Notes on cell and nuclear divisions Term Nucleus Explain the importance of mitosis in growth, repair and asexual

xual reproduction Mitosis aids in the formation of 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cells Achieved via the maintenance of (a)identical chromosomal numbers (b) exact genetic information and (c) diploid number Terminology Description/Structure Spherical, dense body usually located in the centre (for animal cells) and at the side (for plant cells Enclosed by nuclear membrane (double membrane that links to rER) and has nuclear pores Function Control the genetic material of the cell in the form of chromosomes Control centre of activities of a cell Nuclear DNA carries the instructions for protein synthesis Production of ribosomes and all RNAs Essential for cell division Transcriptionally active DNA replication

Chromatin

Uncoiled and diffused form of chromosome Exists when cell is not dividing Consists of DNA and proteins organized into nucleosomes Types of proteins o Histone (small alkaline consist of single polypeptide chain) o Non-histone chromosomal proteins (DNA polymerase, scaffold proteins, regulatory proteins) Chromosomal DNA binds to histones which are positivelycharged. Forms ionic bonds. -ve DNA and +ve histone form beads on a string chromatin fibre Beads = DNA + histones Linker = double-stranded DNA Thin fibre coils around itself into solenoid, 6 nucleosomes in one turn of the helix, forms 30nm chromatin fibre 30nm chromatin fibre attach to scaffold forming loops about 300nm Further condensation forms

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chromosomes Condensed form of chromatin when cell prepares to divide Transcriptionally inactive Sister Identical copies of DNA chromatids molecules attached at centromere Adhesive proteins known as cohesions hold the two together pulled apart during cell division to become chromosomes again Centromere region holding sister chromatids together kinetochore (protein on centromere) interacts with spindle fibres Homologous Chromosomes that are capable chromosomes of pairing up to form bivalents Have same genetic loci, centromere positions and arm length, same staining pattern, determine same traits but not identical as they can code of difference alleles Each member of a bivalent is called a homologue Karyotype An orderly array of different chromosome types of a cell To produce karyotype, chromosomes are interrupted at metaphase and taken photograph off to be rearranged into autosomes Centrioles Found in animal and lower plant cells Occur in pairs and lie at right angles to each other Centrosome Organelle in plant and animal cells Region occupied by pair of centrioles Located near nucleus Ploidy refer to the number of chromosomes sets in a nucleus 1 set = haploid 2 sets = diploid >2 set = polyploid Describe the mitotic cell cycle Regular sequence of events Chromosome 2|Page Created by SefLRho (2012) DHS

Organized the chromatin threads into structured form for division

Required for the correct segregation of the chromosomes

Required for genetic variation at crossing over in prophase I

Study of chromosomes in organism species

Initiates development of spindle microtubules

Has 4 phases designated by and M Not all cells follow the cycle continuously, some cells break out of cycle at Go G1 1st gap phase Intensive cellular synthesis o Cell growth o Free deoxyribonucleotide synthesis o Organelles synthesis o High rate of biosynthetic activites G1 checkpoint o Ensure that cell is ready of DNA synthesis Check size of cell If nutrients are sufficient to support the resulting daughter cells o Cell cycle arrested if damaged DNA is detected o Cells sometimes leave the cycle and quite dividing, going into Go phases eg nerve cells and liver cells Resting stage where cell has stopped dividing Cells may enter this phase due to achievement of fully differentiation eg neurons Cells may enter this phase due to DNA damage. A biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell Synthesis phase o Histones synthesized o DNA replication occurs nd 2 gap phase Continuation of intensive cellular synthesis o Cell growth o Organelles synthesis o ATP production At the end of G2, o nucleus still well-defined o nuclear envelope still present o chromosomes duplicated but in chromatin form For animal and lower plant cells o Two centrosomes are present o Microtubules extend from the centrosome in radial arrays called asters Gs checkpoint to ensure cell is ready of mitosis and cytokinesis o Ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been completed o MPF (maturation promotion factor) triggers cells passage from G2 to M Physical division of cytoplasm occurs Equal distribution of organelles and cytoplasm in both cells

Interphase

Go

G2

Mitosis Cytokinesis

Describe the associated behavior of chromosomes, nuclear envelope, cel membrane and centrioles during mitotic cell division

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Prophase

Nuclear envelope starts to fragment and disintegrate into membrane vesicles Nucleoli disappear Centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell by lengthening microtubules between them Mitotic spindles forms from the centrosomes Microtubules form the star-shaped structure called asters Microtubules extend from centrosome towards the middle and eventually invade the nuclear area Condensation of chromatin fibres occur Formation of sister chromatids Pro-metaphase Nuclear envelope fragments Two chromatids of a chromosome now develops kinetochore at the centromere (a multiprotein complex) Bundles of microtubules forming forming spindle fibres extend from each pole and attach to the kinetochore Kinetochore microtubules cause chromosomes to move towards metaphase plate Non-kinetochore microtubules interact with those from the opposite pole to form mitotic spindle Metaphase Centrosomes at opposite poles, mitotic spindle formation complete Chromosomes lined up along metaphase plate Chromosomes attached to spindle fibres at kinetochores Longest stage in mitosis Metaphase checkpoint Ensure that all the chromosomes are attached to the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore Anaphase Shortest stage Cohesion proteins are cleaved allowing sister chromatids to be pulled apart Centromere duplicate Kinetochore spindle fibres shorten, pulling the sister chromatids apart Non-kinetochore spindle fibres lengthen, elongating the cell Sister chromatids pulled apart to form daughter chromosomes Telophase Daughter chromosome reach opposite poles of cell Nucleoli reappear Uclear envelope reforms Chromosomes uncoil and decondense Spindle fibres disintegrate Cytokinesis In plants, Golgi vesicles line up in the middle and fuse to form cell plate. Contents of Golgi vesicles contribute to the cell wall while their membranes form the cell surface membranes In animals, cleaving in of the cytoplasm through the contractile ring of actin and myosin microfilaments to divide cytoplasm and cell organelles evenly between the two cells Explain the need for the production of genetically identical cells and fine control of replication Growth Increase in number Repair Regeneration and Asexual reproduction Reproduction of an Maintaining genetic stability One DNA replication and

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of cells within the organism Eg developmen t of fertilized egg into an adult human being

replacement of cells and tissues lost in normal processes of wear and tear, aging, damage and disease Eg replacement of worn-out epidermal cells

organism without production of gametes Eg vegetative propagation in ferns, potato and onion Eg binary fission Eg budding

Significance Significance Significance Important that new Important that new cells Ensure that offspring cells are identical that replaced damaged are genetically with existing cells so cells are exact copies of the identical to parents they can carry out original cells in order of the same function tissues to function properly o Also, DNA replication must be tightly regulated as any deviation would lead to disastrous consequences should the mistake result in abnormal cellular functions (eg cancer) or imbalance in the genetic material in the progeny cells Regulatory factors of cell cycle Cyclins

one division (amount of DNA maintained No genetic variation Arrangement of the duplicated chromosomes on the metaphase plate allow sister chromatids to be evenly distributed between the two daughter cells Significance Allow daughter cells to have same hereditary information

Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) MPF

Group of protein Amount varies cyclically o Starts to be produced in late S phase and continues in G2 and M When in high concentration, it binds to cdk to form MPF Degraded at anaphase Active only when bound to cyclin protein Add phosphate group

P53

Triggers passage of cells past G2 checkpoint Result f cyclins which accumulate during G2 Causes phosphorylation of various proteins of the nuclear lamina which promote fragmentation of nuclear envelope during pro-metaphase of mitosis Protein that block cell cycle if DNA is damaged Leads to apoptosis (programmed cell death) Explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in cancer Cancer caused by unrestrained tissue growth eventually choking life Can occur in any part of an animal or plant where cells grow and divide Usually caused by genetic mutations o Rate of cell division exceeds rate of cell diffusion o No programmed cell death o Normal organization of tissue becomes disrupted Spread by metastasise where cancer cells enter the bloodstream to invade normal tissues elsewhere

Characteristics of cancer cells Uncontrolled cell division 5|Page Created by SefLRho (2012) DHS

Due to genetic mutations

Inability to carry out normal cell functions Contact inhibition lost Anchorage dependence lost

Rate of cell division exceeds rate of cell diffusion Do not experience apoptosis Do not mature and become specialized Capable of growing even in the absence of stable substratum (extracellular matrix of tissue)

Lack density-dependent inhibition Able to infiltrate other cells by invasion Ignore normal inhibitory signals from neighbouring celles Do not stick together, able to metastasise Produce signals to nearby blood vessles to grow towards them (angiogenesis) Identify causative factors which can increase the chances of cancerous growth Chemicals Alkylating agent Attach alkyl group to DNA causing mispairings Eg fertilizers Electrophiles Able to form covalent bonds with nucleophiles High energy beams Cause direct damage to DNA bases Eg skin cancer by UV rays Cause genetic changes in cells

Radiation

Viruses Genetic predisposition Immune system Age

Weak immune system easy to get infected with viruses Cells grow older and more likely to degenerate and produce abnormal growth Describe the behavior of chromosomes, nuclear envelope, cell membrane and centrioles during meiosis Replication of chromatin in S phase Similar to that of mitosis Chromatin undergo condensation and coilds up Synapsis occurs: pairing up of homologous chromosome forming bivalents/tetrads Crossing over at chiasmata Portions of chromosome break and rejoin, changing places with an eqauivalent portion of another homologoue Nucleolus disappear Nuclear membrane fragments Centrosome move to opposite poles of the cells Spindle fibres starts to form Centromeres attached to spindle fibres Pairs of homologous chromosomes arranged on metaphase plates Independent assortment along metaphase plate Cohesions between chromosomes arms break Homologous chromosome separate and mote towards opposite poles

Interphase (not part of meiosis) Early prophase I

Late prophase I

Prophase I (general)

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

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(shortening of kinetochore spindles) Number of chromosomes halved Telophase I Chromosomes reach opposite poles Spindle fibres disassemble Cytokinesis occurs simultaneously Prophase II Nuclear envelope disintegrate Spindle fibres formed with their axes at right angles to the spindle axis of meiosis 1 Metaphase II Chromosome align on metaphase plate Kinetochores of sister chromatids attahed to microtubules Anaphase II Centromeres divide and separate Sister chromatids pulled apart Telophase II and Chromosomes reach opposite poles Cytokinesis Chromosomes uncoils and decondense Spinde fibres disappear Nuclear envelope reforms Explain the rise of variation due to meiosis and random fertilization Crossing over between homologous chromosome in late prophase I Independent assortment Crossing over allows for new combination of genes in gametes

Random fertilization of haploid gametes Explain the need for reduction division prior to fertilization in sexual reproduction o Produce haploid number of chromosomes gametes o Since the zygote is diploid, gametes must have half the diploid number (haploid) o At fertilization diploid number can be restored o Allows for variation without altering the number of chromosome sets o This is significant to allow for constant chromosome number across generations Abnormalities in meiosis o Failure for sister chromatids to separate correctly in meiosis II and for homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I o Result in nondisjunction = failure of normal separation of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids Daughter cell with extra chromosome or lacking chromosome Aneuploidy (one or more chromosomes present in extra copies or lack) Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21) Turner syndrome (absence of 1 X chromosome) Klinefelter syndrome (extra X chromosome)

Random orientation and arrangement of homologous chromosomes on the metaphase plate during meiosis I and *meiosis II* (only if crossing over had taken place where recombinant chromosomes are involved) Result in vast permutation of genes and new genetic combinations Random fertilization of gametes

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