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Advanced Topics for Wireless Communications

1. Spread Spectrum & CDMA

Introduction to Spread Spectrum


Initial I iti l application: military li ti ilit Benefits
Anti-jamming A ti j i Robust to multipath fading Multiple user access ( p (CDMA) ) High-resolution ranging (DS)

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS/SS)

DATA Source

d(t)

r(t)

r'(t)

d'(t)

Ts

c(t)
d(t) Ts

cos c t

cos c t

c(t)
Sd ( f )

1 / Ts
Sc ( f )
c(t)

1 / Tc
r(t) =r'(t)

Sr ( f )

Sd ' ( f )
d'(t)

DS/SS: Principle
DS/SS makes noise-like waveforms Maximal-length shift register makes the binary sequence that have noise like properties h i lik i PN sequence PN sequence is mapped to a chip spreading sequence of 1s The spreading comprises of chips of duration Tc << Ts Processing gain (spreading factor): the number of chips per symbol = Ts/Tc

DS/SS: Principle
Transmitter: DS/SS signal generation
Power Density

user data
TIME Modulation (primary modulation) Base-band Frequency data rate

Spreading (secon ndary modulation)

spreading sequence (spreading code)

Power Density

10110100

Radio Frequency

Tx 6

DS/SS: Principle
Receiver: when the receiver knows the correct spreading sequence p g q
Power Density

received signal
TIME
10110100 01001011 10110100

spreading sequence (spreading code) Radio Frequency

10110100

gathering energy !

you can find the spreading timing which gives the g maximum detected power, and

10110100 10110100 10110100

Accumulate for one bit duration d ti

00000000 11111111 00000000

Demodulated data
Base-band Frequency 0 1 0

DS/SS: Principle
Receiver: when the receiver does not know the correct spreading sequence p g q
Power Density

received signal
TIME
10110100 01001011 10110100

spreading sequence (spreading code) Radio R di Frequency

01010101 01010101 01010101

you cannot find the spreading timing without correct spreading code, and
Accumulate for one bit duration

10101010 10101010 10101010

10110100 10110100 10110100

No data can be detected

Demodulated data
Base-band Frequency

Rake Receiver

Rake Receiver
Rake receiver realizes diversity from multi path propagation (a multi-path form of frequency diversity) How to isolate various multi path signals multi-path If the maximal delay spread (due to multi-path) is Tm and if the chip rate 1/Tc = W >> 1/Tm, then individual multi-path signal components can be isolated Amplitudes and phases of the multi-path components are found by correlating the received waveform with delayed versions of the signal Multi-path with delays less than 1/Tc cannot be resolved p y
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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS)

The carrier frequency is pseudo randomly hopped over various frequencies


Slow hopping: Tsymbol < Thopping Fast hopping: Tsymbol > Thopping
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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH/SS)

d(t)
DATA Mod Filter BPF BPF

Data demod

Freq. Synthesizer

....

Freq. Synthesizer

....

Code Generator

Code Generator

* Noncoherent detection is common

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What is CDMA?
Allows multiple users to share same bandwidth at the same time Each user s waveform is like an independent noise random users process Interference appears as white noise Matched filter pulls out desired users waveform, while suppressing interference DS-SS is one popular way to make the noise-like waveforms for CDMA

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What is CDMA?

Freq.

Freq.

Freq.

Freq.

Data A
Code A

BPF

BPF

Despreader

Data A

MS-A

Code A

Freq.

Freq.

Freq.

Freq.

Data B
Code B

BPF

BPF

Despreader

Data B

MS B MS-B

Code B

BS

The only difference between users is in their spreading codes


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Characteristics of CDMA
Advantages dv ges
Universal frequency reuse Soft capacity Soft handoff Robust to multipath fading Robust t j R b t to jamming i

Disadvantages
Near-far problem N f bl Difficult synchronization

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Universal Frequency Reuse


Objectives of a Wireless communication system
Deliver desired signal to a designated receiver Minimize the interference that it receives

One way is to use disjoint slots in frequency or time in the same cell as well as adjacent cells li i d frequency reuse ll ll dj ll limited f In CDMA, universal frequency reuse (frequency reuse factor = 1) applies not onl to users in the same cell but also in all other cells only sers b t No frequency plan revision as more cells are added Resource allocation of each users channel is energy (instead of R ll ti f h h li (i t d f time and frequency)

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Handoff
Handoffs between cells are supported while the mobile is in traffic or idle MS continuously keeps searching for new cells as it moves across the network
Initial cell search Target cell search

MS maintains active set, neighbor set, and remaining set as well as candidate set Two types of handoffs
Hard handoff Soft/softer handoff

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Handoff
Base A

margin exceeds
Base B

T_ADD

T_DROP
B_Active
B added to candidate list Drop timer starts Drop timer resets

<Signal levels during handoff>


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Soft Handoff
Soft Handoff
Mobile commences communication with a new BS without interrupting communication with old BS (make-before-break) ( ) Same frequency assignment between old and new BSs Provides different site selection diversity, called macro diversity A unique feature of CDMA Neither the mobile nor the base station is required to change frequency

Softer Handoff
Handoff between sectors in a cell

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Near-Far Problem
P

Lp-a
DATA A

CDMA Transmitter CODE A

CDMA Receiver
Lp-b

Demodulated DATA

CODE A
DATA B

CDMA Transmitter CODE B

Desired signal power = P/Lp-a Interference power = P/Lp-b/PG

When user B is close to the receiver and user A is far from the receiver, Lp-a could be much bigger than Lp-b. In this case, desired signal power is smaller than the interfered power.
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Power Control
Motivation
Overcomes near-far problem CDMA would not work without it Copes with path loss and fading
Detec cted Power

from A from B
Time

<When A and B transmit the same fixed power>


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Power Control
Power control is capable of compensating different path loss and fading fluctuation Each E h MS changes transmit power dynamically so that the receiv h t it d i ll th t th i ed power at the BS from all MSs is controlled to be equal
Detecte Power ed

from MS B from MS A Time

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Two Types of Power Control


Open-Loop Power C O L P Control l Closed-Loop Power C Cl d L P Control l

measuring received power estimating path ti ti th loss transmit decide transmission power

power control command

about 1000 times per second

calculating transmission power

transmit i

measuring received power

transmit

receive 23

2. OFDM

OFDM Concept
Multicarrier modulation/multiplexing technique p g q Available bandwidth is divided into several subcarriers The subcarriers are overlapping but orthogonal pp g g Parallel data transmission
A high rate stream is partitioned into several low rate streams g p

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OFDM Concept
Orthogonality between subcarriers
Each subcarrier has exactly an integer number of cycles Adjacent subcarriers have exactly one cycle difference j y y Transmit signal
s (t ) =
N s 1

2 k exp j t , 0 t T T k =0 where N s : number of subcarriers

d k : transmit symbol for the kth subcarrier T : symbol duration b l d ti


Subcarriers in time

Note: 0 exp j

2 k 2 l t exp j t dt = (k l) T T

1 T 2 l s ( t ) exp j t dt = d l T 0 T
Subcarrier S bcarrier spacing: 1 T
Subcarriers in frequency

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OFDM Concept
Transmitter and receiver architecture T i d i hi

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OFDM Concept
Signal Si l transmission and reception i i d i

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OFDM Concept
Transmit signal construction using IDFT
S (t ) =
i =

d
Ns 2

Ns 1 2

N i + 2s

+ j 2T it

, 0t T
+ j 2N in

S[n] = S (nT N ) =
S[0] = d 0 S[1] = d 0 S[2] = d 0
d0

N s 1 i =0

de
i

0
N T
s

+ d1 + d1e

j 2 N j 2 2 N

+ d2 + d 2e + d 2e
S

j 2 2 N j 2 22 N

+ L + L

+ d1e

(0 )

d1

IDFT

S (1 )

P/S
1)

D N s 1

OFDM Modulation & Demodulation by IFFT/FFT

(N s
29 30

Guard Time and Cyclic Prefix


Guard time
The guard time is chosen larger than the expected delay spread, so that the delayed symbol cannot interfere with the next symbol (Remove ISI) Zero insertion or

cyclic prefix

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Guard Time and Cyclic Prefix


Cyclic prefix
Preserve orthogonality between subcarriers, once the largest multipath delay is less than the duration of the cyclic prefix No i inter-carrier interference (ICI) i i f (C)

Even with long enough cyclic prefix, ICI can occur due to frequency offset or fast fading
T (1 exp( j 2 )) 2 k 2 (k + m + ) exp j t exp j t dt = 0 T j 2 (m + ) T where denotes the normalized frequency offset

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Spectrum Shaping: Windowing


FCC manages spectrum g p Specifies power spectral density mask
Adjacent channel interference Roll-off requirements

Implications to OFDM
Zero tones on edge of the band Time domain windowing smoothes adjacent symbols

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Spectrum Shaping: Windowing


Sharp signal transitions at the OFDM symbol boundaries p g y can cause significant out-of-band emission Windowing smoothens the transitions, making the power spectrum decay faster Raised cosine window
0 n N 1 0.5 + 0.5cos( (n + N ) N ), w[n] = 1.0, N n (1 + ) N 1 0 5 + 0.5cos( (n + 1 (1 + ) N ) N ), (1 + ) N n (1 + 2 ) N 1 ) 0.5 0 5cos(
TSYM = (1 + )TSYM Tprefix TFFT Tpostfix

N TSYM Tsample

TSYM

TSYM

time

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Subcarrier Allocation Example


Data (48) Pilots (4) Nulls (12)

-32 -30

-26-25

-21-20

-15

-10

-7

-5

-1 0 1

10

15

20 21

25 26

30 31

Subcarrier Index (-32 ~ 31)

0 1 2 3 NU ULL 0 1 2 3

25 26 27 28 NU ULL NU ULL

36 37 38 39 NU ULL NU ULL

61 62 63

IFFT Block
25 26 27 28 36 37 38 39 61 62 63

r54r55 r56 r62 r63 r0 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5


Prefix

r62 r63 r0 r1 r2 r3
Postfix

OFDM Symbol
Windowing Function

Pilot Symbols: p21 = 1, p7 = 1, p7 = 1, p21 = 1


(the same as 802.11a)

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OFDM Modem

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Pros and Cons of OFDM


Advantages dv ges
Spectrally efficient Conveniently implemented using IFFT and FFT Easy to handle frequency-selective fading channel (wideband transmission)

Disadvantages Di d t
More complex than single carrier transmission High PAPR need more linear power amplifier Long symbol duration vulnerable to frequency offset and fast fading

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Complexity and Robustness


Complexity
Single-carrier systems need equalizer when delay spread over 10% but OFDM systems do not FFT does not need full multiplication but rather phase rotation The complexity in OFDM grows slightly faster than linear

Robustness
Single-carrier system performance degrades abruptly when delay spread exceeds the value for which the equalizer is designed OFDM systems are robust against delay spread

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OFDM Design Parameters


Number of subcarriers Subcarrier spacing Guard time > delay spread Symbol duration >> guard time

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OFDM System Design Example


Given constraints
Carrier frequency: 900 MHz Signal bandwidth 5 MHz

Channel characterization
Frequency selectivity
RMS delay spread < 100 msec 90% coherence bandwidth (CB) = 1/(50m) = 209.2 kHz

Time selectivity y
Assumption for user mobility: 0-3 km/hr (maximum Doppler frequency (fm) = 2.5 Hz at the carrier frequency of 900 MHz) 50% coherence time (CT) = 9/(16fm) = 71.62 msec

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OFDM System Design Example


OFDM subcarrier spacing (f) should meet the following b i i h ld t th f ll i relationship: 1/CT = 13.9 Hz < f < CB = 209.2 k / f kHz,
which is required for an OFDM system not to be vulnerable to both frequency-selective and time-selective fading

We select a subcarrier spacing of 72.27 kHz Set the number of subcarriers to 64 Total bandwidth = 72.27 kHz 64 = 4.625 MHz

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OFDM System Design Example


Parameter Total bandwidth (W) Total number of subcarriers (NT) Number data subcarriers (ND) Number pilot subcarriers (NP) Number of guard or null subcarriers (NG) Subcarrier frequency spacing (F) IFFT/FFT period (TFFT) Guard interval duration (TGI) G di t l d ti OFDM symbol duration (TSYM) 4.625 MHz 64 48 4 12 72.27 kHz 13.838 sec (64 samples) 2.162 2 162 sec (10 samples) l ) 16.0 sec (TFFT + TGI) Value

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OFDM Channel Estimation


Most of systems use pilot tones
l =0

Given sk, k pilottone indices, solve yk = hl e 2 kl L l =0 j Find H k = hl e N Interpolation for all subcarriers

2 k l N

sk + nk for hl

More pilot tones give


Better noise resilience Lower throughput

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Frequency Domain Equalizer


Signal for the k th subcarrier: yk = H k xk + nk k-th Frequency domain equalizer (FDE)
One-tap (Q flat fading in each subcarrier)

Noise enhancement factor Use MMSE to reduce noise enhancement

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Coded OFDM
Different channel (fading) for different subcarriers ee c e ( d g) o d e e subc e s Bad subcarriers will cause many errors (channel-selective ) errors) Two approaches
Error correction coding across subcarriers Adaptive modulation & coding and/or unequal power allocation

Coding across subcarriers realizes frequency diversity gain as well as the coding gain ll h di i

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Coded OFDM
Two types of errors
Random errors: primarily caused by noise Channel-selective errors: caused by magnitude distortion in channel frequency response q y p

Error correcting codes are effective for random errors Interleaving is often used to scramble data bits so that standard g error correcting codes can be applied Interleaving and coding provide frequency diversity as well as the coding gain
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Coded OFDM
Transmitter Receiver

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OFDM for Broadcasting


Enables single frequency network (SFN)
Multiple transmit antennas are separated geographically Enables same radio/TV channel frequency throughout a country q y g y Creates artificially large delay spread No problem in OFDM

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OFDM for High-Speed Wireless Access


Effective to handle large bandwidth for high data rate Takes advantage of multipaths through simple equalization Resource allocation (AMC, power, etc) Easy combination with MIMO

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OFDM-Based Standards

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3. T 3 Transmit Diversity & it Di it MIMO O

Motivation for Transmit Diversity


Fading
Fluctuation of received SNR

Diversity Di i
Reduce the fluctuation of received SNR Time, Time space (antenna), frequency polarization (antenna) frequency,

Antenna diversity
Receive diversity: MRC EGC, Selection MRC, EGC Transmit diversity

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Transmit Diversity Techniques


Transmit diversity techniques
Space-Time Transmit Diversity (STTD) Orthogonal Transmit Diversity ( g y (OTD) ) Time-Switched Transmit Diversity (TSTD) Transmit Antenna Array (TxAA)

Classification
Open-loop
Do not need feedback information STTD, OTD, TSTD

Closed-loop
Need feedback information TxAA

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Space-Time Transmit Diversity (STTD)


P 2

x1
x1
0 T

x* 2
T 2T

h1

Alamouti STC

x2
2T

STTD Encoder

x2
0 T

x1*
2T

h2
P 2

STTD Decoder

STTD Encoder:
Ant. 1

Received Signal:
Time 1 Time 2
* x2 * x1
2

x1 Ant. 2 x2
STTD Decoder:
x1 = r1h1* + r2*h2 =
* x2 = r1h2 r2*h1 = P 2 P 2

r1 = r2 =
1

P 2 P 2

( h1 x1 + h2 x2 ) + n1

( h x

* 1 2

* + h2 x1 + n2

(h (h

1 2

+ h2 + h2

) x + ) x +
1 2

Diversity without BW expansion!

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No Transmit Diversity vs. STTD vs


P
Source

h1
Receiver

P 2

h1

STTD Encoder

h2
P 2

STTD Decoder

Tx. Power = P SNR SNR:

P h1 2 Avg. SNR: P 0
2

Tx. Power = P SNR: Avg. SNR:

P 0

P 2 h1 + h2 2 2

Average SNR gain = 0 Diversity order = 1 y

Average SNR gain = 0 Diversity order = 2 y


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Orthogonal Transmit Diversity


P 2

h1

x1
x1
0 T

x1
T 2T

x2
2T

OTD Encoder

x2 x2
0 T 2T

h2
P 2

OTD Decoder

OTD Encoder:

Time 1 Time 2

Received Signal:
r1 = r2 =
P 2

Ant. 1 x1

Ant. 2 x2

x1 x2
2

( h1 x1 + h2 x2 ) + n1 P h x h2 x 2 ) + n 2 2 ( 1 1

OTD Decoder:
x1 = h1* ( r1 + r2 ) = 2 P h1 x1 + 1
* x2 = h2 ( r1 r2 ) = 2 P h2 x2 + 2 2

Different symbol different fading y g Interleaving effects Interleaving depth (diversity order) = 2 Useful at slow fading environment
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Time-Switched Transmit Diversity


TSTD
P

h1

x1
x1
0 T

0
T 2T

x2
2T

0
0 T

x2
2T

h2
P

TSTD Decoder

TSTD Encoder:
Ant. 1 Ant. 2

Time 1 Time 2

x1 0

0 x2

Received Signal: r1 = P ( h1 x1 ) + n1
r2 = P ( h2 x 2 ) + n 2

TSTD Decoder:
x1 = h r1 = P h1 x1 + 1
* 1 2 * x2 = h2 r2 = P h2 x2 + 2 2

Different symbol different fading y g Interleaving effects Interleaving depth (diversity order) = 2 Useful at slow fading environment
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Transmit Antenna Array (TxAA)


h1
w1
Coded Data

hm
hM
Weight Calculation

Channelization & Scrambling Code

wm

wM

Feedback

Weighting

Received signal

SNR

wm =

h
M

* m 2

h
i =1

F I r = G w h J x + n H K
M m m m =1

hm
m =1

=x

h
m=1

+n

Diversity order M Average SNR gain M g g


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Performance of TxAA
10
-1

No. of No. of No. of No. of

Tx antennas=1 Tx antennas=2 Tx antennas=4 Tx antennas=8

10

-2

Uncod BER ded

10

-3

10

-4

10

-5

-6

-4

-2

10

12

14

16

18

Eb/No (dB)

4 tx antennas: 5.2 dB gain at BER 10-2 compared with 2 antennas 8 tx antennas: 9.2dB gain
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MIMO: What and Why?


A Wireless communication system with multiple antennas and multiple receive antennas
Single Input Single Output Single Input Multiple Output Multiple Input Single Output Multiple Input Multiple Output

MIMO signal processing i th space domain can bring i l i in the d i bi enormous capacity enhancement without bandwidth expansion (Foschini, Telatar)
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Signal Model
M antennas
x1

N antennas
y1

Tx
xM
H 11 H H = 21 M H N1

NM
H 12 H 22 M HN2 L L O L H 1M H 2M M H NM

Rx
yN

Received signal for flat fading channels

y = Hx + n
Total transmit power E[xHx] = PT Noise covariance matrix at the receiver E[nnH] = 2I

Assumptions
Receiver perfectly knows the channel H Transmitter does not know the channel H (open loop) (open-loop)
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MIMO Channel Capacity


General capacity formula
P C = log 2 det I + 2T HH H M

SISO: M = N = 1
P 2 CSISO = log 2 1 + T2 H11

SIMO: M = 1, N 2
CSIMO P = l 2 1 + T2 log

H
n =1 M

2 n1

Logarithmical increase with N

MISO: M 2, N = 1
P CMISO = log 2 1 + 2T M

H
m =1

2 1m

Logarithmical increase with M SNRMISO = SNRSIMO/M

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MIMO Channel Capacity


MIMO: M 2, N 2
P CMIMO = log 2 det I + 2T HH H M rank ( H ) K P P = l 2 1 + 2T k = log 2 1 + 2T k log l M M k =1 k =1

where K = min(M, N) and ( , ) ks are eigenvalues of HHH that is ordered such that 1 2 rank(H) rank(H)+1 = = K = 0

Interpretation:
1
Tx 2

Rx

rank(H) parallel SISO channels

rank(H)

Capacity increases linearly with rank(H) at high SNR


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Closed-Loop MIMO: SVD & Waterfilling


By decoupling transformation, MIMO channel can be transformation transformed into parallel SISO channels
H = UDV H (D2 : eigenvalues of HH H ) g H y = U ( HVx + n ) Y = Dx + U H n

Maximize the capacity


C=
min( nT , nR ) k =1 min( nT , nR )

log 2 (1 + pk k ), pk P

nT

nR

s1

p1

k =1

~ S1
V Decoupling Transform UH Decoupling Transform

sk

pk

~ Sk

1 1 , when k > o pk = o k 0 elsewhere

snT
pnT

~ S nT

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MIMO Channel Capacity


i.i.d. Rayleigh channel: full rank

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MIMO Detection
Linear detectors e de ec o s
Zero-Forcing (ZF) Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)

Nonlinear detectors
ZF-OSIC, MMSE-OSIC (V-BLAST) ML Reduced-complexity ML (sphere decoding, QRM-MLD)

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MIMO Detection
Received i l R i d signal model d l y N 1 = H N M x M 1 + n N 1 ZF
x = H + y = (H H H ) 1 H H y = x + (HH ) 1 H H n

MMSE

x = WMMSE y = ( H H H + ( M )I M ) H H y
1

2 WMMSE = arg min E x Wy = ( H H H + ( M )I M ) H H W 1

ML
x = arg min y Hx c
xc 2

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MIMO Detection
V BLAST (OSIC ZF) V-BLAST (OSIC-ZF)
Initialization : i 1 y1 = y G1 = H + k1 = arg min < H + > j Recursion : w ki =< G i > ki zki = w ki y i xki = D ( zki ) y i +1 = y i xki [H ]ki G i +1 = (H ki ) + i i +1
j{ k1 , k2 ,, ki } 2

ki +1 = arg min < H ki > j

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MIMO Detection
V-BLAST Example (3x2 system) p ( y )
0.5 y1 1 n1 y = 0.2 0.3 x1 + n y = Hx + n : 2 x 2 y3 0.2 0.7 2 n3

First layer
0.8433 0.3175 0.4663 0 8433 0 3175 0 4663 G1 = H + = 0.2976 0.4762 1.0119
k1 = arg min < G > j
j
2

= arg min{1 0293 1.3393} = 1 min{1.0293, 1 3393}


j

w k1 =< G > k1 = [ 0.8433 0.3175 0.4663] x zk1 = w k1 y1 = w k1 H 1 + w k1 n = x1 + w k1 n x2 x1 = D (w k1 y1 ) = D ( x1 + w k1 n)


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MIMO Detection
Second layer
0.5 y 2 = y [H ]k1 xk1 = 0 3 x2 + n, if xk1 = xk1 0.3 0.7 0.5 + G 2 = [H ]k1 = 0.3 = [ 0.6024 0.3614 0.8434] 0.7 k2 = 2 w k2 = G 2 = [ 0.6024 0.3614 0.8434] zk2 = w k2 y 2 = xk2 + w k2 n xk2 = D ( zk2 ) = D ( xk2 + w k2 n)
+

MIMO Detection
BER performance

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Main Points
MIMO technology can greatly increase the capacity of wireless systems MIMO channel can be decomposed into rank(H) parallel SISO channel linear increase in capacity in contrast to logarithmical increase for SISO and MISO l ith i l i f d Greatest capacity improvements are obtained under rich scattering channels with full rank

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