PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN

IN INDIA
PIlIfUD BY BHOPINDB.t.LAL 8AlfJCSJIII
"., TRI CJ.LCU'l"I'J. UNIVJ:RlI'l'Y P.S.1, IIJUTI BOU'., CALCV7YA.
Re.ll'. No. 854B.-Juue, 192{l-K
PREFACE
A. tbe following article. bave opened up a new field
of enquiry, I have found it neces.ary to make tbem
acees sible to our scbola ... and students. I am thankful to
tbe authors, Professors Sylvain Levi, Jules Bloeb and Jean
Przyluski, for kindly permitting me to publisb tbese
translations in the form of a book. Tbe introduction
is meant for our studen to, and it does not pretend to be
exhaustive. A number of similarities between Indo-Aryan
and Austric words have been suggested by my friend and
colleague Dr. S. K. Chatterji, and such suggestions
hRve also occurred to me. As some of tbe words noted
by us are popular vernacular terms, not usually registered
in dictionaries, it was thought that their discu.sion might
be a propo. to the subject so . brilliantly inaugurated by
the eminent l<'rencb scbolars.
In spite of my best endeavours, some possible slips
in translation and tranBliteration, have crept in: for
the.. I crove the indulgence of the antbors as well as
the reader. But these, I hope, will not detract from the
merit of the original pape .. , which are Bingularly valuable
for tbe reconBtruction of the foundationB of our bistory
and cultare.
I have grstefully to acknowledge tbe asBi.tanC9 I
rPceived from Dr. A. C. Woolner for baving gone tbrougb
portions of tbe translation in MS., and "Iso from
Dr. S. K. Cbatterji for bis conotant active interest in
the publication of the work.
Tn UNIVEBBIT!',
CALCUTl'A:
lit Mo,. IPB9.
P. C. BAaCK!.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Some more An.tric Words in Indo-Aryan
(S. K. Cbatterji and P. C. Bagcbi) xix
PART 1-
Non-Aryan Loans in Indo-Aryan (J. Przylnski) 8
"lJIlal., p. 4; 6iila, "a",6ala, ili",6ala, p. 6;
lingala, lingula, linga, p. 8; Names of betel,
p. 15; Bengali numeration and Non-Aryan
Loans, p. 25.
PART 11-
Sanskrit and Dravidian (Jules Blocb) 85
PART 111-
Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India (fl,ylvain
Levi) 68
ApPIINDlll TO PART 1-
Further Notes on Non-Aryan Loans in Indo-
Aryan (J. Przyluski) 127
matanga, p. 129 ; ",al',a, _,fila, ",orija,
p. 181; Name. of Indian ToWIIs in tbe
Geograpby of ptolemy, p. 186; lcod .. mlia,a-
o/la",6IJ'o, p. 149.
ApPBNDlll TO PART 111-
I. Paloura-Dantapnra (Sylvain Levi) ... 168
II. Note on TOlala and Dhanli (P. C. Bagcibi) 176
ADDITIONS ANn CORBIIOTlONS 179
INTRODUCTION.'
AU8TRO-AsIATIC.
A linguistic unity in the Man-Khmer group (then
called Mon-Annam) was first pointed out by Logan and
others and established on a sure footing by Keane in 1880.
Forbes in his work, Comparative Grammar of tAe Language,
of Further I"dia (1881), incontestably proved the exis-
tence of this linguistic unity. In 1888 Miiller t continued
the same study further. Kuhn in 1889 while emphasising
on this linguistic unity remarked 3 "what is more
striking is the relation with Annamite; there is undeniable
relation of the monosyllabic group: Kha.i-Mon-Khmer
with Kolh, Nancowry, ond the dialect. of the aborigines
of Malacca."
Schmidt pushed the work of Kuhn further < and estah-
li.hed the relation between the languages of the Malay
penin.ula and the Mon. Khmer group. He studied also the
correspondence in the vocabularies IS and the phonetio
laws of tbose language., He then applied these law. to
1 The first part of the Introduction is based on (and partly
translated from) the French translation of P.ter Schmidt's article.
0/. BEFEO VII, pp. gl7lt
t GrundriB, de' Sprachwu8enschtlJt, Vol. IV (Appendi:J:) .
B ~ t r a g e zur Bprach,n-kund. Hinterindi8n,. Sitz. del' X. b.1er
Akad.der wis&eD.acb. phil. hiat. XL 1889
,
I, p. 219.
, Die 8prach,n de' Bakei und 8emang rw./ Mdla1c1ca wnd i", Y"hll-
tnil .. den Mon.khmer 8p,,"hen, Bijdragen tot de Taal-Lauden
Volkenkunde 'flO Naderl. Indil, 6th aeriel, Part VIll.
I Gnmlzlgc ei",r LauU,hr. der Mon.khmer Sprock,,.. (1906),
DankaohrifteD dlr Kaised. Akad. d. Wi.l. in WieD (phil. hilt.), ][J..,
Vol VIJl,
ii INTRODUCTION
tbe study of Kb .. i.' In an appendix to hio otudy of
Kb .. i he examined Palong, Wa and Riang of tbe middle
valley of tbe Salween. Palong woo already connected with
the Mon-Khmer family by Logan and Kuhn. Grierso.
in hi. Linuuilli. 8.",.y (II, pp. I, 88ll'.) added W.
and Riang to it. Wa and Riang extend, almo.t to the
.. me latitude as Khasi.
Scbmidt next ,tudied tbe Nikober .. e and by a 'tndy
of it. phonology proved that it belonga to tbe Mon-Kbmer
family and is related to otber I.nguage, whi.h belong to
the same group. There is resemblance even in paorticula.r
details of vocali,m and .0n,onBntism. It has the same
development for tbe roots in y. and rD. as in the Mon-
Kbmer languag .. , the same for the mode of the production
of palatals. A. to the morphology, it presents 80me
earlier pha, .. of morphologic.1 development in m.ny c ....
aDd gives UB the key for explaining a series of forms in
Mon-Khmer. Nieobere,e i, not pollysyn.bic as often
said; the root, .re mono.y nabi. like other Mon Kbmer
langu.ges and are developed by infixes Bnd prebes.
There are be.ide. sullixe. in it which are completely
missing in other Mon-Khmer langu.gas. Most of th .. e
snllixe. indicate direction (as it happen. in tbe langnag ..
of i.lands) me.ning cardinal points. But tbere are a few
wbich have purely grammatical fu.ctio.. Hence Niko-
her .. e is a Ii.k between the (or Kol) and the great
I GruMJifl' tiner Loutt,hr, de, Khtui,..S"acM in u..r", B,."
,hu.ng'" II' d"1",igm dtr MOft.okhm,r 8pracken (190e:) : AbhlDdlDD,eD
dor B.yer Akad. d. WiI,_ (r. XL. Vol. XXII. rm .
Gl. Or. Mon.l:hm" SprtcM", II 199 fl. aDd 5W . , 0,. DIIi
8pr .. "'. 1111&_
cl. Appendix 10 Dio M -kh ..... VBIHr .... BindtglUd .8'_ ..
VIJUc"" Z.trGlGli"., .nd 1908 (ct, FnPCh 1'raDdltiOll,
BUBO.:vn. pp. 911&.).
lNTRol>tJCT10N
iii
Anstronesian group which also possess suffixes besides
prefixes and infixes.
Sten Konow CLingllillic 8.",.y, IV, p. 11) establi.hed
the relation between the MUI)QiI and the
groups on phonological grounds. "Both families possess,..
he Bays, "aspirated hard and soft letters. Both avoid
a word with more than one consonant. The most
characteristic feature in M ul)Qi phonology are the so-called
semi-consonants: k', eR', t', pi, They are formed in the
mouth in the same way aB the corresponding hard conso-
nant.s k, ch, t, p, hut the sound is checked and the breath
does not touch the organs of speech in passing out. The
sound often makes the impression of being nasalised and we
therefore find writings, such as tn, or dn instead of t' ; P"',
or 6m instead of p'; and so forth. Some corresponding
sounds exist in Sakei and connected languages. In the Mon-
Khmer forms of speech final consonants are, as a general
rule, shortened in various ways. Similarly in Cham final
'h, t, p, R are Dot pronounced and their is at
last cheeked so that only a good observer can decide which
sound is intended." As to the formation of words in both
th. groups Sten Konow noticed only a few characteristics,
but it was Schmidt again who proved that the system of
the formation of words with the help of prefixes and infixes
is identical in both the groups.
In these two groups of languages (MuQ4i and other
Mon-Khmer groups) all consonante that they peasess with
the exosption of 0>, ft, y, and to can aerve as simple prefixes,
and, as iu the most ofthe Mon-Khmer languages, a second
degree of pre fixation by insertion of a nasal Co>, II, "' )
or a liquid (, [11]) between the prefix and the root may
take place. Some of the infixee Uled are identical in both
the families as regards their form as well as their
function.
INTRODUCTION
Th. infix n forms nam of instruments in the Mon-
Khm.r and abstract nouns which d.signate the result of an
action in the languages. Th. forms of the l .. st
Il&tegory ar. not how.ver rare in Khmer, Bahnor and
Nikobare , and inversely the languag.s have names
of instrum.nts form.d by the infixation of n. Th. infix
p form. abstract words in Santali. Th. same phenom.non
is obs.rved in Khmer, but only in th. root words of which
the initial is 110' or I, wh.reas for words b.ginning with
oth.r initials the double infix .,,' is found. There is
another remarkable point of resemblance betwe.n Nikoba-
rese and th. latter forms .. kind of superlative
by inserting p and the former a comparative by", but
in both th. cases we are in th. pres.nce of abstract words
and ma.nnerisms analogous to the expression: i8
good" ... it .. if.
B .. ide. the infixes and prefixes th. MUI}(jii languages
also make use of suffixes. On this point they do not agree
wIth Mon-Khmer and Khasi hut with Nikobarese. The
formation of some iotransitiv8S, passives and substantives
corresponds precisely with Santoli ok', ak', MUI}<Jiri 0,
and Kiirkii u which a.re used in the formation of passives,
reflexives, and intransitives. Besides the adjectival suffix
o in Nikobarese s.ems to be identical with the suffix 00 of
Santali which forms v.rbs of condition. The large quantity
of other suffix .. which have mad. th. MUQQi conjugation a
compl.x on. i. Dot found in Nikobares. and still Ie in
Khasi and Mon-Khm.r (th. last two having no suffixes).
Bot this does not go against the th.ory of relation.hip
between the two group. of languag... It i. the
nec ..... y con.equ.nce of anoth.r unique and important
dill'er.nc .
It consiste in the fact that uS88 the g.niti v.
(without affix) before and Mon-Khm.r, Khasi, and
INTRODUCTION v
Nikooorese after. A law 1 has heen e.tabli.hed that the
languages wbich have the genitive hefore the word gcverned
(without affix) ar. language. po e ing suffixes, while
those whioh have tbe genitive coming after are languages
passeg.ing prefixes. Thi. law i. to he appli.d bere.
The faot tbat tb. pre nts such a rich
dev.lopment of suffixation i. due to it. po.ition of
g.nitiv. being b.fore tbe word. Sinc. the e.tabli.hment
of tbis law tbe attention bas been drawn to the importance
of pos iv. affixes which have pre.erv.d, for a v.ry long
time, the ancient position of the genitive. The case is
similar wi th M In forms like apu-n' a my
father," apu-m U your father," etc., the genitive which is
plac.d before in other oases haB been placed after in tho.e
oa,e.; becau.e apu-n i. nothing but opo-an .. fatb.r (of)
mine." This proves that the languag , in
ancient times, had postposition of genitiva and it is from
tbat time onward. that their sy.tem of prefixes, which
exist now in a state of survival, has come down. The
pr.sent antepo.ition of genitive has b.en introduoed
through the influenee of Dravidian, Aryan, or Tibeto.
Burman languages which surrounded the MUQQi domain
and have aotually pen.trated into it. Thus the mo.t
s.riou. difficulty in connecting the two groups of
languages is gon.. A large concordance betw.en th. two
vocabularies .upport. it. Schmidt had .hown that
Saotali ha. about 500 words (reduced to about 360 roote)
in common with Man-Khmer, Khasi, and Nikobareae.'
Schmidt has thus proved the relation of the
MUI)c)ii languages with Nikoharese, Khasi and Man-Khmer
I 01. Schmidt's lecture to the Vienna Anthropological Society.
publiahed in VlJlkftr f'8,chologi. of Wundt. Vol. It c/. &1110 Mitteilungell
des AnUlrop. Gelsellchalt in Wien. xxxm, pp. 881889.
I CI. AppeDdi:a: referred to in Dote 8; pli.
vi INTRODUCTION
and established the existence of a linguistic family called
by him Autro-Aslatlc. It comprises, according to bim,
the following groups:
. I. Mi".iJ Group: Cam, Jaral, Sedang, which
are MonKhmer judged by their construction and
vocabulary but has borrowed a large number of words,
even personal pronouns and words for numbers.
1
II. Mon-Khmer: the two ancient literary languages,
Mon and Khmer, Babnar, Stieng, dialects of the tribes
called MOl: Samreb, Kha-so, Kha Tampuen, Scbong,
Huei, Sue, Sue, HiD, Nahhaog, Mi, Khmus, Lemet
J
all in
Indo-China; and in tbe peninsula of Malaya, Bersisi and
Jakun.'
III. SenD; (8akei)-S.mang in Malacca.
IV. Palo"g-Wa-Ri g.
V. KA.Ii.-
VI. Nik06.r
VII. M"Mii: or Kol tbe two sub-groups, the more
e .. tern SA ...... ,; with Santali, MUI,!Qiri, Bhumij, Birhor,
Koc)i, Ho, Turi; Asuri, and Korwa dialects, and the
western Kfirkfi; Kbapi; Juang; and the two mixed
languages, Savara and Gad"ba.
6
'I.'be languag .. occupy tbe eastern half of
Central India. Dravidian is on its soutb and penetrates

I Diction.air. Ca.maJrtsnQ4w by Aymonier IIond Caba.ton, Paris, 1906
(.,. Allthrop .. , n, pp. 880-889).
I Khmer test. publilhed by Abbot Guesdon, A"throp'" I, pp. 9199.
Boh"lf Grllmmor and DictioftGf1' by Douri.aboure CBon&kong 1889),
Btl'." Diottofto'1 by Azima.r (Faria 1887 Dot; complete).
I Skeat aDd Blagden: Pqaft .Roc., 0'1 th, Milia. P""ftlulG, (DI.
Voeabulary), Loudnn 1906, Anth,opo" D, pp. &98, 60&.
, L'""viltW 8"",, 0/ India. n .
Ibid, n, pp.17-67. Aft Angl .. 1Ch1lli DilJli ... " bJ E.lIobtri.
(1878)
LiwpilIi<J 8.,." of 1 ...... IV: (1908), pp. 1_1'/6.
INTRODUCTION vii
it at several pointo. It Lao been now definitely proved
that there is no relation the two .groupo. On the
southern border of the Himalayas Sten Konow hao found out
lOme languages, which though of Tibeto-Burman origin,
present some characteristics similar to tliose in Mut}fjl.
There wa find, no doubt, the laot traces of the MU,!QI
which once existed in tbat region. The westernmost of
tbese dialecto is the Kanawari in the valley of the Sutlej
spoken at the confiuence of the Sutlej and the Spiti, i .. ,
the southern frontier of Kashmir. To the ... t, in Nepal,
Mancatl, Ranglol, Bunin, Rank.s, DArmiyi,
Couditisl, Byillsl, and Dhlmal are connected with it. It
should be therefore admitted that the domain of MU!]'!II,
Mon-Khmerand other connected languages wao much more
considerable tban it is at present. It is only in later times
that this domain h .. been reduced and cut into pieces by
Aryan and Dravidian on the west and Tibeto-Burman on
the e .. t.
The seven linguistic group., enumerated before, can be
reduced to three principal groups acr.ording to Schmidt.
San tali (or in general) is more closely related to
Mon-Khmer than to Khasi. Nikobares. occupies a
middle position between Khasi (and Wa language.) and
Mon-Kbmer-cum-MuQqi. Berisi (and Jakun) of Malaya
i. more related to the latter group than to the Senoi_
Semang as expected from ito geographical position. On
the contrary a division must be estahlished in the second
group: Semang, Tembe, Senoi, and Sakei.' The Semang
dialects should be put apart and tbe Senoi (Iilakei, Tembe)
sbould be considered as particular group by itself. Both
may be included in a more general group but it sbould be
pointed out that Senoi inclines more towards tb. Berili
l Di, ",cschln def Bake. und 811M"g 4ftt Malakka "Btl ihr
.,,""taiI "" M ... k""", 8p, .. h ... , f.
viii INTRODUCTION
dialects (andconsequentIy to the Man-Khmer) and probably
preeenfs .. mixture of those dialects with Sem"ng.
Regarding the last it should be ;x>inted out that the words
by which it dUfers from otber languages of MaJ..ya and
from Man_Khmer have not yet been identified. It i.
besides probable that there are in them the vestige. of the
original language of the Semang.Negritos, now 108t. It
becomes more certain when we consider the eases in which
tbe Man-Khmer languages agree primarily between them-
s.lves. In eucb casesit appears to be less and Ie .. probable
that these word. of the Semang longuage come from a
particular group of the gr t, family of
Nikobar-Khasi The case is similar with
the word "bird"; Sem8ng has a. particular root kaf(,(lu
while other languaget< have another root lim; for "child"
etc., have tb. root
..twan while Semang has wan; for" hand" 8emang hIlS
ca. while others have t,,;, Ii,
Laet1y a study of some ancient loans from Aryan
throws some light on the classification of these languagoes.
Three of these loan- .re interesting. Cl) Sanskrit
jangAi is found under the forms gango, gan, jon, iii'h, iin,
iotA, etc., in San tali, Wa, Palong, Riang
J
Mon.Kbmer,
Benoit Berisi and lakun but is missing in Nikoba.rese, Khasi,
Semang and the other M uQ':ii languages. (2) Sanskrit
.atoka seems to be missing in MU'!Qi and Nikobarese.
In Semang there are hal" hale, etc., which are a little
doubtful on account of the eecondary forms: kli and Mit.
Everywhere else we have .alaka, .Iok, .Uk, .la, kia, lao
(S) Sanskrit (u)daka is found everywhere under the
forms d/lk, 4iik. dik, do", eto., e.cept io Kba.i, Wa,
Palong, Riang, Semang and probably Seooi. Only
1 The above it Pater Schmidt's view. But it may be quuUoDed
j! !be .",tric .... do are 10\ .u derj.ec1 from Indo-Arj'an.-l' _ O. II.
INTRODUCTION
the MOD-Khmer (and poeseeB these three I.,..
""rd. J on the contrary the three other groupe po8HN
onB and Semang probably none. It oan therefore be con-
cluded that the last three groupe represent the mOlt
ancient stage in d.evelopment Bnd have preserved for th.e
three concepts the ancient roots, which Mon. Khmer and
po.seBled originally but-(and it is important for
determiDing the period 01 migration of the different groupe
their present abode) which they lo.t after their
more prolonged and intimate commerce with their Aryan
neighbours.
The following classifioation necessarily follows from
the .xplanation given above:
I. (al Seman. J
(6) Senoi (Sakei, Tembe); for their mixture with
Berioi, if. III(a).
II. (a) Khaai J
(6) Nikobarsse;
(eJ Wa, Palong, Riang related to Mon-Khmer
(if. lIla);
III. (a) Mon-Khmer (with oahnar, Stieng, etc.) J
(6) or Kol J
(e) d.m, R&d., etc., mixed with Austronesian

AUBT&o-AsuTIe ANn AusTRle.
Schmidt haa extended hiB studi.s even further and
proposed to conneot the Austra-Asiatic' family with
Austroneeian which consists of several well-determined
l'IOl. PrsJI .. ti b .. orilicioecl thiII .... 1DCi.11Ife (ooe p. 1'8, 9
ollba hoot) BOd boo propooed OOIDS modifio.1ioDa.
INTRODUCTION
groups: Mel&nesi&n, Polynesi.n, Micronesian and Indo-
nesian.' He h... studied these two large gronps and
dj.covered in them the following common f.atu ... :
(I) Absolute similarity in tbe phonetic system, (2) a com-
plete basic unity in the structure of words, (3) several
important and characteristic features in tbe grammar,
oi . , the postposition of tI,. genitive; affixatioll and
partially the form of the poos.ssive ; the presence of &11
exclusive and inclusive form for tbe first person plural
of the personal pronoun in Borne of tbeee langnages; the
existence of & dual and & trial in some of these languages;
(4) large agreemellt in vocablllary.
On tbese ground. Schmidt proposed to establish ..
larger Iingui.tic unity between A nstroAsiatic and A ustro.
neoian and called' the family thus constituted" Austria."
M. Rivet wants to extend tbis family even further and
included in it the languages spoken in the Oceanic group,
i.e., Australian,S Papuan, and Tasmanian.
4
1 Die Mcm-Khmer VIJlker, ,in Bindeglietl IIDi.chen flHk"," ZSfltral.
Slk,.. und Au,tront8iena, 1906 (French tranllatioD : Le. Peuple. Mon.
Khmln. trait d'URion entre Ie. pellple, de l'Asie central., It de l'Aultro-
a,,;., BEliED, VIT, pp. 213.268, "ill, pp. 1-85).
Le Group odanien, Bttll. Soc. Ling . 1006 (88)t pp. 141168. '
Schmidt already luggeated it in bis study on Die Oliederung'
.de, IUffaluchen Sprachen, AlI.tltrop08, Voll. vn, VIII, IX. XII,
xm.
Prof. Przylulki (d. infra, p. 147) baa railed the problem of the
relation between Sumeria,. aDd Acutro.A,iatic. He baa compared a
.nea of Aultro-Aaiatio words with Bnmeria.D and hu diaeovered im.
portant Inilogiel. K. Wvei allO in hi. article already referred to
.1Ig, 1a Ibat Ibe Sumeri... badprcbably played an imparIan'
role ..... genta of van,milsioD of cultural elemen. between Oceania
uad Europe and Africa. But it would be premature, .. I Prof. Prz71Dlki
him..u ,dmilll (i"fNJ, p. U8), \0 gi .... y .... di .. ,I tho ~ I
_eal.
lNTRODUCTION
AUBTlIo-ABIATIO AND INDO-ARYAN.
While Prof. Thomsen maintained that a MU9Qii'
influenee has probably baen at play in fixing the principie
regulating the inflexion of nouns in Indo-Aryan veruacu-
lars, .uch influence appeared to he unimportaot to Prof_
Stan Konow. He found it more probable that the Dravi-
dian languages bad modified Aryan grammar in such
characteristics aod the MU9Qii family had thus, at the ut-
most, exeroised but an indirect influence through the
Dravidian forms of speech. He, bowever, admitted that
Bome phenomena of Bihari, like the conjugation of verb.,
,the use of different forms to denote an honorific or non-
honorific subject or object aod the curious change of
verb when the object i. a pronoun of tbe BOcond per60n
Bingular oaD be conveniently explained as due to M uQQi
influence.
Recent studi .. bave tried to e.tablish that this influence
cou be traced further back. Prof. Przyluski in bis papers,
trAnoiated here, bave tlied to explain a certain number of
word. of the Sauskrit vOCIbulary 8S fairly ancient loan.
from the Austro-A.iatic family of languages. He b
in this opened up a new line of enquiry. Prof. Jul ..
Bloch in bis article on San.krit and IJravidian, also, tran-
slated in this volume, ba. critici.ed the position of those
1 Dr. S. K. Chatterji prefer. to call the MUQc;Ji family Kil,.1 the
word Kil. according to him. i. (in the Slnskrit..Prakrit form Kolto) an
e.,-l, Aryan modification of an old Mtl\\4i word m.aning U me.
(2'h, Slud, at K;;!, O.Ie.lto R .. i"", lUll, p. 455). Prof. PHyl 1Ii
.too _II hi ... pl tion (inf,o, pp. !i8.gg). A. th. word M.,f'
has the di.advantage of being the nama of apecial group of ihiI
family (tliJ:., the tribe which centres round the cri.tJ of Banchi in OW.
Nagpere and whoae"language i. called Mundori), it would be
bolter t.O adopt lb. word K;;! lot tho common of Ibia porIi-
C1IIar- br...,b of tho Auiro-Aai.lio rooe or a_b.
l:NTROt>trCTION
who stand e.:elusively for Dravidian influence and has
proved that the qnestion of the Mnl)QI substratum in
Indo.Aryan ... nnot he overlooked.
Bnt the problem has other aspects too, and it has been
forther proved that not only Iinguistio hnt certain cnltnral
and politi ... 1 facts allo of the ancient history of India can
be explained by admitting an Austro.Asiatic element. In
1923, Prof. Uvi, in a fnndamental article on P, A"en et
PrilJra.'!lien da I'/nd. tried to show that some gao
graphi ... 1 names of ancient India like KOIala.To la,
A1I., " m,., K aUn,a.Trilin,a, Utkala.Mekala and
P"U"d.K"linda, ethnic names which go by pairs, can
be explained by the morphological system of the
Austro.Asiatic languages. Names like Acclta.raccha,
TaUolaKaUola belong to the same category. He
concluded his long study with the following observa.
tion: "We must know wbether the legends, the religion
and the philosophi ... 1 thought of India do not owe
anything to this past. India has beon too exclusively
examined from the Indo.European standpoint. It ought
to be remembered that India is a great maritime country ...
the movement which carried the Indian colonieation
towards the Far East... was far from inaugurating a new
route ... Adventurers, traffickers and missionaries profited
by the technical progress of navigation and followed
nnder better conditions of comfort and efficiency, the
traeed from time immemorial, by the mariners of
race, whom Aryan or Aryanioed India despised
.. ..voges." In 1926, Przyluski tried to explain the
name of an anoient people of the Punjab, tbe Uti_A ......
in .. similar way and affiliate it to the Anstro-Aeiatic
group. (Cf. JIJrJ.",al A,;atiqlHJ, 1926, I, pp. 1.25, U" a .... "
JIfl'pl. tI" PlltldjafJ-I .. UtI ... bara.: only a portion ofthio
article oontaining lingui.tic has been tnuWatsd
lNTRODUCTION
, to'
.:UU
in the Appendix of this book.) In another miolt, the
..... e scholar discussed some names of Indian towns' in
the geograpby of Ptolemy and tried to explain them by
Austro-Asiatio forms.'
In another series of articles, Prof. Przyluski is. trying
to prove a certain number of Indian myths by the Austrl>-
Asiatic influence. He studied the Mahibhirat.. story of
Matsyagandhl and some legend. of the HiiJi in Indian
literature, compared them with similar tales in the Austm-
A,iatic domain and concluded that" th .. e stories and legend.
were oonoeived in societies living near the sea, societies. of
which the civilisation and social organisation were dil!erent
from those of the neighbouring peoples: the Chinese and
Lhe Indo-Ary ..... " (Cf. La prince .. e a Pod,., de pou,an
et ta nligi aan. t.. traditio .. ae I' Alie o,iBntale, Etudes
A.iatiques, II, pp. 265-284. Prof. Przyluski continued the
eame study in another article Le P,ologll4-cad,e dol
Mitte .t une Nuit. et Ie 1'hem. du 8.a!!a""oa,,,,, Joumal
AIi.tigue, 1924, ccv, pp. 101-137.)
Coming to modern languages of India also Prof.
PrzyluBki has arrived at interesting results. Sa has
contributed two articles on this subject, one of which
on the Bengali Numeration and No .. ,A'!!a .. 8,,6,t,.' .... has
heen translated in this book (pp. 25-32). In thi . artiole
be has traced the origin of tbe Bengali iut# (twenty) to
tbe Austro Asiatic domain. In anotber article on t4.
1"g.Ii .. 1 H .. _.tion i .. India' he tries to determine tbe
1 Bull. d, III BocWU d. Ling. 1926 (28), pp. 218.919; inll's,
pp. 186148; we muat a.dmit ~ a t the DODclulioulOf PIof. Przyluaki ue
Dot oonWloiDg.
I LG numlrat1oft, "l9 mmal., dam l'ln" publiBhed in the Roc.,.,}
Orj.ftWv\rc ... ,. T. IV (19116), pp. 280-287. II reached mo too 1_10 '"
be tranalated iD tbi. DOllecDOD. Ita alUDmal1 ia given below.
::nv INTRODUCTION
origin of the numeration by twenties. Having proved in
. hi. former .. rticle tblLt the notion of twenty i. ,....I1y
hued on the human body, he pointe out that, as " maD
pos ... s.. four members, each provided with 5 lingers, 5-
hand., and 20 - man, are higher composite unite in the
Austro-Asiatic nomeration. 5 and 20 having the same
relation to each other as I to 4, the next higher number
which could be qllite naturally conceived was 80 bearing
the same relation to 20 as 20 has to 5. It would be
interesting to note in this connection the affiniti.. of the
Bengali word pan or pon-one anna:;4 pice-80 cowrie
shens -80 piece, in computing for instance betel
leaves or straw bundl... In Santali pO1/, or p.n
mean, 80 (Camphell, Santali ])ictionary, . v. pon);
cf. 6ar pon gDcM "160 bundles of rice-,eedling." in
which 6a, mean' 2 and pon, 80. The origin of the word
pon - 80 can be easily determined if we obeerve that
in SantaIi pon means also 4. Pon or pan i, certainly
u,ed for 4 (twenti ). Eighty ('.e., four twenty) being
tbe tetrade par ezceltence ended by being .hortened into
.. four." Pon or pan thus play, in Santali the same
role as 100 in ours. It is a composite unit and the
highest of all. The babit of counting by tetrade, and
twenties, onoe introduced, pon, i.e., 80 could be considered
... the agregate of 20 tetrad... Tbis way of counting
. is usnal in Santali in which pon, pan=80 is sa.id to be
fOlIOed of 20 go04a or gao4a: gao4a means " group of
4, i.e., tetrade.
pon
20x4=80
In thi. operation 4 .. ems to have taken "capital
Interest. Thi. i, probably why gafl4a not only mean.
INTRODUCTION
the inferior tetrade of 4 bnt also the aotion of diVision (
Thns we have:
po. gaftq",. = 4 tetrades = 16
and ganiJ,a gun4a "fragments, to be broken in pieces,
to be reduced to powder."
ganq",. g . ~ i "to divide, to connt."
(Of. A. ('ampbell, A Santali Engli." lJiction_ry, s.v. ga.q",.
gu!;: "the eystem of 9004. g " ~ i ;. to put down a pebble
or any other small object, as tbe name of eaoh person'
entitled to sbare is mentioned. Then & share is placed
alongside of eacb pebble, or whatever el.. was laid
down.)"
It is possible to show that this system has .been
known not only to tbe people speaking the modern
Indo-Aryan languages but also to Sanskrit. Amongst
the meanings attributed to tbe word ga'!l4a"a (St.
Petersburg Dictionary) we have" c) division, separation,
" certain way of counting, system of counting
by 4 (if. Benllali gato4i = 4) ; a money equal to 4
1<ao4;,."
As the Skt. word ga'!l4a". means " coin eqna\ to
4 cauris it has a greater chanco of being a loan from the
Austro-Asiatio languages. First of all the word has tb.
eame meaning as that of Santali ganq",. I besid .. the uae
of cauri shells (c$praea monet.) as a money is not an
Indo-Eoropean custom, It is the charaoteristic of a
maritime civili ... tion which was developed on the aho ...
of Indian Ocean and the China Sea, i.e., the region where
the people speaking the Aostro-Aaiatic languag .. were
disseminated. In the 18th century this money was in
current use in Bengal. The seri .. containing the multiple.
of cauri i. marked by the frequency of the tetnil ..
INTRODUCTION
and tIll; UIe of tbe factor four. The table of tbeir
valaes are still preserved:
4. "auri = 1 gOWii
20 gaWi = 1 pa" or 80 "4Uri
4. pa,!, = I iiMa
4 ilna = 1 "il4a" or ! of a rupee approximately
. (c!. Rolno"Job,o,,, s. v. cowry).
It is possible to connect with modern Indo.Aryan
pO,!, the. S.ntali numeral pa" or po" me.ning 80, and
luoh is its numerical value in the system:
. . 1 pap = 80 "au,...
Papa is besides a Sanskrit word and the Sanskrit
vooabalary III, 3, 206 teaches us that 20
cauri. = i p."a. Pa". in Sanskrit h.. therefore the
same value as pan = 80 in Santali.
On the whole, tbe three tetrades at the basis of
the. MUQQi nameration,-gotuja = 4, ""ri = 4 X 5 =20,
pa. _ 4 x 20 = 8O-are enumerated in the same way
in . Bengali and Santali and the words gawar"a) and
pap(a) belong also to the Sanskrit vocabulary. The ..
analogie. can be explained only by loans from M ul)<ll;
In oontact of' maritime populations wbo used cauri and
Counted by twenties, some Indo-Aryan group. have
adopted the Austro.Asiatio monetary unit and the
vige.imal numeration; I these foreign worde have also
in their vocahulary along with it.
, Przyluoki h.. propo.ed to continne further biJ
interesting study on numeration.
This is a1I'that has been done tilluow on the AQjtro-
Asiatio substratum and loanl in IndoAryan. The _ultaj
ii1rea4y arrived at, are .umoient to draw our attention
.', Oouuliug by .... lio. ia mil ...... 1 ...... ..... 0 10.(
.... QfBeDSal.-P.O.B. ,\
INTRODUCTION
to tbis new field of inve.tigation. Beaidea the .tudi
alroady noticed we have to refer to tbe work of 1.
Hornen 1 who admits a strong Polynesian inlluence on
tbe Pre-Dravidian population of tbe Southern oout of
India. He think. tbat a wave of Malayan immigration
must have arrived l.ter, after the entranoe of the
Dravidians on tbe s.ene, and it was a Malayan people who
brought from the Malay Arcbipelago tbe cultivation of
tbe coco-palm. Besides, in a few papers contrihuted
to the Journal of tbe Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Prof. Das Gupta ha. brougbt out tbe .triking analogy
between some sedentary game. of India (.pecially of the
Central Provinees, Bengal, Bihar, Oris.a and tbe Punjab)
and tbo.e of Sumatra.
9
Finally Dr. J. H. Hutton, in an interesting lecture on
tbe Sto.. AUe Cull of A"... delivered in the Indian
Museum at Calcutta in 1928, while dealing with lOme
prehistorio monoliths of Dimapur, Dear ManipurJ laya I
tbat "tbe metbod of erection of these monolitb. is very
I Th, Origiftl and the Ethftologica! 8igni/iotlfte. 01 th. Itldian Boat
deoignB (A. 8. B. Memoir. Vol. VII. 1911O).
I A Pew T,pII oj Indian 8.d.nttlf'1I OamN, etc., l.A..B.B. XXU
(1998), pp. 148U8, and 211218. It will be noticed that tbe Damea of
BOlDa of tbeBe game. end in the word
ba, .. gufi prevalent in the Punjab) which .1 Prot. DI. Gupta '1,."
melnl, II piecel." The word il evidently the aame .a Santali
(of gan.tle noticed before by Prof. Przylolkj). The word has
the chance of belonging to tbe Auatro-Aaiatio vocabulary.
* Cf. Mtln. in India VIII (1998), 4:, pp. About the celta
or atone adzes and aus discovered in Aliaam he aays tbat .. it w .. a
probably bafted in the Polyneaia.n manner between two layerl of wood
laabed together. By far the commoneat type i, a ,ligbtly shouldered
f)"pe, derived from tbe Irrawaddy or M'oo .. Xhmer. MonKhmer forml
allo nrvive in language aDd folklore througbout Allam. The edn
I. lOUDd In tb. GODges Valle" bu .... probably_,M by
the emigraa.ti from the talt. '!
8
aviii
INTRODUCTION
important, .. it throws some light on the erection of
prehistoric monolitb. in other parts of the world. A.sam
and Madal:""car are the only remaining parts of the
world where tbe practice of erecting rough ston ..
till continu ...... The origin of this .tone cult i. uncertain,
hut it appears that it i. to be mainly imputed to the
Mon.Khmer intrusion from the ea.t." 10 bis opinion tbe
erection of these monolith. takes the form of tbe 1inllQm
and !loni. He tbink. tbat tbe Tantrik form of worship, so
prevalent in A.sam, i. probably due to "the incorporation
into Hindui.m of a fertility cult whioh preceded it as
.the religion of the country. Tbe dolmens possibly .uggest
di.tributioo from South India, but if so, tb. probable
course \VBS aero.. the Bay of Bengal and tben back
again westward from fnrtber Asia. Pos.ibly tb. origin
was from Indonesia whence apparently the u.. of '.pari
(loI'IICa nut) spread to India .. well a. the Pacific." I
I ha.. Dol ...... .bl. 10 ...... It \he ....... publiootlon of Mi.
Bobahiro Katilu.mot.o. L. Ilpo7UJi. It '" lan,,,,, Autros,faUq.", in
_blah h pP.-1o h ... apened another naw liDo 01 AUlIzooAaiat;fo
-.Ia.
It
[So K. C.]
SOME MORE AUSTRIC WORDS IN
INDO-ARYAN.
(RBAD BBFORB TBB FIFTH ALL-INDIA ORIBNTll
CONFERENCE, LAHORE, NOYaIlBBR, 1928.1
A new and a most important line of investigation hal
been inaugurated hy Dr. Jean Przyluski by hi. reuaroh ...
into the philology of the Austria element in our Indian
Aryan speeches, beginning from Sanskrit downwards.
The presence in the Indo-Aryan speeches of a considerable
nllmber of AUBtria words (allied, it would seem, more
to the Mon-Khmer than to the Kol or Munda group)
is of very great signi60ance in the stlldy of the origins
of the Hindu people and Hindu culture of Northern
India. Theee words demonstrate borrowing from Austria
dialect. at a time when they were spoken by m ... es of
people, evidently on the Gangetic plains. The people who
spoke these Austric dialects have nOW merged into tbe
Hindu (or Mohammedan) manes of Northern India: thoy
have become transrormed into the present-day Aryan-
spesking costes and groups of the country. Tb. worda
indicate the kind of objects, idess, and in.titutions .. hioh
pereisted and whiah the Aryan world had to adopt in
, All rel.re .... liko [A 80(b)]. [B 858854] in Ibeloll"";., Doles
are to the 'YOCabulalJ' of Skeat aad Blagden. The letter repreleutl tb.'
of the vocabulary UDder it. The names of the laugaage. and dialect
.. well .. a of authorities md IOUI'CeI us given in abbreviated lema alter
_ word w i ~ buckoll.
INTRODUCTION
howsoever modified a form. M. Przyluski in his very
valuahle papers to th. M Imoim d. ta &c'-Iii d.
Li.".i.tiq d. Pari. and in the JOflNlal 4.iatiq,,' has
indicated tbe line of his enquiries and his methods,
and has given his derivations of " lIumber of Sanskrit
words which are horrowings from the extinct Austria
dialects current in Northern India. The corresponding
forms in the speeahes related to Mon and Khmer, and
to Khasi, namely, the variouB AUBtl"i. languages of Indo-
China, Malaya and in some caBes of the islands of Indo-
nesia, also have been carefully collated by M. Przylu.ki,
and their etymology as Austri. forms, which can only be
satisfactorily explained as being built up with Austria
roots and affixes, has bean given. He has made a very
good case that words like liilg., lang"la, kambal., ta/lt6i/a,
hsdtJli, eto., are from the Austria, and are not Aryan
words. The valuable and indispensable Comparati
r ... fmlary 'If 460rig;",,1 ])i.leet. of the Malay Peninsula,
in Vol. II of Skeat and Blagden's Pagan Rae .. 'If 14.
Malay P.,.i"",ta (London, Macmillan & Co., 1906) is a
repository of words from the Austric speeches of the
forest tribes (Sakai, Semang, etc.) of British Malaya,
and it also contains cognate forms in Man, Khmer and
other Indo.Chinese Austric speecbes, Khasi and Nioobarese
as well as in the Austrio dialects of Malaya and Indonesia
~ d the Kol epeeohes of India. Dr. P. C. Bagchi has
luggested affiliating a further batch of words in Indo-Aryan
to Austric and it was frolll a study of this comparative
vocabulary that a number of obvious agreements with
Indian forms and words presented themselves to him. I
have also bean studying tbis vocabulary with very great
interest and profit, and a few similarities, whicb mayor
may oat be fortuitous or accidental, have .truok me alao-
IIimilarities between 80me of our unexpl..ioed or uDaati __
INTRODUCTION
torily explained words in Sanskrit and in other Indo-
Aryan speeches, and words and roots in the Austri.
languages as noted by Blagden and Skeat. These I am
tempted to record helow for what they are wortb.
Anger, angry: Assamese khanga (OfIf), Bengali'
khlkhar (<1tom1) abuse, punishment, khlkhl (<11<11, in <1t<11
.'tlI to get furioos). Cf. khell, khill (Khmer), t5.keii
(Jak. Mad.), t5keng (Jak.; Jak. Ba.; Pa.); t5ken (Jak.
Sim). [A BO(b).]
Bow, arrow: Skt. 6iiTla, piniika; 60'/11' has been
already treated by Pr.yluski (ef. i'!lra, p. 19). For piniika
(= pin + ika) if. ig?, ig (Semang), ak (Stieng), ik
(Riang), anak (Malay), etc. [B 858-3540}.
Bamboo: Bengali, blkhiirl 6iikhiiri (m1it)
= split bamboo. C/. ire (Sak. Ra.) 1; karek, tarek,
=to split, to divide, in Mon: . g. ton (dun) klrek
bamboo. For' bamboo' the common words are
15buih, 15beh (Semang dialects); holoh (Malay); pa-o'
(Sem. Cliff.); poo' (pock), pau, (pauk) (Serau); pO'
(pok) (Sak.). The Bengali blkhlrl-6iikhiiri may be either
from a compound like *pok-lrarek >*bok-karek, or from
bIB <.a'l".+karek >bih.karek. [B !l, 22, 85.]
Bat: Bengali biia'"J (m,,) = *6ad + allb:-uq. 40.
Cf. hlpet., sipet (Bes. Sep. A. I.). hompet (B ... Songs.), .
eamet, hamet (Baboar), kawet, kowet (Sem. Stev.), kiwed,
kauid (Sem. Pa., Max., Sem. Bukb., Max.). kawat, ganat
(Sem. K. Ken), kiLt (Kaseng), kawa <*kawat (Mon); not
(SHeng); wit-da, wit-da, wit (Andamanese). [B 74,
70].
Bird: Hindi clrjiyil, =c1-4-Ji. Of. cim, Mm
(in some and Semang dialecto); ka.cim (Mon); bim
(Cham); kcim (Chare}, aem (Bahnar); sim (Palaung);
sim=cock (Santali). Also ciimri (Santali, Mahlo,'
Mgl}<;ilri, etc.). [B 1ll6].
INTRODUCTION
Breaat (Female) : Skt . N ka : if. Malay BOSU, milk:
may be onomatopoeic. [B 887].
Charcoal: Skt . ngar, Hindi inlel : if. anggu (Sem.
Jor . New); jeng.kt, jengbt (SU.), nyiog-kah (Sen.) ;
embers: engong 01, ingung UB, etc. (Sem.); Firewood:
Api (Jak.); Fire logs: anggeng (Bes.); hurning embers :
ringiik (Khmer). [C 77.]
Cheek: Skt. "apOk: if. k5hang (Sem. Pa. etc.); bpi
(S&k.); Face: kapO, kapau (Sak.); tapa. (Nicohar,
Centrol and South); Cheek: lhpeal < thhil (Khmer).
The Skt. word may be Austric in origin-ka-pola, pola
representing the original root. [C 81] Comparel:apata head,
Bengali ."11"1 .tapat. = forehead, which has heen suggested
.... Oceanian" by P. Rivet, 'Le group Ocm.nian,' MSL.,
1927, p. 149.
Coconut: Skt. .a"kel.: if. Malay niyor (coconut),
niyor (Sak. and Sem.); fruit: pIe, phlei, etc., kolai (Tareng) ;
(if. infra, p. 54), kiilai (Kontu); .aNk.la may be derived
from equivalents of niyor (coconut) and kolai (fruit),
comhined. [C 197 ; F 282.]
Cloth: Bengali ka.' ( .tfil) meaning a rag. Cf. Malay
bin.
Crab: Skt . .fa .. a!Aa, "ar.fa!a, Bengali "ii!la ( .m ),
kete ('Itt) if. kiLt am (Malay); khatim (Mon),
kedam, ktam (Khmer); kiitam (Sahnar); tam (Stieng);
kat-kom (Santali). [C
. Female: Oriya maikinii Oriy. miii".
(onn); if. kena, kna (S.k., Sem.); kinnab (-handsome
woman), mai.k6nah (Or., Berumb.) ; miniab (Sem., Klap.);
mlhii (Sem. Kedah); wife, woman=mabe (8em., Stev.),
mabi (Sem.). [F 62, 64, 65.]
Frog: Skt. 6lt.eka. Cf. tabek, tabeg (Sakai), bulk
(Mal.y) [F 268]. [Toad in oome Bengali dialects is 6ia..a
."..,(. boi' in Mandr. Malaoo.-P. C. B.]
INTRODUCTION
Foot: Sid. jangAi, Bengali jin (.m ) : ~ f , chan chong,
jang, iaung; jukn (Sem., Sak.) ; jong (Mon); jung
(Stieng); jong, ciing (Kbmer); jan (PalaBng); jangga
(Santali). [F 220.] [Scbmidt thinks the word i
Sanskrit loan in A nstric.]
Heel: Beng. gorlil; ( ~ . , . ) : if. duldul (Sem.);
dual, ka-rluol (Cham); ken-lOla, lab (Central Nicobar).
But Bengali (''Iff) 104 = foot, Prakrit lotMa are to he
noted. [H 69.]
Leech: Skt. ialiRi, jalau!<ii. Cf. j516 (Sen.), jhliing
(Khmer); glu (Stieng, Cbran). [L 46.] (Uhlenbeck suggeet.
an Indo.European origin in bis "Etymologiscbes
Worterbu.h.")
Leg (calf of leg): Bengali IA,,,, ( cit!), !ffil,i ( ",""'I)
means the part of the leg between heel and calf. QI.
the words for leg: k5teng (Sem. Kedah, Sem. Jarum);
pert from knee to ankle: skting (slUting), tin (Sem.
Buk. Mak.); leg_k'teng, k'taing (Selung); k5ting
(Malay). [C 6.]
Lip (Lower): Beng ~ (a1t), Skt. eN!ltIa. Of.
t5nnd (Sem.); Snout of animals-tuud (Sem.); moutb-
thno (Khmer). [N 208.] But see ;'If,a p. 56.
Mad: Beng. pilal ( ~ ) : if. gila (Malay):; gill, gill'
(Sahi). [M 81.
Mosquito: Skt. llaAaka, Hindustani .. accAa4 ( ..... ) ;
if. kAmet, kAmas, kumus (Sakai); kemit (Senoi); gamit
(Man); mus (Khmer); moe (Stieng); .Ilmec (Baboar).
(Uhlenbeck regards it as Indo-European, comparing
Litbnanian masalti,' Russian mosoliti,' etc.) [M
180].
Moustache: Bengali .... A (m), usually ""rived
from Old Indo-Aryau .......... > Prakrit IIA d ... IIIAatlllu ;
but if. misei, bisai (Sak.); mi.ai (Semlll!g); miaai
(Malay); But if. '-fra p. 56. [M 198.]
Dil'
INTRODUCTION
Mud, Prakrit cikkRilla. Old Bengali .;kllila ( ).
Hindustani 1<i 4 if. cica' (Sem.). [M 215.]
Mustard: Skt. ,,'lfIJpa = Pkt ........ which remains
nne.plained. But if. Malay (The Mal.y word may
he a Prakrit borrowing; but it is Skt . and not Pkt .
which furnishes Aryan loan. in Indone,ian.) [M 231.]
Mnsty. tainted: Bengali M.; = kept over-
night. unwashed: 0/. Malay basi. [M
Neck, Bengali Middle Bengali gAiit,a
); if. ngot. ngod (Seman g). gloh (Sak); gullet.
throat-gilo (Sak.). Of. Skt. gala. Bengali gala. ('I'll);
[N 28. 28.]
Rat: Skt. ;ndur undura; if. kAndar (Khmer) ; kon
(Old Khmer). [R 8S].
Rattan, lataik (Semang); Khmer loda-climbing
rattan; can these be connected with Skt. lata 7 [R 86.]
Rice (hnsked) : Skt. ta'fJ4ula. Beng. cilil
Middle Bengali (#t I] ) tlmla. ('!'liP!) taula. ( )
. ..
/Ii_la, if. cb-er-oi. ceng-goi. ng-roi (Sakai);
also Sakai cendaroi. cendroi; caudaroi (Senoi); jaroi. coroi
(Sak.) cooked rice: caroi (Sok.). sra (Mon). lranv
(Khmer). [R 112].
Roof: Bengsli chIc =thatcb; chile-tali
..n) =eaves. eAo1lcii ( in E.et .Bengal (JealOre.
Daccah if. Semang cencAm. cin-com. [R 164].
Shell-lime, Bengali k.U cill' if. kilo
(Sak.); kalAk (Sem.). [S 151].
Smo.ll, Beng eM!o (",tit) : if. eset (Sem.). c8t (Bea.).
wnt (Sem.); bacit. macat, wacnt. macAt. mllcat;
miljot. miloet. etc. (Sakai); cut (Achine.e) ; asit (Cham);
taliet (BahnaT); [S 282]
Spleen: Skt. plUi; UhleDheck explains it as Indo-
Kurope ... -;:*spel'Ybil but if. k5m-pil, k5m-pal (Semang).
[8898].
INTRODUCTION UV
Stomach, belly: Bengali Prakrit pDffG;
if. l5pooh (U. Ch.r.) ; (S.rting); lopot (U. Ind.)
(B .... ). [B 164.]
Skin di ..... : Old B.ng. Ii........ Modern
Beng.li .tAo. ); if. gas, gaoh (Sak., Sem.); gaoh,
g.i (Bahn.r, =scah of .nimal). [146.]
White: biug (S.n.) ; biAg, biok (Sak.); biig (S.m.) ;
bok (Sti.ng) ; b.k (Bahn.r) ; pu, bu. (Mon); c.n theae be
"onneoted with Skt. 6Gka, bird which i. white ?
Qf. Assam.se 6a{/ii, Panjabi 6a!l!li white. [W ga.]
Wood: Bengali JMP l, jAor jAir
( .1"); if. jahu' (Sem.); jehiip chu (Mon); cbo (Khmer) ;
etc. Tree=j.hil, jihu (Sak.). [T 211.]
II
[Po C. B.]
Skt. !lA.,,!i = bell; if. the word for a kind of drum
gentang (Sak. Kor. Gb) ; g5ndang (Malay) ; rentek (Be
Songs.). [D 175-176.]
Beng. (1) t. or (1-'1) la-Iv-special call for .tt .... t
ing a dog; see also the Jaina Aciringa IIItra
(Tr. Jacobi, SBE XXII, p. 84):" Mahivl ... travelled
in the pathless country of the LA<)has, in Vajjabhllmi,
Subbhabh1lmi.. .many nativoo attacked him. Few people
kept off the attacking, biting dogs. Striking the monk
they cried ItA.HAiI (_c.l .. ccAiI) and made the dog. bite
him." The word cAn-ciil, whioh h.. remained un
explained, ... m. to be no other than. word for' dog.' The
region mentioned, LA<Jha (RA<Jha). Subbhabhllmi (Suhma),
eto., i. still partly occupied by the Kol people who speak
.n Anstrio language. In Bengal while calling a dog
the wordl ... or ... e .. (more commonly e. or I.ea) i. uoed.
4
INTRODUCTION
Of. the Austric words for dog: chhlre (Khmer). chiike
(Kon Tn). cho (taho). eta. (iu Old Khmer. Sedang). cho
(Auuam. Sue, Halang, Bolo,-eu. Se<lang). cho (Kaeeng).
sb6 ,(Churu). achb (Tareng). chiok? chft. (Sem.). chuA
(S6m). chiiua, chua. chuo. chu.o' (Sak.). etc. The
Skt. hakk"ra woqld seem to be of different origin
(= <.kurknra). [D 143.]
Bengali COnO" ( co1Ir1. aItr) : spoon: if. coUkeh (Bes.
A. !.) l coUkhe (Bes. X. L.); congkhe' (Bes. Songe)
Parull_p5nuukii; to scoop up-coUkoh. [8 398.]
Beng. mt4- (C1Il1 )-" Sheep l" cf. the word for
goat' in the Xol family. mlrlm ka. merom kii (Sautali.
Mahle, Birhor. Korwa. Kharia. etc.) Unguutic
&",,,,, IV, n. 152; Bengali 611<4_ meaning a sheep may
be connected with the same word.
Skt. g.ja-elephant: if. the word for elephant gaui,
gaga (U.Kel) ; gaja (Sem. Beg.) ; gljlih (Tembi) l gazah.
gadjah. gajeh (Sem.) etc.; ka.ot (Sak. Kor. Gb.):
(Bland); the word for rhinoceros in Sak. Sel. Da.-gu.sil-
probably belongs ta the same group. [E 61.]
Skt. ga'!l4Or.-' rhinoceros' l the other word for
rhinoceros in Skt.-.Ua4ga literally me.ning' a kind of
broad sword' is oertainly derived from its weapon of
defence. Can the word g.'!I4Ora be oonnected with another
group of words for elephaut? gantir (Beu. New.), g5utUi
(Kena. I). g5ntiil (Beudu II). soglutel (Pant. Kap. Log.),
.8gAutli (Jak. Sim.). [E. 51.)
Skt. ka}>ota-literally mean. a' pigeon' but a.!so DBed
in the general sense of bird. Of. the word for bird kIlw3d
(pr. kll.wSdd) (Sem.). awad (Sem. Ploe). kawot (U
Pat.). kawau. kIlwau eta. [B 215.]
Skt. Wka-crow [Bengali Semi.tatsama ... ,tilg. tad.
bbava=.tiIua I if. Cbattsrji, 0,.,0., II , of B,.,tJU
INTRODUCTION Jinii
I,'''If'/II'' I, p. 820]. Of. the words for erow, gagak
(Mal.), wliklg (Sem. Pa. Max), aag (Temhi), gaag
(Seran), gaik (Sem. Buk. Max.), daak (Ben. New);
da'ak (Bes. A. I.), agig (Sem. Skeat.); kaek (Khmer),
lk (Annam), ik (Bahnar), ak (Boloven), ak (Jarai),
khill:.lik (Mon.) ete. [0277].
Bengali 60il Late Skt. .adila = a kind of big
fish with teeth: if. the words for 'crocodiIe'-buaya (Mal),
bayul (? Pang. U. Aring); bayul (Pang. Sam,), baul (U.
Kel.), bayah (Sem.), baya, bajul (Java.), ete. [C 270.]
Can the Skt. word for crocodile, """,bAtr., Pkt. "" .. bAtla,
be connected with this group T
Skt. AalaAal.=poison : if. the Austria word for snake
(cobra)-hiile.(hali) (Sem. Buk. Max) ; jekop halek (Pang.
U. Aring) ; ekob (aikub plAi) (Sem. Buk. Max).
[S 818.]
Bengali karat (.m )=saw (*k.r oat. <MIA k.r.-
.. Ita, OIA k.rapatr., Gujrati karv.t, Hindi
kara.t, karat: Cbatterji, op. cit., p. 886). But the Skt.
form karap.tr. may be a Banskritised form of the AUBtria
words for 'cutting,' 'ohopping,' ete.: (Malay),
Urat (Jak. Malac.), krat (grat) (Sak. Kor. Gb.), y ....
krod (pr. krodd) (Pang. Gal.); to elear a jungle-krat
(KeDa. Stav.). (C 295, 80 I.]
Bengali di ( 111)' dao ( lit'll ) = Bkt. ditr., chopper:
on this word, Cbattarji (op. cit., p. 265, n. 1) adds
the note-
u
111 -' di' is explained by Grierson as being
from a form '*drtota' attested from Kimlrl; it i. found
in Hindi aB 'daID, di.,' bill, Bickle, and the occurrence
in Skt. of the forms' diti,' .iakle, saythe, data,' mown,
oat off, 'dilr' -mowing, mower, .hows that the 80Uroe
of the NIA word is not ' dat,a' but rather lome form
like 'dalr' (although the Kill word' daw.- ' .ickle, evidently
lID olel Ar)'MI borrowilli' woald .how that 'diilrll' _ 'laite
Dviii INTRODUCTION
a popular OIA vocable)." But may we not conneot it
witb another series of Austric words for" cntting "?-
Of. (Man), tAb (Stieng), tieh, tih (Kaseng), toit (Bes.
Malac.), tOyt (Bes. Sep. A. I.), tii,vt (Mal.), katoyt
(Bes. Sep. A. I.), tiet (Boloven), tiih (Kbmer). [C 217.]
OJ. Burmese dab.
Skt. Bengali bi'igal}, begun
.. = brinjal. Cf. the Austria words for brinjal :
tiong, tiung, ting, etc., in different Semang dialects. Tbe
word for fruit in tbe same language is bib, bibo, bOb,
etc. Skt. or viitiga'C'. might be derived from
a group bih+ tiong. [S 339, F 284.]
Skt. dli4imbo, Mmba, .imb., r ... Mii, liib.,
olii6o, nimbu(ko), j ... b .. , jamb"ra, Bengali .eb. or l.b"
jilmb(A)i,a,jiimi" etc., this whole series may belong to tbe
same group. The last patts of the above words, all of
which .... names of fruits seem to represent tbe Austrie
word for fruit already noted in tbe case of .litirhgaf'".
Tbe variants of tbis word in different !'Iemang and
Sakei dialect, .re : bllh, bub, bob, bu.h, if. F 284. There
.re indeed in tbese l.nguages names of fruit. in whieb
bih, bub, etc., form a part. Of. b.n.n.=bu.b .ugub ;
cooonut=M .. b pal.u; pomegranate=blb d5limii (bab
dlim.) if. F 284, B I Of the series mentioned,
liib .. and .llib .. bave been already treated by M. Przylaski
. (i.f,a p. 166ff.). If we st.rt witb tbe word for fruit
'bah, buh' we can explai n the words in the seriee by
prefixes like k, t, '. t, j, etc.-prefixes admitted in tbe
formation of Austria words,-.nd the n .... l infix. In
kad ... 6a.. second degree of prefixation is visible-ia +
I.+ .. +bo, and inja .. b .. ,o, a suffix, ora. Skt. 4i ..
may belong to tbe me .eries. Tbe word for egg in Sakei
(Sel. Da) is lOO.t. Of..lso Skt. sta .. bo, I .... b , ... 60,..,
IIIId also rId_.ra treat.ed by Przyluski (irifra p. It9).
nix INTRODUCTION
Skt. g.qa=mol ...... ; cf. the Au.tric word. for
'.ugar I: gula (Sak. Tap.); gala gull (Sak.
Kerb.); giila (Darat); hUlB (Jelai); gula (Malay).
[S 512.]
Beng. pagar meaning 'a water channel'
'ditch,' for rai.ing a sort of obstruction (if. Skt.
pral:iira; Bengali gaq ("") i8 used in th. same
o.ns.. C/' the Auotric words for f.nc.: pagar (Sak. U.
Kam.) ; pogor (Mal.), pogor (Santali). In Santali p.g'4.
mean. 'to con81mct a water channel' ( A. Camphell-
Ba.tati-E.gI'.,. Dictionar!l)' 0/. a100 l'rzyluoki i_/,II
pp. 143-144.
PART I
NONARYAN LOANS IN INDOARYAN
BY
JEAN PRZYLUSKI
Non-Aryan Loans
Indo-Aryan

In
In India the people speaking the Aryan languagee.
have been in oontact with those who speak other
langnag.. sinos ancient tim... B .. ides the Dravidian
language., which apparently have no affinity with
other Iinguistio group., we find in the north the
mas. of Tibeto-Burm .. e language8 and in the east the
acattered i.lets of Thai, Mon-Khmer, and The
Tibeto-Burmese family is generally oonnected with the
Chinese and the Thai languag... The MOQQi (or Kol)
Iangoagss, on the contrary, are related, throngh the
intermediary of Khaei, to. Mon-Khmer and the dialectB
of the MalaY" Peninsula. It has even been recently
affirmed that thi. 80uthern group of Mon-Khmer, Khui,
MUQQI, etc., mu.t be connected with the Sino-Tibetan
gro\lp (Conrady in A.ljjiiit., .ar- A .. It .. r ., .. , Spracltg .. eAiel;te
wo",dlllUcA Ik. 0 .. .,.", E",,, Killin Ge",itl ... t. '" pp. 415-
but it i. a bypoth .. i. yet and not a proved fact.
In the following articl .. , I would call the ...... bl. of the
Kbasi, Man-Khmer and Annamite languages as
1 ThiJ Imele ftrs$ .ppured in 1991 iu JlMMi, .. de I. BooWtI 4.
Li",.illig do Po... XXII, 6, :pp. iIOI-iI08. Bi ... tho. tho procreoo
i. m1 -..II b .. compellod mo 10 mocIif1 ii,
4 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
the" Austro.Asiatic family" according to tbe terminology
of Father Schmidt. It will be frequently oeeessary for
me to consider the Indonesian languages .Iso in this
IlOnnection as they have very great affinities with the
above family.
When the Aryans came from tbe temperate regions
and spread' over t';"'pical India, tbey had no word
in their vocabulary for a large number of plante, animals
and unknown products of the new country. Tbus it
can be supposed a priori that they acquired important
loans from the languages of the non Dravidian populations
with whom thsy first Came into contact. I propose to
show that Buch wa. reaUy the ca.e. Instead of trying
to multiply proof. of rapprochement., I shall confine
myself be .. to .ome typical ex.mple.; I may however
come back to the examination of this question subse
quently, with moredevelopmente.
SANSKRIT kadali
Skeat and Blagden have already cl ... ified all the name.
of ;, banana" occurring in the languages of Malaya Penin
sula and the languages related io them. I will reproduce
B.4.2 of their admirable comparative vocabulary:
. Banana, plantain: Ului ? (gehii ; or glni), Bak. Kor.
Gb ; or Bem. Jarum; tlll;;i. Sem. Kedalt;
(telni). Bale. Br. Lo",; (telooille) [1 misprint for telouilleJ.
8cm. $e . ; (tOIOl.'), Som; (tolou'i). Sak. Kerb.; ( tlou'),
Oroi,,; telui, teloi. Temb;; telei, Sera,,; tel , JeEai ;
teli; telai, Darat; tell, 8ak. Em.; tel;;, 8em. Per.; tlllAy.
U. Kam; tlliai. Tan. U. Lang; tlii, tilly. ad. U.
p'ere; tlai. Sal:. Sung; Se CEij}; kle, Bol:, Blanj.
S .. i (spec. Mal. pisang mas) telei mas, 8.,a,,; (species
unidentified), telui puntuk '; telai lele1 [i.e., of lelai] ,
NON-ARYAN LOANS IN INDO-ARYAN 5
Temb; [8o"thern Nicoba, tal;;i, "plantain"; Khmer tnt
taloi (tont taloi), "banana tree" (tut appears to mean
" tree ") ; Palallng kloai " plantain "J.
All these forms present a root with initial I provided
with a complex vocalic element in which i generally
appears. This root is preceded by a prefix sometimes
syllabic ke-, g6-, tn_, lii-, t;', sometimes reduced to k-, .9-, to.
It is probable that, amongst tbe syllabic forms of
this prefix, ke-, to-, t.: are already reduced forms of *ka-,
*to-, which are more archaic and are often found in the
Austro-Asiatic languages. On the other hand, it appears
that the root originally possessed a long i which had bsen
converted into diphthongs in different way.. We can,
therefore, restore two ancient forms of the name of
banana: *ka-ti and *Ia-I .
We have in Sanskrit "adal. and "andali, both of
which mean banana or the banana trce. These forms,
inexplicable in Indo-European, can be explained if we
start from *1&a-li. It seems tbat ~ simple infix -da- in
lea-da-li and a double infix -n-da- in -ka-n-da-/i have been
inserted between tbe prefix and the root. The existence
of infixes, -d(a)- and -n-d(a)- have been already recognised
in the Austro-Asiatic language., but their role i. still
undefined. I sball sbow later on, th.t tbey have
actually entered, into some of tbe names of trees, like
the" cabbage palm."
Besides "adali and kaadali there had heen doubtless,
a third form *tandali in Indo-Aryan. In -fact one of
the eight kinds of syrup allowed hy the Buddha to the
monks is the coca paM. According to the commentary
of the Mahilvagga, VI, 85, 6, coca would be a kind
of "adaii, and cooapiina would mean plantain syrnp.
Now Yi-tsini in Ejafatalr:ar1llan, VI, explains coca hy-
6 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
t .... d li (..4 RmmI of tA, B"ddAiIt R.ligion, translated
by J. Taka"" ... , p. 125, n. I, and p. 220). '/'andal. can
be explained by .tarting from ta.l. in the .. me .... y ao
ka.dali from t . /i.
SANSKIIIT 6ila., "amb.t , Bimbala.
Among.t the word. which mean the hair of men an,1
animal. in the longuagoo of the 'ar Eaot one may quote :
Malay
v
Cam
Jaral
b.l ..
bata ..
bol ...
Batak. Dayak
Dagal
Malagaoi
bul"
polok
volo,'
The oame root explain. some nam.. for "cotton" in
the Indo.Chine.e language. :
Jaral'
Sek
"iip.1
"iipal
Annamite
Laotian
/4y.
In J ara' and: Sek, the root i. preceded by the prefix iii.
In Annamite and Laotian the final liquid i. changed to Yi
as it OCCurB freqnently in the Auotro.Asiatic language .
For the origin of th... forms we can, therefore,
snppoee a root *b.I , *bll/.. meaning "hair, wool."
We have in Sanskrit biila, oiil., oira which have the
&&me .en.e. The word is ancient, and oiira i. already
. found in.llg 1'.da,2,4,4. Th. preaence of I in bila, ta
points out to a popular form and the analogy with the
nOD.AryaD worde, which we have just DOW referred to,
suggeot an Au.troA.iatic origin. The loan can he
explained by the importance of wool and hairs in
magic and popular religion. It i. not at .11 doubtful
, Of. Bengali pilok. !.he f lhor or dow. of bird. The word baa
been poinlod oullo !DO by Dr. P. O. Bacchi.
NON-ARYAN LOANS IN INDO-ARYAN ?
that in this re.pect the Indian thought has been always
influenced by the belief. of tbe aboriginal populations.
One can, for instance, refer to the cult of the h.irs of
Buddha. In the legend of Rima., Bill, the famous
monkey-king, tbe brotb.r of Sugrlva, owed biB name to the
fact tbat he was horn from the hairs of bis mother.
However, the Anstro-Asiatic origin of b.ta- would
remain doubtful if tbis Sanekrit word bad not formed the
p.rt of a group of which the other elemente are certainly
non-Aryan. We willse. just now, tb.t "ambala, , ... bala
are ineep.r.ble from bila .nd foreign to Indo-Ary.n.'
The Austro-Asi.tic root *bala was susceptible to have
prefixe. lik. l:a+n .... I, in order to form. subetantive
meaning "a shaggy being." We should not therefore,
be .. tonished to find in S.nekrit word "ambala, which
means .. kind of deer and more precisely, "a sort of deer
with a sbaggy b.iry coat," according to the definition
of Monier Williams. Ae one finde, tbe deecription of
the anim.1 conforms to tbe etymology of the name.
From tbis tbe use of the word l:am6ala for woollen stuft
can be e .. ily explained. Ka .. bala-in the sense of " woollen
stuft "-occurs in the Atharva-Ved. (XIV. 2, 66, 67),
This word, is doubtless of non-Aryan origin, and h ..
been introduced in tbe Sanskrit vocabulary prior to the
redaction of tbe Atharva-V ed .
On the other h.nd the name of .. silk-cotton tree"
or /JtnMa" H eptapk,U ... i. in Pali Hi.bali or Hi.bola and
in Sanlkrit S.tmali or SilfIIala. One CIIn recognise bere
l 1D Tibetu. bsZ me.nl the hair of certain aDimals. the wool.
A oompooite adiecti alibi. word bl. _ IormecI 'bal-'bal wbiab
8aratchandrl n traDllate, by II IbagO." It i. difficult to decide
if theae form. .r. in their origin Tibeto-Burm.e, or if ho! h .. been
_ hom Indo.AJ1 ....
8 PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
the root *bala which forms a part of the name of cotton
or cotton-tree in some Austro-Asiatic langnages.
In Pali the root has the prefix .i .. , as in limbola, limbaii .
Si,.6ala already exists in Vedic and means, according to
"the flower of cotton tree" (if. GELnNER, redi.cM
Stndien, 2, 159), that is to say, its bud having the appea-
ranee of a big white flower while it is still in its covering.
Skr. '.lmala, Balmali correspond to Pali 8imbala,
8imbaii, and equally means the Heptapkltlum.
These words, hDwever, cannot be the same. Salmala
seems to be the Sanskritisation of another form. In the
Austro-Asiatic languages, between a root *6.1. and ..
prefix sao, 8i-, one might bave intercalated a nasal and a
liquid. 8imbala contains the nasal.... Salmalo which h ..
got the liquid I seems to be the Sanskritisation of *8aI6ala.
The Sanskrit words bata, kambala, Balmal. form a
series in which the idea of hair or wDol can be discovered
all tbrough. They are differentiated only by the prefixes,
i.e., by a process which is foreign to the morpbology of
Indo-Aryan. It is thererore the Austro-Asiatic root *6.10,
which we should suppose to be the origin of ali these word .
SANSKRIT langala, langul., linga.
The plough is designatsd by the following terms in
the principal Mon-Khmer and Indonesian languages:
Khmer
v
Cam
Khasi
Tembi
ankal
lanan, lanai lanar

(.ngala.
1 Cf. Memoirl8 dB la Bocie'te' de LingUtBtiqU.6, xxn, p. 905 I.
NON-ARYAN LOANS IN INDO-ARYAN It
S.tak
Makassar
trir,gala, ".1lgiil.
lin!J.t.
Jtail.Nala.
How to explain these different forms? One can
auppoae pither that they have been borrowed from Indo-
Aryan (c/. Sauskrit tan!Jala .. ), or that they are .11 derived
from an ancient Austro-Aaiatic word of which the begin.
ning and the end might have undergone .everal modi-
fication. while the middle part remained more stable.
The first explanation is suhject to serioua difficulties.
The word lo1lga/a .. has DO etymology in Indo-Aryan and
i. certainly not Indo-European. Besides, the CouDte'part
of the words quoted above is found in Annamite, i.e.,
amongst people which h.. never been Indianised
like their w.stern neighbours.
In Annamite the word etly (pron. kai) ia both a verb
meaning" to plough" and .. noun signifyi.":g the" plough."
It is poosible that in ancient time this word waa longsr,
as we know that in Annamite the tendency towarde
mon08yllabism h .. been .trongly active from early tim ...
Previous to the modern form "iii
l
au ancient one *&61. O&n
be supposed. In fact, the final ~ replaced hy i in Ann ....
mite, i. preserved even to-day in .. veral Muong dialect. :
I
Annamite Muong
u tree "
I
ka. kot
II to be hungry" I
"
I
I
tlo'
tot
,
I :
!
I
I
~
,
"two" i
hai
i
" to fly (of bird) " I
!
,
bai
I
pal, pol
I
"
2
10 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
Annamite *kiit "the plough," and" to plough" reduced
to aile Byllable, i. very similar to the AUBtro.A.iotic forms,
with tbi. difference that they can he separated, and as
t.he Indian inflnence here is out of queBticn we are
brought to supp""e that the MonKhmer and Indonesian
namee of the plough have not got an Indo-Aryan origin.
Lingalam is found already in tbe Veda, hut the two
I . in tb. word indicate a vernacular form of it.
Tbe only alternative left to us is to admit tbat
langalnm hal been borrowed from t.be non.Aryan people.
of the E t .ince the Vedic time.. The same conclu.ion
i. inevito.ble, if one handle. a problem of a different kind.
Be.ide ... tbe plough," the S.n,kri! word langal ...
designatee al.o th. .. peni.... On the other band,
.pecially in tbe and in the Mahiibhiirat., a form
lingil. i. found to mean both the" peni," and .. tbe
tail .. (of an animal). If tbe equivalenoe lii',gala-liingila
is autbori.ed, then tbe semanlic evolution of the word
would be easily understood. From U penis" one caD pus,
without difficulty, to the sense of "plough" and rt tail."
'rhere are evident analogi between copulation and the act
of ploughing by which one dig. up the eartb for depositing
tbe .eed.. The problem becomes more complicated from
the fact that, almost inevitably, the word linga which
.trongly re,emble. the two other word. and ha. the
meaning of U penis" comes in.
Such .quivolence i. phoneticftlly impo ible a. long
88 we are in t.he Inuo-Aryan domain, but the," are
fully ju,ti6ed in the neighbouring group.. In 'bam,
for the sco]opelldra iM called lilpan or lipan.
In the .ame kalik and leulilt, lu;. and
ia6at and "ubut .re equivalent forms [E. Aymonier and
A. Cabaton, D'etionna'" o..";fral1fa"]' In the Malaya
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDO.ARYAN 11
Peninsula, the tree "pal.i" according to Skeat and
Blagden is denoted by tbe following word. :
til/Ok ..
t"Ok.1
t .. gkol
/';"0";1
t;'Oklll.
T;'9";' is to t;"O,",,1 and tingk" withont final is to
t;"g"ul what langal. is to lailuMa and linO' to langala.
One is thus led to sunpose that th e milltiple and
suspicions forms, lin!),'l, la,\lJalo, liin//alrt, la?\guia, lang(lllJ,
represeut divl'J'l"e aSpt'cts of the same word, bOI'l'owed
by Inuo-ArJ'li.ll frOID the Anstro-Asiatic .
Thi. hypothesis \Vould be still strengtheoed if it can be
.ho\vn tha.t i,'nga in the sense of "penis" has equivalents
in the Don-Aryan languages of the East.
Here are th. princi p.1 names of the 8exual organ. in
the Au.lro.Asiatic language. :
Malay Peniosul.
Stieng
B.bDar
Kba.i
Santali
Ho
Mundari
Ink, la, 10.
kt ...
klao

loc
1'lC'
tfJ.c'.l
All these forms appear to be derived from Id still
foond iD tbe Malaya PODinsula. The final "i. sometim ..
palatali.ed into and .ometime. di.appears completely
with the resalt tbat the vowel i. changed into a diphthong.
t Rev. P. O. BoddiDg writes to me: The word 100' i8 by the
Baptale CQDlidered indecent aDd ja Dot used bef()l'e WOOleD. TheIl; i&
aoother word (of HJe &1l1l?8 root lie'l used about tbe orlu 01 WlaU
11071, but 01 ..... oidered improper.
. AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
Here also the hypothesis of a loan from Indo-AryaD
is excluded on account of two reaaon.. Tbe vowel
of linga i. neVer found iool.ted in any of the Austro.
Asiatic words derived 'rom a form in 4. Be.ides the
name of .. penis" Can be found in Ann.mite with tbe
word k;k (Quoengu: c;c) wbich doubtless comes from
an ancient *k.l.k. We know that the initial consonantal
gro"p. were all reduced in Annamite, some before tbe
XVIIth century and the others mucb later.
On tbe wbole everything tends to .how that an
aDeient AIl6troAsi.tic root *lak bas given rise to the
QOmi 1 derivatives ending in .ola., .wla.. The existence
of a final witb vocalism w is not solely attested in Indo-
Aryan and oDly by the word lingUla. Skr. laur4>, lak,,!a,
appear to be copied from I.ilgilo, and it. meaning of
tI stick" can be very well deri ved from" peni .. " Parallel
to Skr. liilgil. "tail" (of an animal) we find Malay
.kOf', and in tbe Malay Peninsula, 'kul, .k"". dor, .ior,
witb the same meaning.
A certain number of forms which we have examined
cODtain a n ... l element which seems to haye been inserOOd
in the root.. Now we know that in the majority of
tbe Aostro-Asiatic langllages, the iofix n seems to form
tbe names of instrument (if. Fatber. W. Scbmidt, .u.
p pl Mon-Khmer, French translatioo in B.E.F.E.O.,
l,iI07, p .. 237lf.). I wiII quote ooly ODe example, similar
to the ca.. studied by me: Khmer " helm II
derived, by adding an infix from, r.U:4ul .. to obstroct,
ti; move against the helm" [E. Aymonier, Diclwanai ..
KAmt,-:fronrai., p. xvi]. Hence it is to b. noted that
UIlongot the non-Aryan words qlloted above, the nual
infix i. wanting in tbose which designate & part of the
body: .. penis II .. tail" (of an animal), while it is fwnd
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDO-ARYAN IS
in the names of instrument, for instance in the names
of "plough." On the other hand, a. to be espeeted
in tbe cae. of loan wordo, Indo-Aryan ha. no r.!tolarity
at all in tIli. ..opoet. The contrast logucln-langila hI.
no morphological value at .. u.
N ... l jnfix and suffix in -il(a) oeem to eo-exi.t in
Kbmer. 10 this lang",,,,,e, bo!> .igniS.. "to drive in
(a poot) " and MM.l meano tbe .. poot." If from Kbaoi
I-I.!> " peni." one g08l back to the root *laA: from wbich
11l.I:or .. plough" i. derived, one can aloo go back from
.. to drive in "to a root *baA: which explain. 61nA:il
.. poot." The first root *ld i. not however entirely hypo-
thetical. One can reeo!tni an alt.rnation of it in Khmer
III" .. to drive in (the band or tbe finger)" (Die/i.ona;"
Ta.dart). Be.ides, tbe Santal. have .. common wurd I
.. to or make a hole." The derivativH like lis .,.""""
etc., expre .. the penetration of plough into female earth.
Tbe names of .. peDis" and of " plough" tberefore, .ignify
reopecti"ely in the langllages in queotioo : "tbe limb whicb
one d.ri"ea in" and II the instrument which one driv88 in."
The ino.rtMln of all infix in tbe body of the root
ha. tbe efect of lengthening tbe word, of making it
.tand wear and tear. Tbe length of the non-Aryan
nam.. of plough can he thO! explained hy referenoe to
other word. of the .lUIle group derived from the same
root. Compare for inotance :
Malay: ttngala "plougb," .A: .. , "tai)."
Khaoi : " plough," I t-lo!> " peni . "
I Indo-Aryan bas borrowed .ven the prefb: 1t4 of naai krJlrMor:
ID tho 14ohibbln.la III. MS, kal4t1vol4 .pp .... to deoigoole 0 kind 01
weapon. Thi. way of oiog the Ih&rp end of plough iJ 1100' ihe
onl,. inltaDC6 ill the epic. Balarlml i. armed with and fol:
tbi. named 141\".,...
H PREARYAN AND PREDRA VrDIAN
It may seem strange that tbe IndoAryana bave
borrowed .0 many word. from the AnstroAsiatic
languages. Various circumstances have contributed to
this result. Some AustroAsiatic peoples use even to day,
not a plough to furrow but a simple pointed stick
for digging hole. in which they place the seeds (Skeat
and Blagden, Pagan R .... of the !dalay Pe ",l., I, p.
There the analogy between the penis and the
farming instrnment i. as clear as possible. Profs. Hnbert
and Mauss point out to me that in M.lanesi.. and
Polynesia the farming stick has often the form of a penis.
In some Polynesian langllag the same word d.signates
the penis and the "digging' stick" (af. Treg.ar, Maori
eo"'parati.e Dictionar" under ko and Violette, Diction.a'r.
S.",o ;/ranfa'" under oga). It is poasihle that tbe
aborigines of India, at first, knew the use of this stick and
that the name of the instrument for digging the soil
has not cbanged after the introduction of plongh.
The persistence of old notions helps us in explain.
ing the legend of tbe birth of Slta. In the I,
66, it is by furrowing the earth with a plongh that Janaka
gave birth to Slti. The nam.. are transparent here:
J anaka signifies " procreator" and Sltl meane a
"furrow." The ftlrrow has been personified eince the
Vedic times. In the MahAhhirata, VII, 105, 3,945,
l!lti is a goddess of the harvest. The legend of the
birth of Slti conceals the ancient myth about the produc.
tion of grain. The same fore.. are manifested there and
the lole action which gi ves play to thew i. the penetration
of the plol1gh.penis in the female earth.
On the other hand the phanic cults, of which we know
the importance in the ancient religious of Indo-China,
are generally considered to have been derived from Indian
NON.ARYAN LOAN'i IN INDO.ARYAN 16
Saivism. It is more probable th at the Aryans have
borrowed from the aborigines of India the cult of If"'"
as well as the name of the idol.' The .. popular practices,
despised by the Brahmans were illknown in old times. If
we try to know them better, we will probably be able to B.e
clearly why eo many non.Aryan words of the family of l.ng.
have been introdncod into tbe language of tbe conquerors.
III
THE N ums or BETEL, I
We know that the betel. leaf, with some other products,
is used for the composition of m.stiaatory much appre-
ciated by the Indian and Indo.Chinese peoples. The
following words designate the betel in the AustroAsiatic
languagea:
Alak 6alu
Kbmer
ml"fJ
Bahnar Mlii.
Rongao 6016.
Sue' molrta
v
Lave tIItl.
Stieng .. Iv
Kha
61"
Palaung pie.
I While writing this a.rticle for I lin guiatie review I have been led
to develop the idea atill further. It is clear from what haa been
written that the hiatory of a word like li'gtJ i. Dot; without importance
faf the study of religion. I have begun in 1928 a eerie. of Itudy meani
to prove that a certaiD Dumber of myths. leA'enda Ind talea of
Aryan India have bet'D borrowed from. the Austro-Aliatic people. The
tint two of these artil"lea will abortly appear in the pUblication of
the Bcol.,. Francci" tl'Ezt,Im.-orimt (tbe JubiJee volume) and in
the JClfl.m41 AritJtiqfl
Cf. B.lIrii. d.l. S .. UII .u Ling.;'liqo., XXIV, 8, pp. 255.i168.
PRE.ARYAN AND PItEDRA VIOIAN
All tlu!oe form. ean be rednced to 0119 type * .. nli
having for the initial the alternation m/6. The long
linal i. sometimes redoubled into MO. ihI, flO. 'I'he .vowel
is pal"talised into e, ij or e.en rednced to zero.
Siamese h ... ,,/t/N with another modifieation of the
initial which remains 1.61at but beeomeo an aspirated surd.
The Anuamit. dialects have the .. forms: tr4'., pitt'"
which app.ar to be very different, but the diiference is
attenuated if we go back to the middle Annamite: in
the XVII century Father Alexander d. Rhodes .till
noted b14'" in hia dictionary.
The following word. are more complioated :
Halang
Mon
Malay Peninsula
1 ... 1.
id/a

a.iIi
lav",,6ai
In the first two names the element .. 1 .. /61a reappears
preceded by a prefix: la.mla, j;.6Iu. In the Malaya
Peninsula the p!'8fix is co;.. c..... or j;m and the ancient
root, in which the I becomes i. is reduced to .. ai. 6.i. bi.
From that it is possible to explain the IndoAryan
forms:
Slln.krit
PaJi
Prakrit
tiimOill.
t.mbul., t ... bil.",
ta .. 6010f/', tamboli.l.
I The Persian tGmUl aDd Arab lIl-tllmbiJ are, liD doubt, toaDI from
l.do-A., . On tho coni .. ., the Chin ... trans,ripli f.I;" (Arst
me_.d in _k of the Ihird or lhe beg;Dui.g of lhe 4tb
osutlll7) correapondl, a.. Laufer baa well remarked, to the Indo-
O __ ior ... (S ..... I' ...... , p. !1118, nola III.
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDOAllYAN 17
We have here a radical 6ula/601a preceded by the
affix lal4 or liim. The Indo-Aryan element hila differs
from Austro.Asiatic bali only by the permutation of
vowel.. Moreover, we know that in the Mon-Khmer
language., tbe prefile. la, ea which are u.ed forming
the names of animals and plants are often ClOnneated
with tbe root through the intermediary of .. n .... l: la .. ,
ta,a, etc. Tbey are doubtl ... the .ame affix whioh, under
tbe form. of 10"" and do"", normally precedes the names
of tree. in Stieng, Bahnar and Cambodian.'
The Indo. Aryan limbula., I, .am, whiob are not known
to be Indo.European, i. tberefore AustroA.iatio like the
oreeper itself. Thi. conclulion can be .till more
Itrengtbened if we go back to the origin of the Indo
Chinese forms.
Por preparing the quid of betel, the leaf i. rolled up like
a cigarette paper. The following words deoignate in Cam.
bodian the action of rolling up and the connected notion. :
mUT " to roll np "
pomiel " to oau to roll up"
mut U round "
lomu" fO",1I1 If roll."
We have in Stieng al.o mul " round," mo, "to roll up
(a cigarette)" and Father Schmidt connects theo. worda
with: Babnar M .. "I "zusammenschmieden" (Gru.deiige
doe, LaulleAre tier Mo.KAmer-.pracAen, p. 61).
1 Many of tbe Mon.Khmer languagea have pruerved the Roint
prefix eveD in tlae Dlrme of tree: Nia-hOn tam-l04, La,., tont-li"t.
PhBODg TOfIl.ochi, Prou tomla', etc. In CODsequence of tbe tena..,
toward. m0D0811labiam, this ancient prefb: haa been IIOIIletimea ( ..
in Khmer) w8IOOiated from the root aDd ha. got In iDdependent
eu.HnOl, pI.1m, the role of .. nWJleral of the DUDn of tree IoD4
"811 ,aiD, 10 far loa to have sbe force of auba'a.Dti,e,
18 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
In the domain of the M n ~ < l & laognages of India
which are related to the AustroAsiatic group, we have
in Sant.1i :
gul .. .... l" " to make round by ruhbing between the
palms of hands, round, spherical"
gur .. "';. "round, spherical." 1
In the Anstro.Asi.tic languages, there is, therefore
verbal root ... 11 ... r which means "to roll up." The
betel leaf, that is to say, the objeot which one rolls up
takes its name probably from this root .
.. The equivalence of Indo.Aryan and Indo-Chinese
forms helpa us to explain a Bengali expression, pointed out
to me by Dr. S. K. Chatterji. A Hindu caste of Bengal,
which bas for its main occupation the cultivation aod the
sale of betel, is called 6.rll.<6ara' formed from *6.r.
a word which is no looger in use in Bengali, and the
sullix -a-j which marks appurtenance. The name ooour.
in a village name Biirayi-pa4i in a copper.plate grant of
Viliva.riipa Sena, c. 12th-13th cen. Barlli, when Elans.
kritised, gives 6aruilVin "who lives on *6ar . " There
is aleo the word 6aroj which means the kind of pergola
in which the betel vine is grown. Bar-, 6ar- evidently
designates betel and is clearly related to the Indo-Chinese
forms bal .. , etc.
The comparison of words, we have made, is
insunctive. In the Bengali and the Indo-Chinese forms
of the name of betel, the vowel " follows the liquid.
*6iir., bal .. , 61., eto. On the oontrary in Sanskrit and
in Pali .. precedes the liquid, as in the verbal root
... r , ... 1.
1 Nota tbat the element g"l. is fOIlDd in IocJo.Al1aD, c/o Skr.
,,,Jtft4, ,.Ziki, etc,
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDO.ARYAN 19
Tile ancient Indo.Aryan has, therefore, in tbis respeot
an advantage over modern languages. Sanskrit and
Middle-Indian have preserved tbe prefix whiob bas dis.
appeared from tbe modern names of betel and i. noted
.. tim in Sanokrit, ta", in Pali and Prakrit. Tberefore,
Indo-Aryan ti",lnila is probably the moot exact trans
cription of the ancient Anstro-Asiatic name of betel.
IV
SANSKRIT 6ii'l'4. I
In GrNnil.;;ge ei.er L.ulleAre lIer M on- KAmer Spr4c4en,
pp. 30-31, Fatber W. Sohmidt bas compared the
following word. :
-.
Yon Kbmer
I
BahDlr
II to throw the
f p.h
.. to tbrow I shoot to I
stone. with bnsk (tb. colton)"
a bow" poll
bo
.. Card for coUon ,I
II to draw {PkGh
I. thi. bow tt
pnoh ph,
the bow ., PAft/lh
A verb po", pa4, witb inAxe. gives rise to the following
derivatives: pand, po.d, p h o ~ pno4. Tbe derivation
is regular, bot it is not a priori clear why the 88me
root is used to me.n 8ucb operations .. drawing tbe
bow and bu.king the cotton. 'rbis remarkabl. fact
becomes clear if one observes: 1
0
that in Stieng tJ.t
designates an instrument used for preparing the cotton
I Cf. Ban.tin. de 1& 800wU d. Li1lf1'iatiqlU, XXV, 1, pp. 66-89.
S The initial whioh I tr&D8Crilte here a. t, and which Bather 8ohmi4,
h .. wriiteo p il aD ancient labial OOOlOBive iotermediate betWMIl
p and II which 11'. G. llHpero call. U mad ooo1uaive." (OrGtll ....
III I. I&\lfO .1[11""" p_ 615),
20 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
before tbe spinning;. and 2 the same word is a name
of bow or Dross bow in otber MonKhmer languages
(Danaw .k ; Riang ai "bow" ; Alak ." "cross.bow "). t
On tbe otber band amongst the Makassar of Celebes,
the word prtlla designates the bow for shooting the arrow.
and a kind of bow which is also used for washing the
cotton (NIBIIWRNHUIS, Der Ge6r e" von Pfeil .nd Boge
f den g.'018.,. Sund.-I""l", in Internatio I., A,eM.
f., EtA.ographi., XIX, pp. 10-11). Sonnerat has observed
and sketched a .imilar instrument in Inoi. (r oy.ge. a.,.
I.de 1 a I. Ohine, PMris 1782, vol. I. p. 108 and pI. 26).
U The machine for carding the cotton," says he, U is
extremely .impl.. It i. made of a piece of long wood of
six to seven feet. To each of its ends is attached a strong
string of entrail. which, when touched, makes sound
like th.t of the violin (our batters also have a macbine
almcat similar to it called the a,.lIet or fiddle.stick).
Tbe violin i. s"spended by B string to tbat of a
bow attached to a plank. The worker hold. tbe violin
by tbe middle in one hand and in the other, with
a piece of wood with a pad at the end, stretches quickly
the eatgnt which .lips out, strikes the cotton, throws it
out, 611. it with wind, separates the dust from it Bcd
makes it fit for spinning. The elasticity of the bow,
which sustains the violin, affords the worker the facility
of 'CI>rrying it from one place to another on the beap
of cotton which they come to thrash." Tbe instrument,
on tbe whole, is formed of two bows superposed, because
t ~ . lower part of the violin which Bonnerat compares
1, Tbe I.Diu.,et or the Mal&,& PeniDlul& han the forml ig, ig,
It .. a lb. oquJ .. lonl 1/. "biob II prelervod in Kbmer where il
_,Ibe bow bod agaln,llb. ,Iag-fty (I. ihllftg). CJ. 01 .. 80111a1i
ell_It bow."
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDO-ARYAN zl
witb tbe areA.1 is essentially a vibrating strine .. ttaebed
to the end. of a piece of wood. Sir G. Grierson has
de.cribed a similar but more simple macbine in .BiAa,
Pea, t Lif., pp. 64-66.
1
If the bow for carding the cotton i. used in Indo-Cbina
as in the Malaya Archipelago and India, it will be shown
just now tbat tbe words of the same origin similarly
designate the sbooting, the bow or the arrow, and the
cotton.
The tendency of making words monosyllabic has often
had the ell'eot of reducing tbe ancient forms :
MOD Khmer
Stieng I Rongo
Muong Ann amite

II to draw tbe bow It
.

pin I p;tI
.

pan b ...
po. ban
These words dill'er from Babnar pa ", ponall, by tbe
lOBS of the final and by certain alterations of the nasal.
Moreover it is to be noted that tbe initial of the Khmer
form is a b, an unstable pllo.eme, intermediate between
the sonant and the surd and of which the equivalent is
6 in Annamite while most of tbe otber languages have p.
As regards Mon po.A "bow for throwing oton.o"
we have :
Curu : panan U bow "
Kon-tu : panm " cross-bow"
Sedang : po1lt'il, "0"'" "cro .. -bow"
Halang ....... "cross.bow."
Cf. Qanekrit: tiEa-caplI, ti'a-dh4ftU' II cotton-bow I
bow or IimilarJy Ibaped io,tru.meut tiled for cleaDing. cotton II
)fouler.Williams). In tbe Himalayan dialectl we baye 1110: in
In ... u. make aoitoD be wi\h bow, to carL"
~ ~ PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
In the Kiil or MUI),!ii languages, Santali oanam mean
.. violiD, to play on violin"; the last operation requirllS
the use of an arc4.e or a little bow.
On the other hand the Indonesian forms cau be
reduced in a large number to the type of panan. This
word designates the bow in Malaya, and in Java, the
bow aDd the arrow. Amongst the Dayaks of Borneo,
the bow is called p ak. In numerous languages of the
Philippines, p;.; is the name of the arrow, and in
Mindanao panok is the name of the bow. Lastly in
Madagascar falla, faUa, designate both the bow and
the arrow. M. Nieuwenhuis who has studied the.e
Indonesian forms reasonably admits that pana! must
have me.nt, in ancient times. both the bow and the
arrow in all ,ports of the Malaya archipelago (Art.
already referred to. p. 19).
The comparison of the Mon.Khmer forms thus teaches
n. that p'''o4 is derived from the verb pa4. po1l "to
draw the bow" by adding an infix. One underetands that
the name of instr\1ment. thus formed. designates both
the bow and the arrow, i.... alI that is required
for dr.wing the bow. The orillin of the Sanskrit word
6,,'1'" cannot be. therefore. any longer doubted. It is a
loan from the A.ustro A.siatic languages aDd' a very
ancient loan because the word can be found in t h e ~
veda. VI. 75. 17. The sonant initial of 6,,'1'" was surely
not used to translate an Austro.Asiatic p in Indo. Aryan.
The 6 of tbe Vedic form is therefore, of a nature to
prove the antiquity of II still found in the Cambodian
writing of our days.
The Aryans however, certainly knew the ule of bow
,before their entrance into India. Why have they then
borrowed from the Austro-Aeiatica a word for the arrow?
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDOARYAN 23
Probably the arrow made of bamboo was unknown to them
and this is why they borrowed the name as well as the
instrument itself from the aborigines of Indi.. In fact, in
the Malaya Archipelago, the arrow called panall is made of
bamboo (Ni,,, .. ,nA,,i., pp. 9 and 23). In the eame way
6all<' designate precisely an arrow of bambuo or
of o&ne in India.
V'
SANSKRIT karpii.a.
The verbs poA, pOh, bo/.! which have given origin to
the name of the bow and the arrow probably do not
represent the ancient form of the root. In the Austro.
Asiatic languages, a final h rises normally from an
ancient 8. In Khmer. for instance, am'hOl}. "cotton"
bas another form amba.. One 0&0 suppos., ther.fore,
that tbe verbs paA, poA, bo/.! bad originally a root
*ta. which meant the action of handling a bow
either for throwing projectiles or for carding the
cotton.
We now know enougb for understanding the formation
of the following name. wbich designate cotton in tbe
Austro-Asiatic languages:
Khmer
Bahnar
Sedang
Kuoi
K;o
Crau POf, 60f
Stieng paM
amba., ambii/.! Rade kapa.
kiipoin Malayan }
kO
':n' J kapa.
r" avanese
kobo. Balak
kopa. Cam
l Sullllin, XXV, L pp. 611-71.
hop"R
k o p o ~ .
U PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
At the base of all these forms, whether they have a
prefix or not, one finds the root bal, of which the very
unstahle initial generally becomes p or 6 and the final
has been sometimes softened into .4 with .. compensatory
In some eases. Tbe name of tbe cotton fibre,
tberefore, properly means "that which bas been husked,
cardecl."
In moet of tbe Austro-Asiatio languages, the prefix
is simple: k. or kii. But we know that in this linguistic
family a nasal or a liquid is frequently inserted between
the prefix and the root. This can prohably explain
Khmer: (k).",ba" of wbioh the initial h ..
disappeared; and in the same manner we can account
for Banlkrit k.rpiillJ "the cotton tree" whioh cannot
pal he e:dned by Indo-European.
Under the form xd".,._ the word has entered into
the Greek vocabulary aud in the book of Esther I, 6,
the Hebrew word ".rpa, appears to designate like Greek
)(0""""'" a fine stuff of cotton or flax.
SANSKRIT JIII!a, ".rpa'.
Besides Sanskrit karp a whioh comes from an anoient
root baa preceded by the prefix kar, it is strsllge to find in
the same language fl'!" and karp.!. both of which signify
cotton stulf:' The existence or p.!" and karp.!. side by
side permite us to isolate, without hesitation, the prefix
kar, and points out onee again to the Austro-Asiatic
domain.
The phonetio and semantio resemblanee of karpilO and
k"JIII!" makes u. think tbat these words are exaot counter-
parts. The passage from , to ! i. unexpected in
Indo-Aryan but il> lewrai IaDgnapl of Indo-China e
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDO-ARYAN !6
~ o r .... pond. regularly to of the common family of
MonKhmer:
I
Moo Khmer SIiOD, Saba.r
I
ADD.mite
'hair'
y y
,:,,'
y y
IO.
'ok
,ok
10k
In face of Khmer 'bO. "to wash, to aweep," we have
i1l LaoLien p;t.
Skr. karpi.4 on one side and po!a, larpa!I> on the
other, therefore, muat have either heen borrowed in
auccessive perioda or come from the popuhltion apeaking
tbe different dialects.
VI
BaNGALl NUI4BRATlON AND NONARYAN Sl'BSTIlAT1IJL
In .. aeriea of articles published since 1921 in tbe
.Itemoirel and the Bulletin de In Soci./. d. Ling.i,/jiM
tie Pari., I bav. abown the importance of the Auafro.
Asiatic languages {or the study of Sanskrit and middle
Indian languages. By extending the same researcb to
tbe modern langu.g.s of India Prof. S. K. Chatterji bu
recently indicated that a eertain nnmber of aubstantivea
in Hindi, PanjRbi, Bengali, etc., were borrowed from the
Kal (or Mu!)r:iI) languagea. Aceording to tbi. scholar
tbe Hindi verb jimn. "to ~ t " wonld be of tbe .ame
origin (TA. St.,I, '!! K.t, Calcutt. Reriero, In28, p. 438 ff)
I propose to go a littl. furtber aud to pro\". that a nengali
numeral can be explained by the Auatro.Asiatic languages.
For .. twenty" there are several won1s in Bengali ,
tbe Indo.Aryan {orma MI, 6jl' and other forma of nil'
26 PRE-ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
certain origin: Ju .... kwri. ".eIi; the latte. ones are fonnd
in the Kollanguagea.
Mahle .tiff
Birhar kliTi
Juang ko4'.
The question arises if the Bsngali "uri ia a loan
from the Auatro.A.iatic language.. But a different expl ....
nation requires to be di.eussed at first.
Skr. k o ~ which .ignifies "summit" designates the
highest number, ;.t . 10 million. in ancient Indo.Aryan
numeration. It may be asked if it is not the me
word. whicb under the form kuri, has taken the meaning
of "twenty" in Bengali. This hypothesis ia absolutely
improbable. One can imagine that a numbsr like twenty
conceived at first as the high .. t number of numeration
amongst peopl .. at a lower state of cultnre came to be
used by their most advanced neighbours for designating
a greater number. 100. 1000. etc.; but one can never
understand, by what chance a number like 10 million.
could be diminished in value and fall down to 20 in "
language like Bengali which po .... ses very large nombers.
If I:.ri " twenty" and hI' I 0.000,000 are. after all. the
aame word which has successively taken different valu ...
the meaning. "twenty" mnat be then the mo.t ancient
and this is just the case where we can repeat what
Codrington aaid about the number.limit in Melanesian.
"A word which. though we may not he able to trace ita
original meaning. is used at first to signify the highest
number and subsequently risee s the practice of counting
advances, to the signification of a higher number than it
expressed at first" (11el .... ia. [,."go.g , pp. 248.49).
We know th.t in common Indo-Eurol'ean big
h8
f
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDO.ARYAN I'
numbers up to !O existed. If we suppose that iu,..:
.. twenty" is the same as the numb .... limit 4 ~ i , it
cannot b. therefore Indo.European; and if it be
independent of ko!i w. do not see any otber Sanskrit
word with which it can be connected. It can b., therefore,
susp.cted to b. a loan-word. Its origin now remains
to be determin.d.
What strik .. us, at first, is the analogy of the Bengali
number kuri with the same numb.r 20 in .ome Kol
languages and witb the number 10 in the Austro-Asiatic
family.
gO
20 10
BeDgali kuri Mahle kiri PllanDg M or , .. lei,

"
Icuri Blrhar kiri Riang
,k'"
"
""til
JUlng k o ~ i SlotaIi gill
Let us go back to the MelAnesian facts quoted by
Codrington. "In Savo tale or .ale is ten, which in
Torres Iolauds is hundred; the word is no doubt the
.amilt As tini may possibly have meant tbe complete
numeration as 'three' in Nengan., and bave risen to
ten in Fiji, and ev.n to ten tbouaand in Maori, so tale
may bav. lignified at first the last number counting wben
no other number beyond ten was counted and have retained
the meaning of ten in Bavo wbile it has been raised ..
numeration has improved to signify one hundred in Torre.
Iolande" (i6id, p. 240g).
It may be likewise imagined that in the domain of
Auatro-ABiatic languages the same word migbt bave
signified" ten " and taken later on, IInder little dilferent
form, the valne of " twenty."
It PBE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
Tbe practice of counting by 20 having been preened
i .. Bongal, tb. Auatro-Asiatic word ""r; might have been
retained for m.aning .. a lear." by the .ide of Indo-
Aryan (,i.<e;1f'ila(ti) which .igniS .. " twenty, twice ten/'
An exactly parallel fact is observed in U I'per Burma I
the Siyin., who have the 'l'ibeto-Burman numeration,
pcIsesB a special word for" score" and it is "ul:
It Ten"
I
Akan, 'lkat
It EleveD."
I
.4m I. hka'
I
II Tweit'."
I
dm 14 '"
H Twenty"
I
16m.fI', kId
.. TweDtY.o .... j hul la llkat I
Tbe name of " .core" common to .everal Kol
languages, Dengali and the language of the Siyins,
therefore, goes beyond the An,lro-A.iatic domain and
encroacbe. npon the IndO-Aryan and the Tibeto-Burman
lonel.
Tbe Anatro-A.iatic origin of tbe Bengali number
!.... can be proved with .till more certainty if we can
.how that this word, beside. its numerical value, bas
concrete .en in tb. languages from which it has been
borrowed.
Dr. K. Chatterji has already indicated (TM Stud,
of Kot, Cal .. Ua R..,i ... , p. 455) that tbe word Kol
ia probably an Aryan modification of an old word
, CI. 0.._ of Up/>" Bu",.a alIA ,., SU ...,.,1, p. ...
NON.AB\'AN LOANS IN INDO-ARYAN it
_ning .. man." Here are the principal forme of the
.. ords signifying "man" and .... oman" in tbe Moqrja
languages:
.. man If
hG!'.
',ar,
hara
hor koro
haral MrDr
---
--
"womaD" kiil'i ira kari tori kol
8esides tbese .. e may compare .. son" and" daugbter "
in Santali :
" BOD tt = lora Aopaa .
.. daughter "=.ill" Aapa ...
Without inoi.ting on tbe treatment of the initial,
which I sl,a.l1 study elsewhere later OD, it can be admitted
that a root ~ n r , kor io dilferentiated in the Mnl}lj.
language. for signifying: man, woman, girl and boy.
That in some cases tbis root h.. taken a relatively
abstract 8e08e is proved hy Santali "o4a, .iora, whicb
lignify "one" as in the espr8llion .. ko4a i, .io4a"
.. each single one."
Thus one caD easily understand tbat the same root
bas served the purpose of d .. ignating tbe individual
not .. aD indivisible unity but .. a numerical wbol
W. know besid .. that amongst a large number of peopl.,
said to he primitive, it is tbe name. of the parts of body
wbicb are often UBed for numeration (cf. L/'I.BriiA1,
L., fOllCtill .. aental" dD ... I" IDCiItil 'a/IN, ..... , p. 216).
I n a recent communication to tbe Frencb Institute of
Antbropology, M. Julien b.. stated tbat amonget tbe
fdalagaeis, tbe word .. finger .. is added to several nnmbers
from I to Ii, tb. number Ii being expl'ellOd by" word
whicb originally meMt .. hand!' It ISO be thai flliagiMlt
30 PRE-ARYAN AND PR.E-DRAVIDIAN
that amongst the Allstro-A.iatic people. al.o, for expre ... -
iDg 10 or 20, one has thought of "mao" provided with
10 fiDgers if hi. hands oDly are con.idered Bod with 20
fiDgers if all the four members 1 of his body are counted.
Th". We can explain the analogy between tbe root
/tur, kor U man," the number 20 in MUIJQi Bari, kuri,
kOIl; and the number lOin tbe Austro-Asiatic family ko,
_kIlT, ,kall, giil.
Similar facto can be ob.erved in other parts of tbe
Austro-Asiatic In Annamite mo; wbich signifies
" each, all," like Santali A:04a, mea.ns also "tbe .avage";
this word is hardly different from muo; wbich is the
Dumber 10. In Khaoi there i. u 6riw "man" and ,Ai
p4ew "teo." The conooDallt.1 grol1p 6T has been bere
contracted iota ph as it generally happen. in the
monosyllabic language.. It seems, therefore, tbat iD
Annamite and in Khasi tbe word "man" and tbe
nl1mber "ten" are two forms of the same root.
The identity of the number Bnd the name of
man, can be al.o ohoerved in Mandingue, one of
the most importBnt languages of We.tern Africa. " In
this language, as Proiessor Delafosse writes to me, the
number 20, wben it i. not multiplied, is called 11/uy;
(Illougnall), a word wbich can be connected with moyo
or IIIOpO or signifying "man" in tbe Be;.:
of being, without any consideration of sex. When
the number "twenty" is multiplied, ... yii is no longer
used bat .. oyo or mopo; thus" sixty" is called "'0'y0 .a6a,
.. ... v. ... ...
t Broke tell, al bow .. Daytk of Borneo, before oouDting up to 4:"
ulld the flnger. of hi. haudl. and then thOle of his feet. loud wben be
bad uhauat&d the fiogerl of biB teet be came back to tbe Harem of
htoDa.. (f", r I." ;a 8., ....... , I, pp. lag.,O.)
NON.ARYAN LOANS IN INDO.ARYAN 31
(literally .. man three,.. three men) and sixty men, .. ~
.. oyo .da, exactly" three men of men." Lastly, for the
number "forty" the word debe is often used; it properly
signifies a mat for bedding: the natives of the country
say that the reason of this i. that tLe mat evokes ..
couple of human beings (man and woman) who lie down
togsther on it; a man, with his 211 fingers, represents
" twenty" ; a mat on which two men lie down, represent
u two twenties."
The habit of using the word" man" for designating
the numbers 10 and 20 is not, therefore .peeial to MUl)fji
language., not even to the AootroAsi.tic family ooly.
The fact that in MUQ<i1 giil " 10" dilfers much more than
kilti "20 "of the root kUT, lOT .. man," indicate. quite
olearly that the.. words have not certainly the s.me
history. Besides the need of distinguishing 10 and 20
for avoiding confusion, other cirt'omstances might explain
the deviation obeerved between gal and kiri. In
Cambodia one counts still by 5, saying 5'1, 5'2, for 6 and
7, ete. In most of the Auotro.Asiatic languages one
still counts by ten but I do not know any language of
this family in which one count. by scores, outside the
domain of MUQI!ii. It ,eemo, therefore, that the sy.tem
of nomeration ha. been transformed by innovations which,
no doubt, go back to different periods and probably radiate
eaeh from a certain family. The analogy of Riang ,.k;,
and of Sant.1i giil I .esm. to indicate that one should
1 Conrady baa tried to establish relatiob between the
vlDlformatioD of initial SODant. into lurd. and tbe phenomenon of
coPtzactiOD of 10 prefix with the root in Tibetbo. Hi. tbeoryshoald not
be accepted without reserve (cr. Lu Ltlflgue, du Monde, p. 864). It
ia pollible that we may bave bere .. tact of the lime order but in all
iPverae aenae.
311 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
_reh in the Mon.Khmer langoagee for the origin of
the computation by tep, while ,tfjli "20," very similar
to the name of man in M u , ! ~ 1 or Kol languages woold
be an innovation properly Ko\. Unfortunately we .till
ignore too many things for beiug >able to determine the
hiawry of language as well as that of civilisation with
certitnde in this case.
PART II
SANSKRIT AND DRAVIDIAN
BY
JULES BLOCH
5
Sanskrit and Dravidian I
A good illustration of the influence of substratum in
the evolution of languages may be found in certain
tra nsformations undergone by the Indo.European language
in India. A category of consonants-the cerebrals in
in a striking manner, with some
consonants in the phonetic system of the two other
families of language. Now to which of the two Non-
Aryan families must one attribute this innovation in the
Aryan language? Of the two Non.Aryan families one,
the Munda, is the language of a people scarcely civiliaed
who now forms barely a hundredth part of the entire
population of India. Tbe other, the Dravidian, is spoken
by about one.fifth of the entire population. The South.
Dravidian again is the vehicle of .n oM civilisation.
Another member of the same family, the 8rahui now
existing isolated far to the west in the heart of Beluohistan,
is an evidence of the ancient area of expansion of
Dravidian before the Indo.European invasion, at least to
one who knows how to interpret geographical indications.
In the absence of direct historical evidence these considera-
tions have generally led one to think that Dravidian i.
the language which has been replaced by Indo.European
and that the peculiarities of this language explain the
innovation. in Indo-Aryan. The two points on which
1 B.n.tin d. IG HoWt4 cU Ling .. ilUqu. d. PW, XXV, If p.
ll.q.
:16 PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
we would like to make some observations are these :
the value of the proofs brought forward in support of
this thesis (and summarised as far as phonetics and
g .... mmar are concerned by Prof. Sten Konow in the
LinQui.tic Survey of lndia, Vol. IV, p. 278 .eq., to which
we refer here once for all) and tbe sources of information
available on this point.
Before we discuss the value of the alleged evidences
we would like to point out certain difficulties of a general
eha,acter. In the fir.t place the geographical isolation
of a .... hui is susceptible of several interpl'etations. It is
certainly not impossible that the Brahuis for long
centuries might have inhabited the place where we find
tbem now and from the same barren plateau might bave
watched tbe migrations and historical incidents in tbeir
neighbourhood without being affected by them. But in
a country like India which has been incessantIy distarbed
by mig .... tion. it is equally possible that they have come
to tbeir present locality in a eomparatively recent epocb
(cf. Denys Bray, Gens". '1f India, lall, Vol. IV, Belucbistan,
p. 168 .eq.) as a result of the movement of tbe same kind
and perhaps due to the same causes which have brought
the Omans and the MaIers of Dekhan to 0hota-Nagpur or
the nomad tribes of Dekhan studied by Prof. Sten Konow
in Vol. Xl of the LinO,,;'tic Sltrvey to all over Northern
'India (the first of the two groups speaks the Dravidian
language and Prof. Sten Konow is incliaed to attribate a
Dravidian origin to the second al,o (J. A , 1925, I, p. 185).
The Brahuis of to-day are not absolutely sedentary; they
go out of their coantry for temporary emigrations aad for
foray. and even for true emigraFoos (D. Bray, i6id, p.
45 seq.). Some peculiarities of their language woald also
seem to show that tbey have come from elsewhere:
SANSKRIT AND DRAVIDIAN 37
specially by tbe substitution of initial 6-for v 'in
Dravidian Brahui is connected witb Canara, Kurukb,
and Malto (tbe last two are spoken by the Oraon and
the Maler mentioned above) but it i. different from the
contiguous Iranian (Afghan. Belncbi) and the Indo-
Aryan (Punjabi. Sindhi) languages. Similarly the
absence of cere!>ral n.s.1 in Brahui connects it with the
orient.1 dialects, eitber Indo-Aryan or Munda (J. A,.,
1911, I, p. 165).
Even if in onr imagination we fill up the entire gap
between Beluchistan and the Dekhan the natural link.
would be the coastal regions of tbe lower Indus and
Gujrat; in ract certain invasions have actually followed
tbc .ame path. The plains of the Punjab and tbe valley
of Ganges which are pre-eminently tbe . lands of Sanskrit
will however remain outside the continuous zone thus
reconstructed, and nothing stands in tbe way of support-
ing tbat this territory has been occupied by non-Dravidian
languages before the J lido-European invasion. The
consideration of the phonetic substratum seems to support
tbis bypotbesis. Tbe regions in question ignore the use
of cerebral ? whicb is current in tbe rest of India
from the lower Indus to Ceylon (Jules Blocb, Langu.
Maratke, p. 147). Some languages b.longing to a family,
now unknown, might bave been actually in o.e in tbis
region in ancient times. But even without appealing to
the unknown we kMW tbat tbe Munda dialects in which ?
is wanting are to-day disseminated over tbe table-lands
on the northern border of tbe Dekhan. Might they not
have heen driven back there by the Indo-European f
Prof. Przyluski haR already given some examples of the
contribution to the SanRkrit vocabulary made by the
dialootB of tbe AURtro-Asiatic family to whicb Mnnda is
88 PREARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
connected. t (MSL, XXII, p. 202 ,eg., BSL, XXII,
p. 118, p. 255 .eg.) This proves eitber tbe substitution
of one language by tbe otber or their mutual contact in
ancient times. The geographical evidence is therefore
ambiguous.
On the other hand certain necessary precautions have
not been taken in utili,ing properly the linguistic data.
The Dravidian language which has almost always been
chosen for comparison is Tamil, which in fact i, the
best known of all the dialects for various reasons. Even
if we admit that from the Vedic up to the present
time Tamil has changed very little tbere still remains
the fact that the domain of this Dravidian dialect is
the furthest off from the region of Vedic civilisation. On
this principle alone, it should have heen the last one to
be taken into consideration for the .ake of comparative
study. As Mr. E. Tuttle bas very well said (Americall
Jour".l of PAil., XL, p. 76) : "If we want to understand
the history of the languages of the South we should begin
from the Northern side." In fact, our knowledge of the
Dravidian languages of the north is very imperfect and
certainly has heen very recently acquired, so much so
that when it is poasihle to recognise the interchange of
vocabulary between Dravidian and IndoAryan it is very
difficult to determine which i. the lender and which i.
the horrower though it is absolutely necessary to know the
1 When ibis WI. in the press an important a.rtiele by Prof. Sylvain
L6vi baa appeared in J. 048" July.Sept" 1928, in which be hal BbowD
that I certain number of ethnic namel of ancient India can be
6'J:plaioed by the morpbological system of the Autro-Asiatic languages.
Lack of 8ufti.eient fixity of Sanskrit lorma seem. to be the rerut of
diverae eftona to traDlCl'ibe namel still in ole ana H IUeb i. &D.
.vidence of the late surnv.1 of thOle 1&.DIU&81.
SANSKRIT AND DRAVIDIAN 39
common form of Dravidian (in a general way). We
know it very little and we search for it still less. In
fllCt Tamil represents very badly the common Dravidian
language. Evidence in support of this statement will be
found below. With these general reservations, however,
what is the value of the alleged proofs about the inlluence
of Dravidian on Indo-Aryan.
It is through phonetic innovations that the influence
of a linguistic suhstratum is most clearly visible. ThuB
the consonant mutation of Armenian can be directly
explained by a comparison with southern Caucasian (Meillet,
E,q.i ..... de I'ar ... cla88., p. xiv; Oaract. d .. ta.!!. German,
p. 40, MSL, XIX, p. 164, Introd. " p. 11). Similarly in
India, the co-existence of cerebral consonants next to
dentals in Indo-Aryan, in Dravidian and also in Afghan,
an Iranian language contiguous to Indo-Aryan and to
Brabui, cannot be easily considered as a mere cbance.
But tbe Armenian and Indian cases cannot be eXlICtly
compared with each other. In Sanskrit tbere is no
change in the articulation of an entire series of sounds.
Tbe cerebral series bas not come out of the total trans-
formation of the dental series but has come into existence
along witb it under determined circumstances tbrongh
several stages of evolution. As regards tbe most ancient
period, tbe first question is tbat of the adaptation of the two
Aryan series to tbe two indigenous ones. For in India the
dental eerieB properly so-called bad added to it the series
wbich rests on the existence of an ancient Indo-Iranian
; (d-sound); to tbis (.4-Bound) were added consonants
whioh lICCommodated themselves to it; moreOTer ~
replllC8d the sonant lA-sound (;) and through IICCOmmod ....
tion brought new consonants into existence in the same
~ e s ,'the whole of this Beries was pronounced as cerebrla.
400 PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
Later on, the oeclusive"! and 4, I,he naeal 'l'/. and I bave
replaced the ancient intervocalic dentals under different
historical and geographical circumstances (if. Lanflue
Mara/lie, pp. 95, 125, 187, 147); the withdrawal of the
point of articulation in theBe C&l!es is the sign of the
weakne.s of the consonant. Finally the initial dental
occlusive has heen, but rarely, cerebralised (ibid, p.
Such is 'in general' tbe history of the cerebrals in
Indo-Aryan. In the greatest part it i. sufficient in itself
and Dravidian does not throw any ligbt on it. On tbe
BOntrary it contradict. it in certain cases.
Let us p .... on to the fact tbat cerebral I form, which
represents normally in Vedic intervocalic <1, disappears
from cla ical Sanskrit, while it is still in current use
in Dravidian. It was simply an archaism according to
M. Meillet (11', XXXI, p. 123): all archaislll wbich
was perhaps necessary in the Ganges basin where I was
lacking, as was seen above. But here are sOllle of the
Illore characteri.tic facts.
The exten.ion of initial cerebral ocolu.ive. which is
the Illost ohecure event in the history of the Indo-! ryan
consonants, suggests at tho very first explanation
by the suhetratum: but Dravidian does not allow tbe
nse of the cerebral initials. On the contrary, Dravidian
. allows final cerebral nasals and liquids, wbicb are unknown
in Sanskrit.
There is, therefore, nothing to justify the assertion
tbat Indo-Aryan cerebrals are of indigenous origin.
Tbe local pronunciatiou has rendered the development
of tbis class poasible; and in tbis sense the action of
the subBtratulll i. undeniable, But it i. necesaary at
once to insi.t upon the fact that the Munda languages
have dentals and cerebral. just like Dravidian, and
SANSKRIT AND DRAVIDIAN 41
nothing, therefore, stands in the way of attributing
theoretically the origin of tbe Sanskrit pronunoiation
to tbe action of a .ubstratum of eitber Munda or 80me
other language connected with it" if not of a fourth
linguistic family still unknown.
Another fact alleged is the progre .. ive extonsion of
I in clas,ical Sanskrit at the expense of T, used almost
exclusively by Vedic in accord with Iranian. But it i.
known that t in Sanskrit is not reaHy aD innova.tion ;
it marks on the contrary the cropping out in literature
of the dialect. more conservative on this point than the
mOBt ancient Vedic and Iranian (Meillet, IF, XXXI,
p. 124; BhanaaTkar Memorial, p. 357); it is Iranian
and Vedic which form the e.ception and for which the
question of the substratum must be put, Here, too,
Munda po"ess.s I just a, Dravidian.
It will be seen lat..r on that the Dravidian languageS-
have, in the course of their history, eliminated consonant
groups either by accommodation or by insertion of vocalic
elements; on the other hand tbi, is known to be just tbe
characteristic of Middle.lndian. But in the Aryan group
the evolution in question, although it was to reach its full
development only in middle.lndian, is not only anterior to
tbe Vedic period but goes farther hack; without referring
to the law of Bartholomae, one can attribute to it at least
the origin of Skr. cch. Besides, if the tablets of Kikkuli
of Mitsni (Jensen, Sit.b., Berlin, 1919, p. S68 and in the
last place Forrer, ZDMG', I, 2, p. 252 ff,) reaUy show the
existence of a dialect belonging to tribe. akin to those who
brought Sanskrit to India, tbe .uffix of A i k ~ "one"
.eems to indicate, proof will be found in lera "three,"
;atla ".even" of this old "Middle. Indian " that tbe
tondency in question had .risen long before the contact
6
~ 2 PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
of Aryan with Dravidian: unless, adding a new
hypothesi. to others, we want to make Dravidian come
frQm the same region as that of Aryan and almost at
the same time. The hypothesis is not absurd J the origin
of Dravidian has already been looked for in thi. direction J
but it hao not sufficient ground to serve aa an
explanation.
On the contrary, the unification of the sibilants which
equally characterise. cla.sical Middle-Indiau is very recent J
even to-day it haa not been corried out either in the
languages of tbe mountainous regions of the N orth-West
nor in Gypsy. It seems to be due to the action of the
substratnm (cf. Michelson, 1408, XXXIII, p. 146) J
but this substratum cannot be located in the North-
West since in this region we find first of all Vedic, thell
the dialects of the inscriptions of Asoka and last of aU,
.he modern languages-aU of which distinguish at least
sibilant. and .A-sounds. It can be Munda as weU a.
Dravidian aa the documents of the Linguiltic B"roe1
show that Munda like Dravidian has only one series of
sibilants.
Dravidian, as we know it, admits opirants like
Iranian J Indo-Aryan has not any and according to M.
Meillet (IF, XXX, p. 120) that is the pre-eminent
characteriltic of IndO-Aryan as di.tingui.hed from
. J ranian : if this pre.eryation is to be explained by local
circumstances, then amongst the known languages, Mund.
only must be referred tu, sinc8, unlike Dravidian (and
like Aryan), it haa aapirate oeclu.ive. and lacks spirantl.
A ourious fact that might be noted here is the conti-
nuOUI character of the Sanskrit sentenoes, which has ginn
risa to the rules of ,aadM, becaule Tamil and Canar ...
admit a rigorous .aad!i in writing. But the Rille
SANSK.RIT AND DRAVIDUN 48
language, in their 'poken form ignore it; Gondi and
Kurukh also ignore it. In so far as thes. literary
language. admit this .and!;, it i, certainly dne to the
influence of Sanskrit; and .v.n in Sanskrit it is probable
that the u.e of the rule. in q uestioll h.. very mucb
surp ... ed in extension the real us.; Mob ignor tb.m
absolut.ly.
There is, therefor., no cl r phonetic proof of the
action of Dravidian on Indo-Europ.an, at any rate, in
a.ncient times. Some agreements can be diBcovered
at pr.sent, on the frontiers of tbe two domains. Thn.
the diphtbongisation of initial (y)_and (ID)O in Marathi
and Telogu (Langut Marat4., p. 33; Prof. Turner
also, has pointed out, Ind. Llntiq., 1921, p. 9Y, the same
. .
phenomenon in Nepali) or the alternation 0: according
to the nature of the following vow.1 in Marathi and
T.lu"u; a Munda language of the sarno r.gion still
~ "
affords an alternation of c and c in a similar way. There
ia a great diff.r.nc. between fact. like these, recent
and quite local, and the supp ... d influenc. of one
language family on another at tb. tim. when the Aryanl
enter.d India.
Phonology th.r.for. c.nnot throw any ol r light
on it, morphology will n.c .... rily throw .ven Ie.. hecaule
at th. time of the sub.titution of I.nguages the
grammatioal sy.t.m horrow. much more thoroughly
than t.he phonetic system. Inspit. of all thi., are there
in Indo-Aryan some exc.ptional fact. revealing oertain
grammatical uses which might have survived the ruin
of the entire sy.tem ?
Th. reduction of the v.rbal .ystem of the Vedu aDd
the inv.... .xten.ion of nominal phrases ba.e been
uplr.ined as the action of Dravidian. Bnt it m n s ~ be
440 PRg-ARYAN AND PRg-DRAVIDIAN
DOtiCed that the DravidiaD system is the .ame for ,,11 teD .. S
aDd that iD SaD.krit, the pa.t teD.e. only have dis-
appeared. As far as the perfect is cODcerned it may he
remarked with all preci.ioD that DravidiaD ignores re-
duplication aDd the reduplication iD Munda ha. only
iDteD.ive and coDative values (Ling. Sur , IV, p. 46) ;
on the ccntrary, the exi.teDce of teDS uffixes in the.e
two tamilies (ibid, pp. 409, 172, etc.) would have been
rather a support at least for the Aorist .tems. In fact
the process by which all tbe.e form. have beeD replaced
by Dominal ODe. is fouDd al.o iD lraD. There is therefore,
DO occasiOD to iD.i.t uDreasoDably OD the very outward
resemblance of the two isolated form. of mBBCuliDe nomi-
Dative siDgular, Skr. krtav;;'n "who has done, he has
wade," from a stem-ta-Dant, known in Iranian (Brugmano
J
Grundri", II, I, p. 463) aDd iD Tamil .. y-d-avan, which
is formed on a very differeDt principle and -moreover
ha. not the same use: it is in fact ley-d-;;'n which
has the functioD of a verb; the relation i. -the same
in Kurukh between i8'U8 "the breaker" and e8'a8 "he
has brakeD," where the alterDation of the stem emphasizes
the difference of value.
The reduction of genders of the substantive which
char8cterises modern Indo-AryaD, does DOt admit any
further local explaDatioD, although it is posterior to
SaDskrit. The questioD therein is of a tendency commOD
to all Indo-European which is however far from ending
in such a rapid aDd downrigbt manner as Armenian and
Persian where the disappearance of geDder is due to tbe
substratum (Meillet, E'gu;"e ... d. l'arm, cl."., p. xiv;
a etatemeDt which is to be a little modified as far as the
ArmeDian is concerned, B. dOl It. Armin, 1928, pp. 8-4).
In India gender disappears completely from the eastern
SANSKRIT AND DRAVIDIAN 45
languages only, and in fact tbere and there only the
question is undoubtedly of the action of a Tibeto-Burman
sub.tratum. Though on some points the distinction
between the animate and the inanimate exi,ts in some
isolated ca,es, the question is of a human fact of which
the equivalents can be easily found outside India; finally,
the classification of Dravidia.n nOUDS into maAat "great I,
and a,nahat .. small" (the first category includes gods,
demons and men; the second, animals and things) differs
from the Mund. cl.ssitication into animate and inanimate
(whatever haa been s.id on all this in LanD'" Marathe,
p. 199, should be corrected).
If Dravidian cannot explain the alterations of the
Indo-European system can it inversely account for the
abnormal preservation? Indo-Aryan is the only one of
the Indo-European languages which h .. retained the
relative pronoun. But Dravidian ignores the relative;
Munda also equally ignores it.
The only t h i n ~ left is to consid.r some general
facts of recent date in the two families due to a
fundamentally analogous structure. Dravidian in fact
operates only by the addition of suffixes, differently from
M uDda which uses prefixes and infixes. To illustrate the
oouree of a parallel evolution nothing more is necessary
than to mention that the determinative elements of nonn
come .fter an obliqne case in the two families (Munda
baa aleo postpositions which are suspected of being
partly borrowed from modern Indo-Aryan, Lin? SUI"f).,
IV, pp. 41, 85.) The resemblance of Tam. Tel .tu
II to," Ca.n. Re, Kur. ge, wit.h Hindi !to, lee. etc., is
accidental unless it is admitted, on the contrary, to be
a borrowing by Dravidian from Indo-Aryan. Even all
ioolated expre.sion, like the use of a word signifying
" PR.J-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
"having eaid to in Indo-Aryan, to mark the subordination
of propositions, is not to be invoked here; henause it is not
only in use in Marathi and Singhal .. e, languages in
contact with Dravidian, but also in Nepalese and Bengali
and at least in one language of the Tibeto-Burman group,
the BOlio (La.gUll Maratne, p. 272 and Errata).
One is, therefore, ultimately led to searob for the
Dravidian el.menta of Sanskrit only in tbe vocabulary.
But the bistory of vocabulary is ab,olutely different from
phonetic Dr grammatical evolution, and the loan of words
i. ....nti.lly different from tbe facts of a substratum.
Tbe fact. of a substratum r .. "lt from the unconscious
bl.nding of two systems existing amongst the S.me
people; the loon resulta from a willing effort to add
elem.nt. tak.n from o"tside to tbe mass of tb. voca-
bulary. Tbe loan proves the contact of tbe two languages
.nd not tbe substitution of tbe one by the other. On
the otber hand it i. often difficult to recogniee in .wbat
sen the borrowing is mad. between two given languages
and to make sure that it has not been made by each of the
two languages from a third one, known or unknown.
Lastly, where it becomes clear that Aryan is
the borrower, it is necessary to determine from what
gronp of Dravidi.n the loon h.s been taken and
also to draw from it information for the bistory of
Dravidian iteelf. Tbere is no question of undertaking
that work here, which i till impoasible, but we only
Wlnt to point out by some examples, the inter .. t and
the present aspect of the question.
The Vedic (I/ld Indo-European) name for boree, a ~ . a ,
is no longer represented to-day in Indo-Aryan e"cept on
the confines of the Iranian world where the corresponding
word i. stm Jiving (Griereon, PilicIJ La_page, p. 73,
SANSKRIT AND DR! VIDIAN 47
aDd the lilt of Liflg. 811'.'1, No. 68). The word whioh
hll replaced it in all other porta of the oountry oooUrl
iD the Srauta Siltra of Apaotamba_ text which appearl
to he of southern origin (if. Biihler, 8BE, II, p. ""x)
under the form gRo,.. Mr. J. Cbarpentier hll tried
(KZ, XL, p. 441) to identify tbis word witb German
g,.l; this eqvivalence would be strange by itself; Prof.
Sommer hll shown ~ I F , XXXI, p. 862) that tbi.
Germanic word hll its correspondents in Slavonic and
not in Indian. On tbe other hond, tbe similarity of g'0!4
with Borne Dravidian forms with the same meaning has
long been recognised: Tel. gU"amN. ; Can. ku,lnre ; Tam.
Eudi,..; (Gondi Eiir_ is sUBpected to he borrowed from
Hindi ghor_ like Kui ,iiq.); the Dravidian form which
bas preceded the Hindi word amongst the GondB is
undoubtedly tbat which accounh for Gadaba K,.,.tii and
Savara kllrtii, alone of their kind in Munda. The Brahui
lulU is Ollt of the question; on the value of initial
4, cf. on one band Br. nal II rat," A J ~ n goat," Ain U to
deposit" and Tam. eU, a4u, in; on the other Br. Aur
and Gondi Aiirk, kui.!i4 (if. Tuttle, Am. J. PAil . XL,
p.84).
It i. easy to reconstitute the common prototype of
all tbe.e forms. *glllllr-. In the ssme process one
gets some important data for the history of Dravidian
phonetics :
1st. The consonantal group has been eliminated in
Telngn by total assimilation, iu Tamil and Canarese by
vocalic insertion.
2nd. [n the last two languages, the intervocalic surd
is changed into a sonant. In Tamil. at any rate, the
date of this alteration i. rather late, if. M8L, XIX, p. 89 ;
for Canr.res8 an indication iI to he found in the faot that
P R E A R Y A ~ AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN 48
tbe name of Ma.ski, tbe village where an in.cription of
Aaoka bu heen discovered is still Piriya.ma.ang; in a
Ca)Qkya inscription (H. Krishna Sbutri, TAe Madi Rock
Edict, p. 1).
Srd. In the same language. the initial consonant is
cbanged into a .nrd. Here from the Dravidian stand-
poiut the rQle is not clear: there are two s.ries of corres
ponding forms. In fact M. SQbbaya in hi. article. in the
lndian A"tiquary, 1909 (where he alway. attribQte.
wrongly the surd to common Dravidian) has given a
.eries of equivalent form.: 'fam. k-Can. Tel. g-
(pp. :05, 217; qj: for the dental p. 200). But in hi.
Dictionary of Canare.e, Kittel gives a good number of
examples of the Tam. Can. k, reI. 9 similar to that in
the name of hOrBe: thus Tam. Can. kadal "love," Tel.
gild'l. ; Tam. Can. kir. "to .cratch," Tel. 9iw ; Tam.
Can. kuri "sheep," Tel. n gorre" ; Ta.m. Can. Kttli II hole,"
Tel. "901yi." The interpretation of the facts i. difficult;
but the antiquity of the sonants in Dravidian remains
undisputable.
If it were certain that the Sanskrit word was borrowed
from Dravidian one could have rightly deduced at once
a fourth observation, more importaat than all the previous
ones, In that CaBe the mo.t ancient Dravidian, in fact,
would have had pirate cOD.onants, either a dialect in
contact with Indo-Aryan having developed aspirates
in some cases or the a.pirates having belonged to
common Dravidian. There is nothing inadmissible in this
view; the interval i. extremely Ion g between the epoch
when gAo!_ wu admitted into Sanskrit and the
late date-very likely the 5th century A.D.-when the
alphahete of the North were borrowed by the principal
Dravidian languages: in fact it i. known that the
SANSKRIT AND DRAVIDIAN 49
chal'&Cten; which mark the aspil'a.tes in Indu.Ary&ll are
wl\oting in these But ill this case it must
be askeu if Drtt.vidian itself itJ nol a language brought
to the Dekhan. it. pre.ert, area: be .... u.e the I""" of
aspiration i. one of the,. typi",,1 faots which immediately
mak .. one think of the aotion of the substratum: this
.ubst.ratum could not hal'e bean Muuda whioh pos ......
aspirates. Dravidian, the langua.ge of Dekbao,
therefore. would have been at fir.t a language nf the
North and the horse, iD fact,. is in India really an animal
of the Nortb: it h... bsen discovered in a fos.i1 .tate
in tbe Siwalik mountains; and the Veda. specially
mention the horse. of Sind .. od the Sarasvati (if Crooke,
TAing. Indian. p, 253 If.; Macdonell-Keith, r.die Ind ....
under a9va). 1'hu. Doe would again fall back OD a
hypot,he,i., .imil .. to the Doe already mentioned. about
the contact of two languages in the pre-historic period
in anterior Asia; but it wiIJ h,.,ve this time another
degree of histori",,1 probability; the history of ancieDt
India can be explained to great extent by the successive
flood. of invasions of which the fir.t is only an aDtioipatsd
oonsequeD" of the second: the Dravidian. might have
preceded the Aryans, as the &kas preceded the Ku,aQ"
and as later on the Kutal}" agaiD preceded tbe Hun .
The difference would be this that the Dravidians and
Aryan. impoaed their languag .. on India.
Thus qu .. tioDs that are brought forward are
important at l ... t in the hypothesis that gho!a was
taken from Dravidian. But the lIame of the horse is
essentially a name subject to renewal and DO Doe can
foreeee whence the new name would be taken. One may
think of '018, pf.,d and gaul without speaking of .. <IA,.
and of .t.t. and, in another domain, of calJall... and
7
50 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
ma ..,. If Dravidian b. tb. borrower, or if both
language. took the sam. word, perhape along with
tbe specimens of a particular br.ed, for instanco, of
Iran or of Arabia' tbe entire edifice, phonetic as
well as historical, will collaps .
Tbe 'llame of the" ass " suggests.. problem a.nalogous
to that of tb. "horse." Th. id.ntit.yof R. V. gardaMa
(on tbe suffix Skr . 6Aa-Gr . ~ - , etc., of tbe names of
animals, see Brugmann, Grund,.,., II, 1, p. 389), Hindi
[ladkii, etc. (borrowed freely in Dravidian, in Munda and
in Assam by the Khasi; ,ee the list. of Ling. 8.,ve,.74)
on the on. hand, and Tel. g i i 4 i d ~ , Can. kalte, katee, Tam.
k.l.d.; on tho other hand ia evident (Kllrukh gadra, ..
'f to bray." I. it Dravidian or Arlan? In tbe Celebee
tbe language of th. Bug tribes has a form borrowed
from tbe Dravidian. kaledde) ; a prototype *garrl acc,mnt,.
for all tbe forms if only because the rule concsrning
tbe consonantal groups previously stated admits of
an alteration in tbe case of a liquid preceding the
occlusive instead of following it. In faot one fiods
the use of the Can. kaUe, katIe, in the word for" ric ....
Can. akki, Tam. arir', forms of wbich the comparison
is sufficient to suggest an ancient tarki, or in the word for
tb. "cat" (admitted in Sanskrit at tbe time of tbe
epic. Skr. /Ji4-al.-, bit-iil.-. bir-ala-, Ka.;m bra,. Syrian
Gypey bl.N. Hindi biliiN, Wayii, b;lli, eta., f",m wbich
secondarily Can. .tc. pilli; .ee the li.t. of the Uog,
I M': !.utrlon would like to expla.in the Egyptian word ttr which
meaDB the carriage and the borse IS a loao from an unknown
language of Southern Arabi.. We know that horse appeared in Egypt
onl,lowordl tbo 16111 oeD. II.C.
SANSKRiT Alii D ORAVIDIAN' 51
SUrlMY, No. 71), Cao. 6erku,6./ekll, Kur. 6erl'i, Goodi
60"ii, Tam rugu. t
What i. the origin of this *gard common to Indo-
Aryan and Dravidian? The pr ence of this word in
&oeaa has led etymologists to search for an Indo-
European origin. Some connect it with the Romance
word for" mule" admitted very late into Latin (0. Walde,
under 6urdo; if. Ernout, Eltf1ll. aiat. a. ooeo6. latin, p.
132); Prof. Wackernagel has thought of English cott,
which primarily designates the little ones of an animal,
aJld particularly in the Bible and in Middle English
the young one of a ca.mel or "D &ss; agreements
which are very poor and far-fetcheu-th. ass has no
Indo-European name. The .. s. is an animal of Asia; it
is rare in rndia except in the We.tern regions (qf.
Levi, DEFEO, IV, p. 568). The Mediterranean name
of &8S, Gr. ~ etc., appears to come from Western Asia;
k.iara-. which is wanting in the most aucient Sanskrit
text., is known only in India and in Iran; hence It
is not at all astonishing that the Vodio words oaraa6ia
_nd rii.aMa-have not any corresponding Indo-
European terms, just as it is naturol that Bmhni has
a name, whioh as far as we know, belongs only to it,
. .
(6;.). The probabilities are, therefor., in favour of *oa,a
1 Tamil baa Inother word piDei, pi9ei; one ia inclined to CODDect
piyu, Can. pilu
t
and Tel. Pit'''. II to .mear " with one anot.her : the
8emantic relation will recall classical Bkr. miir/tiro. (which hal the IIml8
luflis .. I birala); hut we Snd in Kunda pili, in Tibetan p;,"i (beside
b,iZG borrowed from Iodo--AlJan. c/. Laufer, Tibetan Loon Wardl. n.
64:). in Afghan pi;o, in PerBian f'u;ek; in the NortbWest of India
,.ii, aDd b ~ i (Grienon, PU. Long . p. 66) in Brabui pd .. The
words are iDdopeudeut of Bach other and are lUuliB of ottoml
poeia j the same it found in Europe. puI'. etc.
at PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
being a local word existing on the confines of India and
Irall. Hence we are again faced by tbe fundamental
problem: bas Dravidian supplied the werd to Aryan
and is it the first language that the Aryans met with
in India 1 Or have both Dravidian and Sanskrit borrow-
ed the name of tbe ass from a third language which,
at &ny rate (to judge by tbe list. of the Linguistic
S8f'1111j'), can be neither Munda nor a language related to
the mysterieus Bur";.,";? 0 .. lastly is it not Dravidian
which took the word from Sanskrit? It is imJK>Bsible
to give an answer for t,he time being.
ThAt the two have been in contact with
each other for IOllg, there is no room for doubting.
'fh.r. are facto which prove it but which raise lie ..
problems too.
One has identified (G. A. Jacob, J.R.JS. 1911, p.
510; D. R. Bhandaror, Anc. H,;.t. 'If ["d,a, p. 26) ma(ac.
found in the ChiDdogya- U with Call. mitj,ict
" grass-hopper." Tbe relatiou between Bkr. ma- and Can.
fI'- is not without analogy; it is, for instance, difficult
to separate the different words for "black pepper," Skr
.. arica, Tam. milagu, Can. melo.u from each other. But
one is led to ask if a family of Dravidian words express-
ing size i. not entirely borrowed from Aryan, Skr. mahi,
Can. 1II;g6, Tam. migft "abundance," Ta.m. Can. Tel.
",i,,;. mi"j.... u greatneu, excellence," Can. ",ikku
.. ," ete. (ef. Caldwell, Compa,. Gr.mm.", p. 602);
Kur. mecAi "high," meg,o "elder." If it be BO, then
of the two languages Aryan may be conBidered as
baving the most prestige and very likely as being
the least open to borrowing and all the more to the
phnnetic and morphological influence of Dravidian
Bubetratnm.
RtT DRAVIDlA.N
There are cases in which a language would ."bmit
to the influenco of another without complete
words. It can be a.ked whether the word for" wheat ..
wbich is found from the Yajurveda onwards, . g., godhulua1J,
(in the singular in the Satapatha BrAhma9a) does not owe
it, form to such an influence. Thi. word apparently signi-
ficative but having an absurd signification (" Bmoke of
the cow"), cannot be separated from the Iranian ga.du .. ,
which being in no way significative, is necessarily the
mo.t allcient. Cannot the deformation undergone by .the
word in India be explained by the presencr of a word
with the same meaning in Dravidian, Can . . '1olli, 'I'am.
kUlli, Tad. kO/li? One would be inclined to explain, loy
an inverse contamiua.tion, the double aspect in classical
Sanskrit of the word for U fan "-v'ijana and v.vajana-
.Iternat ing in an .bnormal way; it looks as if that a word
expr .. sing the instrument derived from the reot of Can.
biNU, Ta.m. 11ifU, Tel. vicu, vtsaru, and vivu t( to swing,
to fOil, to blow" was at the time of its introduction into
Sanskrit, formed on the model now of vii. and now of
.,-a)-.
The.. diverse pects, presented by the problem of
loans are not the only on... There are others in which
non-Munda languages must be counted.
Let no at first come back to the names of animals.
A name which has a good cbance of being Indian is that
of tbe " peacook" and it would be in no way astonishing
if in f.ce of Rv. mayiira and in the forms supplied hy
Alioka, mora-at GirDar, maJura-in tbe North- West,
... jila .t KaIBi aDd Jaugada, we find a group 01 Dravidian
forms: Tam. maySl, Can. mayl. and Mvil, Tel. mali
Gondi ",al. The identity of the names is evident; but
it is difficult to determine the ancient forDL If' it is
64 PRE.ARYAN ANn PII,E-DRAVIllIAN
admitted with Mr. T. Michelson (J.A.O.B., XXX, p. 84,
n. R) that the oj, of the inscriptions of the North. West
is " Magadhism "one still remains embarrassed by the
co.existence of the forms with .1. and -r. Should one say
that the contact, took place between Dravidian and the
Eastern dialect. of Sanskrit? It would he a further
definition of g ..... t value. But Eastern Munda possesse.
a word of similar appearance, with r; e.g. Savara, mira,
Santali marak' ; and tbis word re-appears in Indo-China:
Mon IlIra", Bahnar mra (to tell the truth, Father Schmidt
connects these two forms witb Skr. Pali barki, derived
from barAa-another word of unknown origin). One does
not know if the two series should be put together or not.
Is the Tamil word palalll .. ripe fruit" copied from
or the original of the Vedic pUla-? Here the difficulty
is mauifold. One can imagine the Indo-European
etymologies (if. Uhlenbeck, s.v,; Wackernagel Altind. !lr.,
I, pp. 120, 123; M. Meillet proposes Old Slav. ploi ..
.. fruit "). But one can also refer to Can. pap, Tel. pow ..
Kur. panjnG "fruit," possibly even to Ilrahni pira-
"to swell up;" the nasal does not caus. any aboolute,
dilliculty, Canores. has .. ena ... by the side of mela ... quoted
above &8 the designation of U pepper"; it gives tmlJ'u
in face of Tam. "Zalek.i, Gondi udii/, Toda .... k .. pestle."
If the connection were proved it would be most probable
that pAaZ. was borrowed from Dravidian. But" fruit"
i. called in Khmer pAl!, in Kaseng pZ;;, in Bahnar pZ"-
in Stieog pl!i ; and Prof. Przyluski who communicates
these word. to me adds (hot, in his opinion, they conld
not have been harrowed from India, becau.e Annamite,
in which there is no Indian influence, has Irai which
goes back to 61.i attested in the 17th century by Father
Rhodes.
SANSKl!.lT AND DRAVIDIAN 55
It is very curious that the same problem aris .. about
a word which is the name neither of an animal Dor ..
plant, nor the name of auy ordinary article. Of the
ancient Indo-European word for" mouth" occurri"g in tbe
~ g v e d a under the forms, a.-, iisaR-, iiar()ya, there remaina
no trace to-day except in the dialects of the mountainous
regions of the North-West (if. Grierson, pi . .Lang.,
p. 75 ; and the lists of the .Ling. 8" .... ,y, No. a6). Besid ..
this word and the' mysteriou. praty a..am I, 62,'15, 81
(from which the word ii.ika .. "faee" iB derived) the !,logveda
ofers BOme exam pi.. of a new word .. ';'Ha-, the
use of which appears to have been already current:
it is applied to the author of a hymn IV, 39,6; to
Agni VIII, 4.8, 10 (if. Yi91latomnkRa, I, 97, 6;
X, 81, 8) ; to the Puru"" X, 90, II; it designates the
point of the arrow VI, 75, 15 ; in a comp ..... tively late
h)mn I, 162,2 muthatal! i. tranBlated "by the bridle";
which presupposes that .. "kRa was uBed for the mouth
of the hors.. W hence comes this word which i. u.ed
everywhere in Indo-Aryan to-day (except in Sindhi in
which there i. a representative of Vaktra-) and which
the Afghan has borrowed (ma .. ) 1 The Indo-European
word. which are usually referred to, Lette mute
Got. m".pa, old High German milia (and even Skr. mita-
" root" if the conjecture of Prof. W &ekernagel i.
accepted. 8#.6.,. Be,li., 1918, p. 410) are of known
formation; but one would search in vain for -!tha- amongst
the normal suffixes in Sanskrit (mayiMa. "'nail," "peg"
is BOlitary and recalls modem Iranian, Persian me"" ete. [See
the works of P. Horn, and Hiibschmann under No. 1006]
without it being possible to propose a common ancient form).
Now, if we admit that Iodo-Europesn of India bad
aoy derivative of original *,.u. then its deformation might
58 PREARYAN AND 1'!tE.DRAVIDIAN
be attributed to local influences. By a still simpler
proc s, the old word might have beeu replaced by a
popular form borrowed from the native tribes. One will
therefore, be inclined to accept witb sligbt modification,
the identification already proposed by Gundert and Kittel
of mttkha- with the Dravidian words for U nose." Can.
7IIi911, with 'tni, 1'el. mukku, Tam. lIlikA-u, Gondi,
14 .... ', Malto m",oth, Brabui Mm!t' (where 60. is the
Dravidian term for "mouth"; see the list of LinguiKl;c
8url>8:9, No. 36; for the word. for" nose," No. 34), Kui
mU1If/eli
i
; t,hese na.mes a.ppear to he authentic beca.use
they are connected with .11 the words expressing the idea
of "in frontJJ (Can. Tel. m;, Ta.m. m'ID Kur. mund-
J
Rmh. mon U in front," Ca.o. mit1:, "face, mouth," Toua
mi'" "face," Tam. mudal, Kur. ""uldn " first" et.c.). That
tbe term for "mouth" or "face" would be subject to
renewal, is not at all astoni'hing; mHOha- it,elf h ..
in modern Indo.Aryan anotber rival in: Mar. /'o"!-rt, Guj.
Beng. tUM, Singh. t"'J. tol.; this word was previou,ly
applied to animals; in Pali and in Sanskrit t"'!I,Q,a,-
designat.s "trunk, beak, ,nout"; it i. evidently the
same 80S 'ram. tuMi "bea.k," Gondi tudeit' U mouth,
face" ; probably Malto toroth" mouth" (on the cont.rary
T.1. 10Mam" "trunk" appeaTO to be a loal: word, and
Can. t1ef:i U lips" recalls too much deforma.-
tion of the term for "lips," Mar. etc. oth, Skr.
to be taken into consideration).
In the first pi ... , therefore, the probabilitiee would
.tand for "."kI. being a loan word from Dravidian.
1 It is curiolls tba.t KA9miri muk means "Bhort a.nd Oa.t (nose) ..
while Bkr. mi1l.- (Mar. mukd etc.) "dumb" is related to the family of
Gr. ,,"UXOS, Arm. tIlvn/, Lat. mi&ul.
SANSKRIT AND DR.\ VlDIAN 57
In sucb a """. one would be convinced that Dravidian
had certainly, as tbe bistory of gh*,- made us .uspoot,
aspirate occlusiv.; and hence ono would be justifiod in
sugg .. ting now equivalence8 for it.'
Bllt it i. not confirmed that mukAa- com .. from
Dravidian. Lot u. coo.ult the Muoda. liota of tbe
Lingui.tic Survoy. On tho 000 band the North-Ea.tern.
group gives for" mouth" a word moca.; we cannot
.ay in the pre.ent .tete of ollr knowledgll if it haa any-
tbing to do with Vodic makA.- but it curiou.ly reminda
UB of the modern na.mes of "moo.Btaohe" in two other
ramilidS: H. mn"'cAi muciJ, Mar. Mid, and Can . e"
Tam. On tho other band, the word for no.. i.
ev.rywher. "" or m;i; and Prof. Ste. Konow haspointod:
out in bi. Introduction, p. IS, that Babnar has .. u.i;
and Prof. Przylaski commuoicate. to me tho following
Ii.t: Khmor Stiong Iro";i!-, Annamite ... ui (UM
substitution of i for 80 ancient final is regular in
Annamite), Mr.n and Bahnar muk, Sedang ... ",and I&ltly.
Curu and Semang (th. last of the Malay .. Penin.ula). ",uk
which v.ry likely preeerv the !Dost anoi.nt form. W.
c.n .... rc.ly... how to cl .... ify all th ... form.. R ide., '
I For instance modern Indo-Aryan (Gyp., included) -phi, . .. tllrD,
change," i. of unknown etymology (what il .aid in Langue MIJTatA.,
p. :r.ii, and in the erratum on p. 181 iB hardly more Batiafaot.ory
thaD before). There might be reiatioD between Can. Plrll, Bondi pifjtl
"behind. in the back" (Can. pen teg, "to draw back," "to come
back "), Tel. pera;" .. Jar;Gde in the back," Tam. pira, Tel. Pll',
Brahui pi1I. "other I. (Brab. Pit'. "roll up" mUlt be rather related
to Xur. PH U pick up "). Of coune there exist. in Tibetan au adverb
f'hwir .. newly. 1'8-," bot P,of. Przylnm flllB black OD Lepob. bril
" recommence" aDd other aDalosool forJDI, and lug,.. thU. root
Iud or h ., meaniDji{ U to repeat" m1llt h .... e been at the bAlia ..
8
58 PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
it is good to bear in mind that at the root there i.
an onomatopoeic word, on account of which the agreements
are possible. One knows indeed the difficulties presented
by the etymology of the words like Gr. 1';;0 ... Lat. milg;o,
mit.'J French mUItaU, etc.
The conclusions which are drawn from all tbat baa
been said and which it is necessary to formulate in order
to oppose a tendency to which one has been tempted
hitberto to yield too easily are above all negoative. In
the present st,ate of our knowledg., there i. nothing which
permits 'us to affirm that the aspect assumed by Aryan
in India is due to its adoption by a population speaking
Dravidian languages. If there is any substratum at all,
it can be .earcbed for equally well in other families,
especia.1ly in M unda.
On the other hand the vocabularies furnisb a proof
of very ancient relations between the popul.t.ions .peaking
Sanskrit and Dravidian. Bllt in what did these relations
consist: superposition and oubstitution from Sanskrit to
Dravidian, direct contact or indirect .. 1 It is
impossible to determine that. So far as tbere is a
chronology of the Sanskrit texts these relations can be
dated at the earliest by the end of the Vedic period and
would be localised at first in Northern India. One
'would like to ascertain which dialeots, Dravidian or
Indo-Aryan, wele involved in it: unfortunately the
evidences are confusing. Th. initial 6- of 6i4.ta confirm-
ed by and Syrian Gypsy is to-day in Dravidian
the charaeteristic of tbe Can.r .... Knrukh_ Brahui group;
the of Yija -<YQ,a.a- (if the interpretation suggested
above i. taken into conoidal'ation) chsracterines the Telegn_
Gondi-'ramil group; aa tha di .isioo of 6 aDd bel ween
tbe Weotern and Eastern dialects in D/lIVidian correspond,
SANSKRIT AND DRAVIDIAN 59
witb tbat in Aryan, one Muld say that he ... is a proof
of the two ways of exchange: it is possible, becau.e
the.e loan. do not count among the mo.t ancient one .
On the other band the name of the "peacock," for
instance, would give the OOCasiOD for 8 discussion OD the
alteration I : r; but it has been seen that Eastern M unda
contradiots Dravidian.
Perhaps the principal intereat for ourselves in the
study of anoient loon. (and it would be nece .. ary to try
both ways since Dravidian has borrowed much from
Aryan) would be to form an idea of prehistoric DravidiBn ;
because e n those Dravidian languages which bave a past.
are only attested in a definite way, for the /irst time, a few
centuries after tb. Christian Era. Moreover the compliaa
tions we have met with, .ugge.t that Dravidian
like Eanskrit may have taken loans of vocabulary from
Munda, which must b. at least as Bncient as Dravidian
in India. As far a. the borrowings made by Sanskrit
are concerned, we have en that I,h. notions formed up
till now are to be either revised 01' further defined. and
with the advancement of re.earth new snares and problems
do arise. If it i. no reason for giving up this rea .. reh
it is one for bringing into it much caution and for
leaving necea.ary room for po .. ibilities to which hitherto
too little attention has been paid.
PART 11I
PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
IN INDIA
IlY
SYLVAIN LEVI
Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian
in India'
The geographical nomenclature of anoient Iudia
presents & certain Dnmber of terms ooDstitutiog almost
identical pairs. differentiated bel ween themselves ooly by
th. nature of their ioitial COOSODaota. I propose to
examine BODle of them hel'e.
I. K08ala-TOIala.-The name of Kosala i. familiar to
the Sanskrit epics. The Ramlya!?a begios with tbe eulogy
of the couotry of Kasala. on tbe banks of the Sarayii;
DaSaratha, tbe fatber of Rinia. i. king of the country
of Koaal,,; the mother of RAm. i. Kausalya " the
Kosalian"; tbe city of AyodbyA. tbe capital of the
kingdom of Ko.al.. i. commooly desigoated ... Kasali.
Tbe M .. bibhirala of tan mention. tbe people aod the
city; it .... oci.t.. the Kosalaus witb KiAI. Matsya,
Karii,!". Cedi. aud Pu qljr... 10 tbe accouota, conoected
with the life and tbe teacbing of Buddha, Kasala also,
occupi .. a great pi ... ; it is the mo.t important kingdom
of Nortbern India; the Kiog Pl' .... oajit. the contem-
porary of Buddha. has his capital at Tbe name
of Ko.ala goe. back even to tbe Vedic tim.s; it. i.
mentioced. in association with Videha. in the Salapath.
Brlhmaqa. I, 4. i, 17. Of tbe Kowaos. tbe M.bil-
bhlrala distinguishes those of the Eaal (Piirva', Prik')
and Ibose of tbe Nortb (Ullara') ; the RimAya,?& di.tin-
guishes those of tbe North (Uttara') ... the Kasalans par
loumal Aoialique. !om. ocjii (191181. pp. 1057.
64 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
<zeeU..... (VII, 107, 7). Later on, Kosala proper
(KoOal...deta) or Great KoAala (MahiO) received the
designation of Southern KoAala (Dak,i9aO); it is under
this name . that Kosala is frequently mentioned in
the epigraphy of the Middle age.. While tbe Northern
Kosala is the country of Oudh to the North of the Ganges,
the Southern Kosala extends on one .ide up to Berar
and Orissa and on the other up to A marakantak
and Bastar. The region of Chbattisgarh along the upper
ODurse of the Mahllnadi i. its nucleus.
The name of Tosala has not acquired the same
celebrity as that of Koeala. It is met with, coupled
with the name of Ko.ala and probably saved from oblivion
through the prestige of its twiu, in AtkaT.a.reda P a r i A i ~ a ,
Chap. 56, in a list of people connected with the South-
Eaet; the Kosala of this passage is, therefore, Dak,iQa-
KoAala; it appears in the same way in r.he geographical
lists of some of the Puri!}"S (Jlaloya P. 118, 58;
Harkatl4eya P . . 57, 54. .r.y. P. 45, 188: ToAalil]
KoAalll) ; it is still the same even in the curiou. ,bume of
Indian geography introduced by Vigbbaj;a in the commen
tary on his art of Poetry (KaDyan .. Aa.ana, ed. KivYamill,
p. ~ , 4): VaTa!'ll,yal]. parata/]. pi",atl a/].! Yatr Anga
KaUfiga KOIala TOIala.Otkala ......... ; Hemacandra has
reproduced the same list in his tre"tise on the same
subject, which bears tbe same title (Kavy .... Aaoana, ed.
KlvYamili, adby. 8, p. 127). Tosala or Tosalaka, or the
native of Tosala," is the name of a wrestler vanqui.hed
by.K",!}a (Hari.arMa, II, SO, 50 ; 48 ; 55; Yin ... puri!V',
tran. Wilson', Vol. V, p. 89). Toealiputra, Prakrit
Tosaltplltta, "tbe son of tbe Tosalian," is a J.ioa ACArya,
who was the teacber of luya Rak,ita or Rak,itasvimin,
disciple apd. successor of Vajr&, tbe last of tbe Daiapllrvin
PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN IN INDIA 65
(Ava.yak.; .nijjutti 8, in Ind. Stud., XVII, 63;
Hem.candr., XIII, 88). The nalllt! of
To 11 (in the feminine) is hardly known to Indianiota
except from th" inscriptions of A&oka; two of the
different edict., of Dhauli, are addres.ed to the Kumii.,.
alld the M.hiimiitra. at Tosal! (2'o'l/liynm M.hii1lliita
noga1'ar .. i.lffJltalaka, 1 ; Tosnltam K1lmale Alahamata ca, 2).
The name of To ir mu.t havI! heen applied to a
region, beeau.e we find the mention of Northern Tooall
(Uttara. To.ali) anel Southern Tooall
the King of Ori.sa Subhakaradeva, who reigned towardo
the end of the 8t,h century, while presenting to the
Emperor of China his own copy of the Gav4a"yiUla in
795, issues a. document conveying the gift from Uttara-
Too.1! (Ep. !ud., XV, p. 3). A deed of gift by Sivarij. in
283 (Gupta) i.e., 601 A.D. (Ep. Ind., IX, 286),
at Patiakella, mentions Tosa.ir in a rathel' obscure
context, as the residence of his Bllzernin, which if!
the way the editor of the illSCri()tion, Mr. Banerji, takes
it or as the dist,rict ill which Vort.noh whence the
document. issues, was situa.teu. Both of these documents
have been discovered in Orissa in the district of Cuttack.
It is also in tbis district that Dhauli is fliluated at a
distance of 4 miles South. South. West of BhuvaneSvar;
the inscriptions of Asoka. are engraved there on a rock
called Aswastama, near the summit of a low hill. It i.
therefore evident that Tos.11 occupied almost the sam. site
as that of the Dhauli of to.day. There i. no accounting
for the indication furnished by Ptolemy who places Tiis.l.i .
or TiisaJe in India beyond the Gang.s, at 150
0
East and
23
0
20' North, on the way from th. Gangeo to th.
peninsula of Gold (Khrus. Khersonesos), in th. vicinity .
of the Kirit.. (Kirrhadia, Tilad"i), in the centreol ... ,.
9
66 PRE.ARYAN AND PltE.DRAVIDIAN'
region which corresponds to modern Sylhel, and Manipur.
To add to our confusion, Ptolemy place. at 50 South and
4,0 East of TOsaI.i, a city called Trilingon or '1'riglypton,
which he qualifie. as {jac,.'>"",. "the royal r idence," and
which may very well be Trililiga, of whicb we .ball have
to speak later on, a region situated in fact to tb. South of
Tosab, ratber to the SoutbSoutb.West, along the Western
coast of the Ray of Bengal. in ci.-Gaogetic India according
: to tbe division adopted by Ptolemy. The other town. euu
merated by ptolemy in the ... me paragraph have not yet
been identified: Rhandamarkotta. wbere tbere i. an
abundaoco of nard; Athena gounon. Maniaina (Maniataia).
TOsaJei, Alosanga., Adeisaga, Kimara, Pari8&l'fl.. Tougma.
wbich i. a capital (metropolis). etc. For the first oft-hese
names a suggestion may be offered en pa""ol. which may
lead to its definite identification by discarding at any
rate'all tb. previous identifications wbicb McCrindle bas
summari.ed in an important note (lnd, Ant . XIII, 882).
"Rbadamarkotta (v.I. Rbandamarkotta). Saint Martin has
identified tbis witb an ancient capital situated
on the western bank of tbe lower Brahmaputra. and now
oalled Ud8pur (Udayapura.--cil.v 'II 8un,ire). Yule who
agrees witb tbis identification, give. as the Sanskrit form of
tbe name of tbe place. Ilangamrtika. Tbe pa.sage about
.Na,d wbich follows tb. mention of Rbadamarkotta in the
m'-jority of editions is, acoording to S.int Martin (Elude.
p. 852 and note). manife.tly corrupt, Some editor.
correct lIoU"t/', much, into citiell, and thus Nardos
becomes the name of a to .... n. and Rbadamarkotta the
name of a district to wbicb Nardo. and the towns that
come after it in the table helong. On tbis point
we may quote a pa ... ge from Wilford, who.. views
ngarding Rbadamarkotta were diff.rent. He O&y"
PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRA VlD1AN IN INDIA 61
(.A.iat. UtI.arcll, Vol. XIV, p. 441), Ptolemy bas
delineated tolerably well the two branches of the river of Ava
and the relative situation of two towns upon tbem, which
still retain their anoient, name, only tbey are I,ranlposed.
The.e two towns are Urathena, and Nardo. or Nardon J
Urathen. is RhMana, tbe ancient name of Amarapur,
aod Noodon is Nortenb on the Kayndween ...... ' He
says that Nartenh was situated in the country of Rhanda-
markola, literally, the Fort of Randamar, after which
the whole counlry was designated.' All the e"egetists
appear to me to hOTe gone wrong; Wilford, however,
had a glimpse of one part of the .olutioo. Tbe Sanskrit
name of nard is nalada; a metathesis, always easy in
the case of , in Sanskrit, bas given rise to la .. (a) da and
tben randa. It may be a. well noted that the a.pirate which
accompanies the iaitial , of rhando' or ,hado' i. a purely
Greek feature, and does not imply any aspiration in the
original word. As to the alternation of I and, in the
, name of nard we have a sure trace in the g a ~ a "'.arid'
on Pi9ini, IV, 4, 58; the grammarian prescribes that
for designating tbe merchants of certain perfumes ooe
must have a derivation in ilea from the name of the
perfume. The ~ p i ~ h a gives immediately after Ki,a,a
the words .. a,ada and lada; B6htlingk, P.WI, nnde.
".,ad., doe. not hesitate to recognise in it the name of
nard. I find that Candragomin in the corresponding
ga9a (ad Ill, 4, 55) bas omitted nar.da and retained
only Mlada. Thus the anDotation which accompanies
tbe name of tbe locality in Ptolemy i. occasioned by the
nlme itself, whicb it e"plains. I do not know how one
should restore the final syllablee. Tbe Mt.da in botaniea1
nomenclature is NardOlt&chys J.tamansi or Nardns
Indieus ; Khory and Katrak (MaW .. , II, 3U) indicate
68 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE. DRAVIDIAN
the alpine HimAlaya as its habitat; Yule and Burnell
likewise (Hoh,OIi.Job,o_, under rd) indicate that the plant
Nardostachys Jatamansi IS "a native of the loftier
Himilaya." If Rhandamarkotta abounds in nard, it
must, therefore, be situated either in the Himalayan
heights or must be in such a vicinity as to be able to
serve tbe market. Rbandamarkotta, therefore, leads U8
towards upper Hengal; we may ask what error of informa
tion could have red Ptolemy to locate To.ali (T6salei,
To.alii) and Triliilga (Trilingon) to the east, of the Gauges.
And yet Ptolemy was not ignorant of the importance of
Tosah, for be has himself termed it a capital (metropolis).
However that may be it remaiDs certain that TOBal1
was situated in the district of Cultack, in Ol'issa, and
that tbe present village of Dhauli stand. on a site near
to, or iden tical wi th that of Tosah. It can be then
asked whetber the very name of Dbauli do.s not represent
tbe ancient name Tosah; the two names sound so
strangely alike tbat mere chance seems out of tbe
question. The transformation of Tosall into Dbauli is
not a phonetic impossibility. The intervocalic sibilant
of Sanskrit can, and in certain cases must become a
simple aspirate in PlAkrits (Pischel, 264.), for example
dia""=di.aI. and still better dihala beside dQ T. "un
fortunate" If Tosall could likewise develop
into TohalI,l this unintelligible name could suggest Dhauli
"the white." Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the
widening of the intervocalic I is frequent only in the
North. Western group: Sindhi, Panjilbi, Kasbmiri; it
1 Let me point out, without any intention of drawing any
argument from it, ib.t V &riha Mibira, Brh. 8. XIV. 27, CIIlBeI
amongst the population!! of the North, beside the Hu'}O, the Koha1a
for 'Which the commentator aUbltitutea Xoiala.
PRE.ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN IN INDlA 69
is already rarer in Gujriti and in Rijputinii (J ules Bloch
Langue Jfarnthe, 160). But tbe phonetics of place.
name. leave the gate widely open to fancy.
A text which bas 1I0t yet been mentioned will perbaps
help the solution of the problem of the site of 1'osall;
I have found it in tbe Gal,,,!avyiiha. 'fhe Gal![)avyiiha
is a SanskritBuddbist work preserved in Nepal and not
yet published. Rij. Mitra has given an analysis of it
in his catalogue, The San.krit.Buitith .. t Literature of
p. 1.0. Its extent is considerable. In reality,
however, it is only a fragment; it forms the last
part of the vast collection which bears the title
of Avatarbsaka, the entirety of which is preserved
in tbe Chinese and Tibetan versions. On account of
its importance the Avatarbsaka has been, on two
occasio,," completely translated into Chinese under
tbe direction of Buddbabhadra between 398 and 421;
and under the direction of Sik'iinanda between 695 and
699. The .ection wbich forms the Gal;lIjavyiiba bas heen
translated a third time into Chinese hy Priijiia, between
796 and 798, from a manuscript wbicb bad been sent
to the Emperor of China by King Subhakaradeva of
Orissa; tbe official letter which accompanied this present
has been translated at the end of the work. Thus we
know that the last seotion of the AvatadJsaka was already
treated as a separate work in tbe 8th century in Orissa
and that it was in special favour tbere at tbat time.
A Iso about tbis time, Sintideva repeatedly cit ... tbe
Ga9cp.vyiiha, by tbis very name, in his 8ik,ileamuccaya ;
it is even with a quotation from the G&9cjavyiiha that
thi. treatise begin .
The was well calculated to gain popu
larity. For his exposition of the Mahiyanist theology, the
70 PRE-ARYAN AND PRE. DRAVIDIAN
author b .. succeeded in devising an ingenious and striking
framework wbich could not fail to attract tbe reader.
Tbe bero of tbe work Sudhana is a favourite disciple of
MaiijuBrI wbo, under tbe direction of his. preceptor,
make. circuit of India, .tage by stage, .eeking les.ons
DOW from a king, now from a. sla.ve, from ancient sage
or from innocent children. After having in.tructed bim ae
mucb.. .be could, tbe U pisiki Acalastbiri eaid to
him: II Now young mao, go 00 your way J in this
Dekkban where we are, there i. the country of Amita
Tosala; in that country there is a city called Tosala;
there dwell. .. wandering monk of the name of
Sarvaglmin ...... He, therefore, went away to tbis country
of Amita-Toeala, to .... rob for tbe city of To la and be
reached tbe city of 'I'o .. la by srage.. At tbe tim. of
sunset, be entered the city of Tosala; he .topped .in the
middle of the city .quare, and then from lane to lane,
from place to place and from cart-road to cart.road, at
I .. t he found Sarvagimin and when tbe night w.. draw
ing to its end, he perceived to the north of the city of
Tosala, tbe mountain called Surabha of whicb the summit
w" covered with lawns, bowers of trees, plants, groves,
and garden .
Tbe Chinese translations present singular divergenCes
on Gbe points which interest us here. The mo.t ancient
translator Buddbabhadra (ed., Tokyo, 1,9,48") give. tothe
Amita.To,ala of the Sanskrit text the name of JI" k.
tck'en,' which is, according to the Mahavyutpatti, 246, 116
and 241, 128, the equivalent of atulya "incomparable " ;
if need be this m ... ning can be derived from Amita,
literally" un.measured, without me .. nre:' bnt the DOrmal
PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIA.N IN INDIA 71
translation of the word Jmila in Cbinese i. "" 1"1If/ I
wbiob, in fact, can be found in the traslations of
Sik"nanda (I, 4, 28') and Prljfta (T, 6, 52').
Sik"nanda and Prijiia tranaoribe the name of the town ..
t..-IfJ-I. '; Buddhabhadra tran.lates it by ecke-t." S which
serv .. as equivalent to the word " ... ti.fied" in
Mahivyutpatti, 145, U. Buddhabhadra thought be
recognised in the name of Tosala the root e., "to ,atisfy" ;
in fact, tbe Sanskrit manuscript. of the
which I hove e"amined, contain in the text of tbi.
lingle passage the tbres alternative forms: Tosala,
To",la and even To.ara. Buddbahbadra doe. not give
the name of the mountain; he only .ays: "To the north
of tbis city, there is a mountain which sbin .. as brigbt
as the rising sun." Sik,ananda and Prijiia agree quite
unexpectedly in locating the mountain to the" east of tbe
city;" both of them tran,late the name in Chinese;
aikl!inanda give, Bien 10' "good virtue" which pre-
supposes a San.krit form "'gu'!"', Prajfta translates as
_tao Id siang Ii It marvellous auspices" which is Doe of the
equivalents of the name of MaiijuArl. It appears that
on this point of local onomastic, tbe official manuscript
of the king of Orissa, whicb served as the ba.is of Prlljiia'.
translation must be believed. An enqniry on tb. spot
perbapa will settle the question.
It may he obeerved that most of the proper name.
belonging to tbe type which we bave under oonsideration
bay. never attained a stabl. and constant form in writing
'.,
'i
. Ii
*-'1
. '0 1.
PRE-ARYAN AND PRE-DRAVIDIAN
their appearance has always an aspect which diaconcerts
the scribe. The dental .ibilant of the words Ko.ala and
Torala, preserved in the middle in spite of the vowel 0
is a sort of defianoo of the rigorous laws of Sanskrit
grammar ... hich enjoins in such CBSes the modilication of
the dental (I) into the cerebral 'l'he form Koilala, with
a palatal sibilant bas also been adopted for general use;
this had the advantage of avoiding tb e difficulty; it bad
still more appreciable advantage of connecting this
embarrassing ethnic witb a family of common words,
KoiI., Kulia, K" ta, which contain tbe palatal sibilant.
TOlala has been no lee. affected; it has been attracted
by the analogies of the words etc., which express
satisfaction; we have therefore more often but
sometimes 1'oil.l. also BS Koilala.
2. Anp.-Ya,;,ga.-These two names are so familiar
throughout Sanskrit literature that tbey hardly need
explanation. Auga is already mentioned in Atkor.a-Peda,
V, 22, 14 by the side of Magadha, as the eastern limit
of the Aryan world. Vauga (Bangs) still survive. in
the name of Bengal (=Banga+ila). Allga and Valiga,
most often coupled logether, have ordinarily as tbeir
eompanion Kaliuga to which we shall return presently.
All three, with Puq<Jra (and Suhma), which we sbal1 also
have to consider, are represented (.MaII.Marat., I, 104)
as five hrothers horn for the benefit of King Bali, from
a union aceompliBhed, at hi. roquest, between the queen
and the blind old ",i Dlrgbatamas; the wbole
ch"pter has snch a singular Bcent of ,avagery that the
Indian translator, the author of the English version
published by P. C. Roy, has been obliged several times
to take recourse to Latin fOI the sake of decency. Here
are doubtle.s confronted by old local legendS which
PRE.A RYAN AND PRE.DR:\. VIDIAN IN INDIA 78
the study of folklore will dillClOver in the Austro.Asi .. tit!i
domain. Auga and Vanga had long remained suspect
to the Aryans of Indi... Baudhayana, so rich in curious
features, presoribe. (I, 2, ;4.) a sacrifice of expiation after
a travel amongst the the Kiraskara, the PUI}<Jra,
the SauvIra, the Vallgo., the Kaliuga, and the Prinlioa
(.l.a!!i" K.Ta.learan Puf/4ran Sall.i .... Panga.Kaling ...
p inan iii ea gat.a p .. 4a&tQmUa yajeta
a). It will be noticed that Vadga and Kalinga are
united in a compound noun while the other people.
are mentioned oDe by one. In the stanza which
precedes this one Baudhlyan.. had related a verse
whioh classes the Aug. amongst the halfbreeds:
Auantayo'nga I upa'rt
Bi.d" ... a".,.a .t. .amlci"!l.'yonaya/.l. 'rhe very reasons
wbich attributed to these countries a bad reputation
in the Brihma'}ical society assured them a privileged
raok in the heretical cburches. For the Jainao, Aliga
is almost a holy land; Campi, the capital, is tbe
residenoe of "mrge nuU)ber of holy personages of
Jain legend and hiltory. The BhagavaU places
Anga and Vanga at the bead of a list of sixteen peoples,
before tbe Magadha (Weber, I"d. Bt., XVI, 804). On.
of tbe Upillgaa, the Prajliipanl, classes Adga and Vallga
in tbe Ilrst group of Arya peoples whom it calls th.
Kk.U.ri,a; tbe lilt begins thus: Ri,aui". MagaAa,
Oampi A7hga taka, Timalilti ranga ya (iMd, p. 397).
Buddhism incorporates Allga iu the classical li.t of sixteen
kingdoms; Vanga occupies an inferior position. The
Allgutta .... nikiya makes mention of it only once (I, 213)
in the list of sixteen kingdoms; everywhere olse tho
place i. occupied by the Varhsa ("Iaosk. Vatsa); tbelator
Buddhi.t Iitsrature constantly put togetbor Adga .. 04
10
74 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
Vallga. Allga corresponds to tbe district of 8bagalpur
and Vanga to tbe districts of Birbbum, Murshidabad.
Bordwan, and Nadiya in Bengal.
S. Kalilil.ga.Triliilga-" Kalidga compri.ed all the
Eastern coast between the Utkalas, on the north and
the Telingas on the .outh. The Vaitara91 flowed
through it; tbe Mahendra mountains (tbe Eastern Ghats)
were within its .outhern limits. Kalinga comprised
tberefore, the modern province of Oris.a, tbe district
of Ganjam and probably also that of Vizagap.tam."
(Pargiter, Marie. P., p. SH). We have just n the
close relationship which hind. Kalinga with Anga and
Vanga, and the nature of the reprobation which they
received in common from the Brlihma9ical schools.
Kalidga had even the honour of having a special verse
devoted to it in the code of BaudhAyana, a traditional
verse which the legislator adopts on his own account
(I, 2, 15): "The adage i. cited: it is to commit a sin
with the legs to go to KaJillga; for its atonement, the
aaints prescribe a Vaisvlnara libation (atrap, It/laharanti,
pad6h,am 'a Rur.te papam Kaliilga .. prap.d,ate Ina,.
t,..,a prahur ra;Allij ram The juristic
compilations of the last centuries continue to regi.tsr, as
an echo of this reprobation, another traditional veree: "If
one goes to Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, and
Magadha except for a pilgrimage, it is nec .... ry for him
to receive a. Dew sacrament!'
Ailga Vailga ca I tirtAa.
,atram .ina gaccha" .a'IiIB!caram arh.1i (cited hy
R. P. Chanda, Sir A.utosh Volumes, III, 1, 10,7).
Regarding K.Ji6ga the Mahiibhirata present. a
corioos h .. itation in course of the same canto, at an
interval of some verses ill VIII, 44, 2066; the Kalillg&ll
PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRA VIDIAN IN INDIA 75
are enumerated amongst tbe tribes wbose religion is bad
(durdAarma), pAle.mAle witb tbe Kiraskara, tbe Mibi".ka,
the Kerala, tbe Karko,aka, and the Vlraka; but in VIII,
45, 2084, tbey are counted amongst peoples who know
the eternal law (dA.rmcm jiinanli ilii atam) in the com.
pany of the nations who are the bighest of Brabmanism,
Kuru, Palleila, Silva, Matsya, N a i m i ~ a , etc. Tbis cbange
of attitude is undoubtedly due to the impcrtance held by
Kalioga since tbe time when the Indian civilisation spread
along tbe Bay of Bengal. We know tbat tbe conquest
of Kalioga, at tbe cost of streams of blood, provoked
the moral crisis from whicb the Emperor Asoka came
out transformed. After him, under Khiiravela, Kaliliga
became tbe centre of a pcwerful empire of whicb tbe
cbief assumed tbe title of Cakravartin. Buddbism bad
one of its boly places in Kalioga: tbis was tbe capital
of tbe country, Dantapura, "tbe city of tbe tootb" whence
the boly relic was later on transported to Ceylon, Pliny
mentions on several occasions tbe Calingae (VI, 18;
19; 20). ptolemy enumerates a city of Kalliga (VII,
i, 98) amongst tbe Maiseloi, between tbe Kistna and
the Godavari. Kalingapatam, port of the district of
Gaujam, still preserves the old name of the region. The
appellation of Kling, applied to tbe Indians of all origin
all through the Malayan world, attests tbe brilliant
rale of the men of Kalinga in tbe diffusion of tbe
Indian civilisation in tbe Far East. (See Hollllm-Jo6,on,
under KU.g).
The term symmetrical to Kalillga appears in tbe written
documents only at a later date; it takes diverse forms whicb
present tbe terrible perplexity of the scribes in face of
a kind of monster. The P. Jr. records the form. 'l'riU".,1J
and Tail.ng.; the Mlrkar!<!eya P., 58, 28 and the Viyn
76 PRE-ARYAN AND l'RE-DiLAVIDlAN
P., +5, 111 write: Tilanga. We fiDd in the insCliption.
aloo Tilinga (Ep. 1.11., XlV,90), Teltl7hga (;bM, XIV,
271). Tinlinga (ibid, XIV, 861), 7'riltalingo (ibill, XII,
208 and p .... ). Th. . ~ rah and Persian authors write
Til.ng, Tiling, Tiliilga ; in the nomenclature of the
languages of India, the language oC this couDtry is called
Telugu. An inscription of the 14th century thus traces
the limits of the country: "To the West and to the East,
two famous countries, Mabir"tra and KaliJiga; to the
80uth and to the North, PaQr!ya and Kanyakuhja;
it is that country which is called Tilinga" (pa .. at
pura.tall y"ya de'a. U,ata. Ma!ti.ra.!ra-K4linga-aamjfiau I
aoag udak Pii'l!4yak. Kany.k.6jau 1I"a. a. latraoti
1'iIi1lflanama. SriraJigam Plat .. , S&ka 1280 in Ep. Ind.,
XlV,90). Ths region thus dsfined covers the gr test
part of easterD India According to the notic. on the
Telugu in tb. Ling,,;.t;c 8urvey, Vol. IV, p. 1i77, "Th.
T.lugu country i. bounded toward. the East by I h. Bay of
Bengal from B ..... in the Ganjam district in the north to
near Madras iu the South. From Barwa the froDlier line
goes westwards through Ganjam to the Eastern Ghats
and then South-westwards cross .. the Sabari aD the border
of the Sunkam aDd l3ijji Taluk. in the Slate of Basw,
aDd thence runs along the range of Bela Dila to the
Indrivati; it follows this rive,' to its confiuence with the
Godavari, and then runs through Cbanda cutting oft' the
soutliem part of that district and farth., eastwards,
including the southern border of the district of Wun. It
then tums southward. to the Godavari, as its confiuence
with the Minjira, and thence farther south towards Bidar,
when Telugu meets with Kana .... e. The frontier line
between the two forms of speech then runs almost due
south through the dominions of the Nilllom. The Telugu
PRE.ARYAN AND PItE.DltAVIDIAN iN INDiA 77
country further occupi.s the north.east.rn edge of 8.nary,
tbe great.r .astern part of Anantapur, and tb. e.st.rn
corner of My.ore. Through North Areot and Chingl.put
the bord.r line th.nco runs back to the .ea." If the
Teluga country has such an extension, on. understands
why TimnAtba (p. 264) d.signates Kalinga as m.rely
a part of Trilitiga. But on the other hand it i. astoni.hing
that the name of the country i. not met with till a late
period, only after the year 1000 A.D. By a singular
anomaly Ptol.my i. the only guarantee of the name for all
tbe rlier period. He records the city of Tritingon, the
royal r.sid.nce wbich be plac in the trans.Gang.tic
India (VII, 2, 23), at 154
0
Ea.t X 18
0
North; the city
i. al.o can.d 'l'riUtyptoll (var. 1'rigtypAon); in the region
wb.re it i ituated, "it i aid, adds Ptolemy, that the
cock. are beal'ded, the crows and tb. parrot. are white."
If tb. wbite parrots refer to tbe cockatoo., wbicb i. yery
probable, the indication can only point to tbe further
region. of the Far Ea.t, as "the cockatoos are confined
to tb. Au.tralian region, to tb. Pbilippine., and Suln;
the cockatoo galerita which i. completely white is pecnliar
to Australia and Tasmania." (Ca,driduc Natlt,"l Hi.tory,
Vol. IX, Bird., p. 312.) Th. white crow. lead in
anotber direction altogether; if th.y refer to the .peeie.
caned Dendy.ciu. teucoga.tra, wbicb "ha. tbe top of
tbe bead, tbe n.ck, tbe b .... tbon., the abdomen and the
covering of tb. tail wbit., tb, .peei belongs to soutb
India, particularly to Malabar (P."". 'If Briti'R l.dia,
Bird., I, p. 31). W. would b. tho. bro to
Indi. ond to the v.ry bord.r. of th
How.ver, tbe plac ... signed to T'
of Ptolemy i. very far from th
modern Arabo, io tbe interior of t;bI'Ial
78 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVtD1.4.N
of Akyab. The name would not be unexpected there,
because it is still pre.erved in that region under the
form of Talaing. It is kn own that the Burmese
designated under this nBme the Miln race which had
preceded them in Pegu and disseminated there &
oivilisation, trihutary to rndia. According to Sir
Arthur Phayre, it can be generally admitted that
Talaing Telinga : Forchhamer has proposed to replace
this interpretation by another explanation drawn from the
Mon language where t.laing signifies" trampled over by
fest; " the derogatory term might have replaced the proper
ethnical name of the Mons after their defeat (if. .
s. v. Talaing for the texts and the references).
Phayre himself notes that though Kalinga figures in the
Peguan annals, " the word Telingina is never met with
there." The case is therefore exactly parallel to that of
India; we have before "0 a name of very ancient aspect,
which the literature has ignored for a long time. It is
possible, even probable, th.t the liter.ry usage has preferred
to maintain the old denomination of Andhra, applied by
Brahmanism since the Vedic time. (Ai tareya Brilhmal)a),
and consecrated by its mere .ntiquity, rather than to
employ a v"""hle of unPertain form. The other name
given to Trilingon in Ptolemy, Triglypton or Triglyphon,
appears to be an attempt at interpretation, conforming
. to that which the medieval usage in India had already
furnished.. The term is composed of tri = Sk. tri " three "
+glpto" or glpAon, both of which has the meaning
of "ohiselled and engraved," the "triglyph" ..
or triglPioN; its gender is undetermined) i. a term in
architecture which designates a feature of the frieze in
the Dorio entahlature; the triglyph is oomposed of the
parallel groovee grouped by threes, with the II drope "
PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN IN INDIA 79
below, represented by the tip. of cones, which symbolise
drops of water ftowing from the roof through the grooves
and resting in suspense. Nothing could better recall
to a Greek, by a familiar image, the stone linga decorated
with vertical g.'Ooveo by which the water of .acred asper.
sions drop down. ptolemy's informant had picked up
an interpretation which is known even to.day; one
contiooes to explain Tiling", etc., .till by Trilinga and
Tri/iilg. would be the cOllntry of thrpe Lingas, divine
manifestations of Siva on the three mountains which
mark the frontier of the Telugu country, Kiil,jvara,
SrlAaila and Bhlmehara. Killehara i. situatecl on the
Ki.tna, at the entrance of the pas. by which it flow.
into the plain; SrlAaila io at the conftuence of the
Wainganga with the Godavari in the district of (,handa;
Ilhlme!vara i. in the Western Ghats, at the point where
the 'I'elugu couutry touches the Maratha country and
Mysore. In Pliny aloo WI! have another evidence of the
interp .. tation Tilinga.Trilitiga (Pliny VI, 18 ["""I" in
Gange tat M ognoe amplit1'ulinill gcnf,em rontinct18 Imam
hOmi". Alodogalingam), if on(' admit. with Campbell
(Gramma/' qj' the 7'eloogoo, Introd.) that Modogaling ..
mu.t be analyoed .. Modog. + linga; Modog. would
reprpsent the Telngu mirjupa, poetical form of the word
mii4u "three." But Caldwell (Comp.r. Grammar, Introd.,
p. 82) contests this explanation: the use of Mii4uga
would"" pedantio, acoording to him; the ooly analysi.
wbich he would accept is Modo = Mitju= 3, gatinga=
X.linga, i. . the three Kalillga., the Trikalitigo of so
many epigraphio documents of the middle age.
We hove indicated that the position .. signed by
Ptolemy to "the royal resideoce of Trilingon," in modem
Arakall is not iml'o88ible, but we have had already
80 PRE.ARYAN AND PRE.DRAVIDIAN
occasion to explain, BB regards To.alei.Tosal! mentioned
in the ... me list, VII, 2, 28, that Ptolemy had carried
by error to the EBBt of the mouths of the Oanges an
itinerary really directed towards the SouthWest of tbe
delta. The question Dlust remain open pending further
discoveri ...
One iB tempted to cl .. s side by Bide with the peoples
of Kalitiga and Tilinga the people of Bhulioga wbo are
know.n to us from numerous souroes .. Pliny, VI, 20
names the Bolingae amongBt the Beries of peoples wbo
succeed one another up the course of the InduB. Ptolemy,
VII, 1, 69, places the Billingai to tbe east of the mountain
Ouindios (Vindhya) with the cities of Stagabaza or
B.stagaza and of Bardaoti., on the right bank of the
SOa, i.e., the SOQa (San). The GaQapi\ha annexed to tbe
grammar of PIIQini names on different occasions, the
Bhauliligi: on II, 4, 59; IV, 1, 41; IV, 1, 173;
the rule enunciated in the la.t Butra is applied to the
eonotituting elements of tribe of the Silva" and
consequent.ly appears in tbe traditional verse, collected
by the KiiAikii and the Candravrtti (on Candra, II, 4,
108) which enumerate. the six oeetions of the SilvBB :
Ud.mba,aB 'I'itakhal' MadraleaT.
Sarada"q,ail co Billva.ayava
The Sillvas are well known (if. Pragiter, M.,Ie. P.
84U); they inhabited the vicinity of tbe Kuru and the
'i'rigart.., at the we,tern foot of tbe Aravam. And,
consequently, in the RimiiyaQa It II, 70, 15 tbe messen.
gers, BCn t by to recall Bha .. ta hack from the
Kekaya country where he was the gu .. t of his maternal
uncle, had to traverse at first tbe long road whioh went
from Ayodhy' towards Kuruqet .. and the Saruvatl i
PRE.ARYAN AND PREDRAVIDIAN IN INDIA 81
I hey croa.ed the sacred river, they next passed the river
SarodaQqa, and" then entered into the town of Bhuliftga."
The Bengali recension shows here again its superiority
over the two others; the Bombay recen.ion, and tbe
Southern recen.ion, II, 68, 16, give the city tbe name
of Kulinga. The name of Kulingi .... ppears this time
in the feminine, in the two r800nsions of Bombay and
of the South, II, 71, 6, when the poet describe.
the itinerary of Bbarata returning from Kekaya
to Ayodbyl; it i. there the name of a river which
waters the Doab between the Gange. and the Yamunil.
The Bengal rooen.ion ha. bere an altogether different
text. The Mahil Bhilrats does not mention Bhulillga
as an ethnic name; the word appears there to d .. ig.-
nate a bird wbich live. on the other .ide of tbe
Himill.yas and 01 whicb the cry "mil alh .. am" warn.
men to move witbout prooipitation, II, 44, 1545. But
the edition of the South, II, 67, 28, wrile. the name
of this bird as KuliJiga. The Bhulioga birds are again
mentioned in the Itreat epic, XII, 169, 6826, a. "the
bird. of the .ea, .ons of the mountain. " (8ii ...
In the corresponding paIS.ge, Ihe edition
of the South (XII, 168, 9), .ubstitut .. for the bhulinga
tbe bhirul)<!. bird
4. Ulkala-Mekata.-The two name. are eonnooted
together as intimately 8. Atlga and Vatlga. The
Rlmiya!)a which mention. them only once IV, 41, 9 B. ;
41, 14 G., refers to tbem together: M.,t.lii" Utkalii'lll1l.
cai.a, by tbe .ide of Kaliftga ; in hi. re.ume
(Riim. ...IIj., IV, 284) combin.. them .till more
intimately ; The Mabl Bhira!a does the
.ame, VlII, 22, : elsewhere
it jUlttaP0888 them: VI, 9, 848, Md.l.' cotkalai+ .d. i
:\.1