their products and services. Some of companies seem to be giving a branch in Poland a function to cooperate with other branch or factories in other countries, like supplying components.104

3.3 Interview and analysis For this research I conducted interviews with around 15 Polish adults currently working in a Japanese firm and have experiences there, and concomitantly or additionally with some Japanese workers. The reason why I used the word around is that I met Polish people with experience to work in a certain Japanese firm on streets or in pubs in Toru and they told me their opinions about Japanese companies and working style of Japanese people. I am not completely convinced that I can count such conversations as a formal interview, but it is true that I could listen to their considerations about Japanese firms and Japanese style of working. Therefore I added some numbers to who I talked with in more formal way. After general data (age, business career, current position in the company, and length of working there) my questions in the interview covered: a reason to have decided to work for a Japanese company, a range of work, orientation of helping colleagues including subordinates, whether your work is interesting or not, relationships between coworkers, attitude of changing a job, good aspects and bad aspects of working in a Japanese company, and meaning of work for a speaker. Because of a limitation of time an employee gave me (some employees were very busy), I could not inquire all the employees of the questions I prepared. In that case some other questions were omitted, but questions which seems to be the most important were basically covered; the reason why one decided to work there, if work is interesting or not, good and bad points of working there, and meaning of work. Depending on developments of conversation, additional contingent topics were added.
104

http://av.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/20070829/sharp.htm/ (An article issued on 29, Aug. 2007. Accessed on 25, May. 2012)

66

As for conducting interviews inside a firm, what I felt one should understand is the risk of it to a position of an employee who is responsible for a permission of its implementation. Although collecting information from employees is for the use of academic purpose, their voices are still opinions from inside. Some companies, exactly speaking some managers of some companies, do not like this kind of activity because negative opinions about a organization they ate belonging to can lead to a serious threat to ones position and promotions in the future (it may apply not only to a company but other sort of organization, but it is not the topic of my work in this time). Therefore I can not show here any information regarding the company where I was, considering the situation. Sugimoto explains the difficulty he had when he was looking for Japanese businessmen who can discuss special features and universality of Japanese management in Australia. There were some Japanese businessmen whose English is fluent enough for the discussion around him, but they are not allowed to join it, because in general their free expressions of opinions in a public occasion are not tolerated without permission of their boss.105 In some cases a manager in a subsidiary in another country has to report the contents of their opinions to headquarter in Japan and obtain a permission of his or her participation. Even as an individual, they tend to be banned to speak freely.106 This case written in Sugimotos book is a case in Australia, but it seems quite probable that this principle is effective in Poland as well. If a manager of subsidiary refused the implementation of interview, of course, we can not do it. It is greatly depends on the managers discretion. Additionally speaking, the number of Japanese firms in PSEZ is not such big. Considering these backgrounds, with respect and gratitude to the person who allowed me to implement interviews, I abstain from writing any trivial pieces of information which may lead to specification of the firm and the individuals.

3.3.1 Reasons of working in a Japanese company and employment

I may start with concerning the reason to have chosen a Japanese company to work. There were two main attitudes when employees decided to work there; because an employee is already qualified to a certain offered position and was looking for a proper place fitting him or her or because one was at any rate longing to do. In the first case an employee are likely to
105 106

Sugimoto, 1993, pp. 56 57. Ibid, p. 57.

67

have had experiences in the industry. Contents of job are rather prerequisite and other factors like salary or location seems to be more crucial. In the second case, often seen amongst new graduates, obtaining an employment is on the first priority. Therefore such aspects like whether the firm is Japanese or not, salary, or contents of job are much less important. As we remember, it is still not easy to find a job after finishing study in a university in Poland and in Kujavian Pomeranian voivodeship as well. Although job market is tough, new graduates seem to have tried to connect their future job with what they studied in university, especially those who studied language (English or Japanese as long as I researched). As of 2012, four universities, in Warszawa, Krakw, Pozna, and Toru, are holding Japanology as a subject of study.107 Graduates from Japanology in Poland seemed to regard working in a Japanese firm rather realistic and feasible choice of life. In this case the skill of Japanese language would be his or her special advantage, and during job hunting whether a firm is Japanese company or not would be very decisive. In a Japanese company, it is more likely to use Japanese more often than in companies from other country. Language skill is, for many people, what will rust if not used. It seems practical and reasonable to choose a Japanese firm in order to have more opportunities of using Japanese. As another practical reason, salary in Japanese companies can be mentioned. According to a statistics by OECD, average annual wages are as below: $18,380 in Poland and $33,900in Japan (2010 USD PPPs and 2010 constant prices).108 This difference is not small. Basically Japanese employees who became hired in Japan and afterwards transferred to another country receive the same amount of salary as in Japan or more, if allowances are given. Wage systems in companies greatly differ depending on policies of each company, but in many cases it has been confirmed that those who can use Japanese language in working tend to earn more than those without, though it is not more than salary of Japanese workers. This possibility of receiving higher salary in Japanese firm may appear advantageous and attractive for candidates with an ability of Japanese. English is apparently much more common and widespread language compared to Japanese. While it is not surprising, through my interview with some employees who studied English, it turned out that they were trying to find a workplace where they can use English. In this case a Japanese firm could be one of candidates as foreign companies in which they are
107

I may add that there is one university in Japan where students can intensively learn Polish language (Polish study in a broader term); Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. 108 Source of this data is from OECD StatExtracts (complete databases available via OECDs iLibrary, http://stats.oecd.org/#). Accessed on 24, May. 2012.

68

more likely to exert English for them. The principle looks similar to in the case of Japaneses.

Except for skeleton staffs, many of younger respondents were contracted for certain period of time, in other words, not in permanent employment. They tend to make a contract with a firm for employment for a year for example. When I conducted interview with them, businesses in PSEZ were not in good mood, and reportedly many Polish workers were just fired (according to an employee working in that area, more or less 30 to 40 % of temporary workers were fired). Some expressed their anxiety if their firm will extend the contract for next term or not. Those who were working at that time seem to be comparatively competitive because they had survived as an employee to work there after the big wave of reconstruction of personnel. While younger employees tended to be dissatisfied with their type of employment, some among them referred the way their company hired them positively. During instructing a recruit how to do actual work, a firm has to invest in a sense. By hiring an experienced worker instead, this cost could be reduced. This Japanese firm surveyed, though a Japanese manager who is responsible for hiring is rotating in every two or three years, was not hesitant to hire new graduates. According to those who mentioned it, many other job offers required some years of experiences prior to the offered position, but some graduates could be hired there without any experience in a certain industry. Employees who came to the company without experiences seemed to perceive being hired as a good occasion to develop themselves by gaining knowledge and experiences.

3.3.2 Range or work in a Japanese company

Regarding the range of tasks, we saw a tendency in Japanese firms to allot rather multiple tasks in each individual worker. It has been also confirmed in many cases in my interview, particularly in younger employees. At the time of hiring, usually each employee is supposed to sign contracts which a firm offers to him or her. How strict or loose ones range of tasks is defined would depend on the contract to some degree, as the salary might be calculated according to the range of tasks and perhaps its degree of difficulties. However, many of respondents said that there were not such strict contracts in which concrete or exact tasks were shown. Contracts were rather general and vague, and actual duties and tasks they have currently are given after they started to work. Transfer from one section to another seems 69

often; majority of younger employees have experienced a transfer. A predecessors situations (for example maternity leave) are very influential agent to raise transfers. As a whole, employees who currently have or had multiple tasks were expressing positive opinions about it. The reason told most often is that new tasks in a new section or position stimulate them. If someone was transferred this person has to learn how to deal with new matters, whether he or she likes it or not, yet, almost all office workers were welcoming new things to do if necessary. Secondly, what is seen mainly among younger employees is that obtaining new knowledge of business might be an advantage of their business career in the future. Those who came to the workplace lately, that is, who spent relatively shorter time in the firm, were more inclined to have the second idea. Transfer is sometimes implemented without good preparation. In that case the succession of know-how in a first section and learning new things in a next position can be simultaneous. One employee stated such a transitional period was stressful because the employee wanted to concentrate on learning new duties but at the same time had to deal with previous tasks and as a result the quality in previous section dropped, which the employee did not want. Practically speaking, if employees tend to have multiple tasks and some tasks are shared by more than one person, becoming a substitute of other employee will be smoother. Dealing tasks from different position may give an employee another viewpoint and he or she may come to feel difficulties of other colleagues. Although I could not confirm how often or enthusiastically it was encouraged, it seems that having a common part of job will facilitate horizontal interaction between employees and possibly stronger sense of responsibility in accordance with wider range of work. From another point of view, it will demand a firm to endure extra expenses, because it will bring more time for succession of knowledge in a certain position. Sharing a task will not mean necessarily that those who are able to do it are always on it; there would be a main or prior employee for the task. It may lead fluctuation of quality of job. Besides that, an additional task can be merely a burden for those who are less motivated to do so. It seems quite reasonable for a boss to hesitate to allot new tasks to do to someone who is not enthusiastic for work and does not seem to be qualified, too. The mechanism of giving other parts of work to be shared is to a great extent up to interpersonal context. It would tend to happen between complicated relationships within a firm, section, or employees and each workers aptitude will affect the process, therefore deeper interview or other way of research will be needed in order to explore more.

70

3.3.3 A company as a community

As a next part, the primal purpose of this work, orientation of Polish workers toward company is considered. Through my interview it revealed that almost all the Polish office workers seemed to be conscious of and mentioned some factors which they regarded as facets of a Japanese company to encourage a feeling of identification with a company or a feeling of belonging to a firm. Some indications regarding the feeling are gained through comparisons by each employee who worked in non-Japanese companies. Those who came to the company for the first time in their career were trying to find differences between the company for which they work for and a counterpart of their Polish friends working in a Polish company mostly. If a Japanese company were ones first workplace, it would be somehow difficult to compare details. Therefore the way of finding answers within themselves seems reasonable. There are also independent analyses from any comparison as a Polish individual, of course.

An employee referred to the structure of a workplace; all the sections are in the same room without any partition (e.g., a plastic wall or indoor plants). On one side it encourages interactions among employees, because they can share more conversation and information with colleagues in other sections, from information regarding business to everyday jokes. Perhaps not all information told there is obviously indispensable to complete duties, but sharing more related information quickly would make cooperation of different sections smoother. On the other hand, this structure sometimes forces employees listen to colleagues conversations even if an employee does not want, and it may distract his or her attention from concentrating on current tasks. When a sensitive topics, for instance extending someones contract, need to be talked about, it could be harmful. According to a respondent, another Japanese firm with more employees than the firm of the respondent has a similar structure of a workplace. The employee appreciated the working environment as a whole, though admitting such demerits as above. In terms of promoting the feeling of belonging, it seems that this structure helps. Actually some other employees expressed similar attitudes concerning it; majority of them did not hate it and seemed to be enjoying it. Yet, another employee also argued occasional necessity of separated place especially for employees in a higher position to discuss sensitive, secret, or more crucial subjects. 71

Considering this, a size of workplace and the number of employees would be listed as important factors affecting on proximity there, and as a result whether employees would feel comfortable or not there. I suppose rather architectural or psychological approaches would be needed in order to conduct deeper analyses, and it is somewhat outside the scope of this study. What I can say here is that the kind of structure of office is giving them such impressions fostering senses of belonging to a group of people. If this sort of working environment has been made by a clear intention by a person who designed the office or not can be explored, too. There is another possibility that the main purpose is just slashing costs of office by setting up as little space and few facilities as possible.

As another factor, a few employees indicated a frequency of meetings; basically everyday in the surveyed firm, both in an office where office workers are working and in a workplace where manual workers are working. It is thinkable that this depends on the strategies or policies each firm has and on the kind of business, but those who mentioned it seemed to be feeling it is a bit too often. A respondent said that in a Polish firm where a friend of the respondent is working for there are not such frequent meetings. Related to the structure of an office, this could be also understood in the light of increasing opportunities of sharing common information. Needless to say, from time to time very important issues for workers in a certain section, or probably for all the workers there, should and must be shared by any means. Meeting is one of the possible choices. In accordance with the significance of given information, such occasions take places. Frequent meetings will imply Japanese firms attempt to institutionalize an occasion to share more information in a workplace. It is possible however, that this surveyed firm was specially inclined to have meetings often compared to other firms in a different industry, hence I will not go so far as to say that it is rather an ubiquitous facet seen in almost all Japanese firms. Nevertheless, it would seem to be reasonable if it is considered in the light of intentions of having more occasions to get together and sharing more information.

Now, a feeling of identification itself would be examined. Although I did not directly ask if respondents are aware of the kind of feeling during interview within themselves, some spontaneously mentioned it. Some others referred to it, seemingly associating a topic then and to it, when they were talking about atmosphere in their workplace or about meaning of work. What should be added here is that the size of the surveyed company is not huge: considering fluctuation, roughly saying, tens of people. Office workers and manual workers 72

looked to be interacting well within this scale of employees. The degree to which each employee is aware of own feeling of belonging to the firm was not quantized, as I adopted interview, a qualitative method of research, but not only a single employee used an expression, like a family, to depict an atmosphere there. An atmosphere like a family implies that relationships between employees, naturally including a Japanese manager, are comfortable. No one manifested hesitation to ask something or interrupt their direct boss. As long as I could survey, those who worked longer than other employees (and necessarily relatively in a higher position) tended to be grateful to what they are doing and spontaneously aware of the feeling of belonging to the firm. What is also important is, however, this satisfactory relationship with other employees inside the company did not always come to the first reason why they wanted to stay there more, if asked. Work itself or contents of job which may develop their knowledge and enrich experience were more likely to be listed as important factor of working. Human relations were not decisive but rather a secondary part for them. As we saw earlier on (2.1.1.), this phenomenon is not exactly peculiar to a Japanese firm. It seems quite probable to happen in a company not from Poland or Japan, but from another country. Respondents did not also seem to be recognizing this sense as a special feature which they can hold because the company they are working for is a Japanese company. In anything, it was told in as a positive aspect of the surveyed company for which they were working at that time.

It is difficult to specify which function was effective to develop the feeling, since nobody provided any clue. In another Japanese company (a manufacturer of car parts) in Poland, though it is not situated in PSEZ, a manager of a factory was spontaneously participating in weekly cleaning in the plant. The person who told me this story is a Polish and was working there as an interpreter. According to this speaker, in that case the manager gave somewhat strange impression to Polish workers there, because, by Polish standard, a person such a high position as manager of a plant should not join cleaning of shop floor. Thinking of this case with what I surveyed in this time, stratification of positions and existence of interpreter may influence; the company where I conducted interview was hiring no interpreter at this time.

73

3.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of working in a Japanese company

Before summarizing opinions collected through my interview with Polish employees, I may add some other aspects which did not be covered in former parts and they thought advantages or disadvantages.

Answers were too dispersed too extract common factors in its advantages. It would be due to the number of samples. By increasing samples or another research method, quantitative research will be needed in order to find common aspects in answers. Some employees, both from office and shop floor, appreciated a well organized way of actual task. Big companies tend to have their company manual. It is accumulation of actual knowledge in the company, and basically provided only for workers there. Some younger employees were grateful for that, as they were not experienced in that business. According to an employee, the company manual of the surveyed company seemed to be so well-organized (though I could not see inside of course) that the employee can find answers regarding tasks by reading it, basically. Only if he or she could not find what to do, asking colleagues or bosses is necessary. Other employees as well mentioned tidily organized and institutionalized system inside of the firm. The tidiness seemed to be functioning to give employees more comfortable working environment on the one hand. A manual worker also appreciated it, along with modern facilities of machines in their shop floor. An employee indicated the difference in method of business between European companies and Japanese companies, and assessed it as an advantage. According to the employee, Japanese companies have totally different kind of ways of business; Japanese businessmen can grasp a whole situation of business in a wider view, which they, Europeans can not do. This employee added that a Japanese company treats employees more seriously. These indications are interesting. This point of view seems keener and more abstract compared to other employees. However, though I am sorry to write so, more concentrated or sophisticated method of research should be taken In order to inspect these factors further.

As an aspect which looked disadvantageous to Polish employee is, again, organized method of dealing with business can be listed. It was mentioned as an advantage; it is the other side of a coin. Sometimes it was felt as too much regulations for some employees. Some others argued that sometimes they could not understand group-oriented way of 74

thinking Japanese people have. According to them, they are paying too much attention to care for employees in upper positions; hierarchical thinking. Though not often, they said, they encounter such situation in which they feel so. Japanese employees in other branches are mentioned, too. Perhaps partly related to the previous theme, according to an employee, Japanese workers are not open-minded and seem to be keeping more distanced. This is regarding rather emotional level and may not be exactly classified as a disadvantage, as long as this does not result in fatal loss in business and for himself or herself.

3.3.5 Summary of interview and its analyses

Majority of Polish employees, except for interpreters, do not try to work in a Japanese company because it is a company from Japan. It is difficult to say that there are plenty of employments for new graduates around PSEZ. It being a background, employment itself is valuable for many people. The range of work seemed to be functioning to stimulate comparatively younger and more eager employees. It can be also explained in terms of what fosters interaction between employees. Structure of the office and frequency of meetings may be added to what helps to give more time together. Their company was regarded as like a community by many of surveyed employees, but it is mostly because they are keeping good human relations, seemingly. There are no factors associated with something Japanese. In spite of some listed disadvantages, many of employees I talked with were expressing satisfaction with their work and workplace. We should not forget that the employees who I could talk with can be in a more competitive in dealing businesses and more enthusiastic cluster for learning new knowledge. There is a possibility that those who could not extend their contracts had to leave there may have react and express their opinions in a different way. According to Shiraishi, employees assessment of welfare program and employment is relatively more influential factor than relationships between colleagues and superiors or workload in post-socialism countries, reflecting unstable types of employment which emerged

75

after the transformation.109 Majority of younger Polish employees who spoke to me referred to this point and it is one of significant reason when they think of changing job, even if they are satisfied with current working environment. However those who could contract a permanent employment did not express their aspiration for changing a job.

109

Shiraishi, 2005, pp. 38-39.

76

4. Conclusion
Within the characteristics of Japanese company, lifetime employment, seniority wages, and enterprise union, none of them was confirmed in my interview. Majority of young employees are hired by contracts with a limitation of time, and willing to change their job as well. As long as their employment is temporary, they will continue to be worried about extending of the contract. In this case job mobility will be accelerated and a company will be less cohesive, more Gesellschaft -like. Postulating that relatively lower labor cost is one of main reasons for Japanese company to launch on business here, adjusting labor costs to put up with economic hardships seems inevitable decision for them to a certain extent. The inclination toward hiring temporary employees is global trend today. It is just 4 or 5 years since Japanese companies have started operation. As long as I heard from Japanese employees, headquarters of each company which holds a branch or a production base in PSEZ want to leave few Japanese staffs as possible, because a Japanese company continues to pay almost the same salary (or more) as in Japan. In terms of labor cost for a Japanese company, it is not economical. During the process of replacement of employees, changes within them may be happen in the near future, though it is difficult to predict in which direction it would be.

Taking the scale of Japanese companies in Poland into consideration, the influence of Japanese companies for Poland would be still trivial. Poland and Japan have been geographically, culturally, or economically distant country for each other, and it is still so as a whole. However, dynamics of global economy will continue to involve Poland, Japan, and other countries, and whether we like it or not, people in a distant place will also continue to be connected by business as a medium. Through the process, which norms of which culture or organization are more likely to survive? I thought lifetime employment together with seniority wages which tends to result in a perception of company as a Gemeinschaft can be effective in post-socialism countries as well, where people seemed to be feeling more unsafe regarding their employment. But in many cases an incentive of Japanese companies to hire cheaper labor seems to have outweighed the convention. It seems that this situation is similar to what is happening in Japan, too. Employment is polarizing; those who can enjoy the benefit or those who can not.

77

Through my interviews and I have tried to be in a as neutral position as much as possible, even if it may look subjective from keen others. However, my way of thinking and analyzing is fundamentally not free at all from the influence of the environment where I spent my childhood and educational system I belonged to in Japan. In the end readers of this work will make a final decision whether my attempt had succeeded or not in the end.

78

Reference
1. Abegglen, James C.. 2004. 21st Century Japanese Management-New Systems, Lasting Values (translated by Yamaoka, Youichi). Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Shinbun Sya (in Japanese). 2. Akerlof, George A. and Kranton, Rachel E.. 2010. Identity Economics. Princeton University Press. 3. Bellah, N. Robert. 1957. Tokugawa religion. New York: The Free Press. 4. Bourdieu Jrme and Reynaud Bndicte. 1999. Social Aspects of the Decrease in Working Hours in 19th. Century France. In: Contribution to the 11th Annual Meeting on Socio-Economics Business School of the University of Wisconsin- Madison July 8-11. 5. Courrier Japon. December, 2011. Tokyo: Kodansha (in Japanese). 6. Dore, Ronald. 1987[1973]. British Factory-Japanese Factory (translated by Yamanouchi, Yasushi and Nagayasu, Kouichi). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobou (in Japanese). 7. Dore, Ronald. 2004. Working-Globalization and a New Meaning of work (translated by Masahiko Ishizuka). Tokyo: Chuokoron-Shinsha (in Japanese). 8. Gadomska-Lila, Katarzyna. 2008. Evolution of Organizational Culture of Polish Companies in the Context of their Competitiveness Results of Empirical Research. In: Studia i Prace Wydziau Nauk Ekonomicznych i Zarzdzania, 4. Szczecin. 9. Gardawski, Juliusz. 1994. Ownershipand Control in Employee-Owned Companies. In: Jarosz, Maria (ed.). Employee-Owned Companies in Poland. Institute of Political Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences. Warsaw. 10. Hazama, Hiroshi. 1996. Thought which Formed an Economic Giant Work Ethos in the Time of Japanese Post-war Economic Miracle. Tokyo: Bunshindo (in Japanese). 11. Hirai, Yoshio. 1990. Stalin Joke. Tokyo: Kawade Shobou (in Japanese). 12. Hofstede, Geert, Hofstede, Gert Jan, and Minkov, Michael. 2010. Cultures and Organization: Software of the Mind (3rd edition), New York: McGraw-Hill. 13. Inglehart, Ronald. 1997. Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 societies. Princeton University Press. 14. Inglehart, Ronald, and Welzel, Christian. 2005. Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy. Cambridge University Press. 15. Ishikawa, Akihiko. 2009. A sociological Study of System Transformation in Central Europe: Dynamics of Labor-Management Relations at the Firm Level. Tokyo: Yuhikaku (in Japanese). 79

16. Ishikawa, Akihiko. 2007. Work Identity in Japan: Stereotype and Reality. In: Alan Brown, Simone Kirpal & Felix Rauner (Eds.). Identities at Work. The Netherlands: Springer. 17. Ishikawa, Akihiro, and Shiraishi, Toshimasa (Eds.). 2005. Japanese workplace and working life: An international comparative perspective. Tokyo: Gakubunsha (in Japanese). 18. Jarosz, Maria. 2008. Suicide (translated by Ishikawa, Akihiro, Ishigaki, Takashi, and Oguma, Shin). Tokyo: Gakubunsya (in Japanese). 19. Jarosz, Maria (ed.). 1994. Employee-Owned Companies in Poland. Institute of Political Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences. Warsaw. 20. Jarosz, Maria and Kozak, Marek. 1994. The Bright Side and the Dark Side of Employee-Owned Companies. Conclusions. In: Jarosz, Maria (ed.). Employee-Owned Companies in Poland. Institute of Political Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences. Warsaw. 21. Klein, Naomi. 2008. The Shock Doctrine. London: Penguin Books. 22. Kureth, Andrew (ed.). 2012. Investing in Poland 2012. Warsaw: Valkea Media SA. 23. Lafargue, Paul. 2008 [1883]. Le Droit la Parese (translated by Tabuchi, Shinya). Tokyo: Heibonsya (in Japanese). 24. Lhr, Albert and Steinmann, Horst. 1998. The Ethical dimension of Cross-cultural Business Activities. In: Lange, Heiko, Lhr, Albert, and Steinmann, Horst. Working Across Cultures. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 25. Lutz, Tom. 2006. Doing Nothing: A history of Loafers, Slackers, and Bums in America (translated by Ozawa, Eimi and Shinogi, Naoko). Tokyo: Seidosya (in Japanese). 26. Maruyama, Masao. 1996 [1958]. Concerning Tokugawa Religion by Bellah (Bellahs Tokugawa Jidai no Syuukyou ni Tsuite). Maruyama Masao Complete Works vol. 7. Tokyo; Iwanami Shoten (in Japanese). 27. Morioka, Koji. 2001. The Era of Overworking (Hataraki Sugi No Jiddai). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten (in Japanese). 28. Mouer, Ross and Kawanishi, Hirosuke. 2005. A Sociology of Work in Japan. Cambridge University Press. 29. Osborne, Richard, and Van Loon, Borin. 1999. Introducing Sociology, Cambridge: Icon books. 30. Peter L. Berger. 1999. Redeeming Laughter (translated by Shinji Morishita). Tokyo: Shinyousya (in Japanese). 31. Shiraishi, Toshimasa. 2005. Intention of Being Established to Their Company and Intention of Changing their Job Comparisons with Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and 80

Eastern Asia. In: Ishikawa, Akihiro, and Shiraishi, Toshimasa (eds.). Japanese workplace and working life: An international comparative perspective. Tokyo: Gakubunsha (in Japanese). 32. Sikorska, Magorzata. 2004. Changes in the Attitude of Poles toward Work: Self-Fulfillment and Fear of Unemployment. In: Jasiska-Kania, Aleksandra, and Marody, Mirosawa (eds.). Poles Among Europeans. Institute of Sociology, Warsaw University. 33. Sugimoto, Yoshio. 1993. How to quit being a Japanese (Nihon Jin Wo Yameru Houhou). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobou (in Japanese). 34. Szostkiewicz, Haliana. 1994. The Establishment of Employee-Owned Companies: Hopes and Experiences. In: Jarosz, Maria (ed.). Employee-Owned Companies in Poland. Institute of Political Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences. Warsaw. 35. The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training (JILPT). 2006. JILPT Research Reports No.72. Tokyo: JILPT (in Japanese). 36. The Japan Institute for Labor Policy and Training (JILPT). 2011. General survey concerning actual conditions of Japaneses work (Nihonjin no syuugyou keitai ni kansuru sougou chousa). Tokyo: JILPT (in Japanese). 37. Weber, Max. 1994 [1905]. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (translated by Hisao Otsuka). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten (in Japanese). 38. Wolferen, Karel van. 2000. The False Realities of a Politicized Society (Ningen wo Koufukuni Shinai Nihonto Iu Shisutemu, transrated by Suzuki, Chikara). Tokyo: Shinchosya (in Japanese). 39. Ziv, Avner. 2009. The Social Function of Humor in Interpersonal Relationships. Symposium: Global Laughter.

81

Sources from Internet

1. AV Watch. 2007. SHARP, Holding an Opening Ceremony of a LCD Plant in Poland, available: http://av.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/20070829/sharp.htm [25, May. 2012] 2. Central Statistical Office of Poland. 2012. Definition of unemployment in Poland, available: http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/definicje_ENG_HTML.htm?id=ANG-866.htm [7, May 2012] 3. Central Statistical Office of Poland. 2012. Employment, Wages and Salaries in National Economy in 2011, available: http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/5840_685_PLK_HTML.htm [23, May. 2012] 4. Central Statistical Office of Poland. 2012. Unemployment rate in Poland 1990 2012, available: http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/index_PLK_HTML.htm [13, Apr, 2012] 5. E-classis communications. 2008. E-classis Blog, available: http://blog.fideli.com/miyashita/monthly/200804/ [4, Apr. 2012] 6. European Value Study. 2008. ABOUT EVS, available: http://www.europeanvaluesstudy.eu/evs/about-evs/ [26, Feb. 2012] 7. Eurostat. 2012. Newsrelease (24, Apr. 2012), available: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-24042012-AP/EN/3-24042012-A P-EN.PDF [24, May. 2012] 8. International Labor Organization. 1919. C1 Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, available: http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C001, [12, Feb. 2012] 9. International Labor Organization. 1996-2012. Origins and History, available: http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/history/lang--en/index.htm [12, Feb. 2012] 10. Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO). 2011. JETROs annual report about Poland 2011, available: http://www.jetro.go.jp/world/gtir/2011/pdf/2011-pl.pdf [21, May. 2012] 11. Klein, Naomi. 2008. Transcript of lecture at the University of Chicago, available: http://www.democracynow.org/2008/10/6/naomi_klein [17, Feb. 2012] 12. Klein, Naomi. 2008. Regarding Shock Doctrine, available,: http://www.naomiklein.org/main [17, Feb. 2012] 13. Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (Japan). 2011. Number of unions, unionists, and estimated rate of unionization in Japan, available: http://db2.jil.go.jp/tokei/html/U4801001.htm [22, Apr. 2012] 14. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. 2007. Basic survey of employment structure, 2007, available:

82

http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/NewList.do?tid=000001017285 [25, Apr. 2012] 15. National Bank of Poland. 2011. FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN POLAND 2010, available: http://www.nbp.pl/publikacje/zib/zib2010.pdf/ [20, May. 2012] 16. NISSIN FOODS HOLDINGS CO., LTD.. 2010. News Release, available: http://www.nissinfoods-holdings.co.jp/news/news_release.html?nid=1974 [5, Apr. 2012] 17. Occupy Wall Street. 2011. Declaration, available: http://occupywallst.org/ [18, Feb. 2012] 18. OECD Statexracts. 2012. Trade Union Density in Poland from 1990 to 2010, available: http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=UN_DEN# [22, Apr. 2012] 19. OECD StatExtracts. 2012. Average Annual Wages (Poland and Japan), available: http://stats.oecd.org/# [24, May. 2012] 20. Pomeranian Special Economic Zone. 2004-2012. Our Investors, available: http://strefa.gda.pl/115,Nasi_Inwestorzy.php [22, May. 2012] 21. Reuters UK. 2011. Peddler's martyrdom launched Tunisia's revolution, available: http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/19/uk-tunisia-protests-bouazizi-idUKTRE70I7TV20 110119 [18, Feb. 2012] 22. Rushkoff, Douglas. 2011. Think Occupy Wall St. is a phase? You don't get it, available: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/05/opinion/rushkoff-occupy-wall-street/index.html [19, Feb. 2012] 23. Statistics Bureau, Director-General for Policy Planning (Statistical Standards) & Statistical Research and Training Institute, in Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Japan). 2012. Size of companies in Japan, available: http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/NewList.do?tid=000001019842 [22, Apr. 2012] 24. Toru Convention Bureau. 2008. Recommendations, available: http://www.convention.torun.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id =50&Itemid=53/ [May. 2012] 25. Trade and Investment Promotion Sections of Polish Embassies. 2009. Enterprise in Poland - a report by the Ministry of Economy, available: http://polska.trade.gov.pl/en/aktualnosci/article/y,2009,a,4406,.html [21, May. 2012] 26. Trading Economics.com. 2012. Unemployment rate in Japan (graph 3.), available: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/japan/unemployment-rate [23, Apr. 2012] 27. Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers(JUSE). 1997-2004. About QC Circle, available: http://www.juse.or.jp/e/qc/01_qc.html [12, May. 2012] 28. Wikipedia. 2005. Sandwichman, available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandwich_board 83

[22, Feb. 2012] 29. Yahoo Japan. 2012. Exchange rate of Japanese Yen and Euro, available: http://quote.yahoo.co.jp/m5?a=1&s=eur&t=jpy [4, Apr. 2012] 30. ZACAT, 1998-2003. Social Structure in Poland: POLPAN (in 1988, 1998, and 2003), available: http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/ [26, Feb. 2012] 31. ZACAT. 2012. European Value Studies, available: http://zacat.gesis.org/webview/ [25, Feb. 2012]

84

Tables
Table 1. Important aspects of work of Polish people ..........18 Table 2. To what extent hard work is important for achieving success in life? .......................20 Table 3. Distribution of answers to the question about the major causes of poverty and about the possibility of forcing people to work......21 Table 4. How important is work in your life?..25 Table 5. Work should always come first, even if it means less spare time...25 Table 6. Work is a duty towards society...26 Table 7. People should not have to work if they do not want to..27 Table 8. What aspects in work are important for you?.............................................................27 Table 9. Number of unions, unionists, and estimated rate of unionization in Japan34 Table 10. Size of companies in Japan...35 Table 11. Rate of regular employees from 1997 to 2007 in Japan (in million)41 Table 12. Percentage of types of furt.43 Table 13. Most Meaningful Activity (Denki Rengo Research, 1985)..52 Table 14. Work Centrality in Life (Denki Rengo research, 2000)52 Table 15. Work Centrality by Job Stratum (Denki Rengo research, 2000)..53 Table 16. Comparison of Meaning of Work between Poland and Japan (Denki Rengo research, 2000).53 Table 17. Job contents..55 Table 18. Job characteristics.56 Table 19. Present job of those who started occupational life as manual worker..57 Table 20. Frequency of changing a firm..58 Table 21. If you have any opportunity of changing a job, I would like to58 Table 22. Thinking of quitting a firm...58 Table 23. Job satisfaction in general.59 Table 24. Satisfaction by specific issues..59 Table 25. Dissatisfaction by specific issues.60 Table 26. Main exports and imports markets of Poland in 2009..62 Table 27. Polands import from Japan and total import (USD Million)...63 Table 28. Major countries in foreign direct investments to Poland in 2010.63

85

Graphs
Graph 1. Unemployment rate in Poland 1990 2012 (%, registered unemployment)...19 Graph 2. Trade Union Density in Poland from 1990 to2010..24 Graph 3. Unemployment rate in Japan40 Graph 4. Number of furt from 1982.42 Graph 5. Reasons to work (multiple answers).44 Graph 6. Which is something you live for? (multiple answers)..46 Graph 7. Age and sex specific rates of work as something one lives for46 Graph 8. Income specific rates of work as something one lives for48 Graph 9. Hourly labor cost in ...66

86

Appendix 1. An interview with an office worker

These interviews (app. 1. and 2.) were implemented with an office worker, on 18, May. 2012. I do not write here the age, position, and business career of this employee here in order to avoid the risk of identification of this employee. As noted, number of Japanese companies in PSEZ is not such huge. However as a background of answers from this speaker, I should merely write that this employee has experienced five European companies including Polish one before the Japanese company for which this employee was working for at that time (the type of industry of other former companies was identical). In the text below, some grammatical, contextual, situation-describing complements were added to what we said. Some sentences are not grammatically correct, but I wrote them as spoken. Conversation in appendix 1. was done in English and in 2. was in Polish.

(After questions as for the age and business career) Yoshimi Ito (Y.I.): () The reason why you chose this company was? Speaker (S.): Location. Y.I.: Okay. And, how long have you been working in this company? S.: Almost five years. Y.I.: So, from the beginning? S.: Yeah. Y.I.: Okay. Your job is interesting for you? S.: Very. Y.I.: So, not only the location but work itself also, what you do was partly the reason to work here? S.: Yeah. Y.I.: Okay (). Then, now I would like to ask about overtime working. If your colleague were in trouble and asked you to help, will you stay and help even if it will be overtime work? S.: Nobody ask me to stay. JustI know whether I have to stay With a different way. I know there are some jobs, which I have to do and if there is a job which I should be done today, I will stay longer. It depends on the situations. Y.I.: Okay. S.: If I know that, for example the next day I have a lot of job, I come early. Y.I.: To adjust that. 87

S.: This is not like because somebody asks me. Y.I: Okay, this is inside the range of your work (). The next question is about changing the job. In which case you will be more likely to think of changing your job? If you would have better pay, a higher position, safer employment, more comfortable relationships in the workplace, an opportunity to run your own business, or anything else? S.: None. Y.I.: It means you will stay here. S.: This is not my first company. This is my fifth sorry, seventh. I think its okay for me. Interesting job, good place for me right now. Y.I: How are relationships? S.: Relationship is ok. Atmosphere, its okay. I can work and I can do what I want to do. Its great. Y.I.: Okay, you are satisfied with this company. S.: Yes. What I would like is just to work till my retirement in this company Y.I.: Okay (writing down some points). Then now, what were, do you think, good points and bad points of working in a Japanese company? S.: Good point? You (this word you seems to have meant Japanese people) try to keep, ah some of frames regarding Polish low and you are not going outside of the frame. Everything is legal. Japanese companies are not looking for illegal solutions, This is for me very important. Y.I.: Okay (writing). S.: Treat the people seriously. Thinking about people not not only about business. Of course the most important is business, I know, but also, the company think(s) about the people. Y.I.: Okay (writing). And, any negative points? S.: Well I dont think it is negative, just we have tosometimes you (this you also seems to be meant as Japanese people like first you) are in Poland and this company is from Japan. It is difficult to, how to say, to catch to match. Polish thinking and Japanese thinking. I think that Japanese people are thinking in a different way. Polish people are thinking in a different way. Something like that. Of course we have to find a break point, find a solution, but sometimes we (here we seems to be meant the speaker and Japanese colleagues working together) are thinkingdifferent. Y.I.: Does it happen when you are doing businesses and does it matter? S.: No, just we have to think that we are working in a Japanese company not in a European company. 88

Y.I.: Aha. S.: Like that. Y.I.: So it depends on which country the company is from. S.: Yeah. European companies are doing something in a different way, and Japanese companies are doing something in a different way. Thats all. Y.I.: So Its not like which is better or which is worse, just different. S.: Just different. And what is for me, worse, (is) I have to learn how you are thinking. And it is difficult for me (small laughter) because Im from Europe and I think like European people. Y.I.: Uh-huh. S.: You know, if somebody ask(ed) you what is this? (raising up and indicating a mug cup the speaker was holding) Y.I.: It is a cup, or a mug cup. S.: Yeah, but people say it from Japan, this is a mug cup, in the hand, this cup is black, hand is white, and we are in the Y.I.: Yellow-colored room? (We were talking in a room with yellow walls) S.: Yeah, something like that. But European people say, This is a black cup. Thats all. It is different thinking. You see the wall, in different, you can see not only that cup but you can see also Y.I.: Whole environment. S.: Yeah. We are thinking just straight. Oh, this is a cup. Y.I.: Okay. So it is like, about a range of thinking lets say S.: Yeah. So I have to learn this. (Laughter) It is not very easy for me. But Ill try. Y.I.: Okay Its interesting Will it take some months or years S.: I hope (Laughter). Y.I.: (Laughter) But you already worked for 4 or 5 years, so S.: My colleagues think Ive changed. (They say) Im thinking like Japanese people but Japanese colleagues said, No, you are thinking like European people hehe (laughter)! Y.I.: Ah, really something between, maybe. S.: Yeah, something between. Y.I.: You are not very aware of yourself, but, Hmm () (writing down) S.: Im not sure () (if) Im correctly explaining me Y.I.: Its okay, its your actual feeling...So, was it the same in your (previous European) companies? 89

S.: It was totally different. You know, European company is totally different from a Japanese company. Totally different. Y.I.: Do you think this (difference) is an advantage of Japanese companies, or a disadvantage? S.: I think it is an advantage. Y.I.: It is rather a positive side? S.: Yeah, we can learn a lot from your (Japaneses) company. This is good. Good for us. We have to learn. () I like your way of doing business because European people, you have to get sign or contract or something. Japanese, you dont have to. You said something, and this is what you said. Thats all. Isnt it nice? I think its nice. If somebody trusts you, because you said okay, you will do something. And you will try to do, even if you did not sign the contract. Y.I.: Uh-huh. S.: It is something which we lost, maybe hundred years ago. Y.I.: ()Okay, it is interesting (writing down). So, this is the last question, which one is most important for you in working? Is it income, feeling of contribution to society, occasions to meet people there, work itself, or something else? S.: Well, I think work is interesting, this is the one, because Im not worrying at all in this company. Y.I.: During your working. S.: Yeah, everyday (there is) something new, everytime I have to learn something, thats great. But also what is important for me in the workplace (is) to feel like a member of some of socisocie? Y.I.: Sociecommunity? S.: Yes, community. I feel like (this companys name) member. This is important for me. Y.I.: So, feeling of belonging to (an) organization, or something like this. S.: Yeah. Y.I.: Uh-huh. Somebody said (that a) Japanese firm is like a family (cf. 2.2.2.). Do you feel this kind of feeling? S.: Maybe like a family is too far, but like a member, yes. I see it. Y.I.: Okay. S.: You know, this job is, what can I say is something which I can imagine, ah, in my play. I want to work in this kind of company, when I get new advantage, new things, when I can learn a lot of things, when I have communication with a lot of people all over the world, when I learn something new, when Im never boring, when I spend over twelve hours per 90

day, I am very happy, this is very good. Y.I.: Okay, you like working environment here. S.: Yes but also you have a contact with customer from Spain, Japan, a lot of countries. Thats great. Y.I.: Okay, So, for you, (what is important in) work is work itself and a feeling of (being) part of community. S.: Yea. Y.I.: Money and meeting people there are less important (than those). S.: I never say that I earn too less money or something, no. Thats okay. I agree, we have an agreement with company, company agreed to pay me, and Im satisfied, thats okay. Of course money is important but the rest is also very important for me. For me, I have some of different meanings. Y.I.: Okay. Thank you very much. (End of interview)

91

Appendix 2. An interview with a manual worker

This interview was conducted in Polish.

(After questions as for the age and business career) Y.I.: Where have you been working before (the name of the company this speaker was working for)? S.: Elana Toru Y.I.: Driver? S.: Ive been working as a specialist on machines, technological process, (very louder noises and voices of the speaker could not be caught). Y.I.: How long you are working here? S.: 5 years, since beginning. Y.I.: Why you are working here now? S.: Elana have bankrupt, right after it happened I applied for a job at (the name of the company name again). They were recruiting, so I went for a casting (the speaker used exactly this word), there was a lot of other candidates, and I was lucky they have chose me. Y.I.: Okay. Your work depends on amount of the products? S.: On how many shipments we have. It depends, sometimes is more sometimes is less. Sometimes its even too much, so its hard to keep up. Its not so steadily. Suddenly we need to do something, we get a lot of deliveries. Sometimes something happens on (a client of this company), production line get stopped or they change some process or something get broken so in the same time it means more work for us, we need to adjust our work to (the same client as above). Because situations like that, sometimes products come back and we send something other. Generally, there is a lot of work for us. Y.I.: You are a boss? S.: Yes Im a supervisor. I manage workers. Im a leader.

Y.I.: If you have problem then who S.: Then Im going to my supervisor. I report to him, if there is any problem. And of course we dont have problems (I think that was a joke). We dont have problems with cooperation with my colleagues or supervisors. Y.I.: Your boss is (a name of his direct superior)? S.: Yea, everything is okay. We are treating each other as colleagues. We are working in one

92

company Y.I.: When you decided to start working here, money was good? S.: Good money and interesting work. I got to know something new. For me (the type of industry of the company) was new challenge. Y.I.: New way of business? S.: New way to develop and retraining. Y.I.: Out of curiosity? S.: Yes. Y.I.: And money. S.: Yes, money too. Y.I.: Half on half? S.: Yes, half on half. Y.I.: So now, after 5 years, this work is still interesting for you? S.: Yes its still interesting. Y.I.: Thats very good. S.: Yes I like to work here, there is always something interesting going on, there is no monotony, various situations happen. Y.I.: I dont know how to say it in Polish, but how can you get a promotion? S.: I dont know if I will manage to do it because in 5 years I will retire. Y.I.: But there will be age of retirement 67 years old (the new age of retirement in Poland was one of the most discussed issues at that time). S.: Well I still will go at 60. My hobby is fishing, we have beautiful lakes, I will be going by car, for fishing. Y.I.: If there is too much work, sometimes you work after 4pm (4 pm is regular finishing time there)? S.: Yes we stay longer at work if there is need for that. Y.I.: How often that happens? S.: Sometimes there are times when we need to stay longer, but of course you need to submit to that. If manager will come and ask us to stay longer at work, then of course we are staying. No one says no. Because we knew we need to stay. We even have this in terms of work agreement, that employer have right to do that. Y: But they pay for that time. S.: Yes of course they pay, so everyone stays longer. Y.I.: So of course it depends on how much work you have. 93

S.: Usually we stay 4 hours longer. Y.I.: Till 8pm S.: Well 12 hours, from 6am, to 6pm. Or 2pm till 10pm Y.I.: How often it happen? S.: It happened in January, February, March also, but in April it didnt happen because production was reduced. When there was need to stay we were doing that. January, February, March, those 3 months we needed to stay often. Now we dont because there is not so much work. Of course we have hope that it will change soon. Y.I.: So it depends on season or month? S.: It depends on month, and orders, how big production they have on (the client). When they have bigger production in (the client) so we also have more work to do. Y.I.: This is a bit hard question. Is there anything that you dont like in Japanese company? S.: No there is not Y.I.: No? S.: Really, there is not. I will really want this company to run as long as they could. Even when I will go on retirement, I still want them to work. Y.I.: So your work agreement is not for specified period of time? S.: No, I can work till retirement. I can work without stress. Y.I.: So there is nothing you are unhappy about. S.: Yes, Im really content about everything. Y.I.: It could be not a really realistic question, when would you think about changing job? S.: I dont want to do it, I want to stay here until retirement. Y.I.: So it means, you are really happy about work atmosphere. S.: Yes, yes. (Writing down) Y.I.: This is a Japanese company. What is different in working in Japanese company, comparing to Polish companies? What was good here? S.: Here everything is modern. Thanks to work here, I got to know scanner and computer. In

place where Ive been working before, there was nothing like that. Here I made some progress. I even got driving license.

Y.I.: So its just more convenient to work in company like that. S.: Yes. Y.I.: What was bad here? S.: Everything is good. Y.I.: Okay, then last question. In work, what is most important for you: money, working for 94

society, meeting people, or interesting work? S.: Work and money. I really like my work here. Its not tiring for me, and I feel good doing it. Y.I.: When you work longer, you spent less time with family. S.: They understand that, they accept that sometimes I need to stay at work longer. Y.I.: So at home you also have good connection. S.: Yes really good. Y.I.: Okay, thank you very much for todays interview. (End of interview)

95