ARISTOTLES PROBLEMATA In Problemata, Aristotle poses almost 900 problems along with the possible answers.

Everything from Plants & Medicine to Politics and Ethics is discussed (Blair, 1999). While modern science has been able to answer a lot of the questions posed in Problemata it is an incredibly comprehensive work that looks to solve some of the biggest questions that were unanswered at the time. There are numerous problems discussed in the book that relate to medicine and health. In one Problemata Volume II, Aristotle poses the following question: Why is it that the upper parts of the body perspire more freely than the lower? Is it because heat rises upwards and remains there, and this carries the moisture upwards? Or is it because breath causes sweat, and the breath is in the upper parts of the body? Or is it because sweat is unconcocted moisture, and such moisture resides in the upper parts because the process of its composition takes place there? (Barnes, 1984) Ill look into the scientific research that has been done to answer this question from the time when Aristotle first posed this question to the present. Thanks to advances in modern science it is now known that there are two types of sweat glands in the human body. The first are Eccrine glands which are the most common type of sweat gland in the human body. They are found on the palms and soles as well as the forehead. They are the smallest sweat glands and do not produce fatty acids or proteins (Folk, 1991). The other type of sweat glands are Apocrine glands which are located in the arm pits and the anus. These are two areas that are most associated with sweating. The sweat glands in these areas produce both protein and carbohydrates which is why people who sweat profusely often have yellow stains underneath their armpits. The apocrine glands become active during puberty so it makes sense that a lot of people would start noticing sweating in these areas after puberty (Folk, 1991). It has also become clear now why humans sweat in the first place. The primary reason is to get ride of excess heat. This may build up in the body for a variety of reasons. One of the main causes for a build up of excess heat is due to exercise. While this is the main cause for sweating there are also numerous other reasons why a person may perspire. Being nervous or eating spicy foods can also cause the body to perspire. Sweat comes through the pores in the skin (Robertshaw, 1971). It is also now known that there is a condition that many people suffer from known as Hyperhidrosis where an individual suffers from excessive sweating. People who suffer from Hyperhidrosis will often sweat profusely from the palms, armpits and feet. While people who suffer from Hyperhidrosis are in the minority they do represent a significant portion of the population (Kyung, 2002). The scientific explanation behind why people sweat is that the body must keep a stable temperature and any exercise or strenuous movement causes the kinetic energy inside the body raises its temperature to a higher level than its used to. The body must then get rid of this excess heat which it does by sweat coming through the pores of the skin (Robertshaw, 1971). The question that Aristotle poses as to why the upper body perspires more freely than the lower parts of the body is not necessarily true. It is now known that Eccrine sweat glands are located all over the body and when excess heat builds up it is not just in the upper regions of the body but all over. It may be the case that Aristotle was observing those who suffer from Hyperhidrosis where sweating is

usually most noticeable under the arm pits and on the palms. However those who suffer from Hyperhidrosis will also sweat in the feet and groin area so to say the upper body perspires more than the lower body is false (Kyung, 2002). The Integumentary system also plays a role in the bodys reason for perspiring. The Integumentary system is made up of the skin and its appendages (hair and nails). Its function is to protect the body from external damage such as sunburn, infectious organisms and also abrupt changes in temperature. By allowing the body to be protected yet also maintain a stable temperature it provides a vital function. The integumentary system contains the sweat glands in the body which then excrete the excess heat as sweat (Folk, 1991). Aristotle also ponders whether the upper body sweats more because heat rises and this means the moisture is carried upwards. This is somewhat true as hot air does rise but this does not apply to the body and its reasons for perspiring. The reason that hot air will rise above cold air is because hot air contains a lot fewer molecules than cold air and is therefore less dense so it will float above any cold air. However this doesnt necessarily apply to sweat in the human body as it perspires from everywhere including the legs, groin and feet. While the sweat will rise when it turns to steam it does not mean that the upper body is perspiring more than the lower body. It just means that any hot air will rise upwards (Roberts, 1977). Aristotle also asks if the upper body perspires more because sweat is unconcocted moisture and the process of its concoction takes place there. This is again has been shown to be untrue thanks to advances in scientific research. While sweat would be classed as a type of moisture there is not evidence to suggest that it is concocted in the upper regions of the body (Robertshaw, 1971). It is clear looking at all the modern scientific research that has been done since Aristotle posed this question that his possible reasons for the upper body perspiring more have been shown to be false. The reason for this is that his assertion that the upper body perspires is itself false. The purpose of Problemata was to pose questions that were at the time unanswered and post possible reasons. With this particular question it has been shown that there is no foundation of truth in it as the body perspires all over and to an equal degree (Robertshaw, 1971).. The fact that Aristotle posed such an incredible amount of questions in Problemata means that there are bound to be some that would be completely disproven as science and technology increased. In Aristotles time the understanding of the human body and its functions were rudimentary to say the least, so it is understandable that he would not fully understand the causes for the body perspiring in the way that it does (Blair, 1984).

References Barnes, J., (1984). The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation. (Vol. 1). Princeton: Princeton University Press. Blair, A. (1999). Authorship in the Popular "Problemata Aristotelis". Early Science and Medicine, 4(3), 189-227. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4130361? uid=3739560&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=47698926659937 Folk, G., (1991). The evolution of sweat glands. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY. 35 (3), pp.180-186. Kyung, K. M. (2002). Palmar hyperhidrosis: Evidence of genetic transmission. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 35(2), 382-386. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0741521402948627 Robertshaw, D., (1971). The evolution of thermoregulatory sweating in man and animals. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY. 15 (2-4), pp.263-267. Roberts, M. F. (1977). Skin blood flow and sweating changes following exercise training and heat acclimation. Journal of Applied Physiology, 43(1), 133-137. Retrieved from http://jap.physiology.org/content/43/1/133.short