1

iClass: Teaching with Mobile Information Communication Technology

by Benjamin Darby

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Education at Xavier University, Cincinnati, Ohio

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE SUBHEADING: Self Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 SUBHEADING: Familiarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 SUBHEADING: Improvement of Learner Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY PURPOSE OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 SETTING AND POPULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 DATA COLLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 DATA COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 STATISTICAL CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The questions of how and to what extent technology should be incorporated in America's classrooms are not new. Though it is tempting to assume that debate has only recently emerged regarding the pedagogical role technology can and should play, a vigorous discussion on this topic has ever been a hallmark of American education. We need only look to the encomiums that greeted the widespread adoption of blackboards in the early 19th century to see how technology in the classroom has a history of salvational rhetoric surrounding it. As Josiah F. Bumstead wrote in his 1841 treatise, The Blackboard in the Primary Schools, "The inventor or introducer of the blackboard deserves to be ranked among the best contributors to learning and science, if not among the greatest benefactors of mankind" (p. VIII). Modern classroom artifacts (the textbook, the calculator, and the desk) that appear commonplace are nevertheless products of a technological evolutionary process. The textbook first appeared in 1760 as the New England Primer--a work of reading, moral, and religious instruction. The calculator's progenitor was the abacus--an ancient bit of technology that first emerged in ancient Sumer and has enjoyed enduring success as a means of aiding arithmetical calculation. Even the ubiquitous one-student desk developed from humbler pine bench and three-legged stool ancestors (Evolving Classroom, 2001). Though there is an inherent dynamism in the American classroom and a healthy exchange of ideas about how best to harness that energy for the betterment of society, somewhat less attention has been paid to the question of why American educators have such an abiding faith in the power of technology to improve learning outcomes. You don't have to look very far for proof of this premise: a mere two years after its debut, the iPad is swiftly becoming the

preeminent educational platform. Schools are buying them or similar tablet devices in bulk, and Apple recently settled on a deal with McGraw Hill, Pearson, and Houghton Mifflin to make their textbooks available for download in Apple's online bookstore (Kessler, 2012). Such habits of early adoption are not without precedent; in speaking of the proponents of television in the classroom, Donald Barnes writes in 1965, "They speak with concern of the knowledge explosion and ask how our horse-and- buggy educational programs are going to lead young minds to an understanding of the great changes that are erupting throughout the modern world" (258). In the United States, close attention has always been paid to the potential of technology to transform, revivify, or re-imagine education. With the invention and proliferation of the Internet--from its humble beginnings as a platform for sharing research data between educational institutions, to its current influence on nearly every facet of personal and commercial life--American educators are once again confronted with a new piece of technology that could prove revolutionary to the learning process. Couple this with the fact that access to the Internet via mobile devices is expanding the Internets reach deeper into our lives--changing the way we think, communicate, and conduct business--and you begin to appreciate that we are and have been undergoing a fundamental change as a species. As media critic Marshall McLuhan states in his book, Understanding Media, "With the arrival of electronic technology, man extended, or set outside himself, a live model of the central nervous system itself" (1964, p. 43). Though the Internet might be an evolutionary stage in technological development, its implications are revolutionary. In a relatively short period of time, the Internet itself has evolved from a grid-like, wired infrastructure with static access hubs, to a wireless, always available resource accessible through portable smartphones, tablets, and laptops via Wi-Fi and 3G/4G networks. The effects of this

change are significant. Instant access to the Internet--or what author Brian Chen calls the Anything-Anytime-Anywhere Future--means that education need not take place only in schools; it can just as easily take place at home, while waiting in line at the grocery store, or in the middle of a field (2011, p. 3). It also means that students who possess such devices have instant access to a whole host of distracting stimuli while seated in a traditional classroom. In the face of such change, teachers are increasingly being asked to alter their classroom activities and teaching styles to accommodate the proliferation of mobile information communication technology (henceforth referred to as MICT), such as smartphones, iPads, laptops, etc. Whether or not teachers embrace this change, begrudgingly accept it, or simply refuse to acknowledge it seems to depend on a number of factors, including:
1.

Self-Efficacy: Bandura's theory of self-efficacy suggests that one's belief in one's competence and/or ability to attain specific goals is predictive of actual competence and goal attainment (Bandura & Barbanelli, 1996, p. 1206). Simply put, there is a strong positive correlation between an individual's belief that they will succeed and their relative success. If teachers express confidence in their abilities to incorporate MICT in their classrooms, it is reasonable to assume they will succeed in this regard.

2.

Familiarity: Teachers' familiarity with MICT--i.e. if they own a smartphone/iPad/laptop or have experience using one--would also seem to have some bearing on their adoption of or enthusiasm for MICT in their classrooms. It is reasonable to assume that, in this context, familiarity with MICT breeds comfort, not contempt.

3.

Improvement of Learner Outcomes: Though MICT appears promising in its potential to enhance and enrich students' classroom experiences, there is little scholarly agreement on the efficacy of such devices at improving learner outcomes. According to a report issued

by the Executive Office of the President and Council of Economic Advisors, this lack of scholarly consensus arises "from the lack of credible evaluations of most educational technology products" (2011, p. 4). Lacking empirical proof, it is reasonable to assume that teachers will be more likely to embrace MICT in the classrooms if they believe MICT improves learner outcomes.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study seeks to gauge practicing high school teachers' attitudes toward technology in education, with a special emphasis paid to the role of MICT in the classroom. Specifically, this study:
1.

Compares secondary teachers who have taught zero to ten years with secondary teachers who have taught ten or more years regarding their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms.

2.

Compares secondary teachers who teach in public schools with secondary teachers who teach in private schools regarding their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms.

3.

Seeks to establish a relationship between the willingness of secondary teachers to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms with their ratings of technological selfefficacy.

4.

Seeks to establish a relationship between the willingness of secondary teachers to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms with their familiarity with identical or similar devices.

5.

Seeks to establish a relationship between the willingness of secondary teachers to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms with their belief in the ability of MICTs to improve learner outcomes.

THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS How willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms are secondary teachers in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio, and what factors influence their willingness? This problem applies to public and private school teachers, teachers with less than ten years of experience and teachers with ten or more years of experience, and accounts for teachers' rating of technological selfefficacy, familiarity with MICT, and belief in the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes. The hypothesis of this study is that private and public school teachers will be equally willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. Teachers with less than ten years of experience will be more willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms than teachers with ten or more years of experience. There will be a significant correlation between high ratings of self-efficacy/familiarity with MICT/belief in the ability of MICT to improve leaner outcomes and teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study is significant in the following ways:

1.

It provides data to administrators on how effective a technology initiative involving MICT might be in specific school given a specific population of teachers.

2.

It provides data to administrators which suggests possible methods for improving the efficacy of a technology initiative involving MICT given a specific population of teachers.

3.

It provides insight into the opinions of teachers regarding the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes, which, in the absence of quantitative data, can serve as a good measure of the educational value of MICT.

ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY The following assumptions were made regarding this study:
1.

All teachers, regardless of affinity for or aversion to technology, regularly check their email (the method the survey was distributed).

2. 3. 4.

Participating teachers answered all survey items to the best of their ability. The survey accurately measured teacher attitudes regarding MICT in the classroom. The sample of teachers represented a random sample of all public and private secondary teachers in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The limitations of this study are as follows:

1.

This study only addresses teachers' attitudes toward technology in education and the proliferation of MICT in the classroom. It does little to link this trend to positive or negative learner outcomes.

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2.

The data collection tool this study uses is a survey. Therefore, the study relies upon the relative honesty or dishonesty of the participants when they provide their respective responses.

3.

This study is limited to a small sample size of teachers in one geographical location (the city of Cincinnati); it might not be representative of national trends.

4.

The study does not account for teachers in different types of schools--such as charter, exempted, and private--as independent variables.

5.

The survey was distributed via email during the month of July. Consequently, the response rate of teachers to whom the survey was distributed might be less than if the survey had been distributed during the school year; vacations and other events arising during the summer months sometimes prevent the regular checking of email.

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE There has been a significant amount of scholarly attention paid to the role of information and communications technology (ICT) in education during the past twenty years. This is mainly due to the expansion and mainstreaming of the Internet in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Much scholarship has sought to study the attitudes of teachers regarding ICT. Ajzen defines attitudes as positive and negative judgments that are constructed out of our beliefs and experiences, [which] are primary indicators of a persons intent to perform a behavior (as cited in Cullen & Greene, 2011, p. 31). Attitudinal research has proven appealing because, as Clark notes, Attitudes towards computers influence teachers acceptance of the usefulness of technology, and also influence whether teachers integrate ICT into their classroom" (as cited in Braak, Sang, Tondeur, Valcke, & Zhu, 2011, p. 162). My study is situated in this tradition, but differs from previous studies in two respects: 1. I consider teachers attitudes toward technology as composed of three components: technological self-efficacy, familiarity with MICT, and belief in the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes. 2. I distinguish mobile devices from other forms of ICT because I consider their portability and access to 3G/4G data networks as a difference in kind--not merely degree. Many studies dealing with ICT in an educational context neglect to make this distinction.

Self Efficacy Self-efficacy is, in essence, the degree to which one believes that ones personal actions possess agency and can affect change. It has a pervasive effect on several aspects of an

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individuals personal development, including: Whether they think in an enabling or debilitating manner, how much effort they invest in selected endeavors, how they persevere in the face of difficulties, how resilient they are to adversity, how vulnerable they are to stress and depression, and what types of choices they make at important decisional points that set the course of life paths. (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, Gerbino, and Pastorelli, 2003, p. 769) In an educational technology context, self-efficacy can be the difference between a teachers learning how to use a new piece of unfamiliar technology, or their failing to do so. Min-Hsien and Chin-Chung (2010) helped to illustrate this point in their study, which established a relationship between teachers Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCKW) and their educational use of the World Wide Web. Correlations were found between self efficacy and positive attitudes to web-based instruction (p.1). Furthermore, age and experience were found to be factors as well: older teachers were found to have lower levels of self-efficacy with respect to TPCK-W (p. 1). Along those same lines, in a study of 45 pre-service teachers, Abbitt (2011) showed a positive correlation between teachers performance on the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) framework and their ratings of self-efficacy for technology integration. To him, the data analysis suggested that, knowledge in the TPACK domain may be predictive of self-efficacy beliefs about technology integration . . . (p. 139-140). Holden and Rada (2011) studied teachers technology and computer self-efficacy in relation to the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)--a framework for understanding how and to what degree users come to accept and use a given technology (p. 343). They determined that Teachers technology self-efficacy (TSE) was more beneficial to the TAM than their

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computer self-efficacy (p. 343). Simply put, generalized self-efficacy regarding technology was found to be positively correlated to an increased willingness to accept and use new technology. Teachers use of specific Internet applications has also received some attention. Franklin and Shu Chien (2011) focused on teachers utilization of Web 2.0 tools. Web 2.0 tools facilitate collaboration and interaction, offer possibilities for immediate feedback, foment social connections and communities, and harness collective intelligence with no associated costs (as cited in Franklin & Shu Chien, 2011, p. 29). In a survey of 559 in-service teachers, they found that self-efficacy was predictive of teachers use of Web 2.0 tools (p. 28). Similarly, Anderson, Groulx, and Maninger (2011) determined--using data collected from 217 pre-service teachers via surveys--that self-efficacy for technology integration also contributed to the prediction of intentions to use a variety of software . . . (p. 321). Studies have also indicated that teachers maintain some reservations regarding their ability to effectively use ICT in an educational context. Using a survey of 326 randomly selected high school EFL teachers in Syria, Albirini (2004) noted that, teachers perceptions of the compatibility of ICT with their current teaching practices were not as positive. The majority of them were uncertain about whether or not computers fit well in their curricular goals (p. 384).

Familiarity The foundations of self-efficacy are somewhat difficult to identify. Familiarity, however, appears to be instrumental to determining an individuals degree of self-efficacy in specific competencies. In other words, familiarity with a tool or process is likely to increase ones confidence and competence in its use.

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Familiarity can also influence a range of other variables in respect to teachers and educational technology. A study of 650 randomly selected teachers in Jordan found significant positive correlations between teachers level of ICT use and their attitudes towards ICT . . . (Fong Soon, Leong Lai, and Al-Zaidiyeen, 2010, p. 211). These findings suggest that teachers familiarity with ICT (i.e. how often and to what degree theyve used ICT in the past) can predict their attitudes toward ICT. A similar study found evidence to suggest that teachers own familiarity with different ICT applications as well as their own learning experiences with ICT played a very important part in developing their pedagogical expertise with ICT (Crisan, 2005, p. 14). In this context, familiarity was a vital ingredient for developing expertise with ICT. In the same study, Crisan connects familiarity with technological applications to an enhanced ability in teachers to spot opportunities for its [technological applications] use (p.15). Similarly, Demiralay and Karadeniz (2010) related familiarity with computers and Internet use to perceived information literacy self-efficacy. In their study, they determined that elementary student teachers computer experience; skills and frequency of computer and internet use, access opportunities to computer and internet has significant effect on their perceived information literacy self-efficacy (p. 841). Teachers lack of familiarity with ICT has been shown to have adverse effect on its implementation in the classroom. The literature suggests that lack of adequate training and experience is one of the main reasons why teachers do not use technology in their teaching (Balogun & Yusuf, 2011, p. 19). Additionally, some researchers have been surprised at teachers lack of familiarity with MICT. In a study addressing the iPod Touch and iPad in the classroom, Crichton, Stuewe, Pegler, and White (2011) note, the most interesting finding was the lack of

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familiarity of these devices by all the participants. We anticipated many would have owned similar devices and be proficient in their use--this was not the case (p. 77). A somewhat contradictory view of the significance of teachers familiarity with technology is offered by Woolard (2012). His case study involved 10 elementary teachers and two elementary administrators. Woolards study supports the notion that, for teachers born prior to or during the digital era, there is no connection between ICT integration in the classroom and usage of ICT in their personal lives. Woolard suggests that teachers pedagogical beliefs are influenced more by their own experiences and traditions than by the dominant culture that may influence their personal lives (p. 3).

Improvement of Learner Outcomes Simply because a teacher exhibits a high degree of technological self-efficacy and familiarity with ICT does not mean they will always embrace ICT in their classroom. Teachers must also be convinced that using ICT in an educational context will result in improved learning outcomes for their students. Teachers attitudes toward ICT have been shown to have an influence on whether they perceive ICT as useful/effective in the classroom (Braak, Sang, Valcke, & Zhu, 2010, p. 162). This perception of ICTs usefulness has important implications: One of the factors affecting implementation of an educational change was teachers perception of the efficacy of the change. The teacher was the key to exploiting the potential of ICT in teaching and learning (Ng Wee, 2011, p. 163). To achieve widespread and effective implementation of ICT in schools, teachers must be convinced that there is some inherent educational value in the use of ICT in the classroom.

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Lacking data proving ICTs efficacy as a pedagogical tool, many teachers remain skeptical of its value. In a study of 59 secondary teachers in Norway, The teachers showed commitment to ICT; however, many did not see the educational value, except for increased access to learning material and to stimulate learner motivation (Molster & Wikan, 2011, p. 209). This dubiousness of ICTs educational value may have an adverse effect on ICTs implementation in the classroom. Put another way, if you are unconvinced of a hammers ability to drive a nail, you are much less likely to learn how to use a hammer. Regardless of the skepticism some teachers have expressed regarding ICT, other studies have demonstrated that teachers do see intrinsic value in ICT. A survey of 118 primary school teachers on the Greek island of Lesvos found: A percentage of teachers, ranging from 62.20% to 93.91%, believe--from a fair degree to a large degree--that the use of ICT assists students to: realize their strengths and weaknesses, identify possible errors during problem-solving, develop new strategies that facilitate their educational goals, express ideas and opinions without the fear of possible negative evaluations, and to set their own pace during the learning process. (Giavrimis, Papanis, & Papanis, 2011, p. 154) Teachers perception of ICT as an educational tool has major consequences. As Moyer, Schugar, and Smith (2011) point out in their study of graduate students and practicing teachers who participated in global learning sessions using ICT, salient features of that positive shift [in disposition toward ICT-based learning] were the participants expressed beliefs that ICT-based learning had the potential to motivate and engage learners, and the potential to facilitate the construction and sharing of knowledge and understanding (p. 11). After having been exposed to

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the potential of ICT as a tool for global education, teachers adopted more positive attitudes toward ICT. The expectation of success that teachers have when first using new technology also seems to be related to their views of that technologys efficacy and their use or non-use of it. As Nelson (2011) notes in his study of 197 PreK-12 teachers, Teachers expectancy of success, intrinsic valuing, utility valuing, and perceived instrumentality of technology were related to the frequency of their own use at school (p. X). When teachers regard technology as a tool with the ability to enhance their current classroom instruction, they value it more highly. As McIntyre (2011) states in her case studies of three literacy teachers, Technology enabled teachers to enact their pre-existing pedagogical beliefs. Technology served as a manager of classroom behavior and as a tool to make classroom instruction more efficient (p. iii).

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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study seeks to gauge practicing high school teachers' attitudes toward technology in education, with a special emphasis paid to the role of MICT in the classroom. Specifically, this study:
1.

Compares secondary teachers who have taught zero to ten years with secondary teachers who have taught ten or more years regarding their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms.

2.

Compares secondary teachers who teach in public schools with secondary teachers who teach in private schools regarding their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms.

3.

Seeks to establish a relationship between the willingness of secondary teachers to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms with their ratings of technological selfefficacy.

4.

Seeks to establish a relationship between the willingness of secondary teachers to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms with their familiarity with identical or similar devices.

5.

Seeks to establish a relationship between the willingness of secondary teachers to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms with their belief in the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes.

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How willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms are secondary teachers in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio, and what factors influence their willingness? This problem applies to teachers with less than ten years of experience and teachers with ten or more years of experience, public and private school teachers, and accounts for teachers' rating of technological self-efficacy, familiarity with MICT, and belief in the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes. The hypothesis of this study was that teachers with less than ten years of experience will be more willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms than teachers with ten or more years of experience. Private and public school teachers will be equally willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. There will be a significant correlation between high ratings of self-efficacy/familiarity with MICT/belief in the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes and teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms.

SETTING AND POPULATION This study was conducted in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio. Census data indicates that Cincinnati has an estimated total population of 296,943 (US Census). Demographically, Cincinnati is composed of two major racial groups: Caucasians, which account for 49.3% of the population, and African Americans, which account for 44.8% of the population. In 2010, per capita income for the preceding 12 months was $22,982, and median household income was $33,681 during the years 2006-2010. Additionally, 27.2% of the population fell below the poverty line during the years 2006-2010. Geographically, the city of Cincinnati spans 77.94 square miles, and has a population density level of 3,810 people per square mile.

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Cincinnati Public Schools (CPS Basic Facts) has an enrollment of 33,748 students in grades K-12. Of that, 68.8% are African American and 23.7% are Caucasian (CPS Basic Facts). There are 14 secondary schools in CPS. The mean annual income for secondary teachers is $54,630 (Cincinnati Facts). The student/teacher ratio is 18.69%. However, budgetary issues required CPS to cut 10% of its teaching staff--approximately 237 teaching positions--after the 2011-2012 school year, which will no doubt alter this ratio considerably. The Archdiocese of Cincinnati is home to 23 secondary schools with a total student enrollment of 13,271 (Fast Facts Archdiocese of Cincinnati). Demographically, 15% of students enrolled in these schools are from a minority background. Approximately 69% of teachers on the secondary level have at least a Masters degree. 98% of students who attend secondary schools in the Archdiocese of Cincinnati graduate.

DATA COLLECTION Data was collected for this study using a 10 question Likert scale survey. Survey questions were designed to measure current high school teachers attitudes toward technology in education (with specific attention paid to MICT). More specifically, the questions fell into four categories:
1.

A question designed to measure teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms.

2. 3. 4.

Three questions designed to measure teachers' technological self-efficacy. Three questions designed to measure teachers' familiarity with MICT. Three questions designed to measure if teachers consider MICT effective at improving learning outcomes in students.

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The design and classification of the survey questions were informed by and partially based upon survey questions found in several similar peer-reviewed studies: Student-Teachers' Competence and Attitude towards Information and Communication Technology: A Case Study in a Nigerian University (Balogun & Yusuf, 2011), Teachers attitudes toward information communication technologies: the case of Syrian EFL teachers (Albirini, 2006), and "Reliability and Validity of an Information and Communications Technology Attitude Scale" (Ng Wee, 2011). Responses to the questions were measured using a standard Likert scale, with possible choices ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The surveys were distributed to all currently employed teachers in 5 Catholic secondary schools and 5 public secondary schools. These schools were chosen randomly. Each of the 14 public schools was assigned a number (1 through 14), and 5 were blindly chosen from the pool of 14. Similarly, each of the 23 Catholic schools was assigned a number (1 through 23), and 5 were blindly chosen from the pool of 23. After the schools were chosen, a letter of permission was sent to the respective schools' principals requesting their cooperation in the study. A copy of the letter of permission can be found in the appendix. Upon obtaining permission, the surveys were distributed via email using a tool called Fluid Surveys. A total of 59 teachers responded to the survey, and their responses were recorded in a table (see appendix). The following schools had surveys distributed to their teachers:

Catholic High Schools 1. DePaul Cristo Rey 2. Chaminade Julienne 3. Roger Bacon

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4. St. Ursula 5. Ursuline Academy

Public High Schools 1. Gilbert A. Dater 2. Hughes 3. Withrow 4. Shroder 5. SCPA

DATA COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS The following steps were taken to analyze the data:
1. 2.

Data collected from the survey was recorded in a table. See appendix. A two-sample t-test was performed on two of the survey items to determine if there was a difference in teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms between teachers with zero to ten years experience and teachers with ten or more years experience.

3.

A two-sample t-test was performed on two of the survey items to determine if there was a difference in teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms between public school and private school teachers.

4.

A correlation analysis was performed to determine if there was a relationship between teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms and teachers' technological self-efficacy. Standard and reverse worded questions were used on the survey to eliminate the possible perception of bias.

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5.

A correlation analysis was performed to determine if there was a relationship between teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms and teachers' familiarity with MICT. Standard and reverse worded questions were used on the survey to eliminate the possible perception of bias.

6.

A correlation analysis was performed to determine if there was a relationship between teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms and teachers' belief in the efficacy of MICT to improve learner outcomes. Standard and reverse worded questions were used on the survey to eliminate the possible perception of bias.

7.

Conclusions were drawn from the above data.

SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to measure practicing high school teachers willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms through the distribution of a 10 question Likert scale survey to teachers in 5 Catholic secondary schools and 5 public secondary schools in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio. Any possible relationships between teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT and teaching experience/school-type were ascertained using statistical analysis (t-tests). Any possible correlations between teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms and technological self-efficacy/familiarity with MICT/belief in the efficacy of MICT at improving learner outcomes were ascertained using statistical analysis (correlation analyses). The hypothesis of this study was that teachers with less than ten years of experience will be more willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms than teachers with ten or more years of experience. Private and public school teachers will be equally willing to embrace the

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use of MICT in their classrooms. There will be a significant correlation between high ratings of self-efficacy/familiarity with MICT/belief in the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes and teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. This study was conducted in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio. Census data indicates that Cincinnati has an estimated total population of 296,943 (US Census). Demographically, Cincinnati is composed of two major racial groups: Caucasians, which account for 49.3% of the population, and African Americans, which account for 44.8% of the population. In 2010, per capita income for the preceding 12 months was $22,982, and median household income was $33,681 during the years 2006-2010. Additionally, 27.2% of the population fell below the poverty line during the years 2006-2010. Geographically, the city of Cincinnati spans 77.94 square miles, and has a population density level of 3,810 people per square mile. Data was collected during July, 2012. The surveys were distributed to all currently employed teachers in 5 randomly chosen Catholic secondary schools and 5 randomly chosen public secondary schools after first obtaining permission from the respective schools' principals. The surveys were distributed via email using a tool called "Fluid Surveys." A total of 59 teachers responded to the survey. The data was recorded in a table, and analyzed using twosample t-tests and correlation analyses.

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CHAPTER IV RESULTS The composition of the 59 secondary teachers who responded to the survey (as determined by the control questions measuring level of teaching experience and school type) was as follows:

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Reponses to the first question of the survey (used to measure teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classroms) had the following breakdown:

A two-sample t-test was performed to compare teachers who have taught zero to ten years with teachers who have taught ten or more years regarding their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. The following results were obtained:
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances (Teaching Experience) < 10 years 4.529411765 0.764705882 17 0 33 1.568532812 0.063148527 1.692360258 0.126297055 2.034515287 > 10 years 4.119047619 0.985481998 42

Mean Variance Observations Hypothesized Mean Difference df t Stat P(T<=t) one-tail t Critical one-tail P(T<=t) two-tail t Critical two-tail

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Although teachers with less than ten years of teaching experience expressed a slightly higher level of willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms, the two groups were statistically equivalent. A two-sample t-test was performed to compare teachers who teach in public schools with secondary teachers who teach in private schools regarding their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. The following results were obtained:
t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances (Public v. Private) Public 4.444444444 1.025641026 27 0 53 1.508938598 0.068626612 1.674116237 0.137253223 2.005745949 Private 4.0625 0.834677419 32

Mean Variance Observations Hypothesized Mean Difference df t Stat P(T<=t) one-tail t Critical one-tail P(T<=t) two-tail t Critical two-tail

Although teachers who teach in public schools expressed a slightly higher level of willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms, the two groups were statistically equivalent. Correlation analyses were performed to determine if there was a relationship between teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms and teachers' technological selfefficacy. The three questions included on the survey that were designed to measure teachers' technological self-efficacy and their respective correlations to teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms are listed below:

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Technological Self-Efficacy Q3: "In general, I shy away from new technology because I am not confident in my ability to learn how to use it"
Column 1 1 -0.4837969 Column 2 1

Column 1 Column 2

Q6: "I rarely have to ask for help when operating a piece of technology that is new to me"
Column 1 Column 1 Column 2 1 0.197432335 Column 2 1

Q9: "I can quickly learn how to use a piece of technology that is new to me in order to accomplish an objective"
Column 1 1 0.30167929 Column 2 1

Column 1 Column 2

The responses to these three questions demonstrated a weak to moderate predictive relationship between teachers' technological self-efficacy and their willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms. When the three correlation coefficients were averaged (for which all coefficients were made positive), they equaled .33. Correlation analyses were performed to determine if there was a relationship between teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms and teachers' familiarity with MICT. The three questions included on the survey that were designed to measure teachers' familiarity with MICT and their respective correlations to teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms are listed below:

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Familiarity with MICT Q2: "I spend very little time of each day using tablets, laptops, smartphones, or other mobile information communication devices"
Column 1 1 -0.616515 Column 2 1

Column 1 Column 2

Q5: "Mobile information communication devices such as tablets, laptops, and smartphones are strange and unfamiliar to me"
Column 1 1 -0.5129314 Column 2 1

Column 1 Column 2

Q8: "I have had enough experience with mobile information communication devices such as tablets, laptops, and smartphones to feel comfortable when using them"
Column 1 Column 1 Column 2 1 0.331720109 Column 2 1

The responses to these three questions demonstrated a moderate to strong predictive relationship between teachers' familiarity with MICT and their willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms. When the three correlation coefficients were averaged (for which all coefficients were made positive), they equaled .49. Correlation analyses were performed to determine if there was a relationship between teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms and teachers' belief in the efficacy of MICT to improve learner outcomes. The three questions included on the survey that were designed to measure teachers' belief in the efficacy of MICT to improve learner outcomes and

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their respective correlations to teachers' willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms are listed below: Improvement of Learner Outcomes Q4: "I feel as if my students learning benefits (or would benefit) from the use of mobile information communication devices in the classroom"
Column 1 Column 1 Column 2 1 0.467148829 Column 2 1

Q7: "I feel as if my teaching benefits (or would benefit) from the use of mobile information communication devices in the classroom"
Column 1 Column 1 Column 2 1 0.607822766 Column 2 1

Q10: "Mobile information communication devices in the classroom are less a tool for learning and more a means of distraction"
Column 1 1 -0.5973006 Column 2 1

Column 1 Column 2

The responses to these three questions demonstrated a moderate to strong predictive relationship between teachers' belief in the efficacy of MICT to improve learner outcomes and their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. When the three correlation coefficients were averaged (for which all coefficients were made positive), they equaled .56.

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CHAPTER V CONCLUSION

SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to measure practicing high school teachers willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms through the distribution of a 10 question Likert scale survey to teachers in 5 Catholic secondary schools and 5 public secondary schools in the city of Cincinnati, Ohio. Any possible relationships between teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT and teaching experience/school-type were ascertained using statistical analysis (t-tests). Any possible correlations between teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms and technological self-efficacy/familiarity with MICT/belief in the efficacy of MICT at improving learner outcomes were ascertained using statistical analysis (correlation analyses). Data was collected during July, 2012. The surveys were distributed to all currently employed teachers in 5 randomly chosen Catholic secondary schools and 5 randomly chosen public secondary schools after first obtaining permission from the respective schools' principals. The surveys were distributed via email using a tool called "Fluid Surveys." A total of 59 teaches responded to the survey. The data was recorded in a table, and analyzed using two-sample t-tests and correlation analyses. The hypothesis of this study was that teachers with less than ten years of experience will be more willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms than teachers with ten or more years of experience. Private and public school teachers will be equally willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. There will be a significant correlation between high ratings of

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self-efficacy/familiarity with MICT/belief in the ability of MICT to improve learner outcomes and teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. Data collected via the survey did not validate the first hypothesis: according to the sample, teachers with less than ten years of experience are equally willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms as teachers with greater than ten years experience. Survey data did, however, validate the second hypothesis: according to the sample, private and public school teachers are equally willing to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. Regarding the hypothesized correlations, the sample showed a somewhat weak correlation (.33) between teachers' ratings of technological self-efficacy and their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. To a relatively insignificant extent, the higher teachers rate themselves regarding technological self-efficacy, the more likely they are to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. The sample also showed a significant correlation (.49) between teachers' familiarity with MICT and their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. The more familiar teachers are with MICT, the more likely they are to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. Finally, the sample showed that there is a significant correlation (.56) between teachers' belief in the efficacy of MICT to improve learner outcomes and their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. The more teachers believe in the efficacy of MICT to improve learner outcomes, the more likely they are to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. STATISTICAL CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions can be drawn from statistical analysis of the survey results:

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There is no statistical difference between teachers with less than ten years experience and teachers with greater than ten years experience regarding willingness to embrace the use of MICT in the classroom.

There is no statistical difference between teachers in public schools and teachers in private schools regarding willingness to embrace the use of MICT in the classroom.

There is a weak correlation (.33) between teachers' ratings of technological self-efficacy and their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in the classroom.

There is a significant correlation (.49) between teachers' familiarity with MICT and their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in the classroom.

There is a significant correlation (.56) between teachers' belief in the efficacy of MICT to improve learner outcomes and their willingness to embrace the use of MICT in the classrooms.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS Several conclusions can be drawn from the findings of this survey. Firstly, it is relatively surprising that there was no statistical difference found between teachers with less than ten years experience and teachers with more than ten years experience regarding willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms. The hypothesis was based on an assumption that teachers with less classroom experience would be more willing to try new and unorthodox instructional methods (i.e. implementing MICT in their classrooms), but results of the survey contradict this assumption. It is reasonable to think that, given a larger sample of teachers with less than ten years experience (only 16 responded to this survey), a more pronounced difference between the two groups might be observed. For all intents and purposes, however, the sample suggests that

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MICT has become so pervasive in our society that it transcends variables like age and experience that might have proven significant during the early adoption phase of MICT. Secondly, although the hypothesized findings were that there would be no difference between teachers in public schools and private schools regarding willingness to embrace MICT in their classrooms, it was interesting to see that hypothesis borne out in the results. It might be assumed that private schools' pedagogical approaches and curricula are more tradition bound and subsequently insulated from the change that MICT is bringing about in education. According to the sample, however, this does not appear to be the case. Finally, the results of the correlation analyses seem significant for several reasons. Although the study's initial hypotheses were largely confirmed, it was surprising that technological self-efficacy was not a larger determinate in teachers' willingness to embrace the use of MICT in their classrooms. The implications of this finding, however, seem to be more positive than negative. Self-efficacy as a concept is closely akin to self esteem, confidence, and personal agency. While all these constructs have been studied from a psychological perspective, their origin is still largely shrouded in mystery. An individual's self-efficacy seems to be a result of nature and nurture, and therefore in some sense and to some degree predetermined. This means any actions that administrators and/or educators take to improve teachers' technological self-efficacy will inevitably be circumscribed by forces beyond their control. In contrast, concrete steps can be taken to substantively improve teachers' familiarity with MICT and their belief in the power of MICT to improve learner outcomes. In the case of the former, teachers will need greater access to and training with MICT. In the case of the latter, teachers will need to be presented with quantitative data from comprehensive longitudinal studies demonstrating that the use of MICT in the classroom actually does help to improve

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learner outcomes. Although work and time intensive, both of these initiatives are feasible given widespread support from the educational community.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The results of this study indicate several directions that further research might take regarding the effective and widespread implementation of MICT in the classroom. Firstly, more research has to be done to prove that MICT is effective at improving learner outcomes. Although many teachers trust their observations and might be convinced of the efficacy of MICT by anecdotal evidence, quantitative data supporting the use of MICT in the classroom would help bolster the implementation of MICT and help to convince skeptical educators/administrators of its usefulness. This data must be obtained via longitudinal studies which track and compare the long-term academic success of groups of students using MICT in the classroom with groups of students not using MICT in the classroom. Finally, more research needs to be done to determine the most effective method of familiarizing teachers with MICT. A combination of exposure to and scaffolded instruction with MICT seems to be the best approach, but studies will need to confirm or refute this assumption. Additionally, it is reasonable to think that technology-savvy younger students--or "digital natives"--might serve a purpose in helping to instruct teachers on the use and application of MICT in the classroom. This idea of the student teaching the teacher and the teacher learning from the student, although unconventional, is nevertheless an encouraging and exciting prospect; it is an opportunity that the advancement of technology seems perfectly suited to provide.

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REFERENCES Abbitt, J. (2011). An Investigation of the Relationship between Self-Efficacy Beliefs about Technology Integration and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) among Preservice Teachers. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 27(4), 134-143. Albirini, A. (2006). Teachers attitudes toward information and communication technologies: the case of Syrian EFL teachers. Computers & Education, 47(4), 373-398. Al-Zaidiyeen, N., Leong Lai, M., & Fong Soon, F. (2010). Teachers' Attitudes and Levels of Technology Use in Classrooms: The Case of Jordan Schools. International Education Studies, 3(2), 211-218. Anderson, S. E., Groulx, J. G., & Maninger, R. M. (2011). Relationships among Preservice Teachers' Technology-Related Abilities, Beliefs, and Intentions to Use Technology in Their Future Classrooms. Journal Of Educational Computing Research, 45(3), 321-338. Bandura, A., & Barbanelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted Impacted of Self-Efficacy Beliefs on Academic Functioning. Child Development. 67(3), 1206-1222. Bandura, A., Caprara, G., Barbanelli, C., Gerbino, M., & Pastorelli, C. (2003). Role of Affective Self- Regulatory Efficacy in Diverse Spheres of Psychological Functioning. Child Development, 74(3), 769-782. Barnes, Donald. (1965). Television in the Classroom: Teachers' Views. The Elementary School Journal, 65(5), 258-261. Bumstead, Josiah. (1841). The Blackboard in the Primary Schools. Boston, MA: Perkins & Marvin. Chen, Brian. (2011). Always On: how the iPhone unlocked the anything-anytime-anywhere future--and locked us in. Boston, MA: Da Capo Press. Cincinnati Facts. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2012 from http://www.wolframalpha.com/input /?i=cincinnati%2C+oh CPS Basic Facts. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2012 from http://www.cps-k12.org/home /FactsAtGlance.pdf Crichton, S., Stuewe, N., Pegler, K., & White, D. (2011). Personal Devices in Public Settings: Lessons Learned From an iPod Touch / iPad Project. Proceedings Of The International Conference On E-Learning, 77-83. Crisan, Cosette. (2005). How mathematics teachers' own learning experiences with ICT affects their classroom practice. Micromath, 14-16.

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Cullen, T. A., & Greene, B. A. (2011). Preservice Teachers' Beliefs, Attitudes, and Motivation About Technology Integration. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 45(1), 2947. Demralay, R., & Karadenz, . (2010). The Effect of Use of Information and Communication Technologies on Elementary Student Teachers' Perceived Information Literacy SelfEfficacy. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 10(2), 841-851. Evolving Classroom. (2001). Retrieved June 08, 2012, from http://www.pbs.org/kcet/ publicschool/evolving_classroom/index.html Executive Office of the President & Council of Economic Advisors. (2011). Retrieved June 10, 2012 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/unleashing_the_potential_of_ educational_technology.pdf Fast Facts Archdiocese of Cincinnati. (2011-2012). Retrieved June 08, 2012 from http:// valuesforalifetime.com/fast-facts-about-our-catholic-schools Giavrimis, P., Papanis, E., & Papanis, E. (2011). Information and Communication Technologies and Development of Learners' Critical Thinking: primary School Teachers' Attitudes. International Education Studies, 4(3), 150-160. Holden, H., & Rada, R. (2011). Understanding the Influence of Perceived Usability and Technology Self-Efficacy on Teachers' Technology Acceptance. Journal Of Research On Technology In Education, 43(4), 343-367. Kessler, Sarah. (2012). Why the iPad won't transform education just yet. Retrieved June 08, 2012 from http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/20/tech/innovation/ipad-wont-transformeducation/index.html McIntyre, B. (2011). Teachers' Beliefs And Practices Regarding The Role of Technology In Literacy Instruction: A Mixed Methods Study. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations. (AAT 3457913) McLuhan, Marshall. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Min-Hsien, L. & Chin-Chung, T. (2010). Exploring teachers' perceived self efficacy and technological pedagogical content knowledge with respect to educational use of the World Wide Web. Instructional Science, 38(1), 1-21. Nelson, Lee. (2011). Teachers' Motivation to Integrate Technology: A Study Of ExpectancyValue, Perceived Instrumentality, and Prospect Goals. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations. (AAT 3488211) Ng Wee, L. (2011). Reliability and Validity of an Information and Communications Technology Attitude Scale for Teachers. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 20(1), 162-170.

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Sang, G., Valcke, M., Braak, J., Tondeur, J., & Zhu, C. (2011). Predicting ICT Integration into the classroom teaching in Chinese primary schools: exploring the complex interplay of teacher-related variables. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 27, 160-172. Shu Chien, P., & Franklin, T. (2011). In-Service Teachers' Self-Efficacy, Professional Development, and Web 2.0 Tools for Integration. New Horizons In Education, 59(3), 2840. Smith, C. A., Moyer, C. A., & Schugar, H. R. (2011). Helping Teachers Develop Positive Dispositions about Technology-based Learning: What a Brief Global Learning Project Revealed. Journal Of Educational Technology Development & Exchange, 4(1), 114. US Census Data for Cincinnati, Ohio. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2012 from http://quickfacts. census.gov/qfd/states/39/3915000.html Wikan, G., & Molster, T. (2011). Norwegian secondary school teachers and ICT. European Journal Of Teacher Education, 34(2), 209-218. Woolard, J. (2012). Behind The Scenes: Understanding Teacher Perspectives On Technology Integration In A Suburban District Technology Initiative. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations. (AAT 3503892) Yusuf, M. O., & Balogun, M. R. (2011). Student-Teachers' Competence and Attitude towards Information and Communication Technology: A Case Study in a Nigerian University. Contemporary Educational Technology, 2(1), 18-36.

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APPENDIX Survey

Teacher Attitudes Toward Mobile Technology

Please indicate your level of classroom teaching experience

Less than 10 years Greater than 10 years Please indicate whether you teach in a public or private school

I teach in a public school I teach in a private school Optional: If you would like to be entered into the drawing for a $50 gift card to JosephBeth Booksellers, please type your first and last name in the field below (all survey results will remain anonymous)

Please respond to the following statements (using the provided scale from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree): 1. "I look forward to or currently enjoy using tablets, laptops, smartphones, and/or other mobile technological devices in my classroom" 2. "I spend very little time of each day using tablets, laptops, smartphones, or other mobile information communication devices"

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3. "In general, I shy away from new technology because I am not confident in my ability to learn how to use it" 4. "I feel as if my students learning benefits (or would benefit) from the use of mobile information communication devices in the classroom" 5. "Mobile information communication devices such as tablets, laptops, and smartphones are strange and unfamiliar to me" 6. "I rarely have to ask for help when operating a piece of technology that is new to me" 7. "I feel as if my teaching benefits (or would benefit) from the use of mobile information communication devices in the classroom" 8. "I have had enough experience with mobile information communication devices such as tablets, laptops, and smartphones to feel comfortable when using them" 9. "I can quickly learn how to use a piece of technology that is new to me in order to accomplish an objective" 10. "Mobile information communication devices in the classroom are less a tool for learning and more a means of distraction"

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Copy of Permission Letter Sent To Principals Hello Principal _____________,

My name is Benjamin Darby. I am a M.Ed. student at Xavier University. As per my degree requirements, I am conducting a research study to gauge secondary teachers attitudes toward mobile technology in the classroom. I have created a short 10 question survey as my data collection tool. Below, youll find a link to this survey. I would be greatly obliged if you would forward this email to your schools teaching staff. All survey results will remain anonymous, but if your teachers choose to include their names on the survey they will be entered into a drawing to win a $50 gift card to Joseph-Beth Booksellers. Thank you for your time!

http://fluidsurveys.com/surveys/bendarby/teacher-attitudes-toward-mobile-technology/

Best, Ben Darby