1

A DISCUSSION ON THE SUBSTITUTION METHOD FOR

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Juan Carlos Ponce-Campuzano and Antonio Rivera-Figueroa
Mathematics Education Department
Center for Research and Advanced Studies
Cinvestav, IPN, DF, Mexico
jcponce@cinvestav.mx; arivera@cinvestav.mx
SUBJECT: CALCULUS

INTRODUCTION

It is very common to see, in the books of Calculus, primitives of functions. However the
great majority of authors pay scant attention to the domains over which the primitives are
valid, which could lead to errors in the evaluation of definite integrals. For example, the
substitution t = tan
x
2
leads to
_
1
S +S cos x
Jx =
1
2
aictan_
1
2
tan
x
2
] +C
and
_
1
S +S sinx
Jx =
1
2
aictan_
S
4
tan
x
2
+
S
4
] +C.
However
_
1
S +S cos x
Jx
2n
0
=
1
2
aictan_
1
2
tan
x
2
]_
0
2n


=
1
2
aictan_
1
2
tan
2n
2
] -
1
2
aictan_
1
2
tan
u
2
]
= 0
and
_
1
S +S sinx
Jx
2n
0
=
1
2
aictan_
S
4
tan
x
2
+
S
4
]_
0
2n


=
1
2
aictan_
S
4
tan
2n
2
+
S
4
] -
1
2
aictan_
S
4
tan
u
2
+
S
4
].
= 0
both of which are clearly false as the integrands are continuous and positive on|u,2n].
These situations can be found, for instance, in: [1], [3], [5], [6] and [7]. In the teaching of
calculus, in particular, in the teaching of the substitution method it is necessary to pay
attention in the domains of functions, especially when we are trying to evaluate definite
integrals by finding primitives. It turns out that the evaluation of definite integrals may
require partitioning the interval of integration. This paper attempts to do this for rational
functions involving sinx and cos x.



2

THE SUBSTITUTION METHOD

The substitution method for the evaluation of primitives and integrals is a consequence of
the chain rule. Recall that a differentiable function F: I L R - R is a primitive function of
: I L R - R, if F
i
(x) = (x) for every x e I.

Theorem
Let : I L R - R be a continuous function. Let : [ L R - R be a differentiable function.
Suppose that ([) L I. Then for every o e [ and b e [, we have
_((x))
b
u

i
(x)Jx = _ (x)
q(b)
q(u)
Jx.
Proof: Let F: I L R - R be a primitive of on I. The function E = F has a derivative
on [ and
E
i
(x) = F
i
((x))
i
(x) = ((x))
i
(x)
for x e [. Therefore, E is a primitive of ( ) on [; whence
_((x))
b
u

i
(x)Jx = E(b) -E(o)
= F((b)) -F((o))
= ] (x)
q(b)
q(u)
Jx.
because of the fundamental theorem of calculus.

So that
_((x))
b
u

i
(x)Jx = _ (y)
q(b)
q(u)
Jy.
This method is frequently taught in courses of Calculus. Now let us discuss this method
for trigonometric rational functions.

INTEGRAL OF THE FORM ] (stnx, us x)
h
a
dx

A function : - R is a rational function if there are two polynomials p and q, on
R
2
- R, such that
(x, y) =
p(x, y)
q(x, y)

for (x, y) e . Where is the domain of and it is equal to the set
{(x, y) e R: q(x, y) = u]

We shall show how to integrate functions having the form x - (sinx , cos x) where is a
rational function.

3

Before proceeding further, let us recall that
sinx = 2 sin
x
2
cos
x
2

cos x = cos
2
x
2
-sin
2
x
2

for x e R.
Hence if x e R and cos
x
2
= u, we have
sinx =
2 sin
x
2
cos
x
2
1
cos
x
2
=
2 tan
x
2
1 +tan
2
x
2

(1)
and
cos x =
1 -
sin
2
x
2
cos
2
x
2
1
cos
2
x
2
=
1 -tan
2
x
2
1 +tan
2
x
2

(2)

We recall that cos x = u if and only if x =
(2k+1)n
2
for k e L; hence cos
x
2
= u if and only if
x = (2k +1)n for k e L.

It follows from (1) that if x e R and k e L, then
sin(2kn +2 aictanx) = sin(2aictanx)

=
2 tan(aictanx)
1 +tan
2
(aictanx)

=
2x
1 +x
2

and from (2) that
cos(2kn +2 aictanx) = cos(2aictanx)

=
1 -tan
2
(aictanx)
1 +tan
2
(aictanx)

=
1 -x
2
1 +x
2


Therefore, we have
sin(2kn +2 aictanx)
=
2x
1 +x
2

(3)
cos(2kn +2 aictanx)
=
1 -x
2
1 +x
2

(4)

Now let L R
2
and : - R be a rational function. Let |o, b] L R be an interval and
suppose that if x e |o, b], then (sinx , cos y) e . Then x - (sinx , cos x) is a well-
defined continuous function on |o, b]; hence we may consider the integral
4

_(sinx , cos x)
b
u
Jx (5)

We shall now show that the evaluation of integrals of the form (5) can be reduced to the
evaluation of integrals of rational functions.

We shall divide the discussion into three cases:

Case I: Suppose |o, b] L (2kn -n, 2kn +n) for some k e L.

Let o = tan
u
2
and [ = tan
b
2
, and let : |o, b] - R be defined by (x) = 2kn +2 aictanx
for x e R. Then (o) = o and ([) = b. Note that
aictan[tan[
x
2
=
x
2
-kn
for x e (2kn -n, 2kn +n).


It follows from the substitution method that if we put F(x) = (sinx , cos x) for x e |o, b],
then
_F(x)Jx
b
u
= _ F(x)
q([)
q(u)
Jx = _F((x))
[
u

i
(x)Jx

From (3) and (4), we obtain
F((x)) = (sin(x) , cos (x)) = _
2x
1 +x
2
,
1 -x
2
1 +x
2
_
for x e |o, [] = jtan
u
2
, tan
b
2
[. Since

i
(x) =
2
1 + x
2

for x e R, we deduce that
_(sinx , cos x)Jx
b
u
= _ _
2x
1 +x
2
,
1 -x
2
1 +x
2
_
2
1 +x
2
tan
b
2
tan
u
2
Jx
(6)

Since is a rational function we can conclude that the mapping
x - _
2x
1 +x
2
,
1 -x
2
1 +x
2
_
2
1 +x
2

of |o, [] into R is a rational function. Hence the evaluation of (5) is reduced to that of the
integral of a rational function.



5

Example 1. Let g: (u, n) - R be a function defined as
g(x) =
1
sinx

Determine a primitive of g on (u, n).

For x e (u, n), we define
0(x) = _
1
sint
Jt
x
n
2

0 is a primitive on (u, n); it remains to determine 0 explicitly. To do this take =
{(x, y): y = u], (x, y) =
1

for (x, y) e and I = (u, n). Then

0(x) = _(sint , cos t)Jt
x
n
2
.
Using the method described above, we get
0(x) = _
1 +t
2
2t
2
1 +t
2
Jt
tan
x
2
n
2
= _
1
t
Jt
tan
x
2
n
2

= log t|
n
2
tan
x
2
= log [tan
x
2
-log _tan
n
2
2
_
Since tan
n
4
= 1 and log(1) = u, it follows that
0(x) = log [tan
x
2
.

Case II: Suppose |o, b] L |(2k -1)n, (2k +1)n] for some k e L. Notice that if o =
(2k -1)n, then there is no o e R such that o = (o); similarly there is no [ e R such
that $ b = ([). Nevertheless, we can reduce Case II to Case I by a process of limit. Let's
show an example.

Example 2. Evaluate
_
sinx
sinx +2
Jx.
n
0


Notice that the mapping g: x -
sInx
sInx+2
of |u, n] into R is continuous; hence this function
does have a primitive 0: |u, n] - R. Moreover, since 0 is continuous on |u, n] we have
_
sinx
sinx +2
Jx
n
0
= 0(x) -0(u)

= lim
x-n
0(x) -0(u)
6

= lim
x-n
_
sint
sint +2
Jt
x
0
Using (6), we obtain, for x e (u, n)
_
sint
sint +2
Jt
x
0
= _
4t
(t
2
+1)(t +1)
2
Jt
tan
x
2
0


= _ _
2
t
2
+1
-
2
t
2
+t +1
] Jt
tan
x
2
0

= 2 aictan[tan
x
2
-
4S
S
aictan_
S
S
[2 tan
x
2
+1_ +
nS
9
Since lim
x-n
aictan[tan
x
2
=
n
2
, we have
_
sinx
sinx +2
Jx
n
0
= lim
x-n
_
sint
sint +2
Jt
x
0
= n _1 -
4S
9
_.

Case III: Suppose |o, b] is an interval to which Case II does not apply. In this case there
are k e L, p e L, k < p such that
o e |(2k -1)n, (2k +1)n) and b e ((2k -1)n, (2k +1)n].

In this case, the integral can be written as a sum of integral over the intervals
|o, (2k +1)n], |(2k +1)n, (2k +S)n], |(2p -1)n, b].
Each case can be treated as in Case II.
Example 3. Evaluate
_
1
S +S cos x
Jx
2n
0
.
We have
_
1
S +S cos x
Jx
2n
0
= _
1
S +S cos x
Jx
n
0
+ _
1
S +S cos x
Jx
2n
n

By (6), we obtain
F
1
(x) =
1
2
aictan_
1
2
tan
x
2
]
for x e (u, n) and
F
2
(x) =
1
2
aictan_
1
2
tan
x
2
]
for x e (n, 2n). Therefore
7

_
1
S +S cos x
Jx
2n
0
= _
1
S +S cos x
Jx
n
0
+ _
1
S +S cos x
Jx
2n
n


= lim
x-n
(F
1
(x) -F
1
(u)) + lim
x-n
(F
2
(x) -F
2
(u))
= [
n
4
-u +[u +
n
4
=
n
2

since lim
x-n
F
1
(x) =
n
4
for x e (u, n) and lim
x-n
F
2
(x) = -
n
4
for x e (n, 2n).


FINAL REMARKS

It is possible to find out explicitly primitives of certain kind of trigonometric functions. For
instance, on the one hand, let o, b e R, such that o
2
> b
2
; then we have
_
1
o +b cos x
Jx =
1
o
2
-b
2
_x -2aictan_
2b sinx
2b cos x +(o -b +o +b)
2
__ +C
_
1
o +b sinx
Jx =
1
o
2
-b
2
_x +2aictan_
2b cos x
2b sinx +(o -b +o +b)
2
__ +C
In the other hand, let o, b e R, such that o > u and o +b > u; then
_
1
o +b cos
2
x
Jx =
1
oo -b
_x -aictan_
b sin2x
b cos 2x +(o +b +o)
2
__ +C
_
1
o +b sin
2
x
Jx =
1
oo -b
_x -aictan_
b sin2x
b cos 2x -(o +b +o)
2
__ +C
The above results can be found by the conventional substitution method t = tan
x
2
, but
using appropriate trigonometric identities. Note that the integrands belong to the family of
rational functions (sinx , cos x) of R into R where is a well-defined continuous
function on R. The primitives showed above are well-defined for every x e R and they can
be used in order to evaluate the integral in any interval I L R.

It still remains an opened question: Is there a general method for determining explicit
primitives of rational functions (sinx , cos x) of R into R where is a well-defined
continuous function on R?


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18-3949-8, (1996).
8

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