CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.

1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Access Control is a term that describes the limiting of access to a restricted area, substance or information. This restriction which may be physical or logical, with respect to what is being restricted. Physical access control presents itself in the form of gates, turnstile and locks. Modern methods of physical access control employs identification techniques that determines who should access where or what, these include: biometric recognition, swipe cards and motion sensors. However, despite the modern approaches to access control, there are still reservations as regards the identification procedures that should be employed to effect the intended control of access. Most notably is the motion detectors; this employs motion sensors that could be microwave or infrared, to sense the motion of any object and send electrical signals to actuators that opens or closes a door. This means of access control has not proven to be effective, because it is not restrictive in its operation. Meanwhile, there are other means as afore mentioned that can be used in physical access control. Swipe cards and biometric recognition are somewhat effective in their ways of application in access control, as they provide a means of restriction, identity recognition

which opens and closes the door and perhaps entry and exit registers. In the acquisition and implementation of these techniques, the primary concern of property owners or managers will be effectiveness and comfort the system provides to its users and mangers. In terms of effectiveness, one can say that swipe cards and biometric recognition techniques as used in access control, should be outstanding, though concerns linger in the area of its offer of comfort. For instance, a member of staff with registered swipe card or body part hurrys to an access way, only to begin the process of scan interrogation before eventually finding his way through. The precious time wasted on interrogation can be avoided if the scans were done distances before he gets to the access way, and besides the stress of fondling pockets for cards and swiping are not needed. The snag with the afore mentioned modern system is that they require a proper line of sight to operate effectively. This makes it compulsory for access seekers to approach the interrogation device and let themselves be scrutinized before gaining clearance. The big question now is: cant there be a system that does not require a proper line of sight for interrogation to take place? Simply put, cant the comfort of distance interrogation and access control effectiveness be put together?

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The objective of this design project is to develop an access control system which is efficient as well as comfortable. A system that provides the solution to the discomfort the line of sight presents to other well known techniques of access control, using a radio frequency identification scan. With this scan, the interrogator gets the registered information needed within predefined approaching distance, to grant or deny access.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

It is of essence that foremost access control methods though efficient, shouldnt be cumbersome as to depend on a line of sight for interrogation. A solution to the setback caused by the need for a proper line of sight will definitely save time and space, whilst it provides comfort for its users. Having a system that works effectively without requiring a line of sight for interrogation in access control will be very appreciated by office buildings that require management offices to be discrete from the general offices. Vault development firms will also find this new technique interesting as it can be incorporated into pre-existing vault systems.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY

This work would not go beyond the demonstration of the possibility that radio frequency identification can actually grant or deny access, without needing a defined line of sight. RFID systems can be in various forms with respect to operational performance, coupled with the fact that the read range varies with design parameters such as frequency, RF power level; readers receiving sensitivity, size of antenna, data rate, communication protocol, current consumptions of the silicon device, etc. Due to the undergraduate nature of our study, passive tags are made the subject of interrogation while the design frequency is limited to the low frequency of 125kHz, considering that 125kHz falls within the unregulated band of frequencies managed by the Nigerian Communication Commission.

1.5 ORGANISATION OF THE REPORT

This report gives description of how radio frequency identification can be utilised as a method to improve access control systems. Firstly stated is the background to the study which highlights the pre-existing cases in access control and the problem it faces, that incites this study. Afterward, the objective and significance of the study are emphasized, torching questions as to why a solution is needed and who really wants a solution? Lastly stated is the limitation of this study. Stating what should not be expected as regards this study. Chapter two reviews literature pertaining to this study and

previous attempts in developing this sort of system. Chapter three describes the actual method and design proceeding taken to achieve the stated objective. Chapter four describes the implementation of the design and inference of results, while chapter five provides the conclusion to the report.

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 EVOLUTION OF RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION

The roots of radio frequency identification technology can be traced back to World War II. The Germans, Japanese, Americans and British were all using radar systems which had been discovered in 1935 by the Scottish physicist Sir R. Watson-Watt to warn of approaching planes while they were still distances away. But there was no way of identifying which planes belonged to the enemy and which were a countrys own pilots returning from a mission. The Germans discovered that if pilots rolled their planes as they returned to base, it would change the radio signal reflected back. This crude method alerted the radar crew on the ground that these were German planes and not Allied aircraft (this is, essentially, the first

passive RFID system). Under Sir R. Watson-Watt, the British developed the first active identify friend or foe (IFF) system, where they put a transmitter on each British plane so that when it received signals from radar stations on the ground, it began broadcasting a signal back that identified the aircraft as friendly. RFID works on this same basic concept. A signal is sent to a transponder, which wakes up and either reflects back a signal (passive system) or broadcasts a signal (active system).

The 1960s were the prelude to the RFID explosion of the 1970s with R.F. Harringtons studies on the electromagnetic theory related to RFID in his papers including Theory of Loaded Scatterers in 1964. This inspired RFIDrelated inventions such as Robert Richardsons Remotely activated radio frequency powered devices, and J. H. Vogelmans Passive data transmission techniques utilizing radar echoes.Advances in radar and RF communications systems continued through time, as scientists and in the United States, Europe and Japan did research and presented papers explaining how radio frequency energy could be used to identify objects remotely, companies began commercializing anti-theft systems that used radio waves to determine whether an item had been paid for or not. Over time, companies commercialized the low frequency (125 kHz) systems and then moved up the radio spectrum to high frequency (13.56 MHz), which was unregulated and unused in most parts of the world. High frequency offered greater range and faster data transfer rates. In the early 1990s, IBM engineers developed and patented an ultra-high frequency (UHF) RFID system. UHF offered longer read range (up to 20 feet under good conditions) and faster data transfer. UHF RFID got a boost in 1999, when the Uniform Code Council, EAN International, Procter & Gamble and Gillette put up funding to establish the Auto-ID Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Two professors at MIT, Prof. David

Brock and Prof. Sanjay Sarma, had been doing some research into the possibility of putting low-cost RFID tags on all products made with the idea of keeping track of them on a supply chain. Between 1999 and 2003, the Auto-ID Center gained the support of more than 100 large end-user companies, plus the U.S. Department of Defense and many key RFID vendors. RFID technology has passed through many phases over the last few decades.

2.2 RFID TECHNOLOGY

RFID stands for radio frequency identification and it is strongly connected to radio technology. RFID is a contact-less identification

FIGURE 2.1 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A RFID SYSTEM COURTESY OF WWW.DATASHEETCATALOG.ORG

technology working on the physical basis of alternating electromagnetic fields. RFID systems consist of three main components, as shown in the RFID schematic above: an antenna, a transceiver and a transponder (passive tag).

The antenna enables communication between the tag and the transceiver, which is also called reader. The tags are usually built using CMOS circuitry while other technologies can be used such as surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices or tuned resonators. These tags are usually powered by a battery or by rectification of the radio signal sent by the reader. According to Karma Ashan et al (2010), they are also capable of sending data to the reader by changing the loading of the tag antenna in a coded manner or by generating, modulating, and transmitting a radio signal. RFID systems can be read-only (data is transferred only in one direction, from the tag to the reader) or readwrite (two-way communication). A typical RFID system can use the principle of modulated backscatter. In this type of RFID system, to transfer data from the tag to the reader, the reader sends an un-modulated signal to the tag which reads its internal memory of stored data and changes the loading on the tag antenna in a coded manner corresponding to the stored data. The signal reflected from the tag is thus modulated with this coded information. The modulated signal is received by the reader, demodulated using a homodyne receiver, and decoded and output as digital information that contains the data stored in the tag. To send data from the reader to the tag, the reader amplitude modulates its transmitted radio signal. This modulated signal is received by the tag and detected with a diode.

2.3 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF RFID TECHNOLOGY

2.3.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
British physicist James Clerk Maxwell, considered one of the 19th centurys most important scientists, was the first to demonstrate that light consists of electromagnetic waves. Building upon the ideas of British scientist Michael Faraday, Maxwell developed his electromagnetic theory of light. This and other works by Maxwell helped pave the way for some of the major advances in physics in the 20th century. Maxwells treatise A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field (1864), contains the fundamental equations that describe the electromagnetic field. When a magnetic field in space varies in time, it induces an electric field with closed field lines. The same thing happens with a varying electric field in space. It creates a magnetic field with closed lines. This effect of a varying electric and magnetic fields in space is what is called electromagnetic waves, where the wavelength is calculated by =c/f, where c is the speed of light, 300000

km/s, and f is the frequency of the radiation. Generally, introductions to basic electromagnetism begin with Maxwells equations. Maxwells equations which are usually in integral or differential form, provides the foundations upon which all of

electromagnetic theory is based. These equations help to describe the coupled nature of the electric and magnetic field, and also relate them to

their two sources: the electric current density J and the electric charge density . According to Jin Au Kong, (2000), the derivations of Maxwells

equations are as follows:

( ) (

( )

( ( ( (

) ) ) )

( )
( )

) (
( )

Equations (2.1) - (2.4) are linear, but not independent. By taking the divergence of equation (2.1), we can derive the continuity of charge law: ( ) ( ) ( )

This law simply states that the decrease in charge density at a single point is equivalent to the divergence of current from an infinitesimal volume around that point. From this point on, the field dependencies on space and time will be assumed and left out of the notation. The constitutive equations characterize the media that electromagnetic waves travel through, by relating the electric field and magnetic field intensities to the electric and magnetic flux densities. In their most general form, they are: ( ( ) )

In general, most transmission media can be modelled as isotropic media, when the cross coupling does not exist and the permittivity tensor and the permeability tensor are replaced by scalar values:

( (
-

) )

In isotropic free space,

-

and

. If a source free region of space is considered,

where

, equations (2.1) - (2.4) are now simplified to obtain: ( ( ( ( ) ) ) )

By substituting equation (2.11) into equation (2.10), and doing some rearrangement, we arrive at the Helmholtz wave equation: ( )

From this equation, we can solve for the electric field and consequently, the magnetic field. If we choose our coordinate system such that the electromagnetic wave propagates in the z-direction and the electric field points in the x-direction, the simplest solution takes the form: ( ) ( ) ( )

where k is the spatial frequency of the electromagnetic wave or wave number and wavelength ( The angular frequency is related to the Hertzian frequency of by: ( ) ) is the temporal or angular frequency. K is related to the by:

Substitute equation (2.15) into (2.14), yields the dispersion relation for free space: ( )

The dispersion relation provides insight as to how the electromagnetic wave will propagate through a particular medium. By planting the solution for the electric field of equation (2.15) into equation (2.11), we find a solution for the magnetic field: (
-

The Poynting vector, calculated as the cross product of the electric and magnetic fields, defines the direction of energy flow for an electromagnetic wave, with its magnitude equal to the power density through a surface normal to its direction. For the electric and magnitude fields in equation (2.15) and (2.19), ( the
-

Poynting

vector (

is: )

2.3.2

RFID ANTENNA
For RFID applications, passive RFID tags utilize an induced antenna coil

voltage for operation. This induced AC voltage is rectified to provide a voltage source for the device. As the DC voltage reaches a certain level, the device starts operating. By providing an energizing RF signal, a reader can communicate with a remotely located device that has no external power source such as a battery. Since the energizing and communication between the reader and tag is accomplished through antenna coils, it is important that the device must be equipped with a proper antenna circuit for successful RFID applications. Antennas convert electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice versa and their behaviour can usually be mathematically predicted. Ronald J Marhefka et al(2002), defines a radio antenna as a structure associated with the region of transition between a guided wave and a freespace wave or vice-versa. With respect to RFID, antenna is the communication link between the transmitter and receiver via free space. Antenna does not only provide means of transmitting data from reader to tag, but power as well. The topic of antenna is very vast and detailed; this section aims to review the main parameters that characterize the antenna. According to Michael Redemske(2005), one key parameter that defines an antenna is its radiation pattern. In understanding antennas, we

employ a simple antenna like the isotropic emitter, with a point source emitting perfectly spherical electromagnetic waves. This is an ideal antenna that is ideal, though non-existent in reality, but provides a useful comparison bases for real antennas. If we define the total radiated power by an isotropic emitter as PEIRP, where EIRP stands for the effective isotropic radiated power. We can now calculate the power density at a given distance r as: ( )

Since the radiated power density is equivalent in all directions for a particular distance r, this antenna has a spherical radiation pattern, but in reality spherical radiation pattern is not achievable. In the case of a dipole antenna, the radiation pattern takes on a torus-like shape. Klaus Finkenzella(2003). Two other useful quantities of antenna are: directivity and gain. Gain of an antenna is the ratio between the radiated power density of the antenna of interest in a particular direction and some reference antenna of known gain that possesses the same transmission power. Directivity is the ratio between the maximum power density of a particular antenna over its average directional power density which is usually greater than unity, with values corresponding to stronger directional antennas. In practice, directivity is an ideal value which defines how strongly an antenna focuses its radiation

power in one particular direction. While gain is an actual quantity that pertains not just the radiation pattern, but also losses that are caused by impedance mismatch and heat dissipation in the antenna. An antennas efficiency factor is the ratio of the antennas gain to its directivity, which is always less than unity. Another antenna parameter is its input impedance. This is the impedance of the circuit seen by the antenna. If the impedance of the antenna and the corresponding circuit are not matched i.e the real components are equal and the imaginary components are opposite in direction (sign), power can be reflected or dissipated, thus lowering the antennas effective gain and efficiency. This is a very important parameter to tag antennas, where maximum power transfer is needed to achieve the greatest possible read distance. Therefore, with design parameters like gain and directivity, EIRP (effective isotropic radiated power), ERP (equivalent radiated power), input impedance, radiation resistance, effective aperture, scatter aperture and effective length result in different types of antennas: I. Dipole Antenna - One example is the extended half-wave dipole ( /2), consisting of a straight piece of copper wire, which is interrupted half way along. This is where it is supplied. The 2-wire folded dipole is another example. II. Yagi-Uda Antenna - is a directional antenna consisting of directors and a reflector. It is only used for readers, due to its size.

III.

Patch or Micro-strip Antenna - is used in the latest generations of GPS receivers and mobile telephones, but also in RFID systems.

IV.

Slot Antenna - consists of a metal surface, with a slot of length /2 cut out. Advantages are its size, its design simplicity and robustness.

V.

Array Antenna - is used in beam forming for direction of arrival measurements

2.3.3 OPERATING FREQUENCY

Studies have shown that inductive coupling systems normally use frequencies of 100KHz-30MHz while electromagnetic coupling systems use 2.45-5.8GHz. Lower frequency systems have better penetration of objects. The absorption rate is for example 100,000 times higher for 1GHz than for 100kHz. Microwave systems have normally a range of 2-15m and they usually require a backup battery for the transponder to work. They are known to have a high memory capacity; up to 32Kbytes, and a high temperature resistance. Microwave systems are less sensitive for electromagnetic interference fields generated by strong electric motors compared to inductive transponders. Because RFID is classified as a radio system, interference with other radio services must be avoided. Thus RFID uses only frequency ranges that have been reserved specifically for industrial, scientific or medical applications.

These are called ISM frequency ranges (Industrial-Scientific-Medical). The most important frequency ranges are 0-135kHz, and the ISM frequencies around 6.78MHz, 13.56MHz, 27.125MHz, 40.68MHz, 433.92MHz, 869.0MHz, 915MHz (not in Europe), 2.45GHz, 5.8GHz and 24.125GHz.

2.3.4 RFID TAG

RFID tags contain micro-chip that store the unique identification of each object. The ID is a serial number stored in the RFID memory. The chip is made up of integrated circuit and embedded in a silicon chip. CAENRFID (2008). RFID memory chip can be permanent or changeable depending on the read/write characteristics. Read-only and re-write circuits are different as read-only tags contain fixed data and can not be changed without reprogram electronically S. Garfinkel et al (2005). On the other hand, re-write tags can be programmed through the reader at any time without any limit. RFID tags can be of different sizes and shapes depending on the application and the environment at which it will be used. A variety of materials are integrated on these tags. For example, in the case of the credit cards, small plastic peaces are stuck on various objects, and the labels. Labels are also embedded in a variety of objects such as documents, cloths and manufacturing materials, T. Frank et al (2006). There are three types of

tags: the passive, semi-active and active. Semi-active tags have a

combination of active and passive tags characteristics. So, mainly two types of tags (active and passive) are being used by industry and most of the RFID system CAENRFID (2008). The essential characteristics of RFID tags are their function to the RFID system. This is based on their range, frequency, memory, security, type of data and other characteristics. These characteristics are core for RFID performance and differ in

usefulness/support to the RFID system operations, Karma Ashan (2009). While considering these characteristics, figure 2.2 compares the active

and passive tags.

FIGURE 2.2 RFID ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TAGS COMPARISON

2.3.4.2

Tag Frequencies

The range of the RFID tags depends on their frequency. This frequency determines the resistance to interference and other performance attributes E. Ziesel (2006). The use/selection of RFID tag depends on the application;

different frequencies are used on different RFID tags, A. Narayanan (2005). EPCglobal and International Standards Organization (ISO) are the major organizations working to develop international standards for RFID technologies in the UHF band. These two organizations are still evolving and are not fully compatible with each other. In order to avoid the use of different radio frequencies standards, most of the international communities are obligated to comply with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standards. The following are the commonly used frequencies: * Microwave works on 2.45 GHz, it has good reader rate even faster than UHF tags. Although at this frequency the reading rate results are not the same on wet surfaces and near metals, the frequency produce better results in applications such as vehicle tracking (in and out with barriers), with approximately 1 meter of tags read range CAENRFID (2008). * Ultra High Frequency works within a range of 860-930 MHz, it can identify large numbers of tags at one time with quick multiple read rate at a given time. So, it has a considerable good reading speed. It has the same limitation as Microwave when is applied on wet surface and near metal. However, it is faster than high frequency data transfer with a reading range of 3 meters, CAENRFID (2008). * High Frequency works on 13.56MHz and has less than one meter reading range but is inexpensive and useful for access control, items

identifications on sales points etc as it can implanted inside thin things such as paper L. Srivastava (2005). * Low Frequency works on 125 kHz, it has approximately half a meter reading range and mostly used for short reading range applications such as shops, manufacturing factories, inventory control through in and out counts, access control through showing a card to the reader. These low frequency tags are mostly not affected when applied on wet and near metal surfaces T. Frank et al (2006).

2.3.5 RFID READER

RFID reader works as a central place for the RFID system. It reads tags data through the RFID antennas at a certain frequency, T. Frank et al (2006). Basically, the reader is an electronic apparatus which produce and accepts radio signals. The antennas contains an attached reader, the reader translates the tags radio signals through antenna, depending on the tags capacity, K. Ashan (2009). The readers consist of a build-in anti-collision schemes and a single reader can operate on multiple frequencies. As a result, these readers are expected to collect or write data onto tag and pass to computer systems. For this purpose readers can be connected using RS232, RS-485, USB cables as a wired option (called serial readers) and connect to the computer system. They are also able to use WiFi as wireless options

which also known as network readers, L. Sandip (2005). Readers are electronic devices which can be used as standalone or be integrated with other devices and the following components/hardware into it E Ziesel (2006). :power for running reader, communication interface, microprocessor, channels, controller, receiver, transmitter and memory. Readers use near and far fields method to communicate to the tag through its antennas. If a tag wants to respond to the reader then the tag will need to receive energy and communicate with a reader. For example, passive tags use either one of the two following methods CAENRFID (2008). * Near Fields: Near field uses method similar to transformer, and employs inductive coupling of the tag to the magnetic field circulating around the reader antenna (see figure 2.6).

FIGURE 2.3 RFID NEAR FIELD METHOD, CAENRFID(2008).

* Far Field: Far field uses method similar to radar, backscatter reflection by coupling with the electric field. The distinction between the RFID systems with far fields to the near near fields use LF

fields is that the

(lower frequency) and HF (higher frequency) bands, Y. Meiller et al(2009).

FIGURE 2.4 RFID FAR FIELD METHOD, CAENRFID(2008).

2.4 Coding and Modulation

Modulation is about varying a periodic waveform to use that signal to deliver a message. There are different ways of doing this. In amplitude shift keying (ASK), for example, the amplitude is used, while two frequency shift keying (2FSK), is a modulation where the frequency is switched between two frequencies. In two phase shift keying (2PSK), the signal is switched between the phase states 0o and 180 o. In backscatter modulation, often used in electromagnetic coupling systems, waves are reflected back from a transponder after having been "shaped" by impedance in the circuit. Demodulation is simply the inverse of modulation. The message to be transmitted is usually coded by one of the following procedures: NRZ, Manchester, Unipolar RZ, DBP, Miller, differential coding or pulse coding.

2.5 PREVIOUS WORKS

David Skynar of KSH Stockholm, Sweden in his masters degree thesis of 2008 took a step further in the application of RFID technology for access

control system. He recognised the problem of identity collision in access control systems employing RFID technology. This inspired his work that developed a simple algorithm for the detection of direction of movements surrounding a door. The solution algorithm obtained interesting results, though presented in Matlab simulation. This project differs from the one stated above, as it tries not to simulate, but actually design the reader or interrogator that will utilize RFID and demonstrate the ease of RFID technology in improving access control. Considering that the work of Kornbrekke et al provides anonymity with the use of infrared transmitters and sensors, which makes access control somewhat limited.

CHAPTER 3 DESIGN ANALYSIS

This chapter aims to define the design goals as well as analyse the fundamental blocks and part sections required for the development of a radio frequency identification system to be implemented for improving access control as discussed in previous chapters. Discussions here are on the architecture design of the RFID reader. Also in view are the functional designs at a lower abstraction level of the different functional blocks of the reader coupled with the algorithm flowchart of the microcontroller.

3.1 Design Goals

The goals of the project need to be defined before an attempt at the construction or in this case an adaptation of a design can begin. The goals set for the project are the following: i. The construction of a RFID reader that operates within the 125kHz bandwidth that can read or detect a 125kHz tag. ii. The construction of a reader according to the Frequency Shift Key Modulation pattern of the obtained tags. iii. The construction of a reader that keeps records of all the enquiries on the reader. These records should be remotely accessible so that they can be audited by a trusted third party. Because of this logging facility the reader wont require full-time connection to the network infrastructure. This facility increases the flexibility of the reader and allows its application in environments where network connectivity is

not constantly available, e.g. during flight on an airplane. Obviously, it should not be possible to forge these records in any way.

3.2 Functional Block Diagram

Serial Interface (RS-232) Microcontrol ler To Access Control Interface RFID Tag
Reader Antenna

RF Choke

Carrier Signal Amplifier

Tag Antenna

Pulse Shaping Circuit

Filter & Amplifier

Envelope Detector

Figure 3.1

Functional Block Diagram for RFID Reader Design

This design which comprise mainly of two parts outside the RFID tag to be obtained is with the motive of achieving the expected read range offered by the 125kHz un-regulated frequency. Notably seen in the depiction above is the freely hanging capacitor that is situated just outside the design. This capacitor, though out of any particular functional block, plays a role of differentiating the transmitted signal from received signal, so as to eliminate confusion as regards signal reception.

3.2.2 Functional Block Description

The choice of component blocks for this design is based on the functionality of the individual block and its respective role in the overall

design purpose. Although each individual part of the circuit will be described in detail later, the general idea for circuit operation is as such: The microcontroller provides a timer-driven 125 KHz square wave for the carrier frequency that is sent through the RF choke, which is essentially a passive low-pass filter with steep drop-off to knock out the upper harmonics and leave only a sine wave. Since the reader antenna coil is a series resonant L-C circuit, maximum resonance is achieved at minimum impedance, so it is very important that adequate current amplification is done as to not overdrive the microcontroller. The sine wave is then amplified to maximize current. On the receiving end, the signal is first put through the envelope detection block where it is first half-wave rectified, and is then fed through a half-wave R-C filter to help knock out most of the 125 KHz carrier and detect the envelope signal. This signal is then band-pass filtered using a series of Twin-T active band-pass filters, and low-pass filtered with an active Butterworth filter to further decrease gain in frequencies outside of the 10-20 KHz area and increase gain of the envelope signals such that it saturates the op-amps of the filters. At a final stage the signal is put through the pulse-shaping circuit which comprise of the comparator and resistive divider to produce a nice square wave at logic levels, which are fed to some D-flip flops and a decade counter to extract data from the modulating square waves. The signal is then finally passed on to the microcontroller and processed.

The following are the individual blocks and reasons behind their selection: i. Microcontroller: Performs digital signal processing, communicates with the host computer and provides the timer driven 125kHz square wave for the carrier frequency using an attached 4MHz crystal oscillator. ii. RF Choke: Simply a passive low-pass filter whose task is to knock off the upper harmonics of the square wave from the microcontroller and output a clean 125kHz signal. iii. Carrier Signal Amplifier: In an effort to match impedance with the RFID tag antenna coil and ensure the maximum transfer of power through the antenna coil through magnetic coupling, it is important to amplify the power of the signal while reducing the impedance of the circuit. Hence this component block was attached to the signal before the antenna coil. iv. Reader Antenna Coil: It is a fundamental principle that when an electric current flows through a conductor, it generates a magnetic field in a direction normal to the direction of the current flowing in the conductor. Because the medium of communication between the reader circuit and tag coil is by magnetic coupling, it was paramount to generate a magnetic field through an antenna at the end of the signal.

Hence this component block of antenna coil need be attached to the tip end of the circuits transmitting section. v. Envelope detection: Since the receive antenna coil is also the transmit antenna coil, a circuit to detect the modulated signal from the tag is attached to receive the backscattering signal and filter some of the 125kHz carrier signal still attached to it. vi. Filter and Amplifier: To uncover the information on the received signal, there is need to filter the signal and then pass it on through a signal amplifier to boost its strength before signal processing. vii. Pulse shaping: This component block is required to make the received, filtered and amplified signal digital. This means that we need to make the signal ready for processing by the microcontroller. This is done be pulse shaping the signal into a square wave of digital levels using comparators and digital logic combinations. viii. Serial Interface: As part of the design goal is to make the reader capable of administration, a serial interface is designed to connect the microcontroller and the processed signal to a host computer that will be man managed.

3.3 Individual Block Design

3.3.1 Microcontroller

A microcontroller is used to handle the digital signal processing aspects of this project. Considering the fact that the intention is to limit the number of component items, the idea is then to eliminate the conventional signal generator used to provide signal of a preset frequency. Research uncovered a powerful and dynamic microcontroller with features that fit well with the design needs and dynamic enough to provide the carrier signal from the output of a 4MHz crystal oscillator. The ATmega32 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced Reduced Instruction Set Computer(RISC) architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega32 achieves throughputs approaching one Million Instruction Per Second(MIPS) per MHz allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed. The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to 10X faster than conventional Complex Instruction Set Computer(CISC) microcontrollers. The ATmega32 provides the following other features: 32Kbytes of In-System Programmable Flash Program memory with ReadWhile-Write capabilities

 32 general purpose I/O lines 32 general purpose working registers JTAG interface for Boundary-scan On-chip Debugging support and programming Three flexible timer/counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts Serial programmable USART. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receive and Transmit(USART), two-wire interface, A/D Converter, SRAM, timer/counters, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next external interrupt or hardware reset.. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega32 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications like this RFID reader design project, needed to demonstrate the improvement of access control with RFID technology.

3.3.2 RF Choke

This is designed to be a low-pass filter that knocks off the upper harmonics of the incoming 125kHz square wave signal, thereby turning the square wave signal into a 125kHz sine wave signal. This component block is designed similar to the conventional L-C low-pass filter. The design consideration for the choke was guided by the fact that the microcontroller provides a 125kHz signal with an amplitude of 5V. In other not to over work the microcontroller, a suitable R1 needs to be selected whose impedance is right enough to pass the current. Also to be considered is the fact that the value of the current needs to be high enough to drive the antenna. Hence due to its availability and little impedance size, an 82 resistor is expected to give us appreciable impedance. As depicted in the schematic, a 125kHz square wave is generated from a signal generator and passed on to the RF Choke. For the L-C low-pass filter with the output coming off the capacitor C2, the transfer function for low-pass filters, which is given in equation (3.1)

Figure 3.2

Design Schematic of our RF Choke

But at resonance frequency of 125kHz That is Solving mathematically, equation 3.1 becomes:

From which we obtain:

2 c c

Using equation 3.2, we now obtain:

c

(-

Using an available and common inductor of 1mH as L, C1 can be obtained from equation 3.2 as follows:

Then with C1 = 1.62nF, R = 82 and L as 1mH, the value of C2 can be obtained from equation 3.4 by proper substitution and evaluation as follows:
(c

( Then Therefore; (( ) )

From which C2 is obtained to be: ( )

The expectation is that this capacitance will provide the needed gain for the filtering process.

3.3.3 Carrier Signal Amplifier

The signal is amplified before it is fed into the antenna coil. A complementary power amplifier circuit is typically used to boost the transmitting signal level. This design incorporates the power amplifier circuit design of Microchip. Since the expected current level with respect to transmit power for the 125kHz signal lies between 0.66A and 0.8A, it is then expected that their amplifier circuit will fit into this design. With reference to figure 3.3, R2 and R3 act as voltage divider coupled with R4 to bias Q2. D1 and D2 are used in the half bridge to help reduce crossover distortion caused from differing points of either transistor Q1 or Q3 in the complementary push-pull amplifier circuit. R7 and R8 are temperature-compensation "feedback" resistors in the emitter legs of the push-pull transistor circuit, compensating for the heat dissipation as a result of the diodes in series.

Figure 3.3

Signal Amplifier Circuit

3.3.4 Reader Antenna Coil

An RF signal can be radiated effectively if the linear dimension of the antenna is comparable with the wavelength of the operating frequency. In an RFID application like this which is utilizing the LF (125kHz) band, the wavelength of the operating frequency is about 2.4km. Because of this long wavelength, a perfect antenna can never be formed in a limited space of the device. Alternatively, a small loop antenna coil that is resonating at the frequency of interest (i.e., 125 kHz) is used. This type of antenna utilizes near field magnetic induction coupling between transmitting and receiving antenna coils. The field strength falls off with r-3 (where r = distance from the antenna). This near field behaviour (r-3) is the main limiting factor of the read range in RFID applications.

In RFID applications, the antenna coil is an element of resonant circuit and the read range of the device is greatly affected by the performance of the resonant circuit. The resonance frequency (fo) of the circuit is determined by:

where fo is the resonant frequency (in Hertz), L is inductance (in Henry) and C is capacitance (in Farads). The resonant circuit can be formed either series or parallel. The series resonant circuit has minimum impedance at the resonance frequency. As a result, maximum current is available in the circuit. This series resonant circuit is typically used for the reader antenna. On the other hand, the parallel resonant circuit has maximum impedance at the resonance frequency, because it offers minimum current and maximum voltage at the resonance frequency. This parallel resonant circuit is used for the tag antenna. The first consideration as adapted from H. Hardy (1976) for the antenna design is that the data rate for FSK(Frequency Shift Keying) signal is 12.5kHz, then a bandwidth of 25kHz is needed for a full data recovery. The quality factor Q is then obtained from the relation:

But fo is 125kHz, so its easy to obtain Q as follows:

Also we can now obtain the inductance of our antenna from the relation:

With Q=5, r=82 and our resonance frequency remains the same, we obtain L:

Which is approximately 0.5mH. To obtain the value of the coupling capacitor, we substitute the value of L and the resonant frequency into equation (3.4), Firstly, we realise that

Then C Then the value of the coupling capacitor to be in series with the inductor to make up the series resonant antenna is about 3.2nF. Since the C2 is grounded, the carrier signal (125 kHz) is filtered out to ground after passing the antenna coil. The circuit provides minimum impedance at the resonance frequency which results in maximizing the antenna current, and therefore, the magnetic field strength is maximized. In order to determine the coil parameters, we by optimisation with respect to the expected read range of our reader circuit obtain the gain of our antenna using equation (3.9) below as adapted from R. Gagliardi(1988):

 Where =wavelength, Pt=power of transmitter, Gt=gain of transmitter, Gr=gain of tag and Pth is the tag response threshold. Knowing that the expected read range is about 0.1524m, is also known to be 2.4km, Pth is 0.16X10-6, Gr is 0.12dB, and Pt is 0.3mW, we can then compute the value for Gt: Firstly, we make Gt the subject of the formulae of equation (3.9) to obtain:
( )

equation 3.10

Now, substituting the already known values into equation (3.10)

( ( ) ) 0.16 10-6

2.83206X10-9dB.

Then the gain of the transmitter to be approximately equal to 2.83X10-9dB. With this gain we can now employ the expression relating antenna gain and antenna width which is given as:

Where d is the width or diameter of antenna with regards to its nature: rectangular loop or circular loop. Using the obtained gain, the antenna diameter can now be obtained as follows: From equation 3.11, we make d the subject of the formulae which is: Therefore
-

= 0.0360m

this is about 3.6cm. With this width and with a proportionate length, coupled with the value for inductance already obtained, we can now estimate our required number of coil turns for the antenna design using the expression shown in equation (3.12) below as adapted from F. Grover,(1946).

(( ( )

) )

Where L is the inductance (in milli-Henry), x and y are the width and length of the coil (in cm), h is the height of the coil (in cm), b is the width across the conducting part of the coil (in cm) and N is the number of turns. In this design case, the estimations are: y=13.8 cm, h=1 cm and b=0.3cm. With these estimates and the width x = 3.6cm, the numbers of turns are then calculated from equation (3.12). Firstly, we make N (number of turns of loop antenna) the subject of the formulae from equation (3.12). From which we obtain:
( )

Therefore,

That is approximately 90 turns. Although these are estimates, fine tuning is expected during implementation.

3.3.5 Envelope Detection

The envelope detector is the first component of the receiver subsystem whose main task is to collect and process the modulated carrier wave in the electromagnetic field around the antenna. For the obvious fact that the transmitted wave is sent as an unguided wave, a receiving module must be used to convert the impinging field to an electronic waveform, which is then passed to the front end components for proper signal processing. Although the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna are the same, it is also a task for the reader antenna to detect the amplitude variation of the tag and extract the modulation data. In this design a linear diode detector or peak detector is employed, which is a series connection of a diode and a capacitor outputting a DC voltage equal to the peak value of the applied AC voltage. The obvious reason for its utilization is that the peak diode detector uses the rectification property of a diode and maintains a linear relationship between the carrier amplitude and the detected output voltage. According to the schematic shown in figure 3.5, L1 is the receiving antenna coil; C1 is the resonant capacitor which makes sure that transmitted signals are not let through the receiving section. Diode D1 is a small signal fast recovery diode rectifier; it is a demodulator which detects the envelope of the backscattering signal. D1 and C2 form a half-wave capacitor-filtered rectifier circuit. The detected envelope signal is charged into the C2. R1 provides a

discharge path for the voltage charged in the C2. As is the norm for filtering AC signals in this manner there is some 125 KHz ripple, but choosing good values we could make the enveloping frequencies stand out from the ripple. For this we chose R=390k and C= 2.2nF, with respect to proven RC filter design from Microchip. Once signal leaves this stage, it passes through the capacitor C3 to knock out the DC offset and into the next set of filters. Once signal leaves the envelope detector, it is passed through a capacitor to knock out the DC offset, before getting to the next stage of signal processing.

Figure 3.5 Envelope Detector Schematic

3.3.6 Filter and Amplifier

This stage of our device is required to pass the amplitude modulated band of frequencies, as modulated by the obtained RFID tags. Recalling that the modulation type used in the cards is Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), where the modulation is done by essentially multiplying a lower amplitude, lower frequency signal with the carrier signal, creating an AM-like effect; the lower

frequency enveloping the carrier frequency. To switch between a "1" and a "0", the tag switches the modulating frequency. The two frequencies used by obtained cards are 12.5 KHz (125 KHz/10) and 15.625 KHz (125 KHz/8), which correspond to 1 and 0 respectively. Armed with this, it is expedient to design efficient filters to pass only a band of frequency carrying the data needed in the modulated signal. This act of band passage should also be accommodating of attenuation gain.

Figure 3.6 Filter Design Dialog Box from Matlab

Using the Matlab Filter Design Tool, it is possible to fuse in expected specifications and parameters as regards the functionality of the filter. The figure shown in figure 3.6 is the filter builder dialog box that helps to design the filter needed. With the band pass parameters, the plot of magnitude against frequency showing gain paths is illustrated in figure 3.7.

Magnitude (dB) and Phase Responses

5.1033

-10

1.8625

-20

-1.3783

Magnitude (dB)

-30

-4.6191

-40

-7.8599

-50

-11.1007

-60

-14.3415

-70

-17.5823

10

20

30 Frequency (kHz)

40

50

60

Figure 3.7 Bode Plot from Matlab Filter Design Tool

Having a response as depicted above, it is also possible to utilize the filter coefficients obtained from the Matlab Filter Design Tool to compute the transfer function from which the active and passive parameters of the filter could be obtained. But considering the large number of filter coefficients presented, it will be wise to search for an already designed filter with responses that resembles the above response. An almost perfect fit is the design presented on Discovercircuits.com by Jonathan Westhues. The bode plot of this design and circuit schematic are as shown below. This picked filter design comprise of a pair of active Twin-T filters and an active Butterworth filter with the TL084 Operational Amplifier as the gain element. As can be seen from the Bode Plot, the first filter mostly isolate before the pass band (10-20 KHz), with roughly unity gain for all frequencies outside the pass band. The second filter further accentuates gain in the pass-band while

Phase (radians)

slightly reducing the magnitude of frequencies outside the pass band. After this, the signal goes through a massive Butterworth Low-Pass filter to drastically increase gain of lower frequencies already in the pass band and virtually eliminate the higher frequencies, including the 125 KHz carrier signal.

Fig ure

3.9 Filter Design (Discovercircuits.com)

Schematic,

Courtesy

Of

Jonathan

Westhues

3.3.7

Pulse Shaping Circuit

Figure 3.10 Comparator Circuit with Op-Amp as Gain Element

In communication systems, amplitude modulation is done with respect

to the information to be embedded in the carrier signal. For this design, it has been possible to filter out the unnecessary aspects of our signals while attenuating the band of frequency carrying the required signal. The first component part of the circuit is required to pulse shape the signal into digital pulses as can be understood by the micro-controller. In this design, an opamp as a comparator with a high voltage gain as shown in figure 3.10, is used. Here, with reference input set to the inverting input of the op-amp, a sinusoidal signal applied to the non-inverting input will cause the output to switch between its two output states. If the input sinusoidal signal goes a fraction of a millivolt above the reference level, it will be amplified by a very high voltage gain so that the output rises to its positive output saturation level and remains there while the input stays above Vref. When the input just

falls below the reference level, the output is driven to its lower saturation level and stays there while the input remains below Vref. The design expectations clearly are that the input signal are linear, while the output signal is digital. Concerning the range of values of resistance used as R3 and R4, it is easier to use the voltage divider relationship for Vdd and the reference voltage given as:
ref DD

equation 3.14

With VDD as 5V as illustrated in the schematic above, Vref as 0.05V(very small to enable comparison), and choosing R3 for a small impedance of 100, R4 can be computed: from equation 3.13, making R4 subject of the formulae to obtain: (
Now,

- )
ref

substituting the values for (

= 0.05, R3=100 , VDD = 5V into equation

(3.14), Then

This is seen as approximately 10k. Technically, from the output of the comparator it is possible to read and interpret data from the card using a timer interrupt. However, implementing this would cripple the functionality of the system. That is, in order to accurately measure the frequency of the incoming data stream, sampling need be done at 125kHz, which means that a separate crystal of 16 MHz is

required to output a clock rate of 128 clock cycles to compute everything before the next sampling interrupt fired. This would be extremely difficult to implement. An easier design was published by Microchip, which makes use of flip-flops and decade (Johnson) counter. This circuit can be seen in figure 3.11

Figure 3.11 Digital Combination used for data creation after Comparator

The comparator output serves as the clock for the first D flip-flop, which also takes logic 1 as its D value. On the rising edge of the comparator clock, Q is immediately set to 1. However, simultaneously goes low and clears the

flip-flop. This creates an extremely short pulse which serves as a reset for the decade counter and clock for the second flip-flop. The decade counter is a counter which takes a 125 KHz clock. With every rising edge of this clock, the counter outputs the next pin to logic 1; so typical output would look like (if one were looking at output pins 0-9 of the counter) 1000000000

0100000000 00100000000 etc. However, this counter is being reset with every rising edge of the comparator output. Thus, since its already been determined that 125 KHz/10 = 12.5 KHz is to be the frequency that represents logic 1, all that should be done is to check for the output on pin9 to confirm that frequency. If the system is operating at either one of the other possible frequencies, the counter will be reset before pin9 can go active. The pin9 output serves as input to the second flip-flop and also to the clock inhibitor, which keeps the 9th pin high until the counter is reset. Because of this set-up, the Q output of the second flip-flop will remain logical 1 so long as modulating frequency is 12.5 KHz and will drop down to 0 if its anything else.. The 100k resistor on the first flip-flop serves to lengthen the time it takes for the signal to get to CLEAR. Since all transistors have some

amount of natural capacitance, this forms an RC circuit of sorts with a set RC time constant for the signal to rise or fall.

3.3.8 Serial Interface

The concept of a serial time, communication is sequentially, over the process of

sending data one bit at

a communication

channel or computer bus. This is in contrast to parallel communication, where several bits are sent as a whole, on a link with several parallel channels where the cost of cable and synchronization difficulties makes parallel communication impractical.

Serial communication is a popular means of transmitting data between a computer and a peripheral device such as a programmable instrument or even another computer. Serial communication uses a transmitter to send data, one bit at a time, over a single communication line to a receiver. You can use this method when data transfer rates are low or you must transfer data over long distances. Serial communication is popular because most computers have one or more serial ports, so no extra hardware is needed other than a cable to connect the instrument to the computer or two computers together. Serial communication requires that you specify the baud rate of the transmission, which is a measure of how fast data are moving between instruments that use serial communication. The popular registered standard cable RS-232 uses only two voltage states, called MARK and SPACE. In such a two-state coding scheme, the baud rate is identical to the maximum number of bits of information, including control bits that are transmitted per second. Devices that use serial cables for their communication are split into two categories. These are DCE(Digital Communication Equipment) and DTE(Digital Termination Equipment). DCE are devices such as a modem, plotter, and so on, while a DTE is a computer or terminal. RS-232 serial ports come in two sizes, the D-Type 25-pin connector and the D-Type 9-pin

connector. Both of these connectors are male on the back of the PC. Table 3.1 shows the pin connections for the 9-pin and 25-pin D-Type connectors.
Table 3.1 Function Data Signal TxD RxD Handshake RTS CTS DSR DCD STR Common Other Com RI 3 2 7 8 6 1 4 5 9 PIN DTE Output Input Output Input Input Input Output -Output DCE Input Output Input Output Output Output Input -Input

In this design, the baud rate is 9600bps with respect to the functional capacity of our transmitting microcontroller.

3.4 Software Design

As explained in previous sections of this chapter, the microcontroller is basically a computer system that carries out processing tasks internally and communicates its results with output and input pins. For this design, the microcontroller does most of its processing actions by the activation of interrupts. It is then clear that the bulk of the program and software design will be based on interrupts. On initialisation, the various interrupts, timers, input-output, and global variables utilized in the program are activated. The

following are the expected flow of program for the interrupts after initialisation:

3.4.1 Main Operation

This main operation is in two modes: read mode and configuration mode which can also be termed the remote operation mode. a. Read mode: In this mode, when a full period of the looping card response is captured, the microcontroller tries to decode the response by executing the following steps until 3 identical codes are obtained in a row. i. turn off the external pin interrupt since the microcontroller isnt going to be reading anything in this window of time ii. iii. iv. look for a start code and take only data reduce the bit sequence to 90 bits Manchester decode to 45 bits. Upon receipt of 3 identical codes, comparison is made with the code bank to see if the code is currently allowed access to the facility. If so, a green LED blinks for 3 seconds. If not, a red LED blinks for three seconds. In order to prevent false reads, sampling is done until the microcontroller successfully reads 3 consecutive identical codes. A statement is also printed to the administrative terminal providing the card code, whether the card was accepted, and the time at which the event occurred.

Power ON and Initialization

Mode select

Configuration Mode

Read Mode

Is it Add or Update?
Add

Update

Read ID

Get Tag ID Add Tag

Get Tag ID Update Tag ID

Compare ID
No

Is ID stored in the ID BANK?

Yes

Figure 3.13 Main Program Flowchart.

Grant Access

Deny Access

b. Configuration Mode: This mode can also be referred to as the remote operation mode. In this mode, the administrator has a choice of remotely adding a code to a specific code bank position or remotely adding any number of codes (bound between 1 and 20 inclusive). When adding a code to a specific code bank position, the External Interrupt2 is activated and the card responses are read. Just like in normal mode, the microcontroller finds the start code, reduces the sequence, and Manchester decodes the sequence. This is done until five consecutive identical codes are read and then stored into the specified position in the code bank. When adding a specific quantity of codes, the status of the

code bank is first searched to find an unused position. Then remote add can be done by position mode and the code is added at the first unused position. This is done until either the specified quantity of codes are stored or until the code bank is full. After either of these modes finishes executing, the reader goes back to its normal mode, but now with the new stored codes in the code bank. The end of the main loop serves as a scheduler that checks the timers for certain tasks and executes the task. It executes the function to check the receiveready flag, turns off the LED's after 3 seconds, and executes the counter that keeps track of time and date.

3.4.2 USART Receive Interrupt

This interrupt handles any typed characters received from the administration terminal through the RS-232 connection and stores it into a buffer. It also echoes the character to the terminal. Once a carriage return is detected, the receive-ready flag is set indicating that a line command has been entered by the user via the terminal.
Receive character from Administrator

Is character 8bit

Is character indexed Indexed character

Is character indexed Indexed character Send character to buffer

Figure 3.14 Program Flowchart for USART Receive Interrupt.

3.4.3 USART Transmit Interrupt

This interrupt handles transmitting characters to the terminal. It simply loops through the transmit buffer until the last character is sent and then is ready for another transmission.
Character from buffer to be transferred to terminal

Is character ready for transmit Send Character to buffer

Figure 3.15 Program Flowchart for USART Transmit Interrupt.

3.5 Power Supply

Owing to the digital nature of this design, it is cheaper and easier to make use of a 12V power, whose design is as shown below:
R1 100
IN

LM7812C
OUT GND

TR1

+
VG1

C1 500n

N1

N2

C2 470u U1 1N4004

Figure 3.18 12V Power Supply Circuit

The aim of this design is to obtain 120V/220V AC power supply from a utility outlet, and convert to a steady 12V DC power supply after transformer action. With reference to conventional designs, a step-down transformer with turns ratio of 7 is employed, coupled with the diode rectifier array of

Load

1N4004 diodes and a 7812 voltage regulator IC. Since it is a full-wave rectifier, the ripple can be calculated as follows, given these constant values: Vdc = 0.636c, Vr (rms) = 0.308Vm And that

Where r represents the ripple magnitude, and Vm represents the peak magnitude. Then for full wave rectification, r = 48% Since Vdc is 12V, then Vm = 18.87V, while Vr = 5.81V. To obtain C1, we use: Obtained from the IC datasheet: Idc (max) is 1.5A, and then C1 can be obtained as

3.6 Final Design Schematic

After all the proper and required analysis and design of individual component parts, the final design circuit schematic is obtained and represented below.

CHAPTER FOUR IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS

This chapter discussed the implementation of the design for improving access control using RFID as discussed in chapter three of this report. Here procedures and test results will be discussed and analysed, focusing on actually getting the design to work and practically demonstrated, thus achieving the main purpose of this design.

4.1 Implementation
In order to minimize cost of component parts and space, the implementation of the design for improving access control using RFID is done on two vero boards; one of which will serve to contain the entire component necessary for transmitting the signal that would be read by the RFID tag, while the other board will serve to contain the entire component needed for the reception of the modulated signal from the tag, as well as digital signal processing of the received signal.

4.1.2 Transmitting Section Board

This section consists of the microprocessor and its signal generating circuitry, the RF choke and the signal amplifier circuitry. Also included on this

board is the circuitry to facilitate serial communication with the host computer. The procedure is as follows: i. Assemble all component parts that make up the various circuitry mentioned above. These components will include: * 7 x 3.5 inch copper lined vero board * The Atmega32 microprocessor * The 4MHz crystal oscillator * Rated capacitors and resistors(2x10,470, 100, 22k, 12k, 6.2nF, 1.8nF, 82, 330, 1M, 2x22pF, 4x10f) * Specified Level Converter( MAX232CPE ) * Specified Transistors(Two 2N3906, One 2N3904) * Telecommunication cables * LEDs (Two Red, One Green) * Two Diodes (1N4148) ii. Assemble all tools, which will include general multi-meter, soldering iron and rolls lead, de-solderer , filing tool, clippers, pliers, pocket cutter, e.t.c iii. iv. Begin static testing of components for functional preparedness With appropriate static test results, the components are arranged on the vero board according to the layout of the design; with reference to chapter three of the entire transmit stage and serial interface design.

v.

The Atmega32 microprocessor is placed first, taking cognizance of the pin layout and direction. The microprocessor has forty pins, so it should be positioned in such a way that pins 1-20 are in phase with the crystal oscillator, while pins 21-40 are in phase with the amplifier circuit.

vi.

After proper placement of components, careful soldering can now be done on the board. Due to space management, some parts of the board is bridged, while other parts are adequately cut-through to avoid irregular and unwanted bridging of the different circuits on the board.

vii.

Precautionary demands for the proper implementation of electronic circuits, involves the use of power regulatory circuit. These components will include a small signal diode, filter capacitors and the 7805 IC regulator as the circuit voltage is 5V

4.1.3 Receiving Section Board

This section contains the envelope detector, the filter circuit, the voltage comparator and the circuit for digital logic combination. The procedure is as follows: i. Assemble all component parts that make up all the circuitry mentioned above. These components will include: * 7 x 3.5 inch copper lined vero board

* Rated capacitors and resistors(11x1.0nF, 22uF, 390k, 82k, 1.82k, 47.5k, 2.67k, 82.5k, 15.5k, 100, 2x10k, 12k) * TL084CN IC * 2x74HC74 IC * CP4017 IC (Decade counter) ii. Assemble all tools, which will include general multi-meter, soldering iron and rolls lead, de-solderer , filing tool, clippers, pliers, pocket cutter, e.t.c iii. iv. Begin static testing of components for functional preparedness With appropriate static test results, the components are arranged on the vero board according to the layout of the design; with reference to chapter three of the entire signal reception stage design. v. The TL084CN and 74HC74 ICs are placed first, taking cognizance of the fact that the TL084CN IC has 14 pins where pins 4 and 11 are Vcc and GND, while the remaining 12 pins are allocated to the three filter sections and the voltage comparator, with reference to the design in chapter three. The 74HC74 IC contains the double D-flip-flop that carries out the digital logic operation. vi. It is also noted that the decade counter IC is placed only after the TL084CN and 74HC74 ICs, which is in accordance with the design layout of the reception stage. vii. Before soldering, precautionary measures are taken for the proper implementation of electronic circuits. This involves the use of power

regulatory circuit. From the circuit design of this section, it is noticed that two voltage levels are required (5V and 12V). Thus, the components will include the 7805 and 7812 IC regulators as well as filter capacitors. viii. The board after careful soldering is shown below

Figure 4.1 Receiving Section Board after Soldering

4.1.4 Power Supply

The power requirement for this design is primarily to supply and sustain neat power to the microcontroller and the various ICs used to facilitate the design. As proffered in the design in chapter three, a 12V power supply is designed to meet the power needs of the entire circuit. implementation procedure is as follows: i. Assemble all components required for the power supply circuit. These components include; * A small 12V transformer * Power supply cables * 100 resistor * Capacitors( 470uF and 0.5uF) Its

* Four 1N4004 diodes * A 7812 IC voltage regulator ii. iii. Carry out static tests on all components. Before soldering the IC is to be properly tested to find out the IN and OUT pins. iv. With good results from static tests, careful and neat soldering can proceed.

4.1.5 Antenna Circuit

The implementation of this part of the entire design is based on the calculated dimensions as proffered in chapter three of this report. Since the antenna circuit is basically a coil of length, its implementation is in its winding and measurement. The implementation procedures are as follows: i. A long length of copper coil of about 0.5mm of the right copper standard is assembled ii. Since the design requires a rectangular wound coil, a wooden platform is needed, with four long concrete nails iii. The four nails are made to form a rectangle on the wooden platform according to the following specification: length of rectangle = 13.8cm, width of rectangle = 3.6cm. iv. On one of the nails, the copper coil is tagged before winding begins v. Winding begins.

vi.

After 90 turns of windings, the width of the conducting part is measured to make sure it hasnt exceeded the 0.3cm mark.

vii.

It was realised that 89 turns gave exactly the 0.3cm width of the conducting part of the coil.

viii.

The two end tails of the coil are properly tagged as send and receive.

ix.

Now, the send tail is soldered to antenna position at the transmitting board, while the receive tail is soldered to the antenna position on the receiving board.

4.1.6 Microcontroller programming

The microcontroller is the main brain and centre of activity of the entire design. Its programming is done outside the regular vero board before it is inserted into the chip base for function. In programming the microcontroller, the tools and components needed are: the Atmega32 chip, a chip programmer, AVR Integrated Development Environment(Code-Vision AVR) and a serial communication cable. In programming the chip, a number of steps are taken. These steps are as highlighted below: i. ii. iii. iv. Open up Code-Vision Click on new project and save the project Click on new project icon again, and then click on check source. On the new dialog box, enter already programmed source code and save

v. vi.

Now select the source and the save project and compile On the new dialog box, make sure there are no errors on the error checklist.

vii.

After compiling, two files are created; Flash program(.hex) and EEPROM(.eep)

viii.

Now connect the AVR cable tool to an available communication port on the computer where code vision is operated.

ix.

Open the cable AVR tool and select auto-detect device type. This detects the type of chip and automatically populates the chip specific values

x. xi.

On the AVR tool dialog box, select write to chip (hex file) Finally click on program chip

With the chip programmed, it is now ready to function as a microcontroller of the entire circuit.

FIGURE 4.2 PIN CONFIGURATION OF MICROPROCESSOR

4.2

Testing
As required in every design implementation, testing is important to

ascertain successful implementation procedures and design results. In this design, various forms of tests were carried out to determine the nature of output at different points of the circuit. These tests include oscilloscope reading for waveforms, power supply tests, signal reception test and access control activity test. For input and output waveforms, the test results are shown below.

Figure 4.3 Oscilloscope Reading of Transmit Output Stage

Figure 4.4 Envelope Frequencies After Filtering and Reduction to Logic Levels

Figure 4.5 Modulated Carrier Signal When an RFID Tag Is Placed Near the Antenna

Figure 4.6 Comparator Output with Reset Pulse

The tests for power supply and access control activity are done by LEDs attached to the points on the circuits where there actions are warranted. A red coloured LED is used to signal power supply to the microcontroller, as shown in the figure below. Also, during implementation an array of LEDs were used to indicate access control activity with reference to microcontroller activity. The final implemented module is as shown below

Figure 4.7 Final implemented module

4.3
Item No

Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

Reference Designator T3 1 2 R10 Transistor 1.82k Resistor 1 1 250 50 251 50 Part Quantity Identification 2N3904 (N) Unit Price Amount (N)

3 4 5 6 7

R23 C1 R6, R7 R18, R4 R26 R1, R14, R15, R16,

1.8k Resistor 1.8nF Capacitor 10 Resistor 100 Resistor 100k Resistor 10k Resistor

1 1 2 2 1

50 50 50 50 50

50 50 100 100 50

8 9 10 11

R19, R21, R24 R20, R3 R17 R9 C10, C11, C6, C7, 1nF Capacitor 12k Resistor 15.5k Resistor 1M Resistor

7 2 1 1

50 50 50 60

350 100 50 60

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

C8, C9 D1, D2, D3, D4 D5 D6 C5 C4 R12 R2, R25 T1, T2, T4 1N4148 Diode 1N4936 Diode 1N4004 Diode 1uF Capacitor 2.2nF Capacitor 300k Resistor 22k Resistor 2N3906

6 4 1 4 1 1 1 2

50 100 100 100 50 50 50 50

300 400 100 400 50 50 50 100

20 21 22 23 24 25 C3 R22 R8 Decade Counter R11

Transistor 3.2nF Capacitor 3.3k Resistor 390k Resistor CP4017 IC 47.5k Resistor

3 1 1 1 1 1

250 50 50 50 1200 50

750 50 50 50 1200 50

26 27 28 29

R5 C2 R13 R1 XTAL

470 Resistor 6.2nF Capacitor 82k Resistor 82 Resistor Crystal

1 1 1 1

50 50 50 50

50 50 50 50

30 TFMR 31 32 33 34 35 36 D Flip-Flop Op-Amp Voltage Regulator Voltage Regulator LEDs Down level

Oscillator 12V Transformer 74HC74 TL084CN IC LM7805A LM7812A

2500

2500

1 1 1 2 2 10

250 400 400 300 300 100

250 400 400 600 600 1000

MAX232CPE 37 38 Converter Vero Board Roll of Soldering 39 lead 0.5mm Copper 40 41 42 43 cables RS232 Cable Serial -USB Cable PVC Control Box Length of Comm. 44 45 Cables Microcontroller ATMEGA33 300 2500 300 2500 24 x 15cm 1 300 800 1500 1400 300 800 1500 1400 1 300 300 1 3 1000 150 1000 450

Total Cost

19,060

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
The primary goal of this project as hinted in section 1.2 of this report was to design a system using RFID technology that will handle access control

of persons in and out of a facility, while eliminating the need for a line of sight for the effective reading of the tag carrier. With adequate comprehension of the limitations as regards this project, an access control module has been designed in different parts with the ATmega32 microcontroller as the main component for digital signal processing. Based on design requirements, the access control module is made up of four main parts; the microcontroller, the transmit section, the antenna and the receive section. The microcontroller which is as powerful as required has been programmed to be able to generate the right signal and also been able to carry out digital signal processing for the actualisation of access control. The transmit section has been designed to transmit an amplified current to not exceed the 0.5mW of unrestricted band frequency. The antenna coil has also been designed in specification to meet the transmission and reception requirements of the reader module. Furthermore, the receiving section which is primarily made up of different ICs has been designed to adequately demodulate and extract information from the modulated signal from the tag. Testing has accompanied the implementation of the design. Though during implementation, testing helped to unravel some intricacies that had come from the design. Nonetheless it can be said that an access control module that would be the brain child of an access control system has been

completely developed to enhance or improve access control using RFID(Radio Frequency Identification).

5.2

Problems Encountered
The development of a module that will facilitate the improvement of

access control using RFID isnt devoid of difficulties. As can be expected, there were a lot of ethical considerations to be made as regards what to do and how best or how safe and cheap it would be. It was also cumbersome studying the NCC(Nigerian Communication Commission) guidelines on frequency bands and power transmission so as to act in accordance to the tenets of the law of the land where this design might find practical use and influence. Other problems encountered are itemised below. i. Purchasing of a 125kHz RFID Passive Tag, as none could be found on the shores of Nigeria. ii. iii. Power supply considerations. Microcontroller programming, as this required a basic training in C programming. iv. Developing an administrative interface for administration of access control.

5.3

Recommendation
This project of developing an access control system using radio

frequency technology can be better developed to serve a wide variety of

areas which includes: industrial, domestic, military, health and education. Practically, RFID can become a relief to so many already existing technological boundaries and barriers that have shortened comfort associated service delivery. After careful design and implementation of the design, there has been areas that have been found out, that if improve upon, will drive the appreciation of RFID to the next level of global importance where it truly belongs. These areas that have been found out include: i. Regulation: It has been realised that if regulations on the unrestricted band of frequencies remain unregulated for as long as the RFID technology grows, it will one day result in the overcrowding and superimposition of signals as a result of the aggregation of small power frequency signals. This is a recommendation to the regulatory authorities. ii. Microcontroller: This design employed the services of the ATmega32 by AVR, due to its cost and availability. It is recommended that future works on RFID implementation should employ microcontrollers with higher memory capacities than the ATmega32. iii. Frequency: At higher frequencies, the quality factor will increase, in turn increasing the read range of the reader antenna. Higher frequencies will also mean a less response time between the tag and the reader.

iv.

Sliding door: This device which has been designed can be used to drive an automatic sliding door or turnstiles. Due to its cost and time needed to implement the design for an automatic sliding door, it wasnt incorporated to demonstrate the use of RFID to improve access control.

v.

Multi-tag Interference: In the event of multiple tag reading by the reader antenna, it is usually difficult for this design to respond accurately. So it is recommended that anti-collision instructions should be written for the microcontroller to prevent multi-tag interference.

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Finkenzella K. and Waddington R. {2003} RFID Handbook John Weily & Sons Inc. New York. Garfinkel B. R., {2005} RFID Applications, Security and Privacy John Weily & Sons, USA. Grover F. W. {1946} Inductance Calculations, Working Formulas and Tables Dover Publications Inc. New York. Hardy J. K. {1975} High Frequency Circuit Design Reston Publishing Inc. Reston, Virginia. Harrington R. F. {1964} Theory of Loaded Scatters Proceedings, IEEE Vol. 111, No. 4. Pp.617-623. Henry K. {1963} Radio Engineering Handbook McGraw Hill Inc. New York. Kraus J. D. and Marhefka J. R., {2002} Antenna for all applications 3rd Edition McGraw Hill Inc. New York. Landt J. {2001} Shrouds of time-The History of RFID AIM Inc. Pittsburg, PA. Meiller Y., Bureau S.,{2009} Logistics Projects: How t access the right system AMCIS Proceedings. MicroID {2004} 125KHz RFID System Design Guide Application Notes. Narayanan A., Singh S., Somasekharan M., {2005} Implementing RFID in Library: Methodologies, Advantages and Disadvantages Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Redemske R., Fletcher R. and Marti U., {2005} Study of UHF RFID signal propagation through complex media IEEE Symposium on Antenna & Propagation & USNC/URSI, National Radio Science Meeting-Poster Session 2005. Roy W. {2006} An Introduction to RFID Technology McGraw-Hill Inc. New York. Srivastava L. {2005} RFID: Technology, Applications and Policy Implication ITU Presentation Kenya. Zeisel E., Sabella R., {2006} RFID+ Cram Exam U.S.A, Application Notes.