Literature review

Project Title:
Developing unified framework to support female-consumers in clothes choosing from cross-country perspective.

1. Introduction
Fashion is always concerned as a hot topic among human life, especially for women. Visser and Preez (2001) did a study to summarize the methodology and variables of research on apparel shopping orientation (see Appendix 1). According to demographics, even though males were not excluded, the investigations were focused mainly on females (Fuller and Blackwell, 1992). Fuller and Blackwell (1992, cited in Visser& Preez, 2001) could explain this in a way that females are perceived as the predominant and "traditional" purchasing agents of clothes for themselves and family members. Numerous studies from past and current researchers try to examine the female consumer behaviour in apparel shopping (Visser et al., 1996; Nezakati et al., 2011; Clarke et al., 2010; Kawabata & Rabolt, 1999; Cardoso, 2007; Kwan et al., 2004; Shchudro, 2011). However these research findings are mainly focused on limited area in one country or two countries comparison only. Thus, this project will pay attention to females only, but from cross-countries perspective. In order to provide a framework which combines measurable social norms and non-quantified variables, these issues should be considered: Marketing segmentation, analysis of past and current studies, the theories related to problem area. The domain area covers marketing, consumer behaviour, consumer psychology, semiotics and neuromarketing.

2. Review of literatures
The structure of literature review is formulated in this way. Firstly, review the development of market segment. The issue of how to quantify non-perceptible variable is raised. Secondly, analyse the past and current research findings. According to the comparison of different studies, the gap why choose cross-countries perspective is identified. Thirdly, in order to find out how to analyse the non-perceptible variables, the related theories from different point of view will be discussed. 2.1 Market segmentation The different market segments of the cloth shopper among female consumers. Lumpkin (1985, cited in Visser et al., 1996) gave three market segments of consumers who are with unique shopping orientation profiles (i.e. active shoppers, economic shoppers and apathetic shoppers). Based on this, Lumpkin, Greenberg and Goldstucker (1985, cited in Visser et al., 1996) identified three different market segments (confident comparison shopper, inactive/critical shopper and price and quality-conscious personalized shoppers). Huddleston and other researchers (1993, cited in Visser et al., 1996) identified five groups (shoppers, positive thinkers, the educationally oriented, socially active consumers and credit prone consumers) based on lifestyle characteristics and importance of retail store. Greco and Paksoy (1989, cited in Visser et al., 1996) developed psychographic and perceived information source in segments (mature fashion-conscious shopper and non-fashion-conscious shopper). This research gave a hint that clothing consumers may be segmented on not only age differences, but also fashion-consciousness. Furthermore, Shim and Bickle (1993, cited in Visser et al., 1996) divided mail order catalogue users into three groups according to perceived height (petite, medium and tall).

Due to the lack of research on clothing involvement and clothing orientation of mature consumer, Visser et al (1996) identified this unexplored area. Zaichkowsky (1985, cited in Visser et al., 1996) defined clothing involvement as a person's perceived relevance of the object based on inherent needs, values, and interests. Laurent and Kapferer (1985, cited in Visser et al., 1996) provide five aspects of involvement(the perceived importance of product, the perceived risk associated with the product, the sign value attributed to the product and the hedonist value of the product). Shim and Mahoney (1992, cited in Visser et al., 1996) defined that clothing orientation is similar as shopping orientation (a shopper's style that places particular emphasis on certain activities, interests and opinions regarding clothing). After that, Shim and Kotsiopulos (1991, cited in Visser et al., 1996) included clothing orientation as a variable in segmentation study. However, only psychographics and demographics is not enough for marketers. In order to better typify consumers and channel marketing efforts, the lifestyle-component model has been illustrated as a more comprehensive view of consumer characteristics (Fox, 1989; Huddleston et al., 1990, cited in Visser et al., 1996). It contains perceptible variables (activities, interests, demographics, social class and family orientation) and non-perceptible variables (needs and motives, values, personality, attitudes and opinions). However, due to the non-perceptible variables are hard to measure, current research is more emphasis on perceptible variables without completely ignoring non-perceptible variables (Visser et al., 1996). The table below summarized the methodologies from relevant research findings. It shows that the statistical way has been selected by researchers to discover the relationship among different variables. This project will utilise same method by sending out questionnaires. Relevant result analysis method will be considered as well. Table 1. Review of recent research findings (Source from research findings in references) Title of research year Method Age differences in 2011 questionnaire Mean value womens shopping for Regression analysis clothes behavior Childrens 2007 questionnaire Pearsons correlations Involvement in the Principal component Choice of Clothing in analysis General and With Three Clothing Items in Particular Comparison of 1999 questionnaire Mean value clothing purchase Cluster analysis behaviour between US Correlation coefficient and Japanese female university students The Determinants of 2011 Survey Cronbachs Alpha Decision-Making in questionnaire value the Purchased of Descriptive Analysis

Working Women's Clothing in Malaysia Bat wings, bunions, and turkey wattles : body transgressions and older womens strategic clothing choices Decision-Making Behaviour Towards Casual Wear Buying: A Study of Young Consumers in Mainland China 2009 In-depth interview

Multiple analysis

regression

Erving Goffmans concept of stigma and contemporary theorise

2004

questionnaire

factor analysis multiple regression

2.2The reason for cross-country perspective The existing research findings about female consumer behaviour in cloth shopping were carrying out in particular areas or few countries basis. The group they chose to collect data among various age levels from children to elders. Cardoso (2007) did a research to evaluate clothing choosing among children. It is about 6 to 11 years old children involvement with clothing in general and in particular three items of clothing (t-shirt, jeans and trainers). 313 students had been selected from four schools in the city of Oporto, Portugal. Shchudro (2011) examined Swedish female consumer behaviour when shopping for clothes. Particularly, the research covers different age from 14 to 65+ years old. The research considered the psychological core (motivation, values, frequency) and the process of making decision (information source, store selection criteria). Kwan et al. (2004) explored young Chinese consumers' decision making behaviour when buying casual wear in mainland china. 161 university students from shanghai, Beijing and Guangzhou. The research used consumer style inventory (CSI) to find out different consumer decision-making style. Six decision-making styles (recreational and hedonistic consciousness, perfectionism consciousness, confused by overchoice, habitual and brand loyalty, price and value consciousness, and brand and fashion consciousness) were found from result in the mainland China. Clarke et al. (2009) tried to examine older women's experiences and perceptions of clothing prescriptions for adults in later life. The research method is in-depth interviews with 36 women aged 71 to 93 years old. These elder women are majority Caucasian, heterosexual women born in either Canada or Western Europe. The findings are discussed according to

Erving Goffmans concept of stigma and contemporary theorising about ageing, ageism, beauty work and the body. Kawabata and Rabolt (1999) did a research to discover the clothing purchase behaviour between US and Japanese female university students. 186 female students from four universities in USA and 278 female students from 10 universities or colleges in Japan were examined. The research makes use of evaluative criteria which includes interest in clothing and fashion and source of fashion information. Moye and Kincade (2003) had a study about identifying shopping orientation segments for US female consumers. There were 151 women; aged from 18 years old and over participated. The research examined differences in the segments among store patronage preferences (i.e. department, discount, specialty), attitude toward the store environment selected as first choice when shopping for a specific apparel item (i.e. a dress), and demographic characteristics. Based on several shopping factors Cluster analysis has been used to reveal four shopping segments (Decisive Apparel Shopper, Confident Apparel Shopper, Highly Involved Apparel Shopper, and Extremely Involved Apparel Shopper). Differences were also found among the shopping orientation segments (store of first choice, attitude and household income). Birtwistle and Tsim (2005) investigated the mature womens clothing purchasing behaviour in UK. The aged over 45 female consumers had been examined. The research is to explore their shopping preferences from buying fashion clothes. Nezakati et al. (2011) found out the determinants of decision-making in the purchased of working women's clothing in Malaysia. There were 196 female respondents from 25 to 29 years old involved in this research. Research framework contains 4Ps in 12 dimensions, demographic of consumer and consumer behavior characteristics. The relationship of different variables has been analysed through correlation test. This study discovered that place factor plays the most important role for working women when they purchased their working clothes. Consumer demographic factor and consumer behavior characteristic factor were correlated with consumer decision-making factor. Nam et al. (2007) completed the study to examine the apparel and shopping preferences of mature women in America. Most mature women are independent residents, when they go for shopping; fashion consciousness, fashion information sources and shopping behaviour are more concerned by them. The research compared young (65 to 75 years old) and mature (75+ years old) consumers reactions to female apparel ensembles. Mature consumers are shopping clothes more for pleasure or need and less for conformity. Even though they were suggested by dressing stylish, fit and comfort still weight more than fashion. New fashions were encountered via catalogue illustrations, social gatherings and window displays. Subjects high in fashion consciousness had greater financial and social involvement with fashion, greater chronological-to-cognitive age differences and larger clothing budgets. Young and mature consumers responses to apparel illustrations differed significantly. (Nam et al., 2007, P102) With the enlargement of mature market, in order to achieve successful apparel business,

age-divergent definitions of fashion should be taken into account seriously. The assessment of cognitive age will help to identify these mature consumers who are interested in fashion consumption. To be summarized, the above research findings differ from each other. On the one hand, these studies focus on different particular areas, it is more detailed in one point of view to analyse the consumer behaviour in cloth shopping, from age perspective, the mature consumer, the teen consumer, from geographic perspective, Europe, America and Asia. However, on the other hand, the holistic view of female consumer in apparel purchasing is unexplored and lack of study. Whereas, there are several issues may affect the further research. Firstly, cross-countries research involves culture differentiation, different ethical considerations, how to define market segment based on different culture background. Especially, for non-perceptible variables, it becomes harder to evaluate and assess the variables. Most of the existing research findings use similar conceptual framework which based on consumer behaviour, decision-making. It is beneficial to introduce theory from another domain area to support the further research. The next section will bring in some theories which adjust angle into different eye sight. 2.3 Theory selection In this section, there are three different point of view related to consumer behaviour. First, from consumer psychology point of view, heuristic. Second, from semiotic point of view, and third, from neuromarketing point of view 2.3.1 Heuristics Heuristics are rules of thumb that individuals potentially less involved in decision making so that they do not need to tire themselves mentally (Shah & Oppenheimer, 2008, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). However, heuristics do not always help consumers to make the right decisions. Sometimes, consumers will lead by individual point of view and overlook the useful part of product, in this way; consumers will miss out suitable product and create error and bias (Solomon, Drenan, & Insko, 1981 cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). There are four kinds of heuristics that are useful when it comes to understanding consumer decision-making: prediction, persuasion, compliance and choice heuristics (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Better understanding how these heuristic works, when presenting consumer information, it will be available to change in order to make decision in favour of specified product and service (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Tversky and Kahneman (e.g. 1974, 1983, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010 ) identified four types of prediction heuristics. Representativeness, availability, simulation, and anchoring-adjustment (Tversky&Kahneman, 1973, 1982, 1983; Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982; Schwarz & Vaughn, 2002, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010 ). The prediction heuristic is useful in decision making when consumers want to predict the outcome (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). However, there are some issues should be considered. In the decision-making process, consumers are not always act directly what comes into their mind

(Schwarz, 2004, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). In addition, consumers will favour products after positive attributes come into their mind first (Menon&Raghubir,2003; Wnke, Bohner, & Jurkowitsch, 1997, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Moreover, if a person cannot imagine certain event, it is less likely to be perceived as happen in real life (e.g. Anderson& Godfrey, 1987, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Persuasion heuristics, when consumers attitude changes, persuasion has expressed that consumers either process information rapidly by taking short cuts or think extensively the information process (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986a, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Persuasion heuristic contains Length-implies-strength heuristic (Giner-Sorolla & Chaiken, 1997, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010), Liking-agreement heuristic (Chaiken et al., 1989, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010) and Consensus-implies-correctness heuristic. Compliance heuristics, there are six types that make consumers easier to obey requests (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Compliance heuristic includes commitment-and-consistency heuristic (Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett, & Miller, 1978, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010), the reciprocity heuristic (Langer, 1989, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010), Scarcity heuristics, Social validation heuristic, Liking heuristic, and Authority heuristic (Milgram, 1965, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). When consumers process the information, however they do not have any motivation, in this situation, consumers tend to use choice heuristic (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). Choice heuristic concludes lexicographic heuristics (Fishurn, 1974; Payne, Bettman, & Johnson, 1993, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010), elimination-by-aspects heuristics (Tversky, 1972, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010), Additive-difference heuristic (Payne et al., 1993) the conjunctive heuristic, and the disjunctive heuristic (Payne et al., 1993, cited in Jansson-Boyd, 2010). 2.3.2 Semiotics Mick (1986) outlined the emergence and principal perspectives of semiotics and discussed its applications and implications for consumer research. It mainly focused on Advertising and communication aspects. Douglas has written (1982, P201-202, cited in Mick, 1986) If semiotics can embed the extremely successful macro-analysis of individual decision-making into a new analysis of cultural interaction, it will be critically important in the history of western thought. Kuruc (2008) mentioned Fashion is sign system of great cultural significance because fashionable clothing is not only obvious visual signifiers, but fashion has the ability to 'speak' for individual, subcultures and in some cases, even entire society. Semiotics is a study of signs. The traditional division of semiotics contains syntactic, semantics and pragmatics, which means the structure, meanings and usage of signs. Stamper (1973) added another three, physics, empirics and social world. These mean physical property

of signs, how to measure sign to recipient and the effect of signs in social world respectively (Liu, 2010). Solomon (2011) mentioned fashion can be defined as code or a language; it helps us to understand meanings. Different consumers interpret the same style differently. Based on semiotic point of view, it is not only about fashion, advertising, communication in consumer research, but also break down to cloth itself, it can be seen from different angle. From physical level to social world, a cloth can tell a different story. Cloth material, cloth format, colour of cloth, meaning of cloth, effect of cloth. Semiotics enables a cloth to break down to different original elements. Each element is one of variables which can be evaluated. 2.3.3 Neuromarketing The father of neuromarketing is professor Ale Smidts, (winner of the Nobel Prize for economy in 2002); the term of neuromarketing was created in the same year. Neuromarketing is decoding the processes in consumers mind to understand the consumer's behaviour (desire, wish, hidden causes of options), in order to improve the marketing strategies by get what consumer want. Medical imagery technology can make it possible (Veronica, 2009). Touhami et al. (2011) pointed out neuromarketing suffers from ethical limits. E.g. fast food, alcohol or tobacco companies use neuromarketing as their commercial strategies and assist the growth of certain disease, obesity, diabetes, and alcoholism or lung cancer. Besides this, neuromarketing has Methodological, financial and legal limits. Research protocols are too long and hard to elaborate; the cost of using brain imaging techniques is high; it also requires strict procedure to conduct. Lee et al. (2007) posed that neuromarketing is a controversial topic. From one hand, it contributes to an unprecedented degree in neuronal activities; on the other hand, there is lack of take-up of brain imaging methodologies in marketing science. Even though the drastic debate is around neuromarketing issue, make good use of it still means significant change for both consumers and marketers. Brain tells people how it works, what ideas generate from it, so consumers need can be identified much more clearly, in this way, marketers need to find out why question and deal with it. For example, people want to look good and wear nice clothes, marketers should pay attention to clothing and appearance to satisfy human needs. Additionally, the risk and limit of neuromarketing should take into account carefully. All in all, heuristic, semiotic and neuromarketing all relate to consumer behaviour from various points of views. Heuristic classifies different decision-making processes. Consumers have been predicted in a way. Marketers will offer product and service in another way to deal with it. Semiotic is a study of sign, from basic signs expand to different elements. Neuromarketing is about how brain works and the influence on all stakeholders (consumers themselves, marketers, outsiders). From personal point of view, it is interesting to note that,

heuristic, semiotic and neuromarketing can be seen as three objects. The essence of this project is to analyse between clothes and consumers. Semiotics is related to clothes, neuromarketing concerns consumers themselves, heuristic is the process when consumers decide to buy clothes. The three separate areas can be combined in a way that interact, overlap and conflict with each other.

3. Conclusion
The review covers market segmentation, gap analysis among past and current research findings and selected theories justification. From these reviews, it narrows down the scope of research topic and lead to a new way to analysis data. Firstly, compare females and males, investigations mainly pay attention to female objects. Additionally, the general method to collect data is via questionnaires. Secondly, the studies from cross-countries perspective to analyse female consumers behaviour in cloth shopping is unfruitful. Thirdly, in order to evaluate the consumer behaviour from a holistic thinking, a conceptual framework will be produced in later research. Group of theories will assist to create criteria which help to measure the non-perceptible variables. Further review of literatures will carry on especially in in-depth theory justification.

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Appendix
Appendix 1 methodology and variables of research on apparel shopping orientations

Appendix 2 Clssification of shopping orientations