ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis Sub-Chapter 4-1: DC Response in RC Circuits

4.1 Transient and steady-state conditions 4.2 Charging and discharging a capacitor 4.2.1 Charging a capacitor 4.2.2 Discharging a capacitor 4.2.3 Time constant 4.3 Initial and steady-state currents and voltages 4.3.1 Initial current and voltage 4.3.2 Steady-state current and voltage 4.3.3 Instantaneous values 4.4 DC response of an RC circuit 4.4.1 Charging phase 4.4.2 Discharging phase 4.5 Transient in series-parallel RC network 4.6 Energy and power

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

Sub-Chapter 4-1: DC Response in RC Circuits 4.1 Transient and steady-state conditions

a) Transient condition The word transient means temporary or short-lived. Transient is defined as the variations in the voltage and current waveforms, occurring within a finite span of time (transient time), due to a switching action in an electric circuit in order to charge or discharge energy storage elements in this circuit. The transients usually occur before the steady-state conditions in the circuit have been achieved. Transient behaviour occurs when: i) there are sudden changes of applied voltage ii) the voltage source is shorted iii) the circuit is connected or disconnected from the supply The transient response occurs only in inductive and capacitive circuits. Inductor does not allow sudden changes in currents. Capacitor does not allow sudden changes in voltages. b) Steady-state condition Steady-state is defined as the condition where the voltages and currents in an electric circuit have stabilised at the end of the transient phase.

4.2 Charging and discharging a capacitor

4.2.1 Charging a capacitor A capacitor charges when it is connected to a dc voltage source. The capacitor in Figure 1(a) is initially uncharged, that is, plate A and plate B have equal number of free electrons. When the switch is closed, as shown in Figure 1(b), the source moves electrons away from plate A through the circuit to plate B as the arrow indicates. As plate A losses electrons and plate B gains electrons, plate A becomes more positive with respect to plate B. As this charging process continues, the voltage across the plates builds up rapidly until it is equal to the applied voltage VS as shown in Figure 1(c). When the capacitor is fully charged, there is no current since the capacitor behaves as an open circuit. Hence, it now blocks constant direct current. A B When the charged capacitor is disconnected from the source, it remains charged for some time. The charged capacitor can be considered as a temporary battery. _ + VS
Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

+ VS

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

electrons -B -

V Figure S1(a) 4.2.2 Discharging a capacitor

V Figure S1(b)

Figure 1(c)

Figure 2(a) shows a capacitor initially fully charged to 50V. To discharge a capacitor, a wire is connected across a charged capacitor, or a switch is closed, as shown in Figure 2(b). When the switch is closed, the excess electrons on plate B move through the circuit to plate A (indicated by the arrows). The charge is neutralized when the number of free electrons on both plates is again equal. At this time, the voltage across the capacitor is zero, and the capacitor is completely discharged, as shown in Figure 2(c). A + 50V B A + electrons B VC = 0V

Figure 2(a) 4.2.3 Time constant

Figure 2(b)

Figure 2(c)

In a practical situation, there cannot be capacitance without some resistance in a circuit. Because of this, the charging and discharging characteristics of a capacitor must always be considered in light of the associated resistance. The resistance introduces the element of time in the charging and discharging of a capacitor. (Otherwise, the charging and discharging theoretically takes zero amount of time, i.e., is instantaneous.) 1 S + E _
Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

2 R2
3

R1

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

Figure 3. When a capacitor charges or discharges through a resistance, a certain time is required for the capacitor to charge fully or discharge fully. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously because a finite time is required to move charges from one point to another. The rate at which the capacitor charges or discharges is determined by the time constant of the circuit. Definition: The time constant (tau) of a series RC circuit is determined by the rate at which the curve rises or decays and is defined by the product of R and C. It is expressed in units of seconds when resistance is in ohms and capacitance is in farads. = RC, unit seconds (s) transient
fin l a va e lu 8% 6 9% 5 9% 8

steady-state
9% 9

6% 3

0 0

Figure 4. Charging curve. During one time constant, the charge on a capacitor changes approximately 63%. Therefore, an uncharged capacitor charges to 63% of its fully charged voltage in one time constant. transient steady-state

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

in l itia va e lu

10 0%

3% 7

1% 4 5 % 0 0 1 2 3 2 % 4 1 % 5 t

Figure 5. Discharging curve. When discharging, the capacitor voltage drops to approximately 37% (which is 100% - 63%) of its initial value in one time constant. Important: Voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously Current in a capacitive circuit can ideally change instantaneously A fully charged capacitor appears as an open circuit to block direct current. An uncharged capacitor appears as a short circuit to an instantaneous change in current.

4.3 Initial and steady-state currents and voltages

4.3.1 Initial current and voltage The current that flows in a circuit the instant a voltage source is switched into it (or out of it) at t = 0, is called the initial current. An uncharged capacitor is equivalent to a short circuit at t = 0+. Therefore we can find the initial current anywhere in the circuit by replacing all capacitors with short circuits. Any voltage produced by an initial current is called an initial voltage. 4.3.2 Steady-state current and voltage

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

When a source has been connected to a circuit for a long period of time (i.e. after all transients have expired), the currents and voltages in the circuit are said to have their steady-state values (also known as final values). Under steady-state conditions, all capacitors are fully charged and are equivalent to open circuits. Thus, we can find steady-state voltages and currents by replacing all capacitors with open circuits and using conventional analytical methods. In performing such analysis, we determine the voltage across a fully charged capacitor by finding the voltage across the terminals of the open circuit that replaces it. 4.3.3 Instantaneous values These refer to the voltage or current values at a particular time t.

4.4 DC response of an RC circuit

Figure 6 below illustrates an example of an RC circuit that can be used to charge and discharge a capacitor. 1 S + E _ 2 R C

Figure 6. An RC circuit that can be used to charge and discharge a capacitor. 4.4.1 Charging phase To charge a capacitor, the switch S is in position 1 leading to a circuit as shown in Figure 7. C I + E _ + VC + VR -

Figure 7. The capacitor in the circuit is initially uncharged, and is in series with a resistor. When switch S is closed at t = 0, we can determine the voltage across capacitor VC, the voltage across resistor VR and the transient current I = IC = IR.

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

Recall the instance of the capacitor circuit charged by a battery (Figure 1). When the switch is closed, electrons are drawn from plate A and deposited to plate B by the battery, resulting in a net positive charge on plate A and negative charge on plate B. The transfer of electrons is very rapid at first, and slows down as the potential across the capacitor approaches the applied voltage of the battery. Once the voltage across the capacitor has reached the source voltage, the capacitor is fully charged and will remain in this stage if no further changes are made. A capacitor can be replaced by an equivalent open circuit once the charging phase in a dc network has passed. C + + E _ Figure 8. a) Solution of first order differential equations general solution and unique solution The current in the capacitor is the same as the current in the resistor. dV E VC C C = dt R dVC E VC E VC = = dt RC dVC dt = VC E dVC 1 = dt + D C E t ln (VC E ) = + D t / + D VC E = e = e t / e D = Ae t / VC = E + VR = 0 -

The general solution is VC = E + Ae t /

To find the unique solution, we make use of the fact that when t = 0, VC = 0. VC (0) = E + Ae 0 / VC (0) = E + A = 0 A = E VC (t ) = E (1 e t / )

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

b) Concepts of homogeneous and nonhomogeneous differential equations A linear nth order differential equation of the form dny d n 1 y dy an ( x ) n + an 1 ( x ) n 1 + ... + a1 ( x ) + a0 ( x ) y = 0 dx dx dx is said to be homogeneous, whereas an equation dny d n1 y dy an ( x ) n + an 1 ( x ) n1 + ... + a1 ( x ) + a0 ( x ) y = g ( x ) dx dx dx with g(x) not identically zero, is said to be nonhomogeneous. From our first order equation dV E VC C C = dt R dV V E C C+ C = dt R R Since the RHS is not identically zero, the equation is nonhomogeneous. The solution of a nonhomogeneous equation consists of the solution of the associated homogeneous equation (known as the complementary function) plus a particular solution. Solution of nonhomogeneous equation = complementary function + particular solution The associated homogeneous equation for C C dVC VC + =0 dt R dVC VC E + = is dt R R

Let us try to solve the associated homogeneous differential equation. dVC V V = C = C dt RC dVC dt = VC 1 dt + D C t ln (VC ) = + D t / + D VC = e = e t / e D = Ae t /

dVC

Note that this is part of the solution for the nonhomogeneous equation C VC = E + Ae t /

dVC VC E + = . dt R R

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

complementary function particular solution The general expressions for charging and discharging exponential curves are given in the following equations for both voltage and current. v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / i = I F + ( I i I F ) e t / where VF and IF are the final (or steady-state) values Vi and Ii are the initial values v and i are the instantaneous values at time t = time constant = RC c) Voltage across capacitor VC For the capacitor charging from Vi = 0 to VF = E, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = E + (0 E )e t / VC = E Ee t / VC = E (1 e t / ) This gives a charging exponential curve as shown in Figure 4. If it is required to find t for a particular value of VC, VC = E (1 e t / ) VC = 1 e t / E V e t / = 1 C E V t = ln1 C E d) Voltage across resistor VR From Figure 7 and applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, E = VR + VC or VR = E - VC When switch S is closed at t = 0, the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Therefore there is no voltage across the capacitor at time t = 0+. VR = E at t = 0+ (just after switch is closed)

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

When time t is increased, the voltage across capacitor will increase. Therefore, VR = E - VC When the capacitor is fully charged at steady-state, the voltage across the capacitor VC is equal to the source voltage. Therefore VR = E - VC = E - E = 0 The general expression for discharging (and also charging) exponential curve is v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / For the voltage across the resistor, the curve begins Vi = E and ends at VF = 0. Therefore we can write VR = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VR = 0 + ( E 0)e t / VR = Ee t / This gives a discharging exponential curve as shown in Figure 5. e) Transient Current I (I = IR = IC) From Figure 7 and applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, E = VR + VC or IR = VR = E - VC When switch S is closed at t = 0, the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Therefore there is no voltage across the capacitor at time t = 0+. IR = VR = E or I = E R at t = 0+ (just after switch is closed) at t = 0+ (just after switch is closed)

When time t increases, there is a voltage VC increasing across the capacitor. Therefore, E VC I= R When the capacitor is fully charged (at steady-state), the voltage across the capacitor VC is equal to the source voltage. Therefore E VC E E I= = =0 R R The general expression for discharging exponential curve is i = I F + ( I i I F ) e t / For the transient current through the circuit, the curve begins at Ii = E/R and ends at IF = 0. Therefore we can write the equation as
Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

10

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

I = I F + ( I i I F )e t / E I = 0 + 0 e t / R E I = I C = I R = e t / R This gives a discharging exponential curve as shown in Figure 5. 4.4.2 Discharging phase At any time in the charging process, if the switch is moved to position 2 resulting in a circuit as shown in Figure 9, the capacitor will begin to discharge at a rate sensitive to the time constant = RC. (Note that for the circuit in Figure 6, this is the same time constant as for the charging phase.) C I + VC + VR Figure 9. The established voltage across the capacitor VC will create a flow of charges in the closed path that will eventually discharge the capacitor completely. In essence, the capacitor functions like a battery with a decreasing terminal voltage. In this discharging process, the actual current flow has reversed its direction, changing the polarity of the voltage across R. This means that by definition, I and VR are now negative. a) VC, VR and I Consider the circuit shown in Figure 6. Assume that the switch has been in position 1 for a long period of time, so the capacitor is fully charged to E volts and the current IC is zero. The switch S is now moved to position 2, resulting in a circuit as shown in Figure 9. The source is no longer in the circuit and there is a path for current to flow from the positive side of the capacitor to the negative side. This is consistent with the fact that I is now negative. In other words, electrons on the negative side are drawn to the positive side and the charges on each side are dissipated. This transfer of charges produces a current which is in the opposite direction from the original current. Eventually, all of the charges on both sides of the capacitor will be neutralized, so both the discharging current I and the voltage VC will decay to zero. The voltage across capacitor VC can be found by applying v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / , where Vi = E and VF = 0.

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

11

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 0 + ( E 0)e t / VC = Ee t / Lets say we need to find the time t when the voltage VC is of a particular value. VC = Ee t / VC = e t / E V t = ln C E To find VR, we apply Kirchhoffs Voltage Law. VR + VC = 0 VR = VC VR = Ee t / To find the transient discharge current V I= R R E I = e t / R

Example 1 The capacitor in Figure 10 has an initial voltage of 4V. R1 = 2.2k

24V R2 = 1.2k

C = 3.3F

Figure 10.

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

12

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

a) Find the mathematical expression for the voltage across the capacitor when the switch is closed at t = 0. b) Find the mathematical expression of the current during the transient period. c) Sketch the waveform for the capacitor voltage and current. a) Time constant, = RC = ( R1 + R2 )C = ( 2.2k + 1.2k)(3.3F ) = 0.011s For the capacitor charging from Vi = 4V to VF = 24V, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 24 + ( 4 24)e t / VC = 24 20e t / 0.011 24V 4V = 5.88mA 2.2k + 1.2k Final value of current = 0 (since the capacitor becomes an open circuit) Applying i = I F + ( I i I F )e t / , we get i = 5.88e t / 0.011 mA Note that the current and the voltage have the same time constant. b) Initial value of current = Alternatively, dV i=C C dt d ( 24 20e t / 0.011 ) 20 t / 0.011 =C = (3.3 ) = 5.88mA e dt 0.011 c)

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

13

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

24 22 20 Capacitor voltage (V) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 0 10 20 30 Time (ms) 40 50

6 5 Capacitor current (mA)

4 3 2

1 0 0

10

20 30 Time (ms)

40

50

Figure 11. Waveforms for Example 1. VC + VR = E Charging VC + VR = 0 Discharging

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

14

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

Figure 12. Voltage and current waveforms if the switch is moved alternately between positions 1 and 2.

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

15

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

Example 2 R1 = 100k 1 2 3

E = 10V

+ VC
_

iC C = 0.05F Figure 13. R2 = 200k

a) Find the mathematical expressions for the transient behaviour of the capacitor voltage and current if the switch is moved to position 1 at t = 0. Assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged. b) Find the mathematical expressions for the capacitor voltage and current if the switch is moved to position 2 at 30ms. Assume that the leakage resistance of the capacitor is infinite. c) Find the mathematical expressions for the capacitor voltage and current if the switch is moved to position 3 at 48ms. d) Plot the capacitor voltage and current waveforms. a) Charging phase: Time constant, = RC = R1C = (100k)( 0.05F ) = 0.005s For the capacitor charging from Vi = 0V to VF = 10V, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 10 + (0 10)e t / VC = 10(1 e t / 0.005 ) E VC 10 10(1 e t / 0.005 ) iC = = = 0.1e t / 0.005mA R1 100k b) Storage phase: VC = E = 10V and iC = 0A
c) Discharging phase: Time constant,

= R2C = ( 200k)(0.05F ) = 0.01s

= RC

For the capacitor discharging from Vi = 10V to VF = 0V, VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 0 + (10 0)e t / VC = 10e ( t 0.048 ) / 0.01

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

16

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

iC = d)

VC = 0.05e ( t 0.048 ) / 0.01 mA R2

10 9 Capacitor voltage (V) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 20 40 Tim (ms) e 60 80 100

0.1 0.08 Capacitor current (mA) 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 0 20 40 60 Time (ms) 80 100

Figure 14. Waveforms for Example 2.

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

17

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

4.5 Transient in series-parallel RC network

Sometimes the network does not have the simple series form of RC circuit. If we have a seriesparallel (or a parallel) network, first we need to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network external to the capacitive element. For example, in Figure 15, we can convert the circuit into a series RC circuit by applying Thevenins Theorem. The time constant is given by = RTHC. R1 + E _ R3 R2 A + ETH _ B Figure 15. Example 3 Let us now try to solve an example. In Figure 16, assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged. R1 = 1k R2 = 2k A + E = 10V _ R3 = 4k C = 1F RTH A

Figure 16.

B -

At time t = 0, the switch is closed, but at time t = 6ms, the switch is opened again. Find an expression to describe a) the charging phase b) the discharging phase R2 = 2k A R3 = 4k
18

R1 = 1k a) Charging phase First find the Thevenin equivalent circuit. + E = 10V _

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

+ ETH -

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

Figure 17. ETH is the open circuit voltage across the terminals A and B, with the capacitor removed. 4k E TH = 10V = 8V 1k + 4k R2 = 2k R1 = 1k A R3 = 4k RTH

RTH = ( R1 // R3 ) + R2 = (1k)(4k) + 2k = 2.8k 1k + 4k

Figure 18.

B -

So we get the Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 19. RTH = 2.8k A + = 8V _ B

ETH

C = 1F

Figure 19. To find the expression for VC, use v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / , where Vi = 0 and VF = 8V. = RTHC = 2.8ms

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

19

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 8 + (0 8)e t / 0.0028 VC = 8(1 e t / 0.0028 ) V for 0 t 6ms

b) Discharging phase When t = 6ms, VC = 8(1 e 0.006 / 0.0028 ) = 7.06 V This becomes the initial value of the voltage for the discharging phase. R2 = 2k

R3 = 4k Figure 20. To find the expression for VC, use v = VF + (Vi VF )e t / , where Vi = 7.06V and VF = 0V. = (R2 + R3)C = 6ms VC = VF + (Vi VF )e t / VC = 0 + (7.06 0)e ( t 0.006 ) / 0.006 VC = 7.06e ( t 0.006 ) / 0.006 V
8 7 6 5 VC (V) 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 T e (m im s)

C = 1F

for t 6ms

1 5

20

Figure 21. Waveform for Example 3.

4.6 Energy and power

Energy is dissipated when a current flows through a resistor and this energy is converted to heat energy in the process.

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

20

ECT1016

Circuit Theory

Chapter 4: Transient Analysis

The ideal capacitor does not dissipate or consume any energy. Instead, it stores energy. Consider an ideal capacitor that has been fully charged by a voltage source. When the voltage source is removed, leaving the capacitor terminals open, the capacitor remains charged indefinitely, because there is no path through which discharge current can flow. If a resistor is then connected across the terminals, discharge current flows and electrical energy is dissipated in the resistor. Clearly, this energy was stored in an ideal capacitor for whatever length of time the terminals were left open. A plot of the voltage, current and power to a capacitor during the charging phase is shown in Figure 22. The power curve can be obtained by finding the product of the voltage and current at selected intervals of time and connecting the points obtained.

Figure 22. Power curve for a capacitor during charging. The shaded area under the power curve represents the energy stored. Using calculus, we can determine the area under the curve. The energy W stored by capacitance C with a charge Q, is 1 W = CV 2 2 where V is the voltage across the capacitor, or 2 Q W= 2C

Dr. Tan Ai Hui, 2005

21