PSY 2012

REVIEW FOR TEST #2, Chapters 5-8

Chapter 5 1. Describe the three stages of prenatal development. a. Germinal stage begins at conception and lasts for two weeks b. Embryonic stage formation of major organs till 8 weeks c. Fetal stage formation of bone cells after 8 weeks till birth 2. What are the major developmental milestones in infancy and toddlerhood? a. Early motor development- start looking around, turn heads, look, hold objects, sit, moving crawling, steps b. Early sensory development- five major senses. Experience is crucial to the development of vision, see the world in 3d c. Early brain development- first year of life neural growth occurs 3. Explain the term critical period. a. Specific period in development when individuals are most receptive to a particular kind of input from the environment. 4. What was demonstrated by the visual cliff experiment? a. Gibson and Walk, test depth perception in babies who have learned to crawl. The baby would stop crawling when he or she reached the visual cliff indicating that at least by the times babies learn to crawl, they can percieve depth. 5. What was Jean Piagets contribution to psychology? a. 4 stages of cognitive development 6. Describe Piagets four stages of cognitive development. a. Sensorimotor- 0-2- knowledge through the senses b. Preoperational-2-5- verbal and egocentric thinking, symbols c. Concrete operational-6-11- logic and reasoning develop, d. Formal operation-12 and up- abstract reasoning, systematic problem solving, reflect 7. Define animistic thinking. a. Belief that inantimate objects are alive 8. What is egocentrism? a. Viewing the world from ones own perspective and not being capable of seeing things from another persons perspective. 9. Describe conservation as it relates to Piagets work. a. The ability to recognize that when some properties of an object change (shape), other properties remain constant. (volume)

10. Describe Stanley Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning. a. Moral reasoning moves from being focused on the self to being increasingly focused on others. b. Pre-conventional- to avoid punishment and maximizing rewards c. Conventional- rules are rules and they are not to be broken, values caring, trust, law d. Post-conventional- willing to break the law and suffer if something is unjust or immoral 11. Describe attachment. a. The strong emotional connection that develops early in life between infants and their caregivers. connectedness 12. Explain the three types of attachment. a. Secure- infants who will gradually explore new situations when the caregiver leaves and initiate contact when the caregiver returns after separation. Confident, foundation b. Anxious-resistant- infants who are ambivalent when separated and reunited with their caregiver, upset when left, seek contact c. Anxious- avoidant- infants who stay calm when their caregiver leaves and who ignores and avoid her when she returns. 13. What were the findings from Harry Harlows work? a. Showing the importance of comforate in development. Need for phusical contact 14. How is adolescence defined in our text? a. The transitions period between childhood and adulthood at age 11-18 15. Describe emerging adulthood. a. Phase from 18-25 time of transition when individuals take full control of their own life 16. What are the principle causes of dementia? a. 17. According to Elizabeth Kubler-Ross what stages might we go through when confronting death? a. Denial- utter disbelief b. Anger- feels injustice c. Bargaining- negotiating with god d. Depressione. Acceptance- come to terms 18. Describe temperament. a. The biologically based tendency to behave in a particular way from very early in life

19. Explain Erik Eriksons stages of personality development. a. Infancy-hope b. Early childhood- will c. Play age- purpose d. School age- competence e. Adolescence- fidelity f. Young adulthood-love g. Adulthood0care h. Oldage-wisdom 20. What is generativity? a. To descrive the process in adulthood of creating new ideas, products, or people Chapter 6 1. What is consciousness? a. An awareness of ones surroundings and of what ones mind at a given moment; being awake and are 2. Define mindfulness. a. A heightened awareness of the present moment, whether of events in ones environment or in ones mind, full conciousness 3. Compare the terms attention, selective attention and sustained attention. a. Attention- the limited capacity to process information that is under conscious control. b. Selective attention- the ability to focus awareness on a specific feature in the environment while ignoring others c. Sustained attenition- the ability to maintain focused awareness on a target or idea. 4. Explain the process of meditation including the associated brain wave pattern. a. 5. What are circadian rhythms? a. The variations in physiological processes that cycle within approxamitely a 24 hour period including the sleep wake cycle. Body temperature, hormone melatonin, and alertness 6. How are stages of sleep determined? a. 7. At what point of life to we get the most sleep? Least sleep? a. We get the most sleep when we are in the fetus and the least sleep at old age 8. Describe the functions of sleep.

a. Sleep supports neural growth, memory consolidation, and protetions agisnt cellular damage. 9. What are the consequences of sleep deprivation? a. Lack of attention, impaired learning or memory, accidents 10. Describe the major sleep disorders. a. Insomnia- a sleep difficulty characterized by difficulty falling and staying asleep, as well as not feeling rested. Restless leg syndeome, medical conditions, depression, alcohol b. Sleep apnea- sleep difficulty that results from temporary blockage of the air passage, snoring, literally stops breathing c. Sleep walking- sleep difficulty characterized by acitivities occurring during non REM sleep that usually occur when one is awake, such as walking and eating. d. Narcolepsy- execcesive daytime sleepiness and weakness in facial and limb muscles, genetics e. Hypersomnia- sleeping more than 10 hours a day for 2 weeks or more, urge to nap during inappropriate times. 11. Compare the psychoanalytic, biological and cognitive theories of dreaming. a. Psychoanalytic- impulses thoughts feelings and drives that dreaten the waking mind are realeased and distorted and disguised by the sleeping mind. Two levels. Manifest level the dream we can conciouslly recall, surface level. The deeper unconscious level, true meaning, latent level b. Biological theory- aim, activation, input, mode. Activation refers to amount oof neural activation, input stimulation is internal or external, mode, mental state. c. Cognitive theory- dreems are not that different from everyday thinking, know what you are dreaming 12. Describe the three major categories of mood altering drugs and mention the most common drugs in each category. a. Depressants decrease or slow down central nervous sustem, alcojol, sedatives, opiods. Increase activity of GABA main neutransimitor, relaxation b. Stimulants- alertness, nervousness, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy c. Hallucinogens- euphoric feelings, relacation, time distortion, fatigue, LSD, marijuana 13. What are the major causes and consequences of brain injuries? a. Chapter 7 1. Define memory.

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a. Memory is the ability to store and use information, also the store of what has been learned and remembered Describe the three-stage model of memory. a. Classifies three types of memories based on how long the memories last, sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. b. Sensory memory holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time, half a second or less c. Short term memory temporarily stores a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long term storeage or forgotten 2-30 seconds d. Long term memory the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little as 30 seconds and as long as a lifetime What is the length of each memory stage, and how many items can be stored in each stage. a. Lengths ^^^ b. Compare iconic and echoic memory. a. Iconic memory- brief visual record left on the retina of the eye b. Echoic memory is short term retention of sounds How does rehearsal relate to long-term memory? a. Describe the serial position effect. a. The tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position in the list. People are better to recall items at the beginning of the last and the end of the list. Explain implicit memory, and describe procedural and priming memories. a. Implicit memory- kind of memory made up of knowledge based on previous ecperience, such as skills we preform automatically once we have mastered them, riding a bike b. Procedural memory-kind of memory made up of implicit knowledge for almost any behavior or physical skill we have learned. c. Priming memory- a kind of implicit memory that arises when recall is improved by earlier exposure to the same or similar stimuli. What is explicit memory, and explain semantic and episodic memories. a. Explicit memory- knowledge that consists of the conscious recall of facts and events, declarative b. Semantic- form of memory that recalls facts ad general knowledge such as what we learn in school c. Episodic memory recalls the experienes weve had

9. What are the four stages of long-term memory? a. Encoding, consolidation, storage, retrieval 10. Define encoding. a. The process by which the brain attends to, takes in, and integrates new information; the first stage of long term memory formation 11. What are mnemonic devices? a. A method devised to help remember information, such as a rhyme or acrynm 12. Explain consolidation. a. The process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory, 2 nd stage 13. What are schemas? a. Mental framewords that develop from our experiences with particular people, objects, or events 14. Describe PTSD. a. 15. Define interference as related to memory. a. Disruption of memory because other information competes with the information we are trying to recall 16. Compare retroactive and proactive interference. a. Retroactive- disruption of memory because new experiences or information cause people to forget preciously leanred experiences or information b. Proactive- disruption of memory because previousl learned information interferes with the learning of new information 17. What is repression? a. A form of blocking in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stores is actively inhibited, traumatic experiences 18. Describe misattribution. a. Belief that a memory came from one source when it in fact came from another. Think friend told us when we saw in newspaper 19. Describe consistency bias. a. Selective recall of past events to fit our current beliefs, 20. What is suggestibility? a. Problem with memory that occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else or some other source. 21. What causes false memories? a. Memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something 22. Describe and compare anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

a. Anterograde- the inability to remember events and experiences thtat occur after an injury or the onset of a disease b. Retrograde- an inability to recall events or experiences that happened before the onset of a disease or injury Chapter 8 1. What is learning by association? a. Process by which two pieces of information from the environment are repeatedly linked so that we begin to connext them in our minds. 2. Describe classical conditioning in terms of Ivan Pavlovs work. a. Form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic, inborn response b. Unconditioned stimulus(meat)- unconditioned response(saliva) c. Neutral stimulus- no response d. Neutral stimulus-unconditioned stimulus(meat)- unconditioned response(saliva) e. Conditioned stimulus-bell- conditioned response saliva 3. What is a neutral stimulus? a. The bell, something unrelated 4. Explain the terms unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. a. Unconditioned stimulus- the environmental input that always produce the same unlearned response b. Unconditioned response- the automatic, inborn reaction to stimulus c. Conditioned stimulus- a previously neutral input that an organism learns to associate with the UCS d. Conditioned response- a behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented with the CS 5. Compare stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization. a. Discrimination- restriction of a CR(saliva) to the exact CS to which it was conditioned, only salivate to bell not buzzer b. Generalization- extension of association between UCS and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli 6. What is extinction in terms of classical conditioning? a. The weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response, which occurs when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS 7. Explain spontaneous recovery. a. The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response 8. Who conducted the Little Albert experiment and what were the results?

a. John Watson, he scared litte Albert so he ws afraid of all furry animals 9. Describe E.L. Thorndikes cat experiment and the law of effect. a. He out a cat in the box and there was a lever the cat randomly hit it, started to look for it, found it, and immediately got himself out. b. Law of effect- the consequences of a behavior increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repreated. 10. Describe operant conditioning, and who coined the term? a. Operant conditioning- the process of changing behavior by manipulatinf the consequences of that behavior, b. BF SKINNER- operant- the behavior that acts on the environment to produce specific consequences 11. What is a reinforcer? a. An internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior 12. Explain and compare the terms positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment. a. Positive reinforcement- the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur, extra credit points b. Negative reinforcement- removal of a stimulus after aa behavior to increase the frequency of that bahvior. Removal of car beeping sound for putting in seatbelt c. Positive punishment= the addition of a stimulus that decreases the behavior, spanking a child d. Negative punishment- the removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior, revoking tv for hitting a sibling 13. Explain the four schedules of reinforcement highlighted in your text. a. Fixed ration schedule-FR- pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses b. Variavle ratio- pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes c. Fixed interval schedule- pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passes d. Varial interval schedule- pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed 14. Describe latent learning. a. Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later, when reinforcement occurs. I put a fingerprint on table, you cant see it but its there, blow some dust, you can see it 15. Explain conditioned taste aversion.

16. Which researcher is most associated with observational learning? a. Albert Bandura, learning by the observation of others 17. Describe modeling and social learning theory. a. Modeling- the imitation of behaviors performed by others b. Social learning theory- a secription of the kind of learning that occurs when we model or imitate the behavior of others 18. What were the findings of the Bobo study? a. Children nwho obserced an adult model being aggressive with a bobo doll tended to behave aggressively when given the opportunity to play with the doll 19. Define imprinting. a. The rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth 20. Explain imprinting. a. Forming a stron bond, follow whomever we see the most,