HISTORY OF HINDU CHEMISTRY

HISTORY OF HINDU CHFMISTRY

FROM
THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE MIDDLE OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D.

SANSKRIT TEXTS, VARIANTS, TRANSLATION

AND ILLUSTRATIONS
:

BY

PRAPHULLA CHANDRA RKY

D, Sc.,

Professor of Chemistry, Presidency College, Calcutta

VOL.
Second Edition

Revised and Enlarged

Calcutta
THE BENGAL CHEMICAL

&

PHARMACEUTICAL

WORKS, LIMITED

1903

CALCUTTA
PRINTED BY

B, C,

SANYAL,

AT THE BENGAL CHEMICAL STEAM PRINTING WORKS

gi, Upper Circular Road

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

Since the days of Sir W. Jones. Sanskrit literature, in almost every department, has been zealously ransacked by scholars, both European and Indian.

As

we

the results of their labours

ession of ample facts and data,

are

now

in poss-

which enable us

to

from some idea of the knowledge of the Hindus of

old in the fields of Philosophy

and Mathematics

cluding Astronomy, Arthmetic,

TrigonoMedicine has re-

Algebra,

Even

metry

and

ceived

some share

ries of

essays published in the Oriental

(1823),
(1837),

Geometry.
of

in his

Royle
and Wise

in

System of Medicine
to bring to the notice

in-

attention.

Wilson

in

a se-

Magazine

Antiquity of Hindu Medic ne

his commentary on the Hindu
(1845),
of

were amongst the first

European world the

the

contents of the ancient medical works of the Hindus,

and recently the Thakur Sahib of Gondal has

These contributions are, howhis quota.

added
ever,

of

history of

A comprehensive
Hindu medicine has yet to be written.

a fragmentary nature.

270073

Materia Medica has also found, in Udoy Chand

One branch has, however,

Dutt, an able exponent.

time, remained
entirely neglected
Indeed, it may be assumed
namely, Chemistry.
that on accent of its complex and technical nature

up

it

this

till

has hitherto repelled investigators.

The progress of chemical knowledge

ancient

nations has always had

The

me.

classical

and Kopp have been

among

fascination

works of Thomson,

my

favourite

the last twelve years and more.

studies in this held

my

the
for

Hoefer

companions

for

In the course of

was naturally

led to an

exact position which India occupies therein, and with this view I undertook a systematic examination, from the chemical standpoint,
inquiry into the

of

the Charaka,

the

Susruta and the various stan-

dard works of the Ayurvedic and latro-chemical

Periods, which have escaped the ravages of time. It

was

at this stage that

was brought

cation with

M. Berthelot some

the

of chemistry.

into

communi-

years ago a
circumstance which has proved to be a turningpoint, if I may so say, in my career as a student of
history

savant, the

Doyen

of

The

five

illustrious

the chemical world,

French

who has

done more than any other person to clear up the

sources and trace the progress of chemical science
in the

West, expressed a strong desire

to

know

all

about the contributions of the Hindus/* and even

went the length of making a personal appeal to me

him with information on the subject.

to help

response to his sacred

call

In

submitted to him, in

monograph on Indian alchemy; it was

based chiefly on Rasendrasara Samgraha, a work
which I have since then found to be of minor im1898, a short

portance and not calculated to throw

much

the vexed question as to the origin of

M. Berthelot not only did
Chemistry.

light

Hindu

the

me

on

the

ho-

nour of reviewing it at lengtht but very kindly presented me with a complete set of his monumental
work,

three volumes, on the chemistry of the

in

*"Cependant il serait necessaire d'examiner certains documents qui m'ont ete recemment signales par une lettre de Ray,
professeur a Presidency College (Calcutta).

D'apres ce savant, il
remontant an xine

existe des traitesd'alchimie, ecrits en Sanscrit,

siecle, et qui

renferment des preceptes pour preparer les sulfures

et rouge et le calomel employes comme medica-

de mercure noir

ments. Ces indications s'accordent avec celles desalchimistesarabes

signalees plus haut.

II

est a

desirer

que ces

traites soient

soumis

a une etude approfondie, pour, en determiner 1'origine, probable-

ment

attribuable

a une tradition persane ou

nestorienne."-

JOURXAL DES SAVANTS, Oct., 1897.

-\-"

mil'
4.1

Materianx pou\ un chapitre neglige de Vhistoire de

on contributions
P a R es ).

P ar

ct

Chi-

Chandra Ray, professeur a Presidency

Vide JOURNAL DKS SAVANTS, April' 1898

Prafulla

College, Calcutta,"

la

V Alchimie indienne (Memorie manuscrit de

Middle Ages, dealing chiefly with the Arabic and

Syrian contributions on the subject, the very exisOn
tence of which I was not till then aware of.
perusing the contents of these works I 'was filled
with the ambition of supplementing them with one
on Hindu Chemistry. Although I have written all

along under the inspiration of a mastermind,

not for
duction

c.

moment pretended that my humble proat all make an approach to the exem-

When
I

is

will

plar set before

work,

it

my

first

eyes.

drew up the scheme

of the present

had deluded myself with the hope of

finish-

ing the study of all the available literature on the

But I soon found
subject before I took to writing.

was one

that the task

of

my

friends,

advised

of vast

whose judgment

me under
work

present a

instalment of

fective

Some
nlagnitude.
entitled to weight,

the circumstances, to curtail

scope of the
first

is

as

originally planned
it

and imperfect shape

Ixxxiv), reserving for a

out,

the

and

in its necessarily de-

(see Introduction, p.

subsequent volume the work-

materials which are accumulating

ing-up
from time to time. In the present volume only
of

the

one or two representative works of the Tanric and

latro-chemical Periods have been noticed at length.

As regards
ly

the transliteration,

have not

adhered to any particular system, but,

rigidin

the

main, I have followed that of the Sacred Books of

the East.
Before concluding, I must acknowledge the valuable assistance I have receivedJrom Pandit Nava-

kanta Kavibhusa//a

through

many

the Tantras.

with

whom

have

toiled

an obscure passage of the Mss.. of

His sound knowledge of the Aviir-

#*;#'*

vedas has also been of much help to me.

And now

it

only remains for

the grateful duty of

Government

expressing

of Bengal,

Alexander Pedler,

F. R.

which

me

my

to discharge
thanks to the

at the instance of

Director of Public

S.,

Mr.
Ins-

truction, placed a liberal grant at my disposal to

enable me to meet various incidental expences,

chiefly in the matter of collecting rare

PRESIDENCY COLLEGE

Mss.

")

P. C. RA'Y.

Calcutta,

May

isi,

1902.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

comparatively limited number of copies was

printed in the

owing
appeal

to

exceedingly

to

select

favourable

as

was feared

it

nature

technical

its

only

edition

first

circle

the

that

work would

The

of readers.

reception

accorded to

it

not only by the scientists and orientalists but also

by the public in general both in Europe and in
India has necessitated the bringing-out of a second
edition.

Some

material additions have been

made

to the historical portion of the Introduction, throw-

ing further light on the independent origin of the

Hindu system of medicine and its priority to that
of the Greeks.

M. Berthelot,

the

in

appreciative review

in the

course

of a lengthy

"Journal

and

des

Savants;"
expresses his regret at the absence of
any thing which w ould remind us of the system-

Jan.
"

1903,

atic treatises of

Zosimus and of the Greco-Egyptians"

a regret which will be shared in by every student

of Hindu chemistry.
But even the sable cloud is

not without

its silver

lining.

hope, however, to

deal with the theories underlying Hindu

chemistry
the second volume.
For the present, I have to

in

content myself with the pronouncement of my respected and learned friend, Mr. Brajendranatha Seal
Principal, Maharaja's College, Kuch Behar, whose
vast acquaintance with and comprehensive grasp of,
the literature of the East and the West, entitles him
to

speak with authority on the subject.

Says Mr.
our University " striking out a
line of communication with the organisations of
Seal

in his plea for

oriental learning."l(

as

'

Let us not superciliously dismiss these studies

learned

The Astronomy and Ma-

lumber.'

thematics were

not

less

advanced than those of

Tycho Brahe, Cardan and Fermat the anatomv

was equal to that of Vesalius, the Hindu logic
and methodology more advanced than that of
;

Ramus, and equal on

the whole to Bacon's

physico-chemical theories as

chemical

affinity,

clearer,

to

more

the

combustion, heat,
rational,

and more

and
original than those of Van Helmont or Stahl
the Grammar, whether of Sanskrit or Prakrit, the
;

most

scientific

and comprehensive

in

the

world

before Bopp, Rask and Grimm.''

PRESIDENCY COLLEGE

January

1904.

P. C.

RAY.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
ALCHEMICAL IDEAS

ix

CHAPTER
THE AYURVEDIC PERIOD

III

...

THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD

CHAPTER

IV

....

PERIOD
.

II

CHAPTER

THE TANTRIC

THE VEDAS

CHAPTER V

THE IATRO-CHEMICAL PERIOD

......

CHAPTER

xc

VI

INDEBTEDNESS OF THE ARABIANS TO INDIA

....

cvii

THE AYURVEDIC PERIOD

(From

t/ie

pre- Buddhistic Era

CHAPTER

to circa

800 A. D.)

THE CONSTITUTION AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

THE ATOMIC THEORY

PAGE
Tanmatra

or Particles

Grosser Body

Earth

Five Elements

Water

Light

ai

Animated Atom

Conception

of

the

CONTENTS
PAGE
Atoms

Simple, Binary, Tertiary and Quaternary

of the

Substance

Levity

Sound

Viscidity

Fluidity

of

Theory

Sound Awus or Atoms Dates

Sutras The Question of Priority

the ProPhilo-

of the

....

pagation of
sophical

Quality

Gravitation

etc.

Savour,

Colour,

viz.,

CHAPTER
CHEMISTRY

II

THE CHARAKA AND THE

SUSRUTA

IN

The Charaka
The Tastes
on the Tastes
ments

The Metals and

Nature of

the

Minerals

Salts

Varieties of

their Calces

their Relationship to the five

Ele-

The Five Kinds of

Application The
Eight

Preparation

Iron

Discourse

Alkali

the

External

for

Urine

Primal

of

Kshara (Alkali) Pill

of
Powder
Pearl

Collyrium
Compound
Compound Iron, Gold and Silver Tonics

Rasayana

Defined

24

The Susruta
Preparation and Use of Alkalies and Alkaline Caustics
Ashes Rendering the Alkali Caustic

Lixiviation of the

How to Store up the Alkali Characteristics of the Good

and the Bad Alkali Why the Acid Neutralises the AlkaliMild and Caustic Alkalies
Collection

use of

of

Drugs
Lead and Tin

The

Description
Salts

of

The

Blood

Alkalies

On

the

Internal

Minerals for External Application

Roasting of Iron and other Metals so as to Render them

The Origin of Bitumen
Fit for Internal Administration

Gold

Dust

Iron

Pyrites

cury

Note on the Metals and

The

Poisons

their Salts

Use

of

Mer-

....

32

CONTENTS

CHAPTER
CHEMISTRY

III

THE BOWER Ms.

IN

PAGE

The
for

Horn

of

Rasayana Defined

Hair-Dye

men

Fumes

Alkalies

The Doctrine

CHEPTER
CHEMISTRY

of Bitu-

...

Formulae for Eye-ointment

Linctus

Formula

Ksharataila

52

IV

THE VAGBHATA

IN

Preparations of Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron and Lead

Preparation of Alkali and Caustic Alkali Use of Mercury

55

THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD

(From 800

CHEMISTRY

A. D.

to circa

Mineral Figure

in

ion A.

D.j

THE SIDDHA YOGA OF VRINDA

AND CHAKRAPANT

IN

CHAPTER
Preparations

\'i'i>i(1a (circa 900 A. D.)

which Sulphide of Copper and y^thiops

collyruim

process of Killing Iron

CHAPTER

58

II

CJiakrapdni (Circa 1060 A. D.}

BLACK SULPHIDE OF MERCURY (KAJJALI)

OR .^ETHIOPS MINERAL
Tamrayoga
of Killing

Soap
Alkali

Iron

to be

(lit.

Powder

Mandura

of

or

Copper Compound)
Rust of Iron

used as a Depilatory

Process

Recipe for a

Preparation of Caustic
61

CONTENTS

THE TANTRIC PERIOD

(From

TOO A. D.

CHAPTER
CHEMISTRY

1300 A. D)

to circa
I

RASARNAVA

IN

PAGE
Book IV On Apparatus and the Colour
Dola Yantram An Apparatus for Killing
of Flames
Metals Garbha Yantram Efficacy of the Apparatus
Hawsapaka Yantram Crucibles Colour of Flames Tests
Extracts from

of a

Pure Metal

IV

The

Calmine and

The

Killing

Mercury

of

of

Killing

Mercury

Metals
Killing

to Chapter

Copper from the

Copper

Zinc from Calmine

Extraction of

Metals

Colophon

The Maharasas

Brass from

Pyrites

Gold

Kosh/i Apparatus

Alkalies

Mistaken for

Saurashtri

The

Purification of Quicksilver

Gold

of

Tests for Killed

Colouring of Metals

64.

THE IATRO-CHEMICAL PERIOD

(From ijoo A. D.

CHAPTER
CHEMISTRY

IN

1550 A. D.)

to circa
I

RASARATNASAMUCHCHAYA

The Rasas

Colophon
Pyrites Vimala

Abhra

Vaikranta

Copper

Silajatu
Sasyaka Extraction of Copper
Rasaka Extraction of Zinc The Uparasas or

Chapala
Rasas

Inferior

Sulphur

and other

Reducing

Copper

Gairika

Kasisa

Tuvari

Talaka

The An anas The Common Rasas Navasara

Rasas The Gems Vajram General Process of

Manassila

Gems
Iron

to

-Tin

Ashes

Lead

On
Brass

Metals

Gold

Bell-Metal,

Silver

&c

Ini-

CONTENTS
PAGE

On

tiation into Discipleship

Terms

Tests for Killed

Other

Certain

Yantram

Technical

Antimony from Stibnite

Terms
On Apparatus (the
Yantram
Patana
Svedani

Iron

Technical

Dola

Yantras)

On

the Laboratory

Yantram

Adhaspatana Yantram

Valuka

Dheki Yantram

Yantram (Sand-bath) Lavana Yantram Nalika Yantram

Yantram
Tiryakpatana
Dhupa
Vidyadhara Yantram

On

Yantram
Crucible
Salts

Acids

The Alkalies
The Earth
of

Purification

of

W/ntaka
The Metals The
The Oils The Fats The Urines The
The Poisons The Solvents On the

Ingredients for Crucibles, &c.

the

Calcination,

Roasting,

&c.

Fixation of Mercury

Mercury

Incineration

.76

Mercury

NOTES ON THE MINERALS

Alum and Green

Vitirol

133

146

ON METALS AND METALLURGY

152

Zinc

156

De

la formation des

metanx

ON THE ESSENCE
Calamine

The

Vitriols

.162

...

OF MINERALS

Blue Vitriol

169

169-171

ON GUNPOWDER, SALTPETRE AND

THE MINERAL ACIDS
Gunpowder

Saltpetre

Mineral Acids

.174

KNOWLEDGE OF TECHNICAL ARTS AND

DECLINE OF SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT
THE WASTAGE OF GOLD IN THE COURSE OF
PREPARING JEWELRY
Soldering

Filing and Cutting

tions of the Goldsmith

.-

IN

BENGAL

The Chemical Opera-

Cleansing, Colouring and

3.2

Polishing

190

CONTENTS
PAGE
The

Processes of the Rungwala

The

Restorative

Processes

Chemical Explanation
Neharwala
The

The

.....

Jamakwafe Conclusion
Note on the Salts

.198

Note on the Killing of Metals

On the Hindu Method of Manufacturing Calomel
.

tion of the Reactions Involved

APPENDIX

The Explana-

Mineral

^thiops

of

Sulphide

Achyranthes aspera

Copper

IN

Calomel

Trianthema monogyna

APPENDIX

26 B

II

.....

Illustrations

250-

ANALYSIS OF SOME PREPARATIONS USED

THE HINDU MEDICINE
of iron

246-

....

The Hindu and Japanese Methods Compared

Rust

243

269-284.

INDEX
Index of Proper Names
Index of Subjects

....
....

SANSKRIT TEXTS
Erratum

Intro., p. civ,

the 3

bottom upwards are to be deleted

lines

287-295
296-313
.

70

from the

Introduction
Alchemical Ideas

the Vedas

in

IN tracing the progress of chemical knowDawn

Hindu

of

the

among

ledge
nations

Alchemy.

of

old,

one

civilized

always

intimately associated with medicinal

preparations, metallurgical
operations, the
finds

it

technical arts and the belief in the transmuIn

tation of metals.

India,

more so than

in

Europe, chemistry has, however, been evolved

chiefly as a handmaid of medicine and, some;

what
cult.

an adjunct of the Tantric

The efficacy of the drug alone was by

later

on, as

no means considered

by the kindly

Thus

in

sufficient unless

interposition

the ^sgveda

we

divine physicians, invoked,

blind

of

the

backed
deities.

find the Asvins, the

who

give sight to the

These twin

and make the lame walk.

gods have many points in common with the

Dioskouroi of Greek mythology.
One very

myth is that of the maiden Vispala

who, having had her leg cut off in some conflict, was at once furnished by the Asvins with
curious

an iron limb.

The

higher gods of the ^z'gveda are almost entirely personifications of the elements

and the other natural phenomena, such as

the fire and the wind, the sun and the dawn.
But we often find also herbs and plants endowed with potent and active properties,
raised to the

dressed as

dignities of the

such.

gods and adplant is an

The Soma

object of particular adoration and the Vedic

worshippers are in ecstacy over the exhilarat-

ing effects of the fermented juice expressed

from it.
The Soma rasa ( juice ) began
*

even to be regarded as the arrWta this immortal draught, allied to the Greek ambrosia,
;

"

the stimulant which conferred immortality

it is
medicine for a
upon the gods

is

...

sick
i)
i

man and

god Soma heals whatever

is

See Eggeling's Intro, to" Satapatha Brahmawa." Pt. n, pp.

Roth Ueber den Soma " Zeit. deut. morg. Ges."

et seg. also

XXXV.
der

the

pp. 680-692

Soma

also ibid,

XXXVIII.

And Windischmann

134-139

Wo

wachst

Ueber den Somacultus der

at
111

sick."

Soma
of

It

will

rasa and

be. seen later on that in the

its

we have the dawn

attributes

Hindu Alchemy (Vide

p. 79).

Other plants were likewise invoked as

divinities.
Thus one entire hymn is [devoted
the

to

of

(oshadhi) alone,
plants
with
to
their
mainly
regard
healing powers.
praise

Arier
(i)

Abhand.

One

or

d.

Munch. AK.

two

typical

d.

Wiss. IV. B. Abh.

hymns may be quoted

am

Sayawa's commentary to the above

f^ff

is

*T*i

ft
:

2.

here

IV

"

O
Again, in another hymn we read
a hundred and a thousand
King Varu/za
'

medicinal drugs are thine."

"

the

It is in

Atharva-veda

"

and vegetable products

however, that

general are
fully recognised as helpful agents in the treatment of diseases, though their use is invariplants

associated

ably

charms,
plant

spells,

in

the

with

employment of
and incantations. Thus the

apamarga (achy rant hes aspera)

which

occupies a prominent place in the Hindu

system of medicine as a di-uretic and laxative
still

etc., is

invoked as the

and

(IV. 17, i.)

In another
referred to
'

The

"

hymn

"

mistress of remedies"

sole ruler overall plants."

the

Soma

strength of this amrz'ta

do we give

this

man

to drink.

prepare a remedy, that he

years

plant

is

thus

may

(ambrosia)

Moreover, I
live a hundred

!"

"

Again,

many (plants), as the human

know to contain a remedy, so many,
as

physicians
endowed with every healing quality, do

apply

Here

a spell for the cure of

leprosy by means of a dark-coloured plant
Born in the night art thou, O herb,
to thee !"

is

Dark-coloured, sable, black of hue

Rich-tinted, tinge this leprosy,

And

stain

away

its

spots of grey

(1.23,1).

Macdonell

There

remedy
"

is

for

also a

distinct

reference

to

promoting the growth of hair.

As a goddess upon the goddess

earth

We dig thee up, O

thou wast born, O plant
thou mayest strengthen (the
nitatni, that
!

growth) of the

hair.

"

Strengthen the (old hair), beget the

new That which has come forth render more
!

luxurious

VI. 136. 1-2.

!"

The

the Vedic

in

Although

hereditary
>

Healing Arts

differentiated.

exist,

the

age caste as a
did not
system
J
healing arts had

evidently acquired sufficient importance to be

pursued by particular members of the patriar-

Thus with

chal families.

(i)

Bloomfield

"
:

Hymns

of the

that

charming sim-

Atharva-veda

"

pp. 43-44.

VI

which

plicity

the characteristic beauty of

is

the ^z'gveda, one ^z'shi says pathetically of

himself
:

"

Behold

father

is

am

a composer of hymns,

a physician,

on stone.

We

are

my
all

my

mother grinds corn

engaged

different

in

(IX. 112, 3),

occupations
"
Princes

like

Divodasa,

and bards and

leaders of the tribe of the Angiras, administered medicines and gloried in effecting cures.

A skilled
who

physician is distinctly defined as one

lives in a place abounding with medicinal

plants,

and who assiduously devotes

his time

to the acquisition of

knowledge
Thus not only in the Atharvan but even
in

he earlist literary
record of Indian
Medicine.

the

A'z'k,

we can

trace the

earliest literary record of Indian

Medicine.

The

"

Atharva-veda

sorcery, witch-craft

are
(1)

(2)

"

deals chiefly with

and demonology.

deadly imprecations against

R. C. Dutt

There

evil-doers

"Civilisation in ancient India," p. 65 (Calc. ed.)

Introduction to ''As/angalm'daya" of Vagbhate, by

Morsvar Kunte, B.

A.,

M.

D., p. 2.

Anna

V1V

magical incantations for bringing about ruin,

death, dementation and stupefaction of one's
adversaries

and charms intended to secure

women through the potency of

Some of them are of hostile
various herbs.
The
character, being meant to injure rivals.
the love of

picture here presented has

the ancient

its

counterpart

Egyptians, who were noted

in

for

magical lore to which the Greeks were

no less attached. There is a close resem-

their

blance between the contents of the A. V. and

those of the Papyrus of Leyden in some esIn the latter also there is
sential features.

an intermixture

of

magic, astrology, alchemy

*
as well as recipes for love philters.

The A. V., on account

of its frequent calling-

in-aid of super-natural agencies fonselfish

and

malevolent purposes, has not geneVally been

accorded the canonical sanctity of the Vedic
the Yajus and the Saman
the very authority of the fourth Veda as a

The

Triad

(i)

The

Origines de

reader
1'

fiik,

may compare

this portion with Berthelot's

Alchimie," pp. 81-83.

"Les

Vlll

scripture has been

questioned in the several

law-books of the Apastamba, the Visrmu, the
Yajfiavalkya and the Manu schools, and the
practices it sanctions strongly condemned.

As Hindu medicine has seldom been

to shake itself

completely free from the

ence of magic and ^alchemy as

physicians, as practicers of the

have been given an

legal treatises.

inferior

"

able

influ-

auxiliaries,

black art,"

position in the

The Mahabharata,

reflecting

the above law-books, regards the

"
In spite of this
the
physicians as impure.

the

spirit of

Atharvan retains
of

virtue
beliefs,

in

a measure

profound
upon popular
because the Atharvan performs,
inestimable services
1

the injury and overthrow of enemies."

In the A. V., the hymns for the cure of

Rasa ana
chemy.

as

place by

hold

its

especially for the king,

in

its

or

Ai

diseases

demons

"

'

bhaishajyani,

(i)

tion, p.

Bloomfield's "

XLVI.

and

possession by
are known

of disease

while those which have for

Hymns

of

the

Atharva-veda

"
:

Introduc-

IX

their object the securing of long

"
"

known as

are

term which

on gave p!ace to rasayana, the Sans-

later
krit

ayushya/n

and health

life

We

of

alchemy (see p. 80).

two
under
the latter heading as
quote
invocations to pearl and its shell and gold res"
Born in the heavens, born in the
pectively.
equivalent

shall

brought on from the river (Sindhu), this

our life-prolonging
shell, born _of gpjd, is
sea,

amulet."
"

The bone

of the

gods turned

into

pearl;

That do I
animated, dwells in waters.
fasten upon thee unto life, lustre, strength,
that,

longevity,

unto

autumns.

May

thee

life

lasting

hundred

the (amulet) of pearl protect

"
!

"The gold which

is

born from

fire,

the im->,

He
mortal, they bestowed upon the mortals.
who knows this deserves it of old age dies
he who wears it."
:

"

The

gold,

beautiful colour,
in

(endowed by) the sun with

which the men of yore, rich

descendants, did desire,

d)

Among

may

it

gleaming

the five kinds of gold referred to in the "Rasaratna-

amuchchaya"(p-

10 5 3fT3*-'ft (born from

fire) is

one.

envelop thee
he who wears

"

is

To

the lead

is

Varu^a gives

gives

unfailingly

It

regarded as the

elixir of

is

of

help.
it

blessing,

Indra

to the

gave me

the

dispels sorcery.'"

interest to

note

the

alchemical

gold and

notions which had gathered round

lead a at the time of the A. V.

To

life,

looked upon as the dispeller of sorcery:

lead Agni
lead

Long-lived becomes

"
it

While gold
lead

lustre

in

the student of Hindu medicine and

thus of special interest as

repository of information *on the

chemy, the A. V.
the earliest

al-

is

subject.

(1)
(2)

The

quotations are from Bloomfield's A. V. pp. 62-65.

In the

alchemy

of the

West,

lead, as is well

known,

ciated not with beneficient but "Saturnine" influence.

is

asso-

CR&PTVm II
The Ayurvedic Period

We

now

alight

The Hindu system

i^eTanT^Tr^ng^d
on a rational

basis.

find

upon a period when we

Hind ^ System of
the

med icine methodised and

ranged on a rational

ar-

basis, with

a scientific terminology.

The two

great works of this period are

Charaka and the Somita. In them we

the

the study of the subject to have made

a distinct advance and to have been evolved
find

out of

the

chaotic

state

it

was

in

during
Of the two, the Charaka
the Vedic period.
is
by far the more ancient.
1

There must have been

-a

of

The Charaka and

the siwruta.

an ^ that o f

interval of probably a
(i)

cated

its

Cf.

"The

means

of

wide gap be-

^g

Charaka

an

thousand years or more,

theological doctrine of the nature of disease indicure.

For Hippocrates was reserved -the great

more practical and

glory of destroying them both, replacing them by

Xll

humoral pathology is fully

of
developed, the diagnosis and prognosis
diseases described at length, and an elaborate
In the latter the

mode

of

classification

adopted.

We

have

above

seen

that
the
were
physicians
rather
an
in
inferior
status
sociassigned
the healing art was, in fact,
never
ety
;

Still
recognised as a division of the Vedas.
the claims of the indispensable science of

medicine, which can

be distinctly traced to

altogether be ignored,
and ultimately a compromise was arrived at.
In the Charaka itself the Science of Life

the

A. V., could

not

material ideas, and, from the votive tablets, traditions, and other

own admirable observations, compiling

The necessary consequence of his great

sources, together with his

bodv

of

medicine-

success was the separation of the pursuits of the physician from

those of the priest.

Not that so great a

revolution, implying the

diversion of profitable gains from the ancient channel, could have

been accomplished without a struggle,

memory

of

Hippocrates for

effected that object."

We

the complete
"

Draper's

Hist, of

should reverence the

manner

in

which he

the Intellect.

Dev.

in

Europe/' I. p. 393 (ed. 1896). The services rendered by Charaka,

Su.mita and their predecessors were equally valuable.
(r)

The

six limbs or divisions of the

etics), kal pa (ceremonial),

gy),

Vedas are siksha (phon-

vyakarawa (grammar), nirukta (etymolochhandas (metre) and jyotisha (astronomy).

Xlll

Avurveda) is regarded as a secondary or subsidiary branch (updnga) of the Atharvan and

(

as a direct revelation of the gods (Siitra

XXX.

Ch.

8-9).

The Somita even goes a

step further and

asserts that the self-existent

ted Ayurveda, as an
(siitra:

We

i.

updnga

(Brahma) creaAtharvan

of the

3.)

shall

now concern

The age of Charaka.

ourselves with find-

ing the time of Charaka within

approximate limits. The task

one, and it is one of the most

not a light
abstruse questions of Indian chronology.
M. Sylvain Levi has recently unearthed
is

from the Chinese Tripitaka the name of a physician named Charaka, who was attached as
to

the

Indo-Scythian King
Kanishka, who reigned in the second century
The French Orientalist would have
A. D.

spiritual

this

guide

Charaka as the author

Hindu medical work,

offer

an

easy

specially as

explanation of

Greek influence discernible

in

famous

of the

the
it.

it

would

supposed

XIV

Les Elements traditionnels mis en ceuvre par

'

conteurs

les

re'sumer

peuvent se
Kanishka, de

devaputra
regne sur
Nirvana
;

les

Yuetchi,

est

il

assiste

nommes Devadharma
est son

Asvaghosha

ainsi

des

race

la

Je

roi

Kushawas,

ans apres le
ministers e'minents,

cents

sept

de

Le bodhisattva

et Mazfhara.

conseiller spirituel

Tillustre

medecin, Charaka est attache a sa personne."

*""#...'"##

"

La mention de Charaka

cation

positive

les

date

dispute a Su.yruta la gloire d'avoir

science
m^dicale dans 1'Inde. Les

la

influences

dans

premiere indidu savant

la

qui

praticien

fonde

est

obtenue sur -la

grecques qu'on avait cru reconnaitre

doctrines de Charaka s'expliquent aise'-

ment, s'il est vrai que ce grand me'decin vivait

au temps et a la cour des Indo-Scythes, alors

que 1'hellenisme semblait pene'trer en vainqueur

dans la vieille civilisation brahmanique."
"Journ. Asiatique" (1896), T. VIII. pp. 447-51

We
M.
name

confess

we

are by no

Levi's theory.

of

alone,

If

means convinced
we are to go by

we can claim a
The

still

higher anti-

our author.

appellation of
Charaka occurs in Vedic literature as a patroquity

nymic

for

in
;

short,

Pamni

felt

it

necessary to

XV

compose a
"

Charaka's

Then

siitra

special
"

the

i.e.

again,

is

the

Charaka.

'

who

is now
generally
the second century
to have written a
commentary

Patanjali,

known

deriving

followers of

admitted to have lived

B. C.,

for

in

on the medical work of Charaka, thus further

2
and
proving the antiquity of our author
;

both Chakrapam and Bhoja agree

him as the redactor of Charaka.

in

such

in

matters we would

by native

store

traditions.

alluding

to

Indeed;

do well to
It

side our purpose, however, to

set

would be beenter into any

lengthy discussion on the grounds on which

we are inclined to place Charaka in the
prejBuddhistic era, but we shall summarise
below the salient points.

(0

*re^3nipM

(2)

*HTft

1W

4- 3-

107.

*3ft*!
Quoted

'

in the

"Laghu Manjusha"

of

Nagesa Bhatta.

qTc!^-*llTTSI-^T^J?fa^ffi:

(3)

^sfr^T^-^i^^^Tiif ^sf^qcrt
Vide

salutation

in

the

commentary named

on the Charaka by Chakrapam,

ro:

it

XVI

In the
Evidence

handling of the subject-matter the

based Charaka is not so systematic

upon the handling

10

of

in

as the bumtta, but indulges

random, hap-hazard and irrelevant discour-

the subject-matter,

ses,

which make the reader often lose the

main

thread of the

he

whenever

has

and with evident

an

disquisitions,

make up

for lack of

more

which,

he

believes,

experiments and obser-

than

Sumita

the

the

Charaka.

Nyaya and the Vai^e&hika systems

losophy, which

boldly

launches into meta-

In this respect

scientific

author,

opportunity,

relish,

physical

vations.

The

narrative.

have been

is

far

The

of

phi-

interwoven

into

the body of the text, again remind us of a

stage when they were more or less in a state
of

flux,

but

had not

crystallised

into

the

form and shape of the sutras

which they have come down to us-this also

well-defined
in

(i)

late

'this has

given ample scope to a recent commentator, the

Kaviraja Gangadhara Kaviratna,

surpasses Charaka himself

who

in

his

in philosophical dissertations.

XV11

goes towards proving the high antiquity of

the Charaka.
x

Again,

Pauramc mythology
2
Charaka follows
it.

trace of

discernible

being

mantras

Charaka, not a

the

figure in

Absence of Pauramythology

nic

and

Vedic^ gods

only

in

Vedic authority in counting the

number of bones in the human body the
closely the

(1)

gories),

The Nyaya

Gotama enumerates 16 padarthas

of

while Charaka

under

his

(cate-

(medical) disputation, an^*ji?r,

mentions 44 categories (Vide Vimana. Ch. VIII.

Bodas

Kaviratna's Eng. trans, pp. 564-65).

22.,

in his

also A.

learned

C.

Intro-

Annawbha^a (pp. 12-14) places

Gotama and Kawada in the period between 400

duction to the Tarkasawgraha of

the aphorisms of

B. C. to 500 A. D.
(2)

The names

of

Krishna and Vasudeva occur

in a salutation

supplement added by Dridhava\:i. Chikitsita. Ch. 21. 92-93.

Gangadhara). But Krzswa-worship was in vogue at the time

in the

ed.

of Panini

See also Lassen's Alterthumskunde I. p. 648.

out that " the earlier history of the purawas,

4. 3. 98.

Biihler also points

which as

yet

is

real history of the

a mystery,

and Vishwuites, has been

only be

will

orthodox Hindu
written.

cleared

It will,

then,

apparent that the origin of these sects reaches

the rise of
p.

Buddhism and Jainism."

up when a

especially of the Sivites

sects,

Intro, to

probably become

back

far

beyond
"Apastamba," &c.

XXIX..
(3)

tutes of

Namely 360
Vishnu "

it

Sarira. Ch. VII, 5.

(the

human
2

frame)

According to the
is

Insti-

kept together by three

xvin

childhood

of

limit

he takes

be thirty

to

years
quite in keeping with the conception of
the heroic age.
It

should,

however,

be borne

in

mind

Charaka, as we now possess it, can

by no means lay claim to be the first comprehensive and systematic treatise on Hindu
that the

represents rather a more or less

development of the subject, just as the

medicine,
final

elaborate

it

grammar

of

Pamni

some twenty previous works

sors, notably of

based upon

of his predeces-

Yaska, 5akalya, Sakatayana,

Gargya and others.

The above has
of

is

its

parallel in the

history

Greek medicine anterior to the time of

As Draper observes
Hippocrates.
"
Of the works attributed to Hippocrates, many
:

Writings of Hippocrates.

pupils.

times of

are doubtless the

his

am ily,

production

The inducements to literary forgery

the Ptolemies, who paid very high

hundred and sixty bones" (XCVI.

of

his descendants, or his

55).

in the

prices

This has been adduced

"

"
reason in favour of the high antiquity of its laws.
by Jolly as a
Vide Intro, to Vishnu, pp. XVIII-XX. See also Jolly's "Medi-

cine" (Grundriss), p. 42.

XIX

books of reputation, have been the cause of

for

much

difficulty

critics in

among

determining such

The works

of authorship.

indisputably
questions
written by Hippocrates display an extent of knowhis
ledge answering to the authority of his name
;

vivid descriptions have never

been excelled, if indeed

The Hippocratic

they have ever been equalled.

face

of the

treatises

dying

is still

the

in

original

retained in our medical

terms,

without any im-

"

provement.

more appropriate are the remarks

on the works w hich now bear the name

Still

Littre

of
of

"the father of medicine."

"Lorsqu'on recherche

commencements de
de doctrine que Ton
les

d'ecrits

connue sous

le

I'histoire

de

la science, le

rencontre,

nom

la

medecine et

premier corps

est la

collection

d'ceuvres d'Hippocrate.

La science remonte directement a cette origine et

Ce n'est pas qu'elle n'eut ete cultivee
s'y arrete.
anterieurement, et qu'elle n'eut donne* lieu a des
productions meme nombreuses mais tout ce qui
;

II
me'decin de Cos a peri.
ne nous en reste que des fragments epars et sans
coordination
seuls, les ouvrages
hippocratiques

avait ete fait avant le

ont e'chappe a la destruction et, par une circonstance assez singuliere, il existe une grande lacune
;

apres eux,

comme

il

en existait une avant eux

les

Xx
travaux des medecins, d'Hippocrate a 1'etablissement de 1'ecole d' Alexandria, ceux de cette ecole

meme

ont peri completement, a part des citations

dans des ^ecrivains pos-

et des passages conserves

trieurs

de

demeurent

telle sorte

que les ecrits hippocratiques

au milieu des debris de I'antique

isoles

litterature medicale.

Of

evidence the

internal

feature

and internal evidence,

The

simple,

Thanks

Vedas.

Biihler

and

of the

prose

Fleet,

of the

to

first

notable,

the Style.

unvarnished

Charaka reminds one

the

is

the

Brahma^as

of

researches

of

we have now some

Kabya

style

as

the

of

prose

it

idea

existed in

the second century A. D. The literary prose

inscriptions discovered at Girnar and Nasik,

although less ornate and

artificial

than the

Subandhu and Va^a (seventh

century A. D)., abound in long-winded
metaphors and alliterations and thus stand in

romances

of

bold constrast with the simple prose of the

Charaka.

of

Between the period of the A. V. and that

the Charaka there must have been com-

XXI

posed several medical treatises, each reflectAt the

ing the spirit and progress of its age
1

time of the Charaka

least six standard

there existed at

and Ksharapam,
Charaka simply based his work

Jatukar/za, Parasara,

respectively.

itself

works by Agnivesa, Bhela,

Harita,

2
on that of Agnivesa which he completely recast
and remodelled. Later on, Dr/W^avala added
,

the last forty-one chapters

works seem to

We

(1)

The

have perished*.

other five

Vagbha/a,

are at present engaged in examining the

Brahmawas,

the Upanishadas and Buddhistic literature with a view to glean in-

formation on these points and hope to announce the results in the

second volume.

Charaka himself naively assigns his reasons for giving

(2)
"of the
preference to the treatise of Agnivesa in the words
six (authors) Agnivesa was the most "sharp of intellect" (sutra
:

Ch.

(3)

2.)

fo^TKgfcT

iT^m

%9fN

^%

ff^ gTT<UW

Also Chikitsita. Ch.

Cf.

(4)

^f^q<qfcTf3<?Kq

XXX.

"We know how

H*W*l
112

ed.

Siddhi. Ch. XII. 28.

D. N. Sen and U. N. Sen.

often in India the appearance of

convenient abstract has led to the neglect and subsequent loss of

all earlier

works on the subject."

Intro, to Stein's

Rajatarngini,

Tanjore catalogue Pt. I. pp. 63-65, a full anaof

Bhelasawhita, from which it would appear that
given

In Burnell's

p. 25.
lysis

is

this

work

is still

extant,

though

in

a mutilated form.

Dr. Burnell

XX11

the epitomiser of the Charaka and the Sumita,

mentions the works of Harita and Bhela,

which were probably extant

in his days.

On
if it

reading the Charaka, one often feels as

embodies the deliberations of an interna-

tional

Congress

of

medical experts, held

in

the Himalayan regions to which even distant

Balkh (Bactriana) sent a repersentative in the

person of

Kawkhaya^a

work professes
of a record

to

of

(see p.

be more or
the

The

25).

less of the nature

Proceedings of such a

Congress.

Bodas

discussing the philosophical

disquisitions of the Brahma^as observes
in

special function of the Brahma priest

to give decisions on any disputed points that may

was a

"It

remarks

"the

most

superficial

thenticity

is

how much

comparison shows

Vagbhazfa was indebted to this ancient work."

An "Harita Samhita has recently been published

but

its

au-

questionable.

Cf. ''La lecture de cet ouvrage nous initie aux compte(i)

rendus de veYitables congres philisophiques et me'dicaux, dans
lesquels des maitres accourus des points les plus e'loigne's de 1'Inde
et meme de 1'etranger, prennent successivement la parole."
Quelques Donnses Nouvelles a propos des Traites medicaux Sanscrits
ante'rieurs au XI He siecle, par P. Cordier, p. 3.

XX111

arise in

and

the course of a sacrifice,

this

he could

not have done unless he was a master of ratiocina-

Such decisions,

tion.

which may be likened

to

modern assembly, are

scattered through the ancient Brahmawas, and are
collected together as so many Nyayas in the Purva
the chairman's rulings

Mimawsa aphorisms

We

would

in

of Jaimini."

invite the reader to

go through

the "Discourse on the Tastes"

and he

(pp.

25-28)

naturally agree that the above

remarks apply with equal force to our author.
will

judging both from the manner and

the matter of the work,we have little hesitation
In short,

We

the pre-Buddhistic era.

shall revert to the subject under Sumita.
in

in

it

placing

As regards the Sumita we

The age

solid

are on
Its

grounds.

of Su.sruta.

logy and technique,

do not

differ

In style the
nic,

and

discursive

much from
Sumita

termino-

in

genenal,
those of the Charaka.

rather dry, pithy, lacomatter-of-fact, as the Charaka is

and

is

diffuse,

and

its

composition

together would point to a much

(i)

more

Intro, to

Annawbha^a's Tarkasawgraha,

later

p. 28,

al-

date.

XXIV

This

is

easily

accounted

for.

The

Susruta,

such as has been preserved to us, is generally

held to be a comparatively modern recension

by the celebrated Buddhist Chemist, Nagarjuna, who is said to have added the Uttaratan1

tra

or the Supplement.

[time

Chemistry,

who

we come

historical

is

for the

first

Hindu Medicine and

the history of

in

Here

accross

rather

than

personage

mythical

(see

That the redactor thoroughly recast

and remodelled the Sumita is evident from
the fact that there are numerous passages in
T

below ).

which agree almost 'verbatim with the

Charaka, and which appears to have been

it

amply

laid

under contribution.

(2)

Cf.

"It

is

said

"Vide Z)alvaa's commentary.

by Z>alvawacharya,

the commentator of

Bauddhas and Hindus,

and rendered more comprehensive

Susruta, that at the time of war between the

the Susrutatantra was re-edited

by the renowned chemist Siddhanagarjuna with a supplement called "uttaratantra." Since that period it has been known by the

name
sindhu

of
"

Susruta Samhita."
p.

6.

Introduction

to

"

Vaidyakasabdaby Kaviraja Umesachandra Gupta Kaviratna.

XXV

The Sumita

is

excellence a

par

treatise

on surgery as the Charaka is on medicine

Ancient India must have acquired
proper.
considerable
lancet

drawn between the

tion
i.

for in

handling of the
the Charaka we find a distincthe

in

skill

"

Kayachikitsakas,"
the physicians properly so called, and

e.

"

the

"

e.
i.
folDhanvantvarisampradayas
lowers of Dhanvantvari or the Chirurgeons

we have already noticed in

the beginning of the Vedic Age.
The age of Sumita has been the subject

a distinction which

animated controversy for a long time past.

The Hindus regard this branch of Ayurveda
of

from the Asvins cr the

as a direct revelation

Divine
origin

Surgeons
of

this

^z'gveda as
bharata,

(see

p.

i,

myth can be traced

seen.

already

Sumita

(i)

with

For a description

their

System

(about

drawings,

see

In

the

to

the

Maha-

spoken of as the son of

is

the sage Visvamitra and in the

Katyayana

The

Intro.).

4th
of

"

Varttikas

century

B.

C.)

"

of

we

the surgical intstruments together

Wise

"
:

Commentary on

of Medicine, (1845) pp. 168-170.

the Hindu \j

XXVI

also

find

mention of the same name.

It is

easy to establish any connection between these names and our present
That there was a VWddha (old)
author.
not, however,

Susruta,

early as the fifth cen-

exisiting as

now been

tury A. D., has

beyond doubt.

established almost

Hoernle, to whose pro-

Dr.

found scholarship and indefatigable labours

the world is indebted for the excellent edition
of

the

Bower

evidence

palaeographic

been copied

has

Ms.,

400 A. D. to 500 A. D.
which

Prof.

that

must have

has

Biihler

it

from

period from about

a conclusion at

the

within

deduced

independently

The work

professes to be by
Sumita, to whom it was declared by the Muni
The origin of the Ayurveda as
Kasiraja.
given in the Bower Ms., is on much the same
arrived.

lines as in the

Charaka and the mention

of

such

names

as

in

it,

among

others,

Bhela,

Parasara, and the Asvins as founders

of the science of medicine,

(i)

On

the date of the

Bower

Harita,

would go to prove

Ms., See "Journ.

As Soc."

LX.

Ft.

i. p.

79.

XXV11

that even so early as

the old Susruta had
of mythical origin,

the 5th century A. D.,

come to be regarded as

and that therefore

it

must

have been composed many centuries anterior

to that

given

time.
in

the

Several important recipes as

Bower Ms., e. g. those of the

"chyavanaprasa," "silajatuprayoga" (the doctrine of bitumen p. 53) etc., occur in practically

identical

recensions in the Charaka.

is

accounted

easily

This

The Charaka,

for.

the

and the Bower Ms., and even the

Ash/afigahrzdaya of Vagbha/a have more or
Susruta,

less

common

basis

substratum.

or

In

order to understand this point more clearly

it is only
necessary to refer for a moment to
the
"
of

legal

literature

of

Manava Dharmasastra
Manu, which

still

the
"

or

Hindus.
the

exercises a potent in-

fluence in the regulation of the social

it

life

of

by no means the ancient work

pretends to be. -Modern research has

the Hindus,
that

The

Institutes

shown that

is

it

is

only a recension, or rather a

recension of a recension, of

"

Dharmasiitras

"

connected with the Vedic Schools, incorpora

XXV111

same time the laws and usages

the age at which it was remodelled.

ting at the

of

would equally be a great mistake to

/suppose that the knowledge chemical and
It

therapeutical

which our Sumita embodies

only representative of the time of

As a matter of fact it
redaction.
is

its

final

is

a re-

informations on the subject

pository
accumulated from the Vedic age to the date
of the

of

its final

recasting.

The remarks
a

Greek

M. Berthelot regarding

of

technical

which,

treatise,

from

palaeographic evidence, seems to have been

written about the

with

nth

century A. D., apply

greater force to the Sumita.

still

V "'En effet la date de redaction originelle n'est

certainement pas le meme pour les divers articles
que le trait renferme les uns tant plus anciens
remontant parfois jusqu'a I'antiquite' grco Egy:

et

ptienne

recettes

tandis que les

poste'neures

et

autres

des

reproduisent des
additions peut-etre

contemporaines du dernier copiste.

ce traite continue

la vieille

Introduction to " the

(i)

XVIII

Vide
et

Biihler's

"
seq.

En

tous cas,

tradition de I'orfevrerie

Laws

Sacred Books of the East," Vol.

of

Manu

XXV.

"
:

pp.

XXIX
alchimique, qui remonte aux anciens Egyptians."
"
Coll. des anciens alch. Grecs.," t. iii., trad. p. 307.

The
"final

tion.

period

when the Sumira received

its

must always remain an open ques-

cast

Vagbha/a

in his

Ashtangahrzdaya makes

copious extracts both from the Charaka and

The latter must therefore have
the Sumita.
existed in their present form prior to the 9th

century A.

D.

Madhavakara

his

in

Nidana

quotes bodily from the Uttaratantra, and as the

Nidana was one of the medical works which

were translated

Caliphs of

Bagdad

can safely be placed

it

below),

for the

(see
the 8th

in

In is thus evident
century at the latest.
that the present redaction of the Sumita

must have existed anterior

had become

that

it

as

were.

it

are

Sumita,
(i)

summaries

This statement we make

Mat.

in

at

das

a time

qualified
"

Roth when he observes

Med. bezeichnet

Charaka and

of the

Werk

ihm damit Unrecht

sense,

when
and we

Udoy Chand Dutt

als

eine

geordnete Compilation aus Charaka und Susruta.

thut

and

age stereotyped
the Nidana

and were written

fully agree with

seiner

that

at

date,

The Vagbha/a and

simply
l

to that

in

methodische
Ich glaube er

Vagbha/'a der sich iibrigens mehr an

XXX

become very

the latter had

therefore studied by few

abstracts

were

to

likely

and were

old,

experts,

be

and

prized

their

by the

general practitioners.
Vagbha/a concludes his masterly treatise
with the following observation, which is
highly significant
"
If a work is to
pass current as authoritative simply because it is the
Vagbha/a's
:

apologia.

why

production of a sage of

are the treatises of Charaka and

and not those

alone studied
others

old,

Sumita

Bhela and

of

thus follows that whatever

It

reasonable [methodical and scientific]

is

is

to

to

be

be preferred."
Read between the

lines the

above

is

taken as an apology on the part of ,our

author for appearing in the field
it
further
;

establishes clearly that

Susruta

halt, ist nicht

even during

so unselbstandig." " Zeit.

deut.

his

morg^Ges."

49. p. 184.
(i)

e.g Jatukarwa, Parasara,

Ksharapam,

life-

etc. see p. xxi.

XXXI

time the Charaka and the Susruta were

re-

garded as hoary with the prescription of age,

and their memories had passed into the region of tradition.

The

earliest

commentary

the

of

Susruta

that has been partially preserved to us is known as the

The commenta-

Bhanumati by Chakrapam Datta, the celebrated author of the medical work which
goes by his name (about 1060 A. D). The
other well-known commentary, the Nibandha

w ho lived in the
reign of Sahanapala Deva whose kingdom was
situated somewhere near Muttra.
Dalvana.
Sa;;/graha,

is

acknowledges
commentators,
Bhaskara, and

by

Z^alva/za,

his obligations to the

namely

Jejja/a,

Madhava whose

previous

Gayadasa,

dates

it is

not

easy to ascertain.

The

Since a remote period the text of the

Sumita has been Jjealously
J
purity of

text.

with
(i)

the

and no tampering
Thus Z?alvaa refuses to

preserved
it

On

tolerated.

the age of Vagbhate see below under

its

proper heading.

XXX11

authenticity of a passage,
because an ancient commentator, Jejja/a, has

recognise

the

not noticed

We

it.

have been
at

Haas on the age

at

some pains

in arriving

an approximate age of the

ofSu,ruta

composition of the Sumita,

because attempts have been made now and
then by a certain school of European
ars to prove that the medical works

Hindus are
\/

scholof the

recent

date.
comparatively
Haas has propounded the bold and astoundof

ing theory that the

systematic

development

Hindu medicine took place between the

We
tenth and sixteenth centuries A. D. 2
of

(0
Chikitsita. VII. 3.

Many such instances may be cited. For the

we are much indebted to these commentators.
(2)

Kehren

zuriick, so

nunmehr

wir

konnen wir

jetzt einen

wieder

zur

Anfangs

aufstellen, zwischen welche wir mit einiger

purity of the text

historischen

Frage

und einen Endpunkt

Sicherheit das

Entste-

hen der systematischen Wissenschafft der Medizin bei den Indiern

verlegen miissen, namlich den Zietraum von der Mitte des 10.
bis

Zur Mitte des

Indischen

15.

Medizin,

deut. morg. Ges."

Jahrhunderts.

mit besonderem

XXX.

p.

642.

"Ueber

die

Urspriinge der

Bezug auf Susruta."

"Zeit.

XXX11I

shall see

later

period which

Hindu

on that

is

precisely the
of the

marks the decadence

the field of medicine

intellect in

mathematics/
it

this

and

We

necessary to

should not have thought

discuss seriously the various

arguments which Haas adduces in support of

his views, some of which Dr. Hoernle
curtly
disposes of as "an elaborate joke," were it
not for the fact that this German critic re-

presents a school which cannot or will not

see anything in India, which can claim origiIn his blind

nality or antiquity.

zeal to sup-

Haas has been led into the

He comes to the
most egregious blunders.

port this theory,

strange

conclusion

Vagbha/a,

that

the

works

of

Madhava and Samgadhara and

supply the germs, out of which the

Charaka and Susruta have been elaborated,

others

forgetting or ignoring that the former repeat-

edly

and gratefully

debtedness to the

(/)

acknowledge

their

latter.

Vide "Decline of Scientific Spirit" pp. 190-198.

in-

-xxxiv

Haas

anxious to prove that the Hindus

is

and the origin

of

Indian medicine.

borrowed

notions

their

of.

humoral pat hology from the

origines of Indian
Medicine are to be looked for in the writings

and that

Greeks,

the

Galen and Hippocrates

of

as to

so far

that

suggest

Sumita

is

Sukrat

= Sokrates),

from

derived

indeed

he goes

the very name of

the Arabic word

which

is

often

con-

founded with Bukrat, the Arabic corruption

There is cerof the Greek Hippocrates.
1

between the chapthe Charaka and the

tainly a strange similarity

ter

on

in

''Initiation"

"Eides"

^Esculapius as pointed out by

Roth, and there is also much in common beof

tween the doctrine of humoral pathology

of

No less preposterous is the etymology of Kasi (Benares),

(1)
which Haas derives from Kos, the native place of Hippocrates.
"
(2)

441.

Indische Medicin

Charaka,"

Z.,

D. M. G., Vol.

Roth, whose knowledge of the Vedic and, to a

26. p.

certain

extent, of the Ayurvedic, literature was encyclopedic, simply points

M. Lietard, who evidently

out the analogy and stops short there.

borrows

his information

from Roth's

article,

jumps

at

once to the

conclusion that the Hindus owe their inspiration to the Greeks

Bull, de 1'Acad.

de Med. Paris,

May

5,

1896 and

May n,

1897.

XXXV

Greeks and the Hindus respectivelysuggesting that borrowing may have taken

the

on one

place

side

Hindus would seem

the

or

have

to

But the

other.

of

priority

time

in their favour.

The
The

doctrine of humoral pathology or at

doctrine

of

humoral pathology.

any rate The first beginnings

SQ faf
be
Q{ ^

back as the time

^^

of the /v^'gveda.

In the Atharva-veda, which

upon as the parent

naturally

come

of

across

the

may be looked
Ayurveda, we
evidences of

ample

the
causation of
ingrained belief in
diseases by the disturbance of the humors.

an

Thus we have such terms

"

as

Vatikrzta,"

a disease brought on by the derangement of

i.e.

"

humor

the

Vata

"

"

(wind or

air),

Vatagul-

min," &c."
*

(i)

fa^ig

sm

^ct'

swft

Sayawa's commentary to the above

(2)

The

I.
II

34- 5-

This has been lately pointed out by Jolly ("Medicine"

discussion on the term quoted above

we think

it

desirable to quoted

it

is

at length

p. 41)

so very important that

:

XXXVI

Buddhist literature also furnishes

Early

us

pre-Budhistic
in origin

w ^h

abundant proofs

On

'

nature.

this

"

through the chapter on

"The

going

Medicaments

the Mahavagga, we are often

the contents of the Sumita.
history of the interpretation of this

of

"

reminded

in

of

From Pamni

hymn

is

of

uncommon

interest,

because

relation

between the hymns of the Atharvan and the practices

with them.
Professor Weber, Indische

it

illustrates forcibly the

particular closeness of

reported in connection
Studien, IV, p.
'

Gegen

405,

hitziges fieber,'

translated the

hymn

under the caption

and guided especially by the more im-

mediate meaning of gar&yug-eih, 'the product of the placenta,

after-birth,' he thought that the hymn referred to puerperal fever,
or the fever of a child.

mised that

Ludwig, Der Rigveda,

hymn was

the

directed

III,

p. 343,

sur-

and
Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, p. 390, refers to it in connection
with the word vata in the first stanza, which he would translate

wound he also identifies

The compound vatabhra^as in
'

by

;'

means

'

suffering

aginst

vata with
the

first

from wound-fever.'

'

inflammation,

wound

'

etymologically.

stanza, as he

understands,

But Zimmer's theory that

the word vata ever means 'wound' has not sustained itself: vata
is

'wind in the body;' vatikn'tanasani (VI,44,3 1)

disease which
'

(vatavyadhi),

comes from wind

(of the

body)

is

'destroyer of the
cf.

;'

bata byadhi

diseases produced by wind (in the body),' in Wise's

Hindu System of Medicine, p.

Amer. Journ. Phil. XII,

Series,

250,
p.

and see Contributions, Fourth

427." Bloomfield's A. V. p. 246.

"
One or two instances may be quoted here
Now at that
(i)
"
time a certain Bhikkhu had a superfluity of humors in his body
Texts
II.
60,
Vinaya
pt.
p.
:

XXXV11

we can glean

also

technical terms as used in

Ayurveda, suggesting that a system of

medicine existed in his life-time.

the

We

have thus what amounts to positive

Positive historical

historical evidence that during

Buddha and

the life-time of

even much

earlier

pathology and
"

And

the

method

Ayurvedic

the blessed one said to the venerable A'nanda

Ananda, has befallen the humors

turbance,

body"

the doctrine of humoral

of the

of

'A dis-

ThathAgata's

ibid, p. 191.

The

various kinds of salts used in medicine as also the eye

ointments, to wit, black collyrium [stibium], rasa ointment [ras&njana],

the

ointment [srotanjana] &c.

sota

same

as prescribed in the Susruta

(See also under anjanas,

Medicine.

Note

specially the reference

ibid.

p.

90,

are

exactly

and other works on Hindu

93 of this book).
vatthikamma which

p.

to

is

a Pali

corruption of the Sanskrit vastikarma

"
at that time the Chhabbaggiya
:

Now

gical operation

Bhikkhus, since a surhad been forbidden by the Blessed One, used a

clyster/'

No body

has yet been bold enough to suggest that in the

Greek
influence can be traced.
Mahavagga
The very terms Ayurveda and Ayurvedika i.e. expert in
(i)
the Ayurveda occur in Paniwi.
of the technical terms.

We

give below a

list

of

some

XXXV111

treatment were

in

vogue.

In the Varttikas of

Katyayana also (4th

to 3rd century B. C.) the three humours of
vata (air), pitta (bile) and sleshman (phlegm)
are ranked together.

Regarding the age of the Vinaya Text,

Rhys Davids and Oldenburg say
:

"

The Vibhanga and

were

at that time

the

Twenty Khandhakas

350
already held in
such high repute that no one ventured to alter
B. c.)

(circa

*-t^

The

his

(i)
Jivaka Komarabhachcha, who treats Buddha, derives
surname from " kaumarabhr/tya," a technical term for one of

the eight divisions (astangas) of Ayurveda,

Vide the Mahavagga,

infants.
In
Rishi,

sage

(2)

meaning treatment of

p. 174.
:

p.

who

n,

A^vaghosha's "Life of Buddha" we also read "Atri, the

not understanding the sectional treatise on medicine,

afterwards begat Atreya,

trans,

pt.

il.

who was able

to control diseases."

This Atreya (Punarvasu)

may

Beal's

have been the same

taught Agnivesa.

Weber's "Hist Sanks.

Lit." p. 266,

Eng. trans,

ed. 1892!

XXXIX

them

a sanctity of this kind is not acquired without the lapse of a considerable time and we think
;

it is

not going too far to say, Firstly, that these

books must have been

in

have them, within thirty

360 or 370

at least,

It is

The

of

settled

for

we now

.years, earlier or later, of,

B. c." (Intro,
p. xxiii).

evident that almost before V

therefore

question

priority

as

existence,

the birth of Hippocrates, the

had

Hindus

elaborated

good.

based
system of medicine
upon the humoral pathology. And yet Hass
would have it that the Greeks, in the field
of
"

medicine as

pioneers and

world."

in

several others, were

the

first

teachers

of

the

the

Lietard very justly observes that if it

could be proved that the doctrine of humoral
"
(/)

geniumt

Wenn

ist,

aber einmal der

Boden

von

def Vorstellung

dass die Araber den Susriita und Charaka schon im

9.

Jahrh. gekannt haben mussen, und wenn auf der andern Seite sich
def indischen Autoritaten in
herausstellte, dass die Theorien
ihren Grundzvigen mit denen des Galen ubereinstimmten, so stiinde
nichts der

Annahme im Wege,

dass auch auf diesem Felde, wie

auf so vielen andern die Griechen wieder das bahnbrechende Volk

und

die ersten Lehrmeister der

Vol. 30.

p. 670.

Welt gewesen sind

":

Z. D.

M. G.

xl

pathology was broached in India anterior to

the time of Hippocrates, not only would the
but
originality of the Hindus be established,
that of the
1

thereby.

Greeks would be compromised

The question may therefore be

now taken as settled for good.

must be judged
\) The capacity of a nation
j

Concluding
remarks.

by what
ac hieved

it

in

has independently
the several fields

knowledge and branches of literatureand

Arithmetic
Mathematics,
including
PhoneAlgebra, Geometry, and Astronomy

of

tics,

Grammar, Law, Philosophy,

Philology,

and Theology.
Cantor, the historian of mathematics, was
so

much

struck, with the

resemblance between

Greek geometry and the

he, as

is

natural to the

vSulva

siitras

European, concluded

that the latter were influenced by

(i) "II est evident

jusqu'au

dela

de

que

si

Ton

1'epoque

that

arrivait

the Alex-

un jour a pouvoir reporter

d'Hippocrate,

la

formation de

la

doctrine me'dicale indienne,son originalite serait incontestable, mais,

du

meme

coup, celle de

mise, puisque,

comme

la

medecine grecque
dans un

je le rappellerai

sont a peu pres identiques de part et d'autre."

serait fort

compro-

instant, les theories

xli

andrian school of Hero

Sulva sutras, however,

(215 B. C.).- The

date from about the

8th

century B. C., and Dr. Thibaut has

shown that the geometrical theorem of the

47th

Bk.

proposition,

ascribes

Hindus

to
at

ation to

most

conclusion

v.

Schroeder

grammar,

that

the world

phonetic
about the 7th or 8th century
As Professor Macdonell remarks

in India

posed
3

25

Europeans...

years

has]

alphabet based on
was comprinciples,

its

thoroughly

we

of

Greek philosopher owed his inspirIndia.

Nor must we forget that the

scientific

C.

tradition^
1

ever produced, with

B.
"

which

Pythagoras, was solved by the

least two centuries earlier,
thus

confirming the
that the

I.,,

later,

and

in

scientific

employ an alphabet which

adequate

to

represent

all

is

age,

not only

stiH
in-

the sounds of our

~>

(1)

Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 1875, p. 227.

(2)

In his learned work:

(3)

ture/'

See

Goldstiicker

"Pythagorasund

"Pawini

his place

die Inder." pp. 44-59.

in

Sanskrit

Litera-

xlii

language, but even preserves the random

order in which vowels and consonants are

jumbled up as they were

tation of the
/

the Greek adap-

in

primitive Semitic

arrangement

of

3000 years ago."

It is curious to reflect that the
upholders
"
"
of the
Greek Culture
are often found
though unconsciously, to twist and
torture facts and conclusions to serve their
ready,

own purpose, and reserve

to themselves the

benefit of doubt as regards

ever

the

priority

common
under a

(i)

Cf

is

unques-

to the theory of

and independent parallelism

These scholars seem to smart

sense of

"

injury

they have to con-

if

uhe affirmation nouvelle de

1'unite

que 1'homme au meme degree de

Chaque

fois

dans

memes

le

made

but when-

origin

of growth.

is

Hindus

the

of

tionable, an appeal

date

circonstances,

il

de

1'esprit

humain.

culture se retrouve

tend a penser, a croire, a

sentir,

a agir de la

meme

fa9on."

Goblet

d'

Alviella on

"

Classical

Influence in Literary and Scientific Culture in India "; "Bull.de

1'

Academic Royale de Belgique/' 3rd

seq.

Series, T. 34, pp.

484

et

xliii

India,

Europe owes an intellectual debt to

hence many a futile attempt to explain

away

positive

fess that

historical

facts.

It

not'

may

be superfluous to add here that Alberiini, before he took to the study of Sanskrit, enter-

In the

(i)

mind

of the average

too firm a hold to be easily

serves

with

:"

"Modern

reflected

writers are the

light,

Greece appears to

me

with

European

moons

this belief has

of

literature

borrowed

light

is

fast

ob-

they shine

from the ancients.

to be the fountain of knowledge."

Thanks, however, to the recent researches

notion

taken

As Dr. Johnson

eradicated.

disappearing.

The

late

of orientalists, this

Max

Prof.

Muller,

who

deciding between the rival

evenly
claims ot the East and the West, in his last work, thus gives

always held the balance

in

"In some respects, and

India has as
to
the
in
greatest things
respect
particularly
^j
much to teach us as Greece and Rome, nay, I should say more. * /
expression to the

European sentiment

We

must not

heirs of the

forget, of course, that

Greeks, and that our

we

are the direct intellectual

philosophical

currency

is

taken

from the capital left to us by them. Our palates are accustamed

to the food which they have supplied to us from our very childhood, and hence whatever comes to us now from the thoughtmines of India

is

generally put aside as merely

curious or strange,

language, mythology, religion, or philosophy.

Lang Syne" second series, p. 161. Elsewhere he says

whether

in

"Auld

"

Another excellent result which may, and I hope will, follow

from our increased acquaintance with the actual thoughts and
literature, as well as

a loosening

of that

with the personalities of Oriental peoples,

prejudice which

undoubtedly obtains,

is

even

xliv

'

tained

notions

d'Alviella

and

those

to

similar

others, but

after

of

his

Haas,

intimate

acquaintance with the literature of the Hindus

he had to change or modify

among scholarly circles,
much to complain that

in the

West.

It

We

his views.

would be perhaps too

classical "scholars,

for

instance,

should

admit any actual influence on

Greek thought or institutions as having been exercised by the
^thinkers of. the East, however ungrudgingly that privilege is
have a decided repugnance

conceded to Egypt.

to

Personally

think that they are quite

the right in maintaining that such an influence

at

instances,

many

present

of

at least

throw

light

more than

of the history
is

an. analogical

in

doing

of that

so,

points that

of the evolution of

may
human

help to throw light on dark corners

culture

common

instructive,

connection

upon the natural course

conceptions and,

But surely there are

and suggestive

entirely unproven.

analogy which are most

points of

in

except in a few

is,

that

out of which
it is

our

impossible to

own has arisen.

know any one

saying
at the same time knowing another, and I
venture to think that a similar remark holds good of the history of
It

language well without

of institutions, or of philosophy."
religion or of ethics, or
"
I know of men who could not construe a line of Sanskrit,

and

who speak and

and

philosophy as

best Srotriyas.

write
if

they

of

your ancient

knew

a great deal

How. often you must have

literature,

religion,

more than any

smiled on

of

your

reading such

anything could come from the East

European thought, or even superior, never enters the
mind of these writers, and hence their utter inability to under-

books

The

idea that

equal to

sta id

Th^re

and appreciate what is really valuable in Oriental literature.

is no
problem of philosophy and religion that has not

xlv

reminded

are here

the

of

Dugald Stewart

prove that not

only

essay written by

which he endeavoured to

in

Sanskrit

but

literature

language was a forgery made

by the crafty Brahma;/s on the model of
Greek after Alexander's conquest" (MacdoSanskrit

also

nell).

been a subject of deep and anxious thought among your ancient

and modern thinkers. We in the West have done some good

work

and

too,

do not write to depreciate the achievements of

But I know that on some of

Hellenic and Teutonic mind.

the

problems of human thought the East has shed more

the
than
West, and by and by, depend on it, the West will
light
the

highest

have to acknowledge

number

it.

There

is

a very able article in the last

Review (Jan. 1881), on Dr. Caird's

Philosophy of Religion.' Dr. Caird is a representative man in
England, and more familiar than most Englishmen with the solid
the Edinburgh

of

work

of

result at

modern German philosophers. And what is the last

arrives, and of which even the Edinburgh

which Dr. Caird

Review approves
the

Upanishads

ation

Almost

of self that

self/

up

And

same

'

as the

for whilst in

universal and absolute

we thus surrender ourselves

doctrine of

renunci-

just in this

It is

truly gain myself

give up self to live the

that to which

the

literally

Dr. Caird writes

is

life

one sense we
of reason,

in reality

yet

our truer

The knowledge and love of God is the giving

and feelings that belong to me as a mere indiviand the identification of my thoughts and being with
'

again

of all thoughts

dual

self,

that which

which

is

is

not

above me, yet HI me

mine or yours, but

the universal or absolute

in

which

all

intelligent

self,

bpiffgs

xlvi

Those who attempt to prove that India

owes her civilisation or at any rate such
advance and progress in the arts and sciences

which make

to Hellenic

civilisation

influence

worth the name

seem

to be

degree removed from a Dugald

only
Stewart.

one

we are afraid, too much has been

made of the resemblance betThe analogy more
than
ween the Greek and the
superficial
Hindu theory and practice
of medicine.
The analogy is more superficial than real, and does not seem to bear a
After

all,

11

and perfection of their nature (p. 257).

you
any one who knows the Upanishads how
powerfully the same doctrine, the doctrine of the A'tma and
ParamatmA, was put forth by your old Rishis.
'

alike find the realisation

I

need not

or

tell

"Many "years ago

syllogism of the

ventured to show that the five-membered

Indian

Nyaya philosophy is the best form that

can be given to the syllogism of inductive logic. But European
logicians cannot get over the idea that there is no logic like that
of our school-men,

"

The same

India. India

and that every deviation from

conceit runs through almost

may be
may be

patronised,

some works

all

it is

that

a mistake.

is

of Indian

written

on

poets and

called clever and curious, but to recognise in

philosophers
anything the superiority of Indian thought, or the wisdom of

Indian native opinion, that

is

"

out of the question.

Bio. Essays

:"

Letter to X. C. Sen.

xlvii

The Hindu system

examination.

close

based upon the three humors of the

air,

is

the

and the phlegm, whilst that of the Greek

is
founded upon four humors, namely, the
a
blood, the bile, the water and the phlegm
bile

cardinal point of difference.

Next

Charaka and the Susruta, the

to the

medical

Vagbha/a.

who

authority,

is

highest estimation throughout

India, is Vagbha/a, the author of As/arigahridaya (lit. heart or the kernel of the eight
held

the

in

limbs or divisions of the Ayurveda).

Inc.eed,
in many parts of the Deccan the very names

Charaka and Sumita were forgotten, and

of

Vagbha/a is looked up to as a revealed

author, and this is one of the reasons which

Haas

led

conclude that the former suc-

to

owed

ceeded, and

(i)

Cf.

;<

I'ly a

dans

Again

corps quatre humeurs

j'ai

dans

corps par

les

et

the

sang, la bile,

le

p.

475, ed.

bile,

phlegme

vii.

Les quatre humeurs, sang,

demontre comment

et eau,
le

"
:

to,

inspiration

CEuvres d'Hippocrate, T.

1'eau et le phlegme.''

Littr, (1851).

le

their

pourquoi toutes s'augmentent

aliments et les boissons.''

Ibid, p. 557.

xlvrii

(see ante p. xxxiii).

The treatise of Vagbha/a

latter

ed as an

of

epitome

may be

regard-

Charaka and the

the

Sumrta with some gleanings from the works

of

Bhela and

Harita,

and contains

little

or

In Surgery alone
nothing that is original.
the author introduces certain modifications

and additions.

Mineral

and

chiefly figure in the prescriptions

natural

salts

along with

drugs
mercury is incidentally
mentioned, but in such a perfunctory manner
that it would not be safe to conclude that any

vegetable

compounds thereof
however,

are,

recommended

are

few

referred to.
metallic

There

preparations

which would presuppose

an advanced knowledge of chemical processin

it,

es.

The
which
*J

(i)

opening salutation of Ash^afiga,

addressed either to Buddha or some

is

"An

die

Stelle

des seines

Vorrange beraubten

unbedenklich

Susruta

das AshMngalm'daya set/en."- Hippokrates und die indische Medizin des Mittelalters. Z.D.M.G., Vo
wiirde

ich

31, p. 649.
(2)

See, however, ante p. xxix, foot note.

(3)

Preface to Vaidyakasabdasindhu.

p. 6.

xlix

Buddhistic emblem, clearly reveals the religiof its author,

there is a tradition

ous faith
current
"

among the

that Vagbha^a,

learned Pundits of S. India,

Brahmin, was

formerly

persuaded by a Bauddha priest to adopt his

religion, which he embraced in the latter part
1

of

his

life."

supports

evidence also

Internal

our author's

proclivities

Buddhism, and he seems

(1)
(2)

to

iully

towards

have flourished

Preface to Vaidyakasabdasindhu. p. 6.
See the numerous passages quoted by Dr. Kunte

in

his

Introduction to Vagbhate, pp. 14-15.

The remarkable passage we have cited above, in which our

author asserts the right every man to think for himself (p. xxix), is
quite in keeping with the rationalistic age in which he lived, and he
further observes in the
efficacy all the

same place

himself or any body else.

It

are lost in admiration over the

who does

not find a better

an appeal to

that a medicine will have

same by whomsoever

it is

should be

commended

"keen edged

weapon to
the Vedas and other

its

Brahma
those who

prescribed, be he

to

intellect" of

fight with his

scriptures,

Sawkara,
opponents than

see foot

note to

XL.

85, 86.

P- 195-

3T5TT

Uttara.

at a time

held

its

when the religion of Sakya Muni

own in India. The Chinese pilgrim
speaks of a compiler of the eight

I'Tsing

divisions of the

possibly this

Ayurveda

may

refer to

Vagbha^a.

Cordier, following no doubt the

authority

of 'Vaidyakasabdasindhu,' states that, accord-

ing to Rajatarangini, Vagbha/a lived at the

time of King Jayasi/wha (1196-1218 A. D.)
this view is quite untenable, and it is one of
;

the

instances which would go to prove

Kalha/za in writing his Chronicles had

many

that

often to draw largely upon vague traditions,

and hence his dates are to be accepted cum
salis*

grano

"These

(l)

lately a

I'Tsing

eight arts formerly existed in eight books, but

epitomised them and made them into one bundle."
"Records of the Buddhist Religion" by Takakasu, p. 128.

man
:

The eminent

12)

Sanskrit scholar, the late A.

of

discussing the

Kshirasvami

age
Rdj-aranagini and observes:
it

regarding
the

more

Vag-bha/a,
whit-h

as

in

do hot see any valid reason for

all its statements and

a historical authority for

learn the

more

my

however, does not

may be pronounced

peai ed.

".I

M. Barua,

discards the authority of

.as

view

is

confirmed."

occur in

The name

Stein's edition

the most reliable that

of

of Raj.,

has yet ap-

li

Csoma de Koros was

the

first

announ-

to

ce that the Thibetan Tanjur contains among

others
translations of
the
Charaka, the
1

Sumita, and Vagbha/a.

Georg Huth, who
has recently critically examined the contents
of the Tanjur, concludes that the

date at which
A. D.
that

This

the

can be placed,

it

is

most recent

8th century
with the fc ct

is

in

agreement
Vagbha/a was one of the medical

works translated by order of the Caliphs.

But no positive information as regards the

most distant date

yet available

Kun:e,
from internal evidence, is inclined to place
him "at least as early as the second centiry
is

before Christ."

That Hindu Pharmacopoeia in the 7th

century ran on the lines of
Pharmaco-

Hindu
poeia

in

century

(i)

0(2)
(3)

the

7th

the Charaka and the Susruta,

j-j
j
andj did
not include any e ai

Journ. Asiatic Soc. xxxvii. (1835).

Zeit. deut

morg. Ges, T.

Ixix,

Regarding the bibliography

pp. 279-284.

of

monographs by Dr. Palmyr Cordier;

Quellenkunde derindischen Medizin,"
Morg. Ges. LIV. pp. 200^74.

Vagbha/a, see two short

also Julius

Jolly

"

Zur

'

I.

Vagbhata,

Zeit. deut.

preparations is evident from

the testimonies of Va/za and of the Chinese

borate metallic

pilgrim,

Thus,

I-Tsing.

we

read

in

the

number, however, was a young doctor of Punarvasu's race

named Rasayana, a youth of about eighteen
Harsha-Charita

"among

their

years of age, holding an hereditary position

in the royal household, in which he had been

cherished

like

son

mastered Ayurveda

by the King.

in all

He had

its

eight divisions,
and, being naturally of an acute intellect, was
perfectly familiar with the diagnosis of diseas"I made a
es :"
I-Tsing also records
a

successful study in medical science, but

is

not

my

proper vocation,
5

given

it

up."

have

In his rules on giving

as

finally

medi-

cine he further lays stress on abstinence

fasting

(2)

and

and recommends such drugs as the

myrobalans,

(1)

it

ginger,

pepper,

liquorice,

etc.

Cowell and Thomas' Trans, pp. 143-144.

Takakasu

"Records of the the Buddhist Religion,"

p, 128,

liii

do we look for any

which form the leading feathe later Tantric and latro-Chemical

In both instances,

in vain

metallic salts,

tures of

Schools.

(i)

"

See, however, below under the marginal heading

The age

of the

Tantras dealing with mercury."

The Transitional Period

Circa 800

1200 A. D.

AND CHAKRAPAM

We

now come upon a

period which determines the parting of ways in the progress of

Hitherto we have been
Hindu medicine.

concerned with herbs and_simples and

,a few readily available products of the minechiefly

ral
(

kingdom.

About the year 1050 A. D.

Chakrapam Datta, himself a learned commenCharaka and Sumita, wrote

the celebrated medical treatise which bears

tator of both the

name.

Since

the

days of Vagbha/a,
had
^metallic preparations
begun slowly to
creep into use, and at the time of Chakrapam
his

they had so
their claims that they could
fully established
no longer be ignored. Thus we find from

and

his

predecessor

Wmda,

Iv

the

tenth

medical

and

century

work more

compounds

or

which

metals

of

downward every
less recommending
can

only

be

synthetically prepared.

should not, however, be forgotten that

Susruta at times shows a knowledge of
It

in

pharmacy, unsurpassed

the

later

Hindu

medicine.

Although
Brahmanical

Chakrapam
creed,

Thus
named ?r^Trtf^TI^*r O r
Mahabodhi we have also

itself

is

the country of the

such expressions as

^f%, ^Hr*TrW^T*T
ed,

for

show a

writings

towards Buddhism.

decided leaning

Maghadha

his

belonged to the

frf^P^THTfcTrf, ^^TT^^ft
This might well be expect-

Chakrapam's father was

physician

to king Nayapala, the successor of Mahipala,

Avho ascended the throne about 1040 A.D. 1

(i)

The

author,

an account of himself

f6rtunately
in

for future historians, has given

a colophon

Ivi

Both Vrznda and Chakrapa/zi mention Nagarjuna as an authority, and they follow closely
footsteps of Charaka, Sumita and
Vagbha/a but at the same time they are

the

in

amenable

upon

the influences brought to bear

medicine by the Tantras.
to

Indeed, they go so far as to recommend

the uttering of the cabalistic interjections of

the votaries of the Tantric cult with a view

to increase the efficacy of
1

(see ante p.

parations.

Dr. Hoernle observes

to

factory

be

able

some

of their pre-

i.)

"it

to

would be
discover

satis-

what

"

The author of this work is Sri C. P., who belongs to the

amily of Lodhravali and who is younger brother of Bhanu and
the son of Narayawa, the superintendent of the kitchen of the
King of Gour." Regarding the date of Nayapala, vide Cunningham's

"

Archaeological

As. Soc.
(l)

LX.

IV

Pt.

i. p.,

Survey of India,"
46, Life of Atisa

by

III. p. 119,

also Journ.

S. C. Dasa.

Poona

ed. p. 518.

Ivii

were

on

the

sources

drew

for his compilation

fied

anywhere,

which
;

Chakrapam

they are not speci-

believe, in his work.

'

It

not easy to account for the above remarks,

seeing that Chakrapam distinctly mentions
is

that he has modelled his

of

yoga

and that he draws largely

Charaka, the Sumita and the

Vrmda,

the

upon

of

Vagbha/a, all
and at length.

The

work on the Siddha-

whom

he quotes verbatim

Sakyamuni inculcates the

distress and
suffering, both

religion of

alleviation

of

moral and physical, as one of the essential

articles of faith,

and hence we

find

\
:

(i)

(2)

Journ. As. Soc. Beng.

9:

LX.

pt. i. p. 150.

fai?ii?rfanifufa^fa!?ft3nI

throughout

Iviii

y Buddhistic

attached

India hospitals

numerous imnasteries
man and beast alike.

for

'

It

the

to

the- treatment of

would also appear

that inscriptions were engraved on rock pillars

giving recipes for the treatment of diseases.

Thus both VWnda and Chakrapam speak

of

a formula__for^a_collyrium as inscribed on a
stone pillar by Nagarjuna at Pataliputra
:

Chakrapam' bases
Probable date of

v " nda

closely

necessarily

work on that

who

VWnda,

pathology of the
It

his

the

of

again follows
order and the

Nidana of Madhavkara.

follows

that

Vrmda was

recognised authority at least one or two

centuries before the time of Chakrapam

and that the former was preceded by the

Nidana by at least as many centuries and
thus

we have
"

(1)

internal evidence of the exis-

Everywhere the King Piyadasi, beloved

of

has provided medicines of two sorts, medicines for

meidicines for animals."
Edict II. of Asoka.
(2)

W/nda

himself admits this

the

Gods,

men and

lix

tence of the
as

Nidana

lowermost

the

the

in

limit

further

corroborated

Nidana

was

eighth century
date which is

by the fact

the

that

one of the medical

treatises
i

translated

by order of the Caliph

As regards alchemy
century,
Alchemy

the

in

in

>.

India in the Xlth

we cannot do

better

tna n quote in extenso Alberii-~ni, who was well versed in

eleventh century.

Arabic and Greek astronomy, chemistry etc.

V" The Hindus do not pay particular attention to
alchemy, but no nation is entirely free from it, and
one nation has more bias for it than another, which

must not be construed as proving intelligence or

ignorance
are

for

we

find that

given

entirely

to

people ridicule the art

many

alchemy,

and

its

intelligent people

whilst

adepts.

ignorant

Those

intel-

though exulting boisterously over

their make-believe science, are not to be blamed
ligent

people,

occupying themselves with alchemy, for their

motive is simply excessive eagerness for acquiring
Once a sage
fortune and for avoiding misfortune.

for

was asked why scholars always

flock to the doors

of the rich, whilst the rich are not inclined to call

at

the

doors

of

scholars.

'

The

scholars,'

he

Ix

answered,
the

'

are well aware of the use of money, but

ignorant of the nobility of science.'

the other hand, ignorant people are not to be
are

rich

On

praised, although they behave quite quietly, simply

because they abstain from alchemy, for their motives

are objectionable ones,

rather

practical

result of

innate ignorance and stupidity than anything else.

"

The adepts in this art try to keep it concealed,

and shrink back from intercourse with those who
do not belong to them. Therefore, I have not
been able to learn from the Hindus which methods
they follow in this science and what element they
principally use, whether a mineral or an animal or a
I
only heard them speaking of
vegetable one.
the process of .sublimation, of calcination, of analy-

and

sis,

in their

incline

waxing ofJ; ale, which they call

language "talaka," and so I guess that they
towards the
method of
minerological
of the

alchemy.
"
is

They have a

science similar to alchemy which

quite peculiar to them.

They

call

it

Rasayana,

a word composed with rasa i.e. gold.

It means
an art which is restricted to certain operations,
'

drugs, and
(i)

,'rasa"

See,

compound medicines, most

however,

p.

79,

for

the meaning

of
of

which

the

term

Ixi

are taken from

health

plants.

who

those

of

Its

principles restore the

were

beyond

ill

hope,

back youth to fading old age, so that

become
again what they were in the age
people

and give

near puberty white hair becomes black again, the

keenness of the senses is restored as well as the
;

capacity for juvenile agility, and even for cohabitaof the people in this world is
tion, and the life

even extended to a long period. And w hy not ?

Have we not already mentioned on the authority
r

of

liberation

is

this,

being

not

dart

the

one of the methods leading to

Rasayana? What man would hear

Patanjali that

to take

inclined
off

into

foolish

it

for

and

bit

and

joy
wonderful art by popping
of this meal into his mouth ? "

master of such a

the choicest

truth,

not honour

Sachau's Trans. Vol.

I.

pp.

187-88.

The Tantric Period

Circa

Before we

uoo A.D.

1300 A.D.

proceed further
advisable

01 the

Tan '

lance

tHcTuit

take a

to

at

would be

it

the ori g in

Tantric Cult, as

chemy very
flavour

from

largely
it.

In

derives

its

almost

the

progress of chemistry
to medicine and the belief

gold-making,

and

-the

hasty
the

of

Indian Alcolour and

every country
can be traced

in

search after

the^ardficial
elixir mice

In
stone.
India,
philosopher's
however, these ends have played a secondary
part in promoting a knowledge of the chemi-

the

cal processes.

Here the

geometry and anajtomy

origin of astronomy,
is

the exigencies of religious

be sought
'

rites.

No

in

less

"
Cf. the opening remarks by Dr. Thibaut on the
Sulva-

(i)

sutras

to

"
;

Ixiii

We

the case with alchemy.

have already
seen
how the Atharva-veda deals almost

is

exclusively in

diseases
It

charms, sorcery, exorcism of

means of amulets and so on.

by
sometimes

is

represents

the

that

supposed

the

Vedas.

the

of

latest

A.V.
This

'

The truth
misimpression.
seems to be that human frailty has always
laborious
fought shy of the tedious and

is

evidently

methods

of gaining

hankering
of the

"

and

It is

well

an

object.

foreshadowed

as

/?zk,

political

and

kuown

later

on so

has been at

all

spiritual

the

prayers

fully

that not only Indian

institutions

The
in

life

developed

with

all its

social

times under the mighty

sway of religion, but that we are also led back to religious belief
and worship when we try to account for the origin of research in
those departments of knowledge which the Indians have cultivated
with

such

remarkable success.

At

first

sight,

may be visible in the Sastras of the later

closer we may always discern the connecting
As. Soc." (1875) Vol. XLIV. part i. p. 227.
origin

(i)

As Bloomfield remarks:

the oldest parts of the R. V. or the

There

is

few traces of

this

times, but looking

thread."

"Journ.

no proof that even

most ancient Hindu tradition

accessible historically, exclude the existence of the class of writings

entitled

to

Intro, to A.

any of the names given to the Atharvan charms.'

V. X. pXX.

Ixiv

the

only the
Upanishads, represents
aspirations of the few cultured ^'shis. The
in

bulk of the people have always sighed for

a royal road to salvation, hence the necessity

for

says

in

history

an A.V.
his

to win from

paying for

it."

fore

more

or

kind

in

appositely
Demonology, "the

on
a

of

series

Atharvanic
held

less

began

into frequent

conspiracies

some advantage without

rites

have there-

sway

over man-

As the Aryan

every age and clime.

conquerors

came

is

Nature

Emerson

as

essay

man

of

to

settle

contact

India

in

and

the abori-

with

to imbibe
they had unconsciously
some of the gross superstitions of the latter,
and thus in course of time a superstructure

gines,

of

monstrous growth

swallow even

Hence the

creed.

time

the

to

time

in

sprang up,

ready to

purer and more othodox

protests

the

recorded

from

Mahabharata and

in

the law-books against the vulgarity of the

aims of the A. V. and the refusal to accept
authority (see ante p.
other hand, by virtue of

its

viii).

its

But on the
profound hold

Ixv

and because indispenmedicine and astrology

beliefs

upon popular

sable sciences like

Atharvanic

are

by

.Veda has always

the

distiction,

retained

fourth

considerable

we turn to Europe
following.
middle ages, we find the professors

in

If

"

black art

"

of the

sharing a fate similar to

Atharvanic

of the

priests

into the

openly received

of the

now anathematised and

church
into prison.

the

now

rites,

bosom

the

holy
flung

In the Sanskrit Literature

whenever there

any reference to sorcery or magic, it is

generally laid to the account .of the A. V.
is

But

course

the

in

of

time the

Siva came into vogue, which

worship of

incorporated

was non-Aryan in character, and

which seems to have^got blended with A. V.

much

that

(1)

Bloomfield

(2)

This

The former

is

Intro, to A. V. xlvi.

exemplified in Albertus

rose to be a Bishop

vorsichtiger als Albertus

gung

als

Zauberer nicht.

Klosterbrudern

Chem." 1.63.

in

Magnus and Roger Bacon.

but " minder gliicklich

oder un-

Magnus, entging Roger Baco der VerfolEr wurde in Oxford von seinen eigenen

das

Gefangniss

geworfen.'

"Gesch. d.

Ixvi

modified by changes and requirements of the time. The original inhabitants,

Tites as

"the Dasyus are described

the ^z'gveda

in

as non-sacrificing, unbelieving and impious.

They

meant by

are also doubtless

.the phal-

lus-worshippers mentioned in two passages.

The Aryans in course of time came to adopt

There are many passages

in the Mahabharata
showing that Siva, was
already venerated under the emblem of the
iormrof

this

phallus

By
Tantric

cult.

when
the

that epic

was composed."

Vllth century A. D., we find

Siva's worship well established

rites

In the

in India.

in
the
prevalent
seventh century.

T T

, ,

lire

ot

King

Harsa by Va/za there

is

a gra-

phic description of a weird ceremony performed

by a Saiva saint named Bhairavacharyya.
**

Seated on the breast

in

garlands, clothes and ornaments,

a corpse which lay

supine, anointed with red sandal and arrayed
of

all

of red,

himself with a black turban, black unguents,

black amulet, and black garments, he had
(i)

Macdonell

"Hist. Sansk. Lit", p. 153.

Ixvii

begun a

fire rite in

the corpse's mouth where

In the drama of

a flame was burning."

Malatimadhava by Bhavabhiiti (690 A.D.) we

have also references to similar rites.

We
known

have here the outlines of what has been

latterly as the Tantric Cult

a curious

admixture of alchemical processes on the one

hand, and grotesque and obscene and sometimes revolting rites on the other all centred
round the worship of Siva and his consort
Parvati.

of

life

The

sidelight

which

is

thrown

in

the

King Harsa and the graphic account

by his contemporary, the Chinese pilgrim

Hiuen Thsang, enable us to draw a picture of
N. India in the VIHh century A.D. It has

left

hitherto been taken almost for granted that

Buddhism was expelled from

India by the
persecution of the Brahmins of the Renaissance period. There may have been zealous

who now and then went the length of

but the concensus
hunting down Buddhists

bigots

of

testimonies

(i)

seems to be that both the

Cowell and Thomas' "Trans, of the Harsa-charita

p. 92."

liviii

people and the princes generally maintained

an attitude of philosophic toleration towards
the creed of Sakyamuni even so late as the
Xlth century A.D.
The causes which
1

brought about the extinction of Buddhism in

The causes which
India worked from within.
brought about the

,.

extinction

he

ot

purity

...

and the

lite,

austerity of practices enjoined on the followers

of the creed, become in the long run irksome.
(i)

Cf. 'The annual report of the Asiatic Soc. to

"The copper-plate
referred to

is

interesting

We know that all the

religion,

and that

shed for the

last

it

of

also

hand

Madanapala which has just been

from a sociological point of view.

Pala kings were followers of the Buddhist

was during

time

in

their

reign that

Now

India.

Buddhism

the grant

recorded

flouri-

in the

was made by Madanapala to a Brahman as a dakshina or

honorarium for having read the Mahabharata to the queens of the
This is one more fact, in addition to others
king's harem.
preplate

viously known, showing the

intimate connexion that

existed in

the time of those Buddhist kings between

ism, a connexion that

more

way

its

latter,

for the final destruction of

invadors."

p. 26.

sattvas or to

him beings

is

hesitate to

Buddha himself

embodiments

of perfect charity
of absolute

and that thus prepared the

Buddhism by the Muhammedan

Similar evidence

"Kalhawa does not

to

resulted in

ground against the

Buddhism and Hinduthe former losing more and

also afforded by Raj. Tar.

e.%.

refer repeatedly to the Bodhi-

as the comforters of all

beings, the

and nobility

of feeling.

goodness "who do not

feel

They

are

anger even

Ixix

The monasteries degenerated into hot beds of

corruption, so much so that the semi-savage
Mussulman conquerors felt little compunction
in
of

Buddhism.

putting the inmates thereof

r
.

Hinduism also

to the sword.

which has been noted

similative

and

in

for its as-

all

ages
swallowed up

elastic character,

the remnants of the Buddhists by acknowledging the founder of their religion to be an

Avatara or Incarnation

We

of Vish/m.

have seen that the A.V.

rites as also

theTantric cults cover almost identical ground;

both had their origin in the attempts at
popularising the religion among the masses
by appealing to the baser or the less refined

elements

of

human

An enormous

nature.

bulky literature has thus sprung up representing this

corrupt and

effete

against the sinner, but in patience render

outgrowth

him

kindness.,,

of

Stein's

Intro, p. 8.
(r)

According to Waddell, the monks with shaven heads were

mistaken for
"Journ.

idolatrous

As Soc." LXI.

Brahmins

pt. i. p. 20.

and

massacred wholesale.

Ixx

Brahminism.

There are however two

dealing in magic, alchemy,

Tantras Brahminic and Bud-

tic

dhistic

sorcery,

which

will

distinct

Brahminic and Buddhis-

classes of Tantras

...

and

allied

claim our attention here.

subjects,

The causes

rise and progress of the

Hindu Tantras equally contributed to the

which favoured the

development of the
the

latter,

Buddhistic,

instead

of

and

Siva

only

in

Parvati,

a Buddha, a Tathagata or an Avalokitesvara

is often addressed in the invocation as the

We
knowledge.
have also a class of Tantras which is an adsource and fountain of

mixture

of

Buddhistic
of

notable example
(i)

Kasrnir

all

and

which

is

vSaiva

cult.

afforded by the

Tantras grew up in Kasmi'r also

"Tantric cult which in
is still closely connected with Saiva
worship, seems also
:

to have been well

known

to Kalhawa."

Stein's Intro, to Raj.

Tar

de

tels

p. 80.
(2"i

Cf.

"Pour des

esprits

grossiers et

ignorants,

de valeur que les legendes morales

des premiers temps du Buddhisme.
Us promettent des avantages
ils
satisfont
enfin a ce besoin de
temporels et immediats
livres ont certainement plus

superstitions,

s'exprime le

a cet amour des practiques devotes par lequel

sentiment religieux en Asie, et auquel ne rpondait

qu'imparfaitement

la simplicity

du Buddhisme

"
primitif.

Burnouf's

Ixxi

Mahakala

Tantra.

authorship of which

is

the
Rasaratnakara,
ascribed to Nagarjuna,

also belongs to this category

well as Rasar/zava, a

our

claim

will

embody

attention,

special

much

this

work as

Tantra of the ^aiva

valuable

as

information

cult,

they

on

chemistry.

What

that

is it

made

these Tantras

the

chemical knowledge ?
The
repositories
answer is given in the words of Rasan/ava (lit.
sea of mercury) itself, which extols the virtues
of

mercury and

of

" Asitis used

end,
"

it is

me.

of

my

It is

my

(quicksilver)."

limbs,

it is,

called rasa because

goddess, equal
the exudation

it is

body."
may be urged that the

It

of these
life

various preparations

by the best devotees for the highest

pdrada

Begotten of

to

"

called

its

words

is

literal interpretation
the
liberation in this
incorrect,

being explicable

in

another

manner.

This

"Intro a 1'hist. du Buddhisme Ind." p. 466. Regarding Buddhistic

Tantras and their relationship to Saiva Tantras, the reader is
referred to Burnouf's admirable exposition (loc. cit). See also
Earth's. "Religions of India." p. 201. 3rd ed.
(i)

Intro. Hist.

Buddh.

Ind.,

p.

480.

Ixxii

objection is not allowable, liberation being set out

in the six systems as subsequent to the death of the
body, and upon this there can be no reliance, and

consequently no activity to attain to it free from

This is also laid down in the same
misgivings.
treatise.

"

Liberation

is

declared in the six systems to

follow the death of the body."

11
Such liberation is not cognised in perception

an emblic myrobalan fruit in hand."

Therefore a man should preserve that body
by means of mercury and of medicaments."
like

"

A few more typical extracts are given

which

will

throw further

light

below

on the subject

"

The body, some one may say, is seen to be

perishable, how can then its permanency be effected?
Think not
complexus
is

so,

it is

replied, for

of six sheaths

dissoluble, yet the

body

though the body, as a

or wrappers of the soul,

as created by Kara and

Gauri under the names of mercury and mica, may

be perdurable. Thus it is said in the Rasahr/daya
:

"

Those who without quitting

attained to

new ones through

their bodies

have

the influence of

Hara

and Gouri (mercury and mica), are to be praised as

Rasasiddka (alchemists). All mantras are at their

Ixxiii

"

The

liberation

himself

in

who

therefore,

ascetic,
this

life,

make

to

And inasmuch

as

should

glorified body.

aspires to

first

con-

produced by the creative

Hara and Gauri, and mica is
junction
produced from Gauri, mercury and mica are
severally identified with Hara and Gauri in

mercury

is

of

the verse
"

Mica

"

The

thy seed, and mercury is

combination of the two,
is

my seed
O goddess,
;

is

destructive of death and poverty."

11

There
In

matter.

is

say about the

Rasesvarasiddhanta many
little

very

the

to

Daityas, the Munis

and mankind, are declared to have attained

among

the

gods,

to liberation in this

the

life

by acquiring a divine

body through the

efficacy of quicksilver."
certain
gods, Mahesa and others
certain
Daityas, Kavya (Sukracharya), and others
and
others
certain
sages, Balakhilyas
kings,
" Certain

Somesvara and others

Govinda-Bhagavat, Govin-

Kapila, Vyali and others

these alchemists, having attained to mercurial bodies
and therewith identified are liberated though alive."

danayaka,

Charvajfi,

"The meaning

of

this,

as

unfolded by

few
;

to ^arvati,

as fellows

is

tx

O Supreme

")The preservation, of body,

goddess!

obtained by mercury and. by (the suppression of)

l
breath.
Mercury, when swooned, cures diseases
is

and when
and

killed, restores life to the

when

air

dead. .Mercury

confined, enable a man,

goddess, -tp

%-abooit.

"The^swooning state
described

of

is

mercury

.thus

"They say

quicksilver, to be swopning,.when
:

it is

thus characterised.

"Of various
fluijdity

"A man
in,

.which

and

colours,

or mobility (see

p..

free .from excessive

74).

should regard that quicksilver as dead,

tfce ab.se,nc,e,

of t^e

following properties

is

noticed.

"Wetness,

thickness,

.brightness,

heaviness,

mobility.

"Thejfixed condition
other place as follows :-r-

TThe character

is

of
fixed
P X
1..

described

quicksilver
^
.....(.

,jn

is

an-

that

it

is;

and Gough
Cowell
"air'
.Hve
translate ^fT simply
=
r
r J as f,i)
>...are inclined to think, however, that it is used in the sense of

(i)

-.

We

closing the ^nostrils

flTIIT^Tf of

Yoga

philosophy.

fxxv

"Continuous, readily fusible, efficacious, pure,

hvy, and that ft can revert to its oSton natural
state."

Cf. p. 247.

"Some one

rtia

urge

If trie

dfeatton

mercury by Hara and Gauri were proved,

df
it

be allowed that the btfdy could be

made permanent but how can that be proved ?

friight

The

bbjectitih

that can

fee

allowable,

inasmuch as

prbved by eighteen modes of

Elaboration.
ties

hot

is

"Thus

it

is

stated

by authori-

"Eighteen modes of elaboration are to be carefully discriminated."

"In the

first

place, as pure ir every process-,

for

perfecting the adepts."

And

these

methods

of

elaboration

are

enumerated thus.
"Sweating, rubbing, Kooning, fixing, dropping,
coercion, restraining."

"Kindling, going, falling

in*to

globules,

pulveri-

sing, covering."

"Internal flux, external flux, burning,

colouring,

and pouring."

"And eating it by parting a id piercing it

are the eighteen m'odes of
treating quicksilver."

Ixxvi

"These treatments have been described

Govinda-Bhigavat,
by
and
the other ancient
ramesvara

length

and are here omitted to avoid

at

Sarvajftaauthorities,

prolixity.

mercury is to be
understood not only a branch of chemistry
alone, but it is also to be applied to salvation

"By

by means
"You

cury
First

of

of dehavedha.

have,

Now

metals.

means

science

the

tell

Rasaraava says.

God, explained the killing of

that process of dehavedha by

me

of which aerial locomotion

is

equally

make

is

effected.

Mer-

be applied to metals and body.

experiment on metals and then

to

its

[having thus gained

experience]

apply

it

to the

body."

(i)

We

have

in

some

places adopted Cowell and Cough's

but the rendering appears to be

notably in the above sloka. The

trans, of Sarvadarsanasaragraha,

faulty

in

many

instances,

original runs as follows

ft

w:

Ixxvii

Emancipation of a man when

in the mercurial

system,
be found) in the tenets

holding

different

according to

all

alive, as

subtile

other schools

of

though

It is
arguments.
sacred texts to be known by know-

to

know

live

(to

mercury alone that can make the

undecaying and immortal, as it is

It is

body
"

is (to

the knowable)."

"

said

methods of

None, when not alive, is likely

ledge.
the knowable and therefore a man must

know

declared

Thinker

supreme medicament can make the

body undecaying and imperishable."
"
Why describe the efficacy of this metal ?
this

Only

value

Its

is

proved even by seeing

by touching
Rasarwava

it,

as

it

is

said

it,

in

and
the

"

By means of seeing it, touching it, eating it,

remembering it, worshipping it and bestowing it

15

iftt
I.

C. Vidyasagar's Ed. (1858).

Here Cowell and Gough render *n<J3T^T as "eulogistic of the

as "blood."
metal ;" and
Regarding ^T?J3T^ See P- *9*-

^^

...
1

Ixxvin
fjr '

npou
*
>

i \

'

'

'V-

-'

six

others,

k inds of highest merits a^e

attained.
,, T*
i
r
"
Equal merit accrues from seeing mercury as
v *'
*M,-f Hrr,;
novdf
emblems.
accrues from seeing all the
phallic
"On earth, tliose at Kedara, and all others
'

:.

wiiatsoever."
.. \
r^nnuujj

...

rn

-ij

In another place

we read

:
'

"

'

The adoration

of

the

ii'

sacred

is

Quicksilver
beatific tnan the worship of all the phallic

more
emblems

at Kan and elsewhere."

" Inasmuch as there is attained
thereby enjoy-

ment, health, exemption from decay, and immortality."

"

The

sin of

disparaging mercury

is

also

set out
" The
:

adept on hearing quicksilver heedlessfy

disparaged should recall quicksilver to mind."
"

at

once shun the

r

is,

blasphemer,
with sin."

filled

The
the

should

by his blasphemy for ever

under R. R. S, p. 78.

,who
Cf.

He

quotations

given

above are from

"

"

Sarvadarsanasawgraha,

of the Afferent

or a

(<

Review

systems of Hindu Philosophy"

by Madhavacnarya, prime minister to Bukka

of Vijayanagara', and who was elected
I.
in

1331

A. D. head-abbot of the monastery

Ixxix
,

of

rtl

Of the sixteen

philosophical
in
current
the
I4th
systems
century during
the author's lifetime, Rasesvaradarsana or
Sringeri.

"

System," is one. From

the fact that Rasanzva is quoted in it as a
U
if',
?standard work on this subject it would be
the

Mercurial
I

--

.'

-.

safe

to

conclude that

:=.

it

must have been

!?+.>

'*
i

century or two earlier,

sometime about the 1 2th century. In

written

say

at

least

Lexicon

Amarasiwha's
the following

synonyms

(ca.

of

1000 A.

D.)

pdrada (mercury)

are given, namely, chapala, rasa, and sum]

but in the vocabulary of Visvakosha 'by

Mahesvara
of ^iva)

(i

188 A. D.) haravija

added

is

literature, of

thereto.

Now

in

(lit.

semen

the Tantric

which the philosophy of mercury

the main outcome, quicksilver is regarded

as the generative principle, and directions
is

are given
of

5iva.

for
{

We

making a mercurial

phallus

take

it
that
may, therefore,
the Tantras which deal in mercurial preparations, had their origin sometime about the

(i)

Regarding^the date of Amarsitoha see also

p. 146,

Ixxx

nth
be

to

2th century A. D.

however to

justifiable

It

whould not

hold

the

that

Tantras did not exist before this time.

Although we have maintained above that

the alchemical Tantras had

The age

of the

Tantras,
dealing
with mercury.

their

origin

nth

about the

century A. D., it would be

safer to conclude that the Tantric processes
had. sprung into existence long before this
time, but that they did not acquire sufficient

importance to

force

the

attention

of

the

physicians, as we have seen above that the

R. V. and the A. V. existed almost side

by side though the

latter

was held

for a

long time in contempt and was not quoted

in the orthodox treatises.

One very
much older

strong argument in favour of

dates of the above Tantras is

Madhavacharya, a very cautious and

discriminating writer, whom we have quoted

that

above, describes the works he cites, including

Rasarwava, as "ancient authorities" in his

Ixxxi

life-time (see

We

metallic

evidence of the internal use of mer-

(p.

of

illastration

mentum

But

li).

ex

the

silentio.

Varahamihira

of mercurv,

the writings of Va;/a and

in

I'Tsing

preparations,

no tablv
of those
J

cury.

of

p. Ixxvi).

have already had occasion to draw

attention to the non-mention
historical

Earliest

above

(d.

this

another

is

apt

dangers* of the arguIn the \>/hatsa;#hita

A.

587

there

D.-)

is

and mercury among the

and this hisand tonics

mention of iron

aphrodisiacs
(i)

recent exa-n'nation of the Sanskrit Mss.

in

the

Durbar

Library of Nepal has brought to light important old Tantric works.

One, the Lawkavatara, a Hindu Tantric work on medicine, written
in a later Gu;/ta hand (908 A. D.)
another, "the composition of
which must go Lack to the early centuries of tie C l.rii-t'^n era."
This discovery up-ets all established theories as to the age of the
Tantras, a full discussion of which must be reserved for the second
;

volume

M. H.
(2)

Vide.

Rep. on the Search of

P. 5:stri.

Sans.

Mss. (1895-1900) by

evidence-

torical

great use

of

is

us

to

iri

deciding the age of the Tantras, dealing with

j

mercury.
foreign writers

go

records

collateral

Contemporary

by

to corroborate the date of

the alchemical Tantras tentatively fixed by

us, as the name and fame of mercurial re-

medies as used by the

spread

far

^-

"There

(yogi),

is

The

and wide.

extracts will -suffice

Hindu yogis had

two

following

another class of people called Chughi

but

who were indeed properly Abraiman,

they form a religious order devoted to the,

idols.

are extremely long-lived, every one of them

living to 150 or 200 years.
They eat very little
*
and these people make use of a

They

strange beverage, for they

make a potion

phur and quicksilver mixed together, and

of sul-

this

they
7
drink twice every month.
This, they say, gives
them long life it is a potion they are used t'o take
;

from

Vok IL

their

childhood."

Yule's

"

Macro PojOy

"

p. 300.
.-.

..

.5

"Arghun, der alchymie und den geheimen

Wissenschaften
ergeben hatte indisehe Bachschi,
>sj
d. h. Schreiber, ^efragt, durch welche Mittel sie

Ixxxlii

sich ihr

ihm ein

Leben so langwierig fristeten. Sie gaben

aus Schwefel und Mefkur zusammengesetz-

tes Mittel als die

Panacee der Lebensverlangeruhg

Gesch-

(1-290 A. D.)
Hammer-Purgstall
ichte der Ilchane," I. p. 391.

ein."

<(

be regretted that of the several

works quoted by Madhava,
Alchemical Tantras.
Rasanzava alone seems to
It is

to

have survived to our days. This work is

almost unknown in Bengal, and extremely
We
rare even in N, India and the Deccan..
have been fortunate enough to procure 'a
transcript of it from the Raghunatha Temple
another from
the
Library, Kasmir, and
As one of
Oriental 'Mss_; Library, Madras.
the earliest works of the kind, which throws
a flood of light on the chemical knowledge
of the Hindus about the i2tfr century A. D:,
Rasar//ava must be regarded as a valuable
It has, .besides, the merit
national legacy.
of being the

inspirer of several

latro-chemical

period,

notably

works of the
Rasaratna.-

and
Rasendrachintama;/i.
samuchchaya
Rasan/ava
.as a Tantra pretends to
Although

Ixxxiv

have been revealed by the God .Siva himself,

its author, whoever he may be, now and then
blurts

out hints, which

clearly prove

it

to

have been complied from preexisting works,

has not hesitated, as we find
to borrow copiously from Rasaratnakara at-

for instance,

it

renowned alchemist Nagarjuna.

work we have been able to

tributed to the

Of

this

obtain

last

as yet

Kasmir Library

only a fragment from the

but it has been of signal
;

use to us, as by the parallelism of its text

the genuiness and au henticity of a great
portion of the Rasanzava have been established.

In the present

volume

the

of

and

Rasatnasamuchchaya, in
they bear on chemistry and

jects

in this

have been

way

filled

ings resored.

been quoted

collate

in
passages
Rasaratnakara, Rasanzava

carefully

Mss.

has been our

aim to compare and

Collation of Mss.

the

it

so

far

allied

as

sub-

several important lacunae

up and many doubtful readParallel passages have often

in

the

foot-notes

and

cross-

Ixxxv

references

given,

pointing

out

where

probable borrowing has taken place.

to

be hoped that by

the
It

is

sort of

instituting this

intercomparison, the verbal integrity of the

adopted may be depended upon, and

the danger of interpolation has been avoided.
texts

The

texts

of

Charaka, Sumita, Vagbha/a

and Chakrapam have not been reproduced

as they are available everywhere in the most

reliable shape.

The

translations presented do not always

Recommendatory

pretend to be strictly

features of R. R. S.
;

reader

will

expression

literal,

ndu gent
j

infelicities
of
put
up with
here and there, which could not

be avoided without taking undue liberty with

We have drawn very largely
the original.

upon R. R. S., because it has several features

to recommend.
First, an excellent edition of
has been published at Puna, based upon a
comparison of 13 Mss., procured from dif-

it

ferent

parts

of

Southern

there exists a Ms. of

India.

Second,

the library of the

Sansk-iit College, Benares, in a very neat and
it

in

Ipgible
i.

e.

;i

samvat 1850
which we have had access
in

handwriting, copied

793 A.D., to

We

whenever required.

have also obtained

from the Kasmir Library.

The Benares and the Kasmir Mss. agree in
a transcript of

it

essentials, but differ in certain places

all

the

Puna

edition.

The

from

we have adopt-

text

ed is thus based upon a comparison of the

Deccanese and N. Indian exemplars. Third,
while Rasaratnakara and Rasanzava are Tantras pure

and simple

in

which alchemy

dentally dwelt upon, R. R. S.

and

is

a systematic

on materia medi-

and comprehensive
ca, pharmacy and medicine.
treatise

is inci-

Its

methodical

arrangement of the subjectmatter would do credit to any modern work,

scientific

and altogether

it

should be pronounced a

production unique of its kind in Sanskrit liteIts

rajiure.

value

is

further

enhanced from

that the materia medica portion

harmoniously blended with chemistry.
t

he

.fact-

The

author, whoever he

anxious

may

to

pseudo-Vagbha/a.

identity -with

is

.is

very

establish

his

be,

V a g b ha t a:,

'Ixxxvii

the

author

celebrated,

the

of

and describes himself as such

Ash/aiiga
the colo-

in

phons at the end of every chapter

but he forgets that in doing so he

(p, 78)
is

guilty

The

of a glaring piece of anachronism.

che-

mical knowledge, as revealed in the Vagbha/a, is almost on a par with that in' the Sumi-

But

ta.

this sort of utter disregard for chro-

nological accuracy
in

alchemical

the

ages

is

in

by no means uncommon

literature

The

Europe.

world*

middle

of .the
iis

indebted to

the genius and perseverance of M. Berthelot^

for unravelling the mysteries which so long
1

hung about the writings of Geber and the

interval of time between our pseudo-Vagbha;

/a

and the author

of

Ash/anga

is

wider than that between the Latin

We

the real Geber.

i))

"L'hypothese

un auteur

latin,

rest

la

meme

Geberand

are apt to be very harsh

mes yeiix, c'est quce livre dans Ja ,seconde

plus vraisemblable a

inconnu, a

moitie du Xllle siecle, et

deGe"ber; de

even much

1'a

les

e'crit

mis sous

le

patronage du

nom

que
grand nom de D^mocrite pour en couvrir
cubrations/'
"La Chimie au Moyen age, T. i. p. 349.

emprunt^

le

vnr

alchimistes" greco-egyptiens avaient

leurs ^lu-

Ixxxviii

on these

literary

to give

them

ment.

We

times

forgerers

we ought

rather

credit for their utter self-efface-

often forget that the sp'rit of the

which they wrote was dead against

in

them

reluctant to accept revolutionary ideas

hence the temptation to
discoveries

or

them on

fasten

old

and recognised

Although no direct

we

available,

Our

are not

historical evidence

left entirely in

author, at the very outset,

alchemists

seven

authorities.
is

the dark.

names twenty,

from whose writings 'he

derives his materials (p. 7 7

),

and

later on,

in

the section on apparatus (p. 130), he quotes

Rasar/zava as a source of his information.

was

Opium
_

nit
in his

.,
Probable
date of

the

nor

is

medicine
there any
1

disease

was introduced
of

time

in

mention of Phiraiigaroga, (lit.

of the
which
Portuguese),

R.R.S.

the

employed

into

6th century,

India about the middle

and the treatment

of

which by means of calomel and chob-chini

(i)

This

is

the

name by which

Hindu medical works.

See

p. 252.

syphilis

is

known

in the later

Ixxxix

(China root) occupies a conspicuous place

in

the

much

later work,

Bhrnvaprakasa.

in

The

may, therefore, be
placed between the i3th and i4th centuries
A. D.

date of the

R.

R.

S.

CHAPTER V
latro-Chemical Period

During the Tantric period, with its sysof

tem of the "Philosophy
'
Characterstics of
the intro-chemicai
Mercury" 3. vast mass of chemical information

was accu-

mulated, which was pressed into signal service in the period immidiately succeeding it
the

latro-chemical

Period of

The

India.

prominent feature of the former lies in the

search after the elixir intae and the powder
of projection as the contents of the Rasa^
ratnakara

and

whereas

the latter these phantastic and ex-

in

Rasar;/ava

amply

testify;

travagant ideas, impossible of realisation, had

subsided into something more practical and
tangible.

mercury,

The
iron,

numerous

preparations

copper and other metals,

of
al-

though they could not secure immortality or

revive the dead, were found to be helpful
accessories in medicine.

At

first

they

came

XC1

and

to be used cautiously

tentatively,

mixed

up with the recipes of the Gharaka and the

Sumita, which are drawn chiefly from the
vegetable kingdom but they soon began to
assert a supremacy of their own and even to
;

supplant the old Ayurvedic treatment by

herbs and simples.
Nay more, absurd pretentious were set up on behalf of these metallic

preparations.

Thus

in

Rasendrachintu-

a work probably co-eval with R. R.

come across this remarkable passage

ma//i,

we

S.,
:

"Revered teacher! be pleased to instruct me,

benefit of the weak and the timid, in

for the

mode

of treatment

which

dispense with
the use of the lancet, and both active and

will

thus putting
use
of
indiscriminate

potential cauteries,"
for

the

a plea
mercurial

in

remedies.

R. R. S.

is

a typical production of the

latro-chemical period.
of medicinal
treating
legion.

But they are

mould, and the close

tents would render

The name

of treatises

chemistry
all

cast

in

is

the

simply

same

similarity of their contheir translation

onlv

XC1I

We

works of supererogation.

have, there-

confined ourselves to quoting only such

parallel passages in the foot-notes as are
fore,

calculated to throw light upon or corroborate

the authenticity of, the text of R. R. S.

An

account of

the

period

will

be scarcely

complete, which fails to take

~
r
note of the conspicuous figure

Nagarjuna.

whom

this

Indian alchemists

unanimously

look upon as the inventor of the processes

of distillation and calcination
the renowned

and the venerable Nagarjuna, the reputed

Kakshaputatantra, Rasaratnakara
and Arogyamanjari, etc. Our R. R. S., in
author of

the opening lines, invokes him as one of the

27 alchemists, and in the chapter on minerals

So does Rasen-

quotes him as an authority.

drachintamam as also Chakrapa/n while describing the process of roasting iron (p. 62).

We

have already seen that according to

V/'/nda and C.

p.,

Nagarjuna was the

introduce the preparation

(black sulphide of
also

mercury

known as
p. 61).

makes him the redactor

first

to

Kajjvali
Dalva;/a

of the Susruta.

XC111

The mention
ities

of

Nagarjuna by

would not remove him

all

these author-

from the 8th

far

or the 9th century A. D., a date

which

also confirmed by Alberuni, who says

"
famous representative of this

is

art

[alchemy] was

Nagarjuna, a native of the

He excelled in
Daihak, near Somnath.

fort

and composed a book which contains the

substance of the whole literature on this

it

very rare.

He

hundred years before our

time.'

subject and

is

lived nearly
'India,

I.

p,

189.

But there are

difficulties

in

the

way

of

accepting this chronolgy of the age of Nagarjuna.

Hiouen Thsang,

who

resided in

India from 629 A. D. onwards, relying upon

'
local traditions, speaks of Nagarjuna
as a
"
(i)

Nagarjuno Bodhisatva was well practised

compounding medicines

in the art of

by taking a preparation (pill or cake)'

he nourished the years of life for many hundreds of years, so that
neither the mind nor appearance decayed.
Satvaha-raja had par;

taken of this mysterious medicine."

the Western World, vol.

Then

II. p.

Seal's Buddhist

Records

of

212.

"

Nagarjuna Bodhisatva. by moistening all the

great stones with a divine and superior decoction (medicine or

Again

mixture) changed them into

gold.''

Ibid. p. 216.

XC1Y

learned and revered Buddhist and alchemist,

and a

friend of

King Satvahana.

The

poet
of
Chinese
a
the
Vawa,
pilgrim,
contemporary
also corroborates this account in his life of

King Harsha.
In the Buddhist canonical literature, Na-

a prominent figure as the founder, or,

atanyrate,thesystematiser of the Madhyamika
garjuna

is

philosophy. Western scholars maintain that he

lived in the ist century A. D., while according
to Rajatarangini, the "History of

Kalha//a MLsra

(i

Kasmir" by

century A. D.), Nagarjuna

50 years after Sakyasiwha had betaken himself to asceticism, i.e. he lived in

flourished

the last quarter of the 4th and

It
of the 3rd century B. C.

first
is

quarter

doubtful,

Nagarjuna, the philosopher, is the

same as Nagarjuna, the alchemist, considering

however,

if

Nagiirguna was a friend of Satvahana, a king of Kosala

rountry to the South West of Urisya and watered by the upper
As to the age of
Ibid. II. p. 209.
feeders of the. Mahanadi."
(2)

Satvahana see Burgess' Archaeological Survey

of S. India.

Re-

garding Nagarjuna see also Introd. a V histoire du Buddh. Ind.

p. 5 o8.

xcv
that

we

find

no reference whatever to the pro-

cesses of distillation,

in

the

Sumita, and the Yagbha/a,

must be admitted that the latter

the

Charaka,

though

sublimation etc.

it

can lay claim to superior chemical knowledge,

(see p.

xlviii).

We have

also another alchemist in

Jjali,

who

is

better

known as

Patanjali.

the commentator

He

Patan-

probably lived

in

of

Pa;/im.

the 2nd century B. C.'

commentary of Chakrapawi,
him
as
an
authority on Lohasastra, or
quotes
"
Science of Iron," and Chakrapa;/i himthe
Sivadasa, in his

speaks of him as the redactor of Charaka

self

(see p. xv).

Bhoja

in his

Nyayavartika speaks.,

of Patanjali, as a physician both to the mind

2
The moksha (salvation),
and to the body.

as taught in the

(1)

(2)

Yoga system

Proof. Bhandarkar

of Patanjali,

is

Ind. Antiquary, 1872, pp. 299-302.

":

Bhoja

Nyayavartika, quoted by Sivarama, the commentator

of Vasavadatta.

XCV1

connected with alchemy.

also

We

have

already seen, while discussing the "Philosophy

of Mercury" (see ante p.Mxxvi), the Rasayana
or

Alchemy was simply regarded

to

an end

as a

means

as a path leading to moksha.

connection can
significant that this

is

traced from so early a date.

In the present volume

v
Progress or
chemical
know-

we

shall

It

be

seldom

have occasion to go bevond

t

he

ledge in Europe.

4th

Century A.

add

D.
to

It

the

perhaps,
if we turn our
eyes for
to the progress of chemical knowwill,

interest of the subject,

moment
in

Europe
mistic ideas and
ledge

at that

time,

and the alche-

dominating it. Contemporary with the authors of Rasaraava and

Rasartnasamuchchaya, were Roger Bacon
beliefs

1294), Alertus

(d.

Mag&s, Raymond

and Arnaldus Villanovanus.

Lully,

Roger Bacon

does not hesitate to assert that the philoso(3)

The

author (Patanjali) adds to the three parts of the path

one of an illusory nature, called Rasayana,

of liberation a fourth

consisting of alchemistic tricks with various

realise things
I.

p. 80.

which by nature are impossible."

drugs, intended to

Alberunf s

'India'

XCV11

phers stone was able

times

its

transform a million

to

of base

weight

metal

into

gold.

The above-named alchemists are also unanimous in regarding it as a -universal medicine,

"it was no unusual assertion that
adepts,
the fortunate possessors of the panacea, had
been able to prolong their lives to 400 years

and

and more."-

The

Meyer.

readers of Rasar-

and the other Tantras

//ava

find that

there

much

is

in

not

fail

to

common between

Hindu alchemists and

the

will

their

European

confreres.

The knowledge

in

practical

prevalent in

a nd

in

Knowledge

chemistry,
India in the i2th

3th centuries A. D., and

practical chemistry,
in

perhaps earlier, such as we

are enabled to glean from

India

prevalent
I2th and
the
i3th centuries A. D.,

in

and

~
....
Rasamava and similar works,

in

perhaps

earlier.

is

distinctly

in

that of the

same period

known

instance that blue

for

variety of the pyrites

essence

in

the

calamine, zinc.

in

Europe.
vitriol

It

of

was

and a

(seep. 70) yielded* an

shape

The

advance

of

copper

and

colour of flames as a

XCVlll

diagnostic test

stood

(p. 68).

metals

of

The

under-

well

metallurgical processes,

under the

described

was

leave

latter,

little

to

improve upon (p. 88), and, indeed, they

may be transferred bodily to any treatise on

modern chemistry.
Even Paracelsus-, who
flourished some three centuries later, leaves

us

in

the dark as to the nature of his

which he designates a
I

And

metal.

Libavius

or
"

'semi'

(d.

1616)

zmken/

'bastard

who stood

up manfully against the excesses of Paracelsus, and who vigourously combated the defects

in

his

employment

*
*
*
and the
doctrines,
"
of
secret remedies," believed in

the transmutation of the metals and the

ef-

ficacy of potable gold.

It is

not necessary

to pursue this subject further here, as details

be found

will

the

in

chapter on metallurgy

(pp. 152-169).

The

truth

pseudo-Basil

(i

Gesech.

d.

that

is

Valentine

chem.

I.

13.

up

till

(ca.

the

time to

1600 A.

D.),

xrix

very

little

progress was achieved

scientific

The

in

doctrines of Aristotle and

Europe.
Arabian alchemists held the ground,
and the enigmatic and mystic language,
of the

which was often used as a cloak

for igno-

rance, simply confounded the confusion.

Still

more

solid

progress was

effected in

pharmacy. For two thousand years or more

the Charaka and the Somita have been paid
all

the honours of a state-recognised

Phar-

macopoeia, Partly due to their being regarded

as of revealed origin, and partly due to that
veneration for the past, which is inherent in
the Hindu, the text of the above works has

seldom been allowed to be tampered with.

A critical examination of the Bower Ms. such
as

we owe

recipes

agree

in

to

of
all

Dr. Jloernle, shows that the

several important
preparations

and sometimes word

the Charaka and the

essentials,

for word, with those of

Susruta of the existing recensions (see ante

Mr. Ameer Ali is scarcely correct
p. xix).
\\rhen

he claims that

"

the

Arabs invented

chemical pharmacy, and were the founders

of

those institutions which

are

now

called dis-

pensaries.'

We

have only to refer our reader to the

chapter on the preparation of caustic alkali,
in

the Sumita, with

the

direction

that

the

"

preserved in an iron
strong lye is to be
vessel," as a proof of the high degree of perfection in scientific pharmacy achieved by
the Hindus at an

early

age

(p.

37).

It is

absolutely free from any trace of quackery

or charlatanism, and is a decided improye-

.ment upon the process described by a Greejc

writer of the IXth century, as unearthed by
2

As regards dispensaries and

hospitals, every one knows that Budhistic
India was studded with them (vide p. xxxii).

M.

Berthelot.

Speaking

Europe

in

of the progress

the

XVIth

lemmer remarks

"Up
object of

(i)
(

2>

of

century,

chemistry in
Schor-

Prof.

XVIth century almost the sole

chemical research had been to find the

to

the

Hist, of the Saracens, p. 462, (Ed. 1899.)-

See

p. 22,

Cl

philosopher's stone.
itself

But now chemistry began to

two new and

different paths,

opened
by two distinguished men Agricola, the father of
metallurgy, and Paracelsus, the founder of latrodevelop'

Both contributed
chemistry or medical chemistry.
chiefly to the development of inorganic chemistry
* * In
opposition to the school of Galen and
Auicenna, Paracelsus and his followers chiefly employed metallic preparations as medicines."'

Udoy Chand

the

preface to
Materia Medico, of the Hindus, states:
Dutt, in

his

"The
count

oldest work, containing a detailed acof the calcination or preparation of the

different metals (such as gold, silver, iron, mercury,

copper, tin and lead) for internal use with formulae

for their administration, is, I believe, a concise
treatise

This

on medicinal preparations by Sarngadhara.

is

evidently a

mistake.

Sarngadhara

simply a compilation based upon the Charaka and the Sumita on the one hand, and
is

the Tantric works

other.

It

described

cannot be regarded as

yond the latter part of the

(i)
p. 9.

above on the
going be-

i4th century, and

Rise and development of Orgauic chernistrv (ed.

1894)

cii

it

come under our

will

volume

notice

of the present work.

in

the

second

In the European

histories of chemistry, the credit of

being the
chemical
first to press
knowledge into the
service of medicine and introduce the use of

mercurial preparations, is given to Paracelsus (1493-1541)

The Nagarjunas and the Patanjalls of India,

the internal administration

of

however, had the merit of anticipating Paracelsus

The

and

his followers

by several centuries-

record of the

earliest historical

internal

use of black sulphide of mercury dates so far

back as the roth century A. D. at the latest
1

We

have indeed, reasons

(see ante p. 59).
to suspect that Paracelsus got his ideas from
the East, and in Chapter on Arabian indebtedness to India we have pointed out the

media through which Indian sciences

filtered

into Europe.

rj (i)

In Europe,

its

use dates from the

lyth

"
century.

Das

Furquet de Mayerne
im Anfange des 17, Jahrhunderts, durch Zussanmmenreiben von
warmen Quicksilver mit geschmolzenem Schwefel darstellen,"
schwarze

Kopp.

Schwefelquicksilver

Gesch. 1 86.

lehrte zuerst

t:m
"

We

cannot help admiring the ingenuity and the boldness of the Hindu physicians,
when we find that they were freely and properly
Dutt says

using such powerful drugs as arsenic, mercury,

iron,

when

etc.,

the

Mussulman Hakims around

them with imperial patronage and the boasted

learning of the West, recording such remarks regarding them as the following
:

*'

the white oxide of arsenic.

Soomboolkhar,
There are six kinds of
third Godanta,

this,

one name Sunkia, the

Darma, the

the fourth

The Yunani physicians do

'

fifth

Huldea.

not allow this to

a part of their prescriptions, as they believe

it

form
des-

troys the vital principle. The physicians of India,

on the coutrary, find these drugs more effectual in

many

disorders than others of less

the calx of metals.

For

this

power such

as

am

in

reason too

the habit of seldom giving these remedies internally,

but

usually confine

my

use of them to ex-

and as aphrodisiacs which

ternal

application
prescribe to a few friends,

who may have

no benefit from Yunani prescriptions.

i
to use as few of them as possible."

derived

It is

better

It is
'Mercury.'
very .generally used
India
in
throughout
many ways, both in its native

''Para,

(i)

Taleef Shareef trans. George Playfair,

p, 99,

CIV

and prepared state, [but in the latter we ought to

be very cautious, for it is seldom sufficiently killed
or removed from its native state, in which it is a
dangerous drug."
"
Loha, iron.'
'

It is

cians in India, but

do with

it

advice

as possible."

Nor must we
A. D.

my

is

to

have as

physi-

little

to

forget that

Parliament

the

commonly used by

so

late

as

1566

and' the

Faculty of
medicine, Paris, condemned and forbade what

was regarded as the dangerous innovations

Paracelsus.

of

Apart from the historical data already adduced, the above extracts from a Mohamme-

\t

dan

writer

would show that the

perhaps the

earliest in

the internal use

of

Hindus were

the field

mercury/

to

advocate

Ainslie, in

"

note appended
Lepra Arabum," written in
the early part of the last century, thus expresses his views on the subject

*-

-(i)

Ibid,

page

26.

(2) Taleef Shareef, page 146.

(3)

Gesch.

d.

Chem.

I,

no.

cv

note appended to " Lepra Arabum," written in

the early part of the last century thus ex,
presses his views on the subject
"

the

well

It is

known

who employed mercury

first

were

that the Eastern nations

in

cure

the

of

and leprous affections and it

be
whether
the natives of India
may
questioned
were before the Arabian or only second in order

obstinate, cutaneous

in
ful

availing themselves of the virtues of that power2

mineral.
all
Rhases, Mesu and Avicenna
l

notice it, and according to Fallopius, as

observed by Le Clerc in his "Histoire de

we

find

Medi-

la

cine" pp. 771-791, it was the opinions

of those
writers which first suggested its use in venereal
diseases.

"
(1)

cap. xxiv).

cum

vivum

Argentum

scabei, et pediculis

auxilium

offert

"

extinguitur

Rhazes

"
:

de

ardens

quod V

est,

Re med."

(lib

iii.

In the days of Pliny the Elder the medicinal virtues

mercury do not appear to have been at all ascertained that

bane and poison of all things and
what would with more propriety be called death silver. "Nat.

of

writer termed quicksilver the

Hist." lib xxxiii.

(2)

Cap.

Avicenna says

adversus pediculos
"
.

(3)

vi).

lib.

et
ii.

of

mercury

lendes
tract,

ii.

"

cum
p. 119.

Trans. R. As. Soc. (1824-27).

argentum vivum extinctum

rosaseo

oleo

valet.''

Vide

CV1

From

the evidences

we have adduced

all

along there can now be scarcely any question

as regards the priority of the Hindus in making mercurial remedies a speciality; and they
are entitled to claim originality in respect of

the internal administration of metals generally

seeing that the Charaka and the Susruta, not
to speak of the later

over their virtues.

Tantras,

are

eloquent

CHAPTHR

VI.

Indebtedness of the Arabians to India.

The Arabians

are acknowledged

on

all

hands to have played a prominent part in the

propagation of science and mathematics in
the

When

West.

in

dark and middle

the

had begun to
and
even
when the
Europe
Greek culture and learning

ages, the lamp of knowledge

burn very low

in

very vestiges of
had all but disappeared, save

and dingy

who

cells of

carried

the monk,

there

the

in
it

the obscure

was the Arabs

accumulated

intel-

East, and thus laid

speak, of modern Euro-

lectual treasures of the

the foundation, so to

pean greatness.
perhaps, be not out of place to dishere
cuss
briefly as to how much India indirectly contributed to this result in the deIt will,

partments of medicine, pharmacy and other

kindred subjects.

CV111

The author

of Kitab-al-Fihrist,

century

and Ibn Abu Usaibiah, who

Khalifa

Haji

tenth

of the

towards, the middle

who wrote

commencement

flourished at the

the

of

i3th

of
century, distinctly mention that by order

the Caliphs Harun and

Mansur

several stand-

ard Hindu works on medicine, materia medica

and therapeutics were translated into Arabic.

The information on the subject has been gathered at length by Dietz in his Analecta medica,
Wustenfeld, author of Geschichte der Arab.
Aerzte, Cureton*,

Miiller

Fliigel,

and other

Arabic scholars.
"

Nadim, a native of Bagdad,

bin Ishak,

surnamed au-

conceived the idea of a biblio-

first

His Kitab-al-Fihrist

dictionary.

graphical

Mohammed

Abu'l Faraj

(i)

deals

with

every

It gives the names

of many authors and
branch of learning.
Hist, of the Saracens
their works which have ceased to exist."

by Ameer
(2)

the Rev.

Ali, p. 469.)

H. H. Wilson

Prof.

W.

Cureton

relative to India as

summarises
positive,

his

and

is

the treatise called

diseases of

were

may

own views

it

"

occur
'
:

Niddna on
and

a Note appended to a paper by

A collection of such passages
in

Arabic

writers"

In medicine the

clear that

women and

translated

in

entitled

that

the

diagnosis,

therapeutics,

studied

by

all

Charaka, the

and others

familiar to

the

thus

evidence

Arabs

pithily
is

more

Susntfa,

on poisons,

Hindu Science,
in,

the

days of

C1X

Fliigel

Fihrist

states on the authority of Kitab-althat Susrnd (the Sanskrit

name

Somita, thus corrupted

translated by

into

Mankh, the

Arabic)

Indian,

was

who cured

Harun ar-Raschid of a severe illness, and

was appointed physician in charge of the
Royal Hospital. We also learn that a work
on the official plants of India was rendered

The

Mankh.

Arabic by the same

into

other

comprehensive Sanskrit treatise^ the Charaka

was also fully laid under contribution.

We

have ample and overwhelming testimony of Arabic writers, notably of Haji Khathat Hindu
lifa,
astronomy, algebra and
medicine were zealously studied by their cominpatriots, and many Hindu servants were

duced
as

to reside at the Court

their

at a

still

earlier

either

period,

Royal Asiatic Soc. old

"
(i)

Mussulman

instructors.

Harun and Mausur,

Zur Frage

the

of

Caliphs
students,

from the originals or translations, made

into

the

language

of

Persia."

Journ.

series, vi. pp. 105-115.

iiber die

altesten

und persischer medicinischer Werke

morg. Ges. xi. pp 148 and 325*

Uebersetzungen indischer
Ziet. deut.
Arabische

ins

ex

eager thirst for knowledge, used to

flock to the centres of learning in India, and
in their

there drank deep at

Indeed,

it

essential

the

fountain-head.

very

had come to be regarded as an

part

of

one's

completing

education to travel to

liberal

and learn the

India

sciences firsthand.

That

no language of rhetoric will be

evident from the extracts quoted below from
this

is

Gildemeister's

Rebus
"

"

Indicis loci et opuscula."

Etiarn

Muhammed ben

Ismail al

Indiam profectus est eo imprimis

rum astronomiam cognosceret.
"

De

Arabum

Scriptorum

Tanukhi

consilio,

in

ut Indo-

Ibn Albaithar,

rei herbariae inter Arabes

periand
eius
studium longtissimus, qui
disciplinae
inqua itinera per Hispaniam Africam et Asiam ins-

etiam in Indiam venit, teste Leone Africano;

Abulfada tamen et Ibn Abi Ucaibia, qui de eius

tituit,

vita

scripserunt, eius

p. 80.
"

rei

Sed etiam accuratius

mentionem non

faciunt."

edocti erant, et scite iam

vetus Indopleusta eas disciplinas, in quibus Indi

maxime excellerent, nominat has medicinam, phi:

losophiam et astronomiam.

Eodem modo

Hagi

CXI

Khalfa arithmetic-am, geometriam, medicinam, aset metaphysicam enumerat."

p. 81.

tronomiam
"

De

libris

ex Indica lingua

versis iam inter

literaria

Arabes egerunt

composuere.

Plurimi

in
ii,

de

Arabicam conqui libros de re

iis

sine

dubio

apud Hag'i Khalfam legentur, cuius hucusque pars

tantum publico usui patet. De antiquioribus his
libris
literis

locuples testis est antiquissimus de Arabum

scriptor Ibn Abi Yaqub ibn Alnadim, qui in

I)i dice

scientiarum

quern

anno 337 (inc. 10 Jul. 948) inter monumenta literarum Arabicarum etiam peculiari cura

scripsit

egit de libris e linguis Graeca, Persica et

conversis;"

Indica

p. 82.

Haas, whose criticism of the Sumita we

have already noticed, having
Muller's refutation of Haas.

once taken

up the position
of denying the antiquity of Hindu medicine
with special regard to the Charaka and the
Susruta, was driven to the necessity of discounting, nay, explaining away, the numerous
references to Hindu works

man

writers.

made by Mussul-

This had the effect of eliciting

a reply from Miiller, who subjected the

Arabic literature bearing on the subject to a

cxn
crucial examination, especially

He

Useibia.

Book XII

finds that not only the

of

Charaka

and the Sumita, but also the Nidana and

the compendium Asankar, a book on Poison
1

by Sanaq the Indian, and another on Warm

and Cold, and several other works were rendered
also

into

arrives

This German orientalist

Arabic.

conclusion that Indian

the

at

physicians practised at the Court of Bagdad.

have now to place before the reader the

We

Alberunis
dence,

evi-

evidence of a remarkable author

remarkable alike for the depth

of his learning, versatility of his genius,

impartiality of his

judgment and

rare

his singular

freedom from race-bias.

v

Alberuni

lived

in

India

from

1017-1030

A. D., and during this long sojourn he mastered Sanskrit and studied Hindu mathema(1)

Variant has "Astankar," which will be

readily identified

as the Astanga of

Vagbha/a (see p. xlvii.)

Schon vor Er-Rasid, vielleicht sogar gleichzeitig mit dem
haben sich
Uebergange indischer Astronomic nach Bagdad.
"

(2)

auch indische Aerzte

"

in

Bagdad eingefunden."

Arabische Quellen zur

"
Zeit, deut,

(Loc.

cit. p.

499).

Geschichte der indischen Medizin."

"

morg. Ges. 34,

p.

465,

CX111

and philosophy in the original. At a

time when his patron, Sultan Mahmud of

tics

was busy pillaging the temples in

Thaneswar, Mathura, Kanauj and Somnath
with the zeal of an iconoclast, this philosophic

Ghzni,

Moslem was pondering over

the Sa;;/khya
and the Patanjala, and instituting a comparison between their contents and those of the
"

Timaeus

We
runi's

"

and

its

commentator, Proclus.

have elsewhere quoted at length Albeviews on Rasiyana (alchemy) it now

;

remains for us to glean such information from

him as will throw light on the subject under

According to Sachau, the learned

"
some of the books
translator of Alberum,
that had been translated under the first Ab-

inquiry.

Caliphs were extant in the library of

Alberunf, when he wrote his India, the Brah-v/

baside

masiddhanta or Sindhind
in

the Charaka

the edition of Ali Ibn Zain and the Parich-

tantra or Kalila and Dimna."

The

fact that

the Charaka occupied a place in the library

of a cultured Arab affords an additional proof
of the

esteem

in

which the Hindu system of

CX1V

Moslem

medicine was held by the

We

also learn that

"

world.

the Christian philoso-

pher and physician from Bagdad, Abulkahir

Alkhamnour, friend of Albenini, seems to

have practised in Ghazni his medical profes(Sachau). This is significant as indicating that both the Greek and Hindu systems held sway side by side but more of it

sion"

anon.

So

far as

Internal

evi-

Let
regards historical evidence.
internal evi US n W Se6 ^

dence.

roboration

dence could be gathered in corReference has

the former.

of

already been made to the

by Sanaq the Indian.

Book on Poisons

We

some

parallel

Poisoned

of

passages on

here

shall cite

the

Examihation

Food and Drink.

These are

the chief characteristics as given by Sanaq,

the Charaka and the Susruta respectively.
V*(i)

"

Dietz also in

his

Analecta Medica proves that the later

Greek physicians were acquainted with the medical works of the

Hindus, and availed themselves of their medicaments but he
;

more

particularly

shows that the Arabians were familiar with them,

and extolled the healing

much
Med."

as that in use
p. 64.

art, as

among

practised by the Indians, quite as

the Greeks."

Royle

"
:

Antiq. Hind.

cxv
THE CHARAKA

SAXAQ THE INDIAN

The vapor emitted

The food is to &>

When
poisoned
thrown into fire for food is thrown into

by poisoned food has

the

colour

of

the

throat of the peacock

.... when
is

air

...

testing-

the

food

coloured

fire,

plume of a

makes

pointed

when

sound

smoke

the

has the
bit

nit

smell of a

isoned drinks
milk

Po-

corpse.

and

butter

milk

thin

have a light blue

vellow

to

of

the

a crackling
emitted and

is

is

corpse
.

and

throat

the

'

peacock.

Ch.

i,

of

like

the

"

Kalpa,"

27.

with

when mixed

poison,
lines

have

printed
"

Chikitsa,

xxiii, 29-30.

as superintendent of the
well-versed in toxicology, is essen-

physician,

kitchen,

an

Indian

Kalpa, Ch.
Miiller

I.

institution.

Cf.

Susruta,

6-9

has pointed out the parallelism as

shown above.
the

tinted

is

perceived.

"

it

issuing there-

flame

from

other drinking

liquids,

Ch.

tially

ling sound and the

Water, milk

upon.

The

makes crack-

it

fire,

the smell of a putrid

blue

line.

peacock,

flame also becomes

a craclking sound as
salt deflagrates

the

like

The tongue

high in the

the fire

the

flame becomes parti-

thrown into
rises

if

THE SUSRUTA

We

diagnostic

have,

test

however, added to
food as

of poisoned

CXV1

the Charaka, and

in

given

will

it

Sanaq was equally indebted

and to the Soyruta,

The

description

of

of the Susruta

(Sanasrad)

SUSRUTA

The

is

have thick
have

black in colour

and

Karvurds

Jieads,

their bodies, like that of

eels with elevated stripes across

their

abdomen.

have hairs on
sides

and

Alagardlids

their bodies, large

black

mouths,

Indrdyudhds have longitudinal

nhes along their back, of
he colour

of the

Sdmudrikds are

rainboiv.

of

a dark-

yellow colour and have variegated spots on their bodies

resembling flowers
ance.

horns

appear-

Gochondands have

furcated

heads.

in

tails

of

like

the

a cow and

When

these

for
in

as

given by
word with that

many

places.

RASES, QUOTING SANASRAD

variety of leeches called

Krishna

to this authority

leeches

Rases agrees almost word

be seen that

bi-

two
small

poison*

Of

leeches one

the

sonous,

black

ivJiicJi

like

is

is

poi-

intensely

antimony having
and scales like

a large head

and having the

also another
green
upon which are hairs, has a

certain

middle

fishes

head
and different
large
colour like the rain-bow
:

CXV11
ot/s

leec/ies

bite

any person,

the bitten parts become swollen

and very

itchy,

and

fain-ting,

the

of

body,
vomiting, mental derangement
fever,

burning"

in these
langour occur,
cases the medicine called Maancl

Jidgada should be administered internally,, applied exter-

and used as

nally

bite of the leech called

viidlia

fatal.

is

dsscription

of

and

leeches,

Now
leeches.

The

snuff.

colour of which

the

are

as

lines

in

bluestone, azure
bites

abscess

coma
joints

very

one

relaxing

nevertheless

leeches there

which

caused

fainting: with

ivitJi

and

-which cften

will be

tlience

there

blue-spar,

is

of

of
is

a good

assimilated

the colour of water

the

these

to

Indrd-

Such
the

in

is

the

poisonous

their treatment.

the non-poisonous
Their names are as

follows
Pingald,
Kapild,
SanknmnkJii, Musliikd, Pun.
dartkamukhl and Sdvarikda
:

Kapild have

their sides of

the

in

it

ment] but

their

colour

back smooth and

of

the

pulse

which there

be greenness having upon

two lines like arsenic [orpi-

will

colour of orpiment

of the

called

light red,

CXV111

mudga

oay

(PJiaseoslus mungo].

Fingalas have round bodies,

move quickly, and are of

coloured
to

red or tawny colour.

are
SdnkiihmukJiis
liver-

corresponding

the colours of live i^': wliicJi

are

slightly

and

swift

to

draw

selves fine blood

to

them-

coloured, stick blood quickly,

and have large sharp mouths.

colour

Mushikas have the

and shape of rats and

a bad smell.

Pundarikds have mouths

the lotus
of

the

and are

are assimilated

to

the

tail

[colour] of a mouse:

having a

horrible smell *

like

of the colour

Phaseolus

of

pulse

which
'

mungo. Sdvarikds have green

colour like the leaf of the lotus,

are functuous,
fingers

in

and

length.

eighteen

They

are

used only for extracting blood

Such

from beasts.

is

the des-

cription of the non-poisonous

The non-poisonous

leeches.

leeches are fouud

in

Turkey,

country to the
south), Sahya (a mountain on

Pdndya
the

(the

banks

of

the

Narbadd]

And

having the

belly red along with blackness

CX1X

Pant a n a

and

tract

(the

country about

of

and the back green

they are

Of

Mathuro).

non-poisonous leeches, those

which are stronger and have
large bodies, can drink blood

rapidly

and

eat

much, are
from poison.

especially free

Leeches

duced

which

of

the decomposition

ous

are

pro-

water and from

in dirty

poison-

fishes, insects, frogs, urine

and

are

foeces

poisonous.

Tlwse produced in pure 'water

and from
of the

the

the decomposition

different

varieties

Nelumbiuni

and the NympJicea

of

Speciositm
lotus

and

Saivdla (Blyxa octandra)

of

are non-poisonous.

The

vatieties

(ANympluva
pad ma,
nalina,
kumuda,
saugandliika and

mentioned here are

tit

pal a,

kni'alavrt,

pundarka.

On
the

this

following

subject there

verse

is

Non-

poisonous leeches go about in

the field and fragrant water.
The}' do not

live

in

confined

bitter but they will

in
in

be worse

bad

water quite stagnant

which are many small

tadpole frogs : nevertheless,

t/iev are good in good and
excellent

water,

cxx
places or

lie

mud

in

as they

These should

seek comfort.

be caught by means of wet-

some other

leather or

article.

They should be kept in a new

large earthen pot filled with
mud and water from a tank.
dried

Mosses,

and

flesh

tubers

powdered

water-

of

plants should be given

them

for

food. For bedding they should

be furnished with grasses and

leaves of water-plants. Fresh
water and food should be

second

given every

or third

that

day, and every seventh day

belly

be

they

earthen

the

On

changed.
there

is

pot

or

the

which are

thick

or with

central portions

move

subject

the following verse

Leeches
thin

should

thick,

slowly or do not

very
their

which
stick

which they are

which drink little

to the part to

applied,

blood, or whicn are poisonous,

are not

about

fit

for

use.

When

leeches on a

to

apply
person who has got a disease
curable by them, the patient
should be

made

to sit or

lie

when

also

they are seized or caught,

them be put away while

which
is

is

in

their

let
all

own
also

being purged
ought not to be put on
except in a place not healthy
;

CXX1

The

down.

affected part,

free from pain, should

bed with a

cowdung and

little

The

earth.

should

leeches

be taken hold of

then

smeared

with

if

be rub-

and

mixture of

turmeric and mustard reduced

a paste with water. They

should then be placed for a
while in a cup of water, till

to

are

they

relieved

of

their

weariness and afterwards apto the

diseased part.

also

anointments

ought

around the place

iade

be

to

with

paste that they may not touch

the healthy place
also
as
:

often as leeches are applied, put

over them a fine soaked cloth:

plied

\Vhen

being

their

applied,

months should be left open

and their bodies covered witli
fine

white wet rags.

they do

not

If
a drop of

bite,

milk or blood should be applied

may

or a small

to,

made on

be

part.

a leecli

incision

the diseased

If even by these means

cannot be applied, it

should be changed for another.

A
known
the

to

part

have fixed

when

it

shoulder and bends

like

fixed

a
it

leech

is

itself to

raises
its

its

head

horse-shoe.

\Yhcn

be

covered

should

If a leech does
not stick

let

anointed with
blood
bite t

if it

let

the place

milk

still

be

or with

refuses

to

another be applied

in the place of it

CXX11
with a piece of wet cloth and

water sprinked on

little

the

If

occasionally.

it

part

by a leech itches or is
painful, it is a sign that the

bitten

leech

and

drawing pure blood

be removed

is

should

it

from the

it

part.

Iffrom fondness for blood

cannot be readily remov-

ed3 a

little

rock-salt

be sprinkled on

should

its liead.

but if
luish

you

that

tliey

fall

off,

sprinkle their heads {mouths)

with salts and keep them in

a jar. f

There

thus unmistakable evidence here

a chapter of the Sumita or

such work.

of the use

some

is

of

Then again

several drugs, which

are re-

peatedly mentioned in the Charaka and are

almost exclusively Indian products, have been
borrowed in the materia medica of Useibiah
f
|

Dutt's Trans.

The
in the

being
middle ages,

version
"
is

intelligible to us.

of

Rases,

" Latin of the

dog
not

always very

CXX111

and

The

others.

following

may be taken

as

examples

assafcetida

Pepper,

nard,

lac,

occimum,

sanctum,

cinnamon, the chebulic

liquorice,

bdellium,

myrobalans, calamus

acorus, agallacha,

berberis asiatica,

myrrh,
melia azadirechta, calotropis, (asciepias), and
red sandal.
To quote Gildemeister \^
"

hac Indiae parte asportatur agallochum

Kumarense, quod inde nomen cepit." p. 156.
Ex.

Dioscorides _also mentions the three peppers. Arabian

physicians of the tenth century also describe their properties. See
(1)

Dymock, Warden and Hooper's

"

Pharmacographia Indira,"

III.

pp. 176-185.
"
(2)

Nardostachys jatamansi,'' the Nardin of Dioscorides,

"
Gangitis," because the Ganges flowed from the foot

called also

mountains where the plant grows

of the

For the discussion

(3)

"

of

ibid

II. p.

agallocha (sans.

234.

^If

),

see

also

Script, arab. de Reb. Ind./' pp. 65-72.

The

(4)

extract of the

wood was

also

known

under the name of Indian Lycium. " Pharm. Ind.,"

"

the

to the Greeks
i.

65.

we have

the two
Among
strictly
products,
kinds of Pepper (long and round), Cardamoms and Ginger (?)
the "Dolichos," mentioned by Hippocrates and TheoCf.

Indian

phrastus, as well as by later authors,

is

considered to be "Phaseolus

Vulgaris, and to have been introduced from

Alexander."
p. 121.

Royle: "Antiquity

of

India in the time of

Hindu Med.," Lond.,

1837,

CXX1V

cribit, dicit
(

dum

Sindius

''Abuldhali

Indiae regiones des-

Negarunt quidem sodales mei nee tamen istud

praestantissimum est.
Quando laudabatur India Indaque sagitta
'c

campo
"

in

caedis.

Per vitam

meam

terra est

in

quam

decidit.
"

Contingunt- hyacinthi et uniones

ei

si

pluvia

qui moni-

libus caret.
"

originem habent muscus et camphora et

Ibi

ambarum
"

et

agallochum
Et aromatum genera, quibus utuntur qui ino-

dori sunt.
f

'

Et odoramentorum

spica nardi
'

et

Ibi

et

myristica

ibi

lignum aloes

instar

longissimi."

species

et

ebur

et

tectonae lignum,

santalum
"

Ibique est

tutia

mentis

pp. 217-218.

That the Charaka should be changed by

Arabic

writers

into

"

Sarak," Su^ruta into

"Susrud," Nidana into "Badan," Astanga into

u
Asankar" and so forth, need not at all surprise
us.

Such transformations can

plained

on

phonetic

principles.

well

be ex-

Moreover,

cxxv

one must remember that

the

Indian

works

translated into Arabic were sometimes deriv-

ed from

preexisting

Phelvi

versions,

and

in

the migrations through successive languages,

A
the names often got frightfully disfigured.

notable instance of this kind

is

the fables of

and Dimna

from which

Pilpay

(Kalila

afforded by

La Fontaine borrowed the

idea

of several of his fables as he himself acknow"

I
shall only say, from a sense of
ledges
:

gratitude,

that

owe the

largest

portion of

them to Pilpay, the Indian sage." It has

now been made out that Pilpay or Bidpai is
a corrupt form of the Sanskrit word "vidyapati"
(master of learning).

Even long before the time of the Caliphs,

India was the favourite resort of the students
and other sciences.
of medicine
Thus
Barzouhyeh, a contemporary of the celebrated
"

et

(i)

malgre 1'espece de transformation que

ce livre a du subir en
arabe, de

1'

passant de 1'indien en pehlvi, du pehlvi en

arabe en persan, on y retrouve encore des caracteres

frappans de cette origin

Dimna ou Fables de Bidpai, (1816),

"
p. 5.

de Sacy

"Calila

et

D. 531-572),
jSassanian king Nashirvan, (A.
visited India to acquire proficiency in the
Indian sciences.

'

Thomson, Hoefer, Kopp, and Berthelot

have done ample justice to
Arabian indebtedthe claims of the Arabians as

ness to India ignored by the European

historians

of

the originators

che-

mistry.

or, at

as the propagators

any
r

or

rate,
.

alchemy

M. Berthelot,
the middle ages.
Europe
indeed, has recently shown that the ideas and
in

in

humoral pathology and physiology, which were promulgated

theories, as regards alchemy,

the

in

writings of Geber,

Rases,

Avicenna,

Bubacar and others, were essentially Greek

in origin,
though extended and improved

upon by the Arabians.

The French

has, however, presented only

"

fait

one side of the

que Barzouyeh dans sa jeunesse,

(i)
de*ja

un premier voyage dans

\'

Inde,

substances me'dicinales et de simples, et que

qu'

il

avoit

Indiennes

savant

acquis

la

connoissance de
"
ibid, p. 23.

la

pour y rechercher
c'etait

avoit

des

dans ce voyage

langue

et

de Venture
1

CXXV11

shield.

'

In

short, European historians of

have
chemistry
scarcely one word to say on
the indebtedness of the Arabians to the

who

Hindus,

contributed not a

little

to the

Rases, a Serapion, or an Avicenna, who, in turn, were the chief inspirers

of the European iatro-chemists down to the
of a

making

2
i

yth century.

Sachau, the learnedt ranslator and

Prof.

Prof. Sachau, however, does justice to

the claims of India.

"

Cf.

(1)

les

editor

how ever,
Arabes,

Albenini's

of

India,

does justice to the

traducteurs de la science

heritiers et

Berthelot "La Chimie au moyen age," I., preface, ii.

grecque."
Les sciences naturelles furent surtout etudie"es aux ixE et XE
:

'

siecles,

dans
et

attires

celebre ecole

la

medecins syriens de Bagdad,

des

proteges par leurs clients.

Dioscoride,

Galien,

Paul

d'E'gine furent ainsi traduits du grec en syriaque, puis en arabe

parfois meme traduits directement dans cette derniere langue/'
;

ibid, iv.

leur

"

Les califes recherchaient

habilete

Grecs" ibid

or

me'dicale

II.,

Introduction,

les

savants syriens, & cause de

toute

leur science venait

des
I

iii.

Speaking of Albert the Great and Roger Bacon. Kopp

beide haben aus derselben Quelle, den Arabern, ges"
Gesch. d. chem." i. 64. Draper equally ignores the
rhopft."
(2)

writes

''

contributions of the Hindus

were the Xestorians

Kurope," Vol.

I.

p.

"
:

e.g.,

The

and the Jews."

384, ed. 1896.

teachers of the Saracens

"

Hist.

Intell.

Dev.

of

claims of both Greece and India

when he remarks

pect,
"

The

this

in

res-

cradle of Arabic literature

Damas-

not

is

cus but Bagdad, the' protection necessary for its

growth being afforded by the Caliphs of the house
of Abbas.

"

The foundation

of Arabic

between

was

literature

The

750-850 A.D.

laid

a
development
numerous ramifications

with
literature
large
carried out with foreign

of

materials, as in

Rome

the

origines of the national literature mostly point to

Greek sources. Greece, Persia and India were

taxed to help the

We

cannot conclude

than

sum up

Prof.

Sachau

\1

"

What

by two

sterility of the

Arab mind."

chapter better
the words of

this

substance

its

in

India has contributed reached

translations from

through Eran,
from Sanskrit

Pali

been

originally

Prakrit

? )

into

farther from Persian into Arabic.

the fables of Kalila and

municated

to the

come

Bagdad

directly in

the Sanskrit, part has travelled

having
(

Part has

roads.

different

translated

Persian, and

In this way, e.g.

Dimna have been com-

Arabs, and a book on medicine,

probably the famous Charaka

"
cf.

Fihrist ;

"
p. 303.

CXX1X
"

In

communication

this

between

India

and

Bagdad we must

not only distinguish between two

roads, but also between two different

different

periods.
" As

Khalif

Sindh was under the actual

Mansur

(A.

rule of

the

D. 753-774), there came em-

from that part of India

to Bagdad, and
them
who
scholars,
among
brought along with
them two books, the "Brahmasiddhanta" of Brahma"
"
gupta (Sindhind), and his
Khandakhadyaka

bassies

(Arkand).

With

the

help

of

these

pandits,

perhaps also Yakub Ibn Tarik, translated

them. Both works have been largely used, and
have exercised a great influence. It was on this
Alfazari,

occasion that the Arabs first became acquainted

with a scientific system of astronomy. They learned
from Brahmagupta earlier than from Ptolemy.
"

Another

influx of

under Harun, A.

Hindu learning took place

D.

The

ministerial

786-808.
family Barmak, then at the zenith of their power
had come with the ruling dynasty from Balkh,
where an ancestor of theirs had been an official in

Naubehdr i. e. navavihdra,
monastery). The name Barmak

the Buddhistic temple

the
is

new temple

(or

said to be of Indian descent,

meaning paramakq,

superior (abbot of the vihdra ?).

Cf.
Kern/'Geschichte des Buddhismus" inlndien, ii, 445,

i.

e.

the

CXXX1

used

all

over the world.

The

influence

which the

decimal system of reckoning dependent on those

figures has had not only on mathematics, but on the
progress of civilisation in general, can hardly be

During the 8th and gth centuries

the Indians became the teachers in arithmetic and
over-estimated.

algebra of the Arabs, and through them of the

nations of the West.
Thus, though we call the
latter

owe

science

by an Arabic name,

it is

a gift

we

to India."

We

have thus

our readers with

far

attempted to present

a brief, hurried and neces-

survey of the gradual evolution and development of Hindu medicine and

sarily imperfect

alchemy from the Vedic age onward.

hope we have been justified in dividing
entire range into

four distinct

We
this

each

periods,

characterised by fairly well defined features.

There are of course no sharp lines of demar-

cationthe one imperceptibly merging into

the other.
These are (i) The Ayurvedic
Period (2)
The Transitional period
(3)
The Tantric period
The
latro-chemical
(4)
;

period.

cxxx

Of course, the Barmak family had been con-

543.

but

verted,

much

their

contemporaries

never

thought

of their profession of Islam, nor regarded

it

as genuine.
Induced probably by family traditions,
sent
scholars
to India, there to study medicine
they

and pharmacology.
scholars to

come

to

Besides, they engaged Hindu

Bagdad, made them the chief

physicians of their hospitals, and ordered them to

translate from Sanskrit into Arabic, books on medi-

pharmacology, toxicology, philosophy, astroand

other subjects.
Still in later centuries
logy
Muslim scholars sometimes travelled for the same

cine,

as

purposes

emissaries of the

the

Barmak,

e.g.

Almu\vaffak,not long before Albruni's time ("Codex

Vindobonensis, sive medici Abu Mansur liber fun-

damentorum pharmacologiae,
and

1859, PP- 6, 10,

We

shall

extract

work

Seligmann, Vienna,

15, 9."

finish with

from

ed.

Prof.

another appropriate
Macdonell's
recent

l
:

" In
Science, too, the debt of

So

also

Prof.

Macdonell.
J

that

the

"
(i)

Indians

Europe

nas been considerable.

n the

first

invented

Hist. Sans. Lit." p. 424.

to India

There

is

place> the great fact

the numerical figures

cxxxnr

We

count of

now proceed

to give a

rough acthe chemical knowledge of each

shall

period -a more detailed description, especially

of the Tantric period, being reserved for the

second volume.

The flyurvedic Period

(From

the pre=Buddhistic Era to circa

800 A. D.

The Constitution and Properties

the Atomic Theory
IT

is

of

Matter

not our purpose to discuss in the present

volume the theories dominating Hindu medicine

and,

incidentally,

chemistry.

concise

preli-

minary summary of some of the salient features

of the Sarakhya and VaLreshika systems of philohowever, absolutely needed in order to
follow with advantage the excerpts given in this

sophy

is,

from the Charaka, the Susruta and other

In connection with this, it would also be
works.

book

interesting to compare the indebtedness of Hipdoctrines of Parmenides, Empocrates to the

pedocles
school.
(i)

Tome

and

other

philosophers

of

the

same

"CEuvres
i. Intro,

d'

pp.

"

Hippocrate
13 et seq.

by E.

Littre,

Paris,

1839,

In connection with this chapter

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Ka^ada, the founder of the Vaiyeshika system,
chiefly occupied himself with the study of the pro-

The atomic

matter.

perties of

pounded by him,

has

with

Greek

that of the

His theory
to

fail

this

the

of

excite our

distant

common

in

points

philosopher Democritus.
propagation of sound cannot

wonder and admiration even

No

date.

remarkable

less

and heat are only

statement that light

forms of the same

many

as pro-

theory,

at
his

is

different

essential substance. But

Kawada

is
anticipated in many material points by Kapila,
the reputed originator of the Sa/wkhya philosophy.
With the purely metaphysical aspects of these

systems we are not concerned here. Their theories

of matter and its constitution alone fall within the
scope of our

present

briefly refer to

some

The Sawkhya,
of

enquiry.

We

shall

now

of their doctrines.

in

common

with other systems

teaches that salvation in

Hindu

philosophy,
only attainable by perfect knowledge.
to
According
Kapila, there are three sources of

after-life

is

knowledge which consists in right discrimination

of the
perceptible and imperceptible principles
the reader
ed.

19,03,

may also
specially

consult Gomperz'

the articles

" Die
Atomistischen Physiker

",

''Griechische Denker", vol.

"Die Aerzte

pp. 254-298.

"

pp. 221-254,

I.

and

HINDU CHEMISTRY
of the material world from

the

immaterial

soul.

rHe enumerates these principles to be twenty-five

For our present purpose, however a
in number.

few

we

come within our purview. These

of these only
will

language
of Hindu

of Colebrooke,

ago,

authoritative stamp

whose masterly exposition

written

though

thought,

scores of years
:

the inimitable

present to our readers in

still

retains

nearly four
its value and

1
:

TANMATRAS OR PARTICLES.
" Five

subtile

or atoms,

particles, rudiments,

denominated Tanmatras

perceptible to beings of
unapprehended by the grosser

'a superior order, but

senses of mankind

derived from

the

conscious

and

themselves productive of the five

principle,
grosser elements, earth, water fire, air, and space.

FIVE ELEMENTS.
"Five elements, produced from the five elementary particles or rudiments, ist. A diffused,
(i)

Trans. Royal As. Soc., Vol.

pp.

19-43 and pp. 92-118

The European student who wishes to pursue the subject further

"
"
may consult Max Miiller's Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
in which an

ample and exhaustive bibliography

will

be found.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
it has the
ethereal fluid (aka^a), occupying space
property of audibleness, being the vehicle of sound,
:

derived from the

sonorous rudiment or ethereal

2nd. Air, which

atom.

perties of audibleness
to hearing

rudiment or

and

and touch
aerial

is

endowed with the pro-

tangibility,

being sensible

derived from the tangible

atom. 3rd. Fire, which is invested
;

with properties of audibleness, tangibility and

colour
sensible to hearing, touch and sight
derived from the colouring rudiment or igneous
:

atom.

4th.

Water, which possesses the properties

and savour being^

of audibleness, tangibility, colour

sensible to

hearing, touch, sight and taste

derived

from the savoury rudiment or aqueous atom. 5th.

Earth, which unites the properties of audibleness
tangibility, colour, savour

and odour

being sensible-

and smell

derived
hearing
from the odorous rudiment or terrene atom.

to

touch, sight, taste

ANIMATED ATOM.
"The notion

of an animated

atom seems

to

be

a compromise between the refined dogma of an

immaterial soul and the difficulty which a gross
understanding finds in grasping the comprehension
of individual existence, unattached to matter.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

GROSSER BODY.
"The grosser body, with which a
its

subtile

four,

person

is

fruition,

composed

excluding

authorities

others.
ation,

is

the

invested

soul

for the

clad in

purpose of

of the five elements,

ethereal,

or

of

according to some

or of one earth alone, according to

That grosser body, propagated by generis

The subtile person is more
perishable.

durable, transmigrating through successive bodies,

which

assumes, as a mimic shifts his disguises

it

to represent various characters."

We
Ka^ada
also we

now come

to the treatment of the subject

by

famous Vai^eshika system. Here

are indebted to Colebrooke for the fol-

in

his

lowing summary. Kawada arranges the objects of

sense in six categories, viz., substance, quality,
difference

community,
According to him
action,

and

aggregation.

"I.

Substance

aggregate

and

effect or

is

the intimate

product

it is

cause

of

an

the site of qualities

or that in which qualities abide, and

in which action takes place.
of action

"Nine are enumerated, and no more are recognised. Darkness has been alleged by some

HINDU CHEMISTRY

philosophers

but

a distinct one
affirm to

it is

no substance

nor

is

body

nor gold which the Mima/Tzsakas

be a peculiar substance.

"Those

by Ka^ada are

specified

EARTH.
Earth, which besides qualities common tosubstances ( as number
quantity, indivi-

"i.

most

duality,

conjunction,

riority,

gravity,

and

of elasticity),

and

odorous.
is

latent

In
:

is

it

but

and

poste-

priority,

faculty of velocity

has colour, savour, odour and

feel or temperature.

smell

disjunction,

fluidity

Its

distinguishing quality is
succinctly defined as a substance

some instances, as in gems, the smell

it becomes manifest
by calcination.

"It is eternal, as

atoms

or transient, as aggre-

In either, those characteristic qualities are

transitory, and are maturative, as affected by light
gates.

and heat

for

or manifest,

by union with

form,

colour, taste,

perature are in earth 'of any

other colour etc. introduced.

whether

it,

smell

sort

latent

and tem-

annulled,

and

"Aggregates or products are either organised

bodies or organs of perception, or unorganic masses.
'Organised earthly bodies are of "five sorts.
/

The

organ of smell

is

terreous.

Unorganic masses

HINDU CHEMISTRY
are

stones,

integrant

lumps of
is

parts

The

-etc.

clay,

hard,

union

or cumulative

soft

of

as

stones, flowers, cotton, etc.

WATER.
Water, which has the qualities of earth
excepting smell, and with the addition of viscidity.
"2.

Odour, when observable in water is adscititious,

arising from mixture of earthy particles.

"The distinguishing
It

the

quality of water

is

coolness.

a substance, cool to

accordingly defined as

is

feel.

"It

The

atoms transient, as aggregates.

eternal, as

it

the

qualities of

first

constant likewise

are

those of the latter inconstant.

"Organic aqueous bodies are

in

the realm of Varu?za.

aqueous

witness the saliva.

rivers, seas, rain,

"It

is

snow,

of taste

is

Unorganic waters are

hail, etc.

some maintained

by

beings abiding

The organ

that hail

is

pure
water rendered solid by the supervention of an
unseen virtue others imagine its .solidity to be
:

owing to mixture of earthly particles,

LIGHT.
"3.

Light

is

substances; and

coloured,
to

the feel

and
is

illumines

hot: which

other
is

its

HINDU CHEMISTRY
It is defined as a substance
distinguishing quality.
hot to the feel.
[Heat, then, and light are identi-

one substance.]*

fied as

has the

"It
taste,

of earth except

qualities

and gravity.

atoms

eternal, as

It is

smell,

not so,

as aggregates.

"Organic luminous bodies are beings abiding in

The visual ray, which is the

the solar realm.

of sight,
organ
reckoned fourfold

Unorganic

as

or heat

light

may

differently in

regard to either.

seen and

not

felt

seen

visual ray

is

is

is

nor

felt.

which the

fuel

is

both

is

felt

but
the

Terrestrious

earthy, as

that of which the fuel

or

feel,

is felt

but not

seen,

neither seen

light is that, of

Celestial

and
Thus fire

sight

the heat of hot water

moonshine

and

concerns sight and

be either latent or

both

manifest, in respect of

is

light

alvine

celestial,

earthy,

Another distinction

mineral.
feel

lucid.

is

is

fire.

w atery,
r

as

lightning and meteors of various sorts. Alvine

of which the fuel is both earthy and watery
it is intestinal, which digests food and drink. Mineral
is

that
:

is

that which

is

found

maintain that gold

The

is.

in pits, as

solid light

sentence under bracket

is

gold.
;

For some

or, at least that

Colebrooke's own.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
the chief ingredient is light which is rendered solid
by mixture with some particles of earth. Were it

mere

earth,

it

might be calclined by

fire

strongly
Its light is not latent, but overpowered by
urged.
the colour of the earthy particles mixed with
In the Mimamsa, however, it is reckoned as a
it.
distinct substance, as before observed.

and ether

account of air

After giving an

"*
etc.,

Colebrooke proceeds with Kawada's

The term "element

(i)

sense of a component of a

"

was not generally used

compound

perties characteristic of matter, e.g.,

fluidity etc., thus

The Greek
Cf.
41

"

it

four

were

fire

will

extract

The

by Gomperz vol.
also throw much

so-called

regarded

"

elements"

by that

modern

the abstract.

in

not identical, views.

if

moderne Chemie."

die

"

in the

connoted certain pro-

coldness, dryness, heaviness,

philosophers also held similar,

Empedokles und

"

it

referred to certain qualities

Griechische Denker

following

rather

pp.
ed.

i,

light

air,

intellectually

185-86
1903.

of

The

on the subject
earth
and
:

water,

great

philosopher,

Agrigent (about 440 B.C.), as the basis of the world

but neither he himself nor Aristotle, who adopted these into

Empedocles

of

looked upon them as different

system of natural philosophy,

"his

properties carried about by one original matter. Their chief qualities

(the primes qualitates of the later scholastics) he held to be those

apparent to the touch,

of

the

sion

four so-called

of

two

of

viz.,

warm,

elements

is

these properties,

cold,

dry,

and moist. Each

characterised by the possesair

being

warm and

moist,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

jo

CONCEPTION OF THE SIMPLE, BINARY, TERTIARY,

.AND QUATERNARY ATOMS.
" Material substances are
to be

He

maintains the

and

existence
follows
"

by Ka^ada considered
and secondarily, aggegates.
and their
eternity of atoms

primarily atoms

aggregation

are

explained

as

The mote, which

is

seen in a sunbeam, is the

Being a substance

smallest perceptible quantity.

and an
than

must be composed

effect, it

itself

and

this likewise

is

of

what

is

less

a substance and

component part of a substance

This again
that has magnitude must be an effect.
must be composed of what is smaller and that
an

effect

for the

smaller thing

is

an atom.

It is

simple and uncom-

else the series would be endless

and,
posed
were it pursued indefinitely, there would be no
difference of magnitude between a mustard seed
:

water moist and cold, earth cold and dry, and fire dry and
The differences in the material world were, therefore,
to be ascribed to the properties inherent in matter.

warm.

" Aristotle considered that

his four elements were insufficient in

themselves to explain the phenomena of

assumed a

fifth

nature

he

therefore

one, termed ov'via, which he imagined to possess

HINDU CHEMISTRY
and a mountain, a gnat and an
containing an infinity
atom then is simple.

alike

of

11

elephant, each
particles.

The

ultimate

"The

first

compound

consists

of

two atoms:

and there
more than two

for

one does not enter into composition

is

no

that

to

argument
prove,
must, for incohation, be united.
of three double

atoms

for,

if

The next

consists

only two were con-

since it
joined, magnitude would hardly ensue
of
either
number
must be produced
by size or a
patircles

cannot be their

it

Nor

must be their number.

assuming the union of
three

size

and, therefore,

it

there any reason for

four double atoms, since
is

to originate magnitude.
The atom
reckoned to be the sixth part of a mote

suffice

then

is

visible in a
"

sunbeam.

Two

earthly atoms, concurring by an unseen

peculiar virtue, the creative will of God, or time,
or other competent, cause, constitute a double

atom

of earth

and, by concourse of three binary

atoms, a tertiary atom

an

ethereal

or immaterial

is

produced

nature and to permeate the whole

world.

As the "quinta

among

the followers of the Aristotelian doctrine in

Ages, and gave

of

many

isolate

it.

rise to

and by

essentia" this played an

immense
the

role

Middle

endless confusion, from the endeavours

(who, unlike Aristotle; supposed

it

to be material) to

HINDU CHEMISTRY

12

concourse of four

triple

atoms, a quaternary atom

and so

on, to a gross, grosser, or grossest

earth

thus great earth

manner, great water

light, from luminous

The

qualities that

which

produced

appertained

and

in

of

like

from aqueous atoms great

and great air, from aerial.
;

belong to the

primary particle, as
versely, the qualities
found

is

mass

to
its

effect are

the integrant
material cause

w hich belong
T

those
or

part,
;

and con-

to the cause are

in the effect.

"The

dissolution

In

versely.

of

substances proceeds

the integrant

of

parts

in-

an aggregate

resulting from composition, as in the

of
an earthen jar action is induced
potsherds
by pressure attended with velocity, or by simple

substance

Disjunction ensues; whereby the union,

which w as the cause of incohation of members,
is annulled
and the integral substance consisting
pressure.

those

of

"

members,

is

resolved

into

its

parts,

There seems to be a high degree of probability in the assumpEmpedocles and Aristotle did not themselves deduce

tion that

their theory of the

elements, but derived

it

from other sources

thus the oldest writings of India teach that the world consists
of the four elements mentioned above, together with ether, which
last is

most

likely related to Aristotle's

Chem". Eng.

trans, ed. 1898. pp. 7-8.

o'vvta* Meyer's

"

Hist,

of

HINDU CHEMISTRY
and

is

destroyed

for

13

ceases to subsist as a

it

whole.

QUALITY OF THE SUBSTANCE

COLOUR, SAVOUR, ETC.
'*

viz.,

is
closely united with substance j
an
intimate
as
cause of it, nor consisnot, however,
II.

Quality

ting in motion

but

common

appertaining to one.

It is

not a

genus, yet

independent of conjunc-

not the cause of them, not

and disjunction
itself endued with qualities,

tion

"
are,

Twenty-four are enumerated. Seventeen only

but
indeed, specified in Kawada's aphorisms
;

the rest are understood.

"

i.

prehended
substances
teristic

white

a peculiar quality to be aponly by sight and abides in three

earth, water, and light. It is a charac-

Colour.

quality

is

it

is

viz.

of

the

and resplended.

but without
it

It is

lustre. In the

perpetual
variable

last

In

and,

water

it

in
is

that,

is

white,

primary atoms of both

in their products,

not so. In earth

and seven colours are distinguished

white, yellow,

green,

red,

black,

tawny

(or

orange) and variegated. The varieties of these

seven colours are many, unenumerated. The
six simple colours occur in the

atoms of the earth

HINDU CHEMISTRY

14

and the seven, including variegated, in its double

atoms, and more complex forms. The colour of
cause of colour

the

integrant parts is
integral substance.
" 2
Savour. It

in

the

a peculiar quality, to be
the
organ of taste and abides
apprehended only by
two substances, earth and water. It is a
.in
is

characteristic quality of the last

.It is

perpetual in

atoms

water

of

and

in

sweet.

it is

not so in aqueous

In earth it is variable, and six sorts

products.
are distinguished sweet, bitter, pungent, astringent,
:

acid,

and

saline.

a peculiar quality, to be apthe

organ of smell and abides
prehended only by
.in earth alone, being its
distinguishing quality.
"3.

Odour.

It is

In water, odour

union with

is

adscititious,

earthy

particles

being induced by
as a

clear

crystal

appears red by association with a hollyhock, or

other flower of that hue. In air also it is adscititious

thus

which

breeze,

has

blown

over

blossoms, musk, camphor, or other scented substances, wafts fragrant particles of the blossoms,
etc.

The

diminished

flowers
;

are

because

a reproductive unseen

not torn, nor

the.

parts are

virtue.

the

musk

replaced by
However, camphor

other volatile substances do waste.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

15

GRAVITATION.
"12.
Gravity
descent or falling.

the peculiar cause of primary

is

and water.

"It affects earth

by reason

this quality,

Gold

is

affected

of earth contained in

by

it.

"In the absence of a countervailing cause, as

.adhesion, velocity, or some act of volition, descent

from

results

this

withheld from
stalk
.of

the
"

but,

Thus a cocoanut

falling by adhesion

this

of

the

is

foot-

impediment ceasing on maturity

fruit, it falls^

to

According

position

of

is

be inferred from the act

to

Vallabha maintains that

of falling.

the

Udayana Acharya, gravity

but

imperceptible,

in

quality.

thing

it

is

perceived
to a

descending

lower situation.

LEVITY.
"Levity

is

not a distinct quality, but the negation

of gravity.

FLUIDITY.
the cause of original trickling.
"It affects earth, light and water.
It is natural

"13.

and

Fluidity

is

essential in water

adscititious in earth

and

HINDU CHEMISTRY

16

light

being induced by exhibition of

fire in

molten

substances, as lac, gold etc.

is

"Fluidity

perceptible

by external

senses, sight

and touch.
"In

and

hail

ice,

fluidity essentially subsists,

obstructed by an impediment arising from

an unseen virtue which renders the water solid.

but

is

VISCIDITY.
is

"Viscidity

14.

and

the

quality

cause of agglutination.

only.

In

oil,

It

liquid butter, etc.,

watery part of those

of

clamminess

abides
it

in

results

water

from the

liquids.

SOUND.
"15.

Sound

element, and
It

abides

is

a peculiar quality of the ethereal

be apprehended by the hearing,

that element exclusively and is its
to

is

in

Two

characteristic

quality.

ed

and musical.

articulate

sorts are distinguish-

THEORY OF THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND.

"To account
being heard
is

in

propagated

for

sound originating

another,

by

it is

in

one place

observed, that sound

undulation,

wave

after

wave,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

17

radiating in. every direction, from a centre, like

It is not the first, nor
the blossoms of a Nauclea.
.

the intermediate wave, that

but the

last that

comes

is

the sound heard

in contact with the

organ

of hearing: and therefore it is not quite correct

to say, that a drum has been heard. Sound originates

conjunction, in disjunction, or in sound itself.

The conjunction of cymbals, or that of a drum and
in

serve to exemplify the first. It

instrumental cause. The rustling of leaves

may

stick,

is
is

the

an

instance of disjunction being the cause of sound.

Jn some cases, sound becomes the cause of

sound.

the conformity of wind or its

for an adverse
a concomitant cause

In

.calmness

all,

is

wind obstructs
case

the

it.

The

ethereal fluid

that with the sonorous

material cause

is

in

every

and the conjunction of

subject

is

concomitant

cause."

of

It .now only remains for us to furnish a precis

the atomic theory of Karcada in the words of

Max

Miiller

A/vus OR ATOMS.
"

What

is thought to be peculiar to
Kawada,
his
the
of
feature
distinguishing
nay
philosophy,
is the theory of Anus or Atoms.
They take the

HINDU CHEMISTRY

i8

place of the Tanmatras in the Samkhya philosophy.

Though the idea of an atom is not unknown in
.

the Nyaya-philosophy (Nyaya Siitras, IV.

is
it
nowhere so fully worked out as

Vaiseshika.

Kawada argued

there

that

2, 4-25),.

in

the

must

be

somewhere a smallest thing that excludes further

Without this admission, we should have
analysis.
a regressus ad infinitum, a most objectionable
eyes of all Indian philosophers.
he
mountain,
says, would not be larger than a
mustard seed. These smallest and invisible particles

process

the

in

are held by Ka^ada to be eternal in themselves,

but non-eternal as aggregates. As aggregates again

may be

they
of

smelling

organs, and inorganic.

earth organised, the power
earthly organ, stones are

organised

Thus the human body

is

the

is

inorganic.
"It

no

is,

Greek origin
that

doubt, very tempting to ascribe a

to

Ka^ada's theory of atoms. But

theory had really been

the atomic

suppose
borrowed from a Greek source, would it not be
strange that Ka^ada's atoms are supposed never
to

assume

bination

visible

of

dimensions

three

double

till

there

atoms

is

a com-

(Tryawuka),

simple nor the double atoms being

be visible by themselves. I do not
to
supposed

neither the

HINDU CHEMISTRY
remember anything
and

seems

it

to

"

Epicurean authors,
an independent

view of the nature of an

<-

We

eternal,

are told that water, in

an

as

the realm of
ised,

in

to give quite

Kawada's

character to

atom.

like this

me

19

taste

aggregate

Varuwa (god
is

its

atomic

transient.
of the

sea)

the watery organ, rivers

state, is

Beings in
are organare

water

inorganic."

"Light in

its

atomic state

is

an agorganic luminous

eternal, as

gregate transient. There are

bodies in the sun, sight or the visual ray
luminous organ, burning fires are inorganic.

Beings of the air,

touch in the skin
organic

spirits,

Here

air.

the

both atomic and an aggregate.

is

"Air, again,

is

is
it

etc.,

are organised air

organ, wind is inwould seem as if we had

the

aerial

something not very unlike the doctrine of Empedocles.

But though we may discover
the

same thought

in

the philosophies of Karcada

it takes in India

and Empedocles, the form which

is characteristically different from

"
(i)

Indian Philosophy

",

its

Greek form."

pp. 584-85.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

20

DATES OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SUTRAS

THE QUESTION OF
As
sutras,

nothing

the

of

known

is

philosophical
here, as in

we have

depend largely upon constructive chronology.

We
Max

quote below two short extracts from Professor

"Indian Philosophy" which sumMiiller's

marise

all

the subject

thought
in the

the

available at present on

the information
:

we

"If

in

dates

definite

subsequent portions of our history,

the
to

the

regards

PRIORITY.

the

consider

such as

state

of

philosophical

represented to us
Brahma^as and Upanishads, and afterwards
in India

books of

canonical

cannot wonder that

all

of the six recognised

even

their

have

failed.

mutual
It

is

is

it

the

Buddhists,

we

attempts at fixing the dates

systems of philosophy, nay

relationship, should hitherto

true that

Buddhism and Jainism

were likewise but two philosophical systems out of

many, and that it has been possible to fix their
dates.

But

if

in

their case

we know something

about their dates and their historical development,

this is chiefly due to the social and political import-

ance which

they acquired during the

fifth,

the

HINDU CHEMISTRY

fourth,

and the third centuries

E>.

were

there

many

teachers,

Buddha, but they have

C.,

We

to their philosophical tenets.

21

and not simply

know

also that

contemporaries

no traces

of

in the literary

**#,#,#
left

history of India.

"We

cannot

be

far

therefore

wrong

assign the gradual formation

of

of

from

philosophy to the period

century)
to

admit,

to

Asoka

the

(third century),

particularly

in the

six

if

we

systems

Buddha

(5th

though we have

cases of Vedanta,

Sawkhya and Yoga,

a long previous development

back
reaching
through Upanishads and Brahmawas
to the very hymns of the Rig Veda.
"It is equally difficult to fix the

tion of the great systems of

as

explained

mutually.

With

dhism to the

six

before,

relative

posi-

philosophy, because,
quote each other

they

regard to the relation of Budorthodox systems it seems to me

we can

honestly say is that schools of

philosophy handing down doctrines very similar
to those of our six classical or orthodox systems
that

all

are presupposed

by the Buddhist Suttas."

(pp. 116

120)

As regards
also take

the

question

the liberty to

of

priority,

we

quote below from

shall

Prof.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

22

Macdonell's

"Turning

of

"History

Sanskrit Literature"

to Philosophical

early Greek and

that, the

we

Literature,

Indian

find

Philosophers

Some of the
points in common.
leading doctrines of the Eleatics, that God and
the universe are one,
that everything existing
have

in

many

multiplicity

being are

has no

identical,

that

reality,

are

all

to

thinking 'and
in the

be found

philosophy of the Upanishads and the Vedanta

system, which is its outcome. Again, the doctrine
of Empedocles, that nothing can arise which has not

existed before, and that nothing existing can be

annihilated, has its exact parallel in the characteristic

doctrine of the

and

Sawkhya system about

indestructibility of matter.

tradition, Thales,
critus,

According

is

to

Greek

Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Demo-

and others undertook journeys

countries in

there

the eternity

to Oriental

study philosophy. Hence

the historical possibility of the

order to

at least

Greeks having been influenced by Indian thought

through Persia.

"Whatever may be the truth

mentioned, the dependence of
Indian philosophy and science

the cases just

on
Pythagoras
certainly seems

a, high degree of
Almost all
probability.
doctrines ascribed to him, religious, philoso-

to have

the

in

HINDU CHEMISTRY
mathematical were known

phical,

sixth

B.

century

numerous that

in

the

geometry,
the

beans,

Pythagorean
close

theory, the assump-

prohibition

fraternity

as

to

eating
character of the

and the mystical

ancient India.

specu-

all

have their

The

doctrine of

Pythagorean school,

parallels in

so

Pythagorean theorem

the

religio-philosophical

lations of the

are

becomes con-

their cumulative force

elements

five

India in the

in

The coincidences

C.

The transmigration

siderable.

tion of

23

in the case of

metempsychosis
Pythagoras appears
without any connection or explanatory background

and was regarded by the

He

origin.

as

it

Greeks as of

could not have derived

was not known

foreign

from Egypt,

to the ancient Egyptians.

however, of the later

spite,

it

tradition,

should

it

have

In

seems

made

impossible

that

his way' to

India at so early a date, but he could

met Indians in Persia." 1

Pythagoras

quite well have

"

"
22.
Colebrooke
(i)
pp. 421
History of Sanskrit Literature
"I should be disposed
himself sums up his views in these words
to conclude that the Indians were in this instance teachers than
:

learners."

"

Trans. Roy. As. Soc.," Vol.

sophical
there

is

indebted
(1837) p.

i.,

p. 579.

Prof.

H. H.

Hindus derived any of their philoideas from the Greek seems very improbable, and if

Wilson observes

"that the

any borrowing
to the
ix.

in the

former."

case, the latter

Preface to
,

the

were most probably

Sdwkhya Karika

n
Chemistry

in

the Charaka and the Sus ruta

THE CHARAKA

[The subject-matter
practically based

in the

first

few extracts

upon the Vaiseshika system

in this
;

chapter

see ante

is

pp. 6 et

seq.~]

THE TASTES
"The object

THE METALS AND THEIR CALCES

of the

tongue

is taste.

Water and

earth are the objective existences in which taste

In its manifestation and as regards parinheres.
ticular kinds of it, space, air and light are also its
sour, salt, pungent, bitter and
these
are
astringent,
regarded as the sixfold cata* * *
of
tastes.
logue
Objects are again known

adjuncts.

to

Sweet,

be of three kinds,

viz.,

animal products, vege-

and products appertaining to the

earth. Honey, vaccine, secretions, bile, fat, marrow,
blood, flesh, excreta, urine, skin, semen, bones,
tendons, horns, nails, hoofs, hair, bristles and
table products

HINDU CHEMISTRY
the bright pigment

called

25

Gorochand,

are

used

five

among animal products. Gold, the

metals and their ordure [i.e. their calces, the

five

metals

(as drugs)

viz.,

silver,

copper

and iron],
red chalk and

lead, tin

sand, lime, red arsenic, gems, salt,

antimony, are indicated as drugs appertaining to
the earth."

DISCOURSE ON THE TASTES THEIR RELATIONSHIP

TO THE FIVE PRIMAL ELEMENTS THE
NATURE OF THE ALKALI
"Once on a

time,

the son of Atri, and

Bha-

drakapyas .Sakunteya and the full-eyed Maudgalya,

and the golden-eyed Kau^ika, the sinless Bharadvaja
otherwise called Kumara^iras, the blessed king Varyovida, that foremost of all intelligent men Nimi, the
ruler of the

Viafehas,

Vaafoa of high intelligence,

and

Kawkhayana-valhika, that foremost of all

these 7?/shis,
physicians of the Valhika country,
all of whom were old in
and
learning and
years
all

of

whom had

together
desirous

(1)
(2)

subjugated their souls, came

delightful Chaitraratha woods,

to

the

of

passing

few days

in

enjoyment

Concretions found in the gall bladder of the ox.

A. C. Kaviratna's Translation of "Charaka Samhita," pp. 6-7.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

26

and pleasure.

As

those

.were

fiishis

conversant

seated

with

the

there,
every, topic
following
discourse of grave import took place among them
on the subject of the proper ascertainment of

the (different) tastes .and food.

"There

is

one kind of taste said Bhadrakapya;

which persons

skilled in the subject regard as are

the five subjects of the senses, viz., that which
relates to the tongue.
That, again, is not different
from water.

of

"The Brahmawa ^akunteya

tastes, their virtues

being

said there are

two

them cuts or
bad humours or ingre-

that one of

removes from the body all

dients, and the other only checks or curbs them.
"There

are

Maudgalya.

three

tastes,

said

the

full-eyed

Their virtues are cutting, curbing, and

both.

"There are four

Kau^-ika.

They

agreeable

and

tastes,

said

the

golden-eyed

are agreeable and beneficial,

and

non-beneficial,

and

disagreeable

beneficial.

"There

are

five

tastes,

said

appertain to Earth,

Bharadvaja. They
Air and Ether (or Space).

"There are

six

tastes,

said

the

Kumara^ira-

Water,

Fire,

royal,

sage

HINDU CHEMISTRY

and

are heavy, light, cold, hot,

They

Varyovida.

oily

dry.

"There are seven

of

27

the Videhas

They

and

sweet,

tastes, said

sour,

astringent, alkaline

the ruler

said Nimi,

sweet,

astringent

"There are eight

are

are

They

bitter,

pungent,

tastes,

saltish,

sour,

alkaline.

Va^a-Dhamargava.
bitter,

pungent,

saltish,

and that which remains

in

an

unmanifest form.

"The

tastes are

foremost

khayana,
Valhika country,

methods

in

among

the

in

number, said
physicians

consequence

of .the

Kawof the

infinite

virtues, operations or effects and

corrections (or mixture for adding to

their

of

variety

infinite

of

their virtues, etc.,).

"The
said

that

illustrious

the

son of Atri,

number

of tastes

is

Punarvasu,

viz.,

truly six.

They

are sweet, sour, saltish, pungent, bitter and astrinThe source from which these six flow, i. e.
gent.
their origin,

are of

is

water.

two kinds,

viz.,

Their operations or effects

cutting and

curbing.

In

consequence, again, of mixture or combination, they

become both
time.

men.

and

and

curbing at

the

same

are
their
disagreeable
likes
and
dislikes
the
depend upon
Beneficial and non-beneficial are their

Agreeable

divisions
of

cutting

that

HINDU CHEMISTRY

28

powers.

The

fications

of

refuge of the tastes are the modithe five primal elements (of Earth,
Water, Fire, Air and Ether or Space). The tastes,

depend upon the

again,

nature of their

(original)

refuge, the modifications of that refuge, combinations of the substances that form their refuge, as
also place,

"The

and time.

or properties (attaching to the

tastes) occur in those which constitute the refuge
(of the tastes), called objects. Those virtues are
virtues

light, cold,

heavy,

"Kshara

warm,

oily,

dry and others.

from its being

down
or straining).
ksharana
(dropping
produced by
This is not a taste. It is, on the other hand, an
is

(alkali)

so

called

It is, in fact,
produced from many kinds of
Hence, it has many tastes. Among them,
pungent and saline predominate. It is composed

object.
taste.

of

many

objects of the senses.

It is

manufactured

with the aid of different processes.

(i)

The

modifications

the refuge of the tastes.

of the five primal elements

Every substance

cations of those elements.

substances are the

in

them.

refuge

What

is

is

constitute

formed by modifi-

said, therefore, is that material

of the tastes,

i.e.

the tastes

inhere

HINDU CHEMISTRY
"At the

outset, however,

referring to the diversity

refuse of the tastes).

the

we

29

shall say

All objects are the

combinations of

something

of objects (which

five

are the

results of

elements

primal

(viz.,

As
or Space).
regards Medical Science, object are of two kinds,
viz., those endowed with animation and those that

Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Ether

are

inanimate.

The

objects are sound, &c.,

which inhere

attributes

in

heaviness &c., ending with

solubility."

We
of

now

mineral

quote only a few typical

and

instances

metallic preparations.

THE FIVE KINDS OF SALTS

"The
dhava,

five

vit,

kinds of salts

audbhida, with

viz.,

sauvarchala, sain-

samudra."

under the respective headings]

[See Index

MINERALS FOR EXTERNAL APPLICATION

"Sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, realgar,
orpiment and sulphur in combination with vegetable
in

drugs are prescribed for external application

a

ringworm, eczema, leprosy, &c.,"

(1)

Kaviratna's Trans., pp. 295-99.

(2)

Sutra, Ch.

Ill, 4-5.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

30

THE EIGHT

VARIETIES OF URINE

"The

eight varieties of urine are those of the

the
goat, the cow, the buffalo, the elephant,
sheep,
the camel, the horse and the ass."

PREPARATION OF KSHARA (ALKALI)

"A joung butea frondosa is

and dried and finally reduced
is

to

be lixiviated with four or

of water

and strained (through

PILL IRON
"Into the
pyrites

six times

"The ingredients

Ch.

pill

iron

weight
2

compound

of a collyrium are

(1)

Ibid,

Chikitsa/Ch. XXIII, 26.

(3)

Ibid, Ch.,

43.

XVI

28.

conch-shell,

copper, the bone of the

(2)

I,

its

COLLYRIUM

iron,

lazuli,

The ash

linen) 21 times."

rust of iron enter."

coral, lapis

be cut to pieces

to ashes.

COMPOUND

composition of

and the

to

HINDU CHEMISTRY
frog, sulphide of antimony and the seed hyperanthera morunga." 1
[The first five articles are interpreted as mean-

ing the calces thereof.]

POWDER OF PEARL COMPOUND

"Among

the

constituents

of iron,

we

copper and

have, pearl, sulsilver."

powder
[The text does not precisely say whether the

phur,

metals are to

be used as such or as

killed

by

being roasted with sulphur. The Hindu physicians

however always take them in the latter sense.]
IRON,

"A

thin

GOLD AND SILVER TONICS

iron plate

is

to

be made red hot and

plunged into the decoction of the myrobalans, cow's

urine, the solution of

i.e.

'the salts", the solution of the

from the ash of butea frondosa \

made red hot and plunged into one of the

alkali

extracted

When

above liquids at a time.

black

like

collyrium
Ch,

XXVI,

(1)

Ibid,

(2)

Chikitsa, Ch.

is

it

to

the

iron

becomes
* * *

be powdered.

123.

XVII,

The references are according

Sen and U. N. Sen.

to

40.

the edition of Kavirajes D.

N_

HINDU CHEMISTRY

32

"The same process

and

of gold

silver."

to

be adopted

in the

case

RASAYANA DEFINED
"Medicines are of two kinds
the strength and
cures diseases.

vitality of the

the one promotes

healthy, the other

''Whatever promotes longevity, retentive memory, health, virility, &c. is called Rasayana." 2

THE SUSRUTA

PREPARATION AND USE OF ALKALIES AND

ALKALINE CAUSTICS. 8
"Of

cutting instruments and accessory cutting

instruments, caustics are superior inasmuch as
all

perform the work of

they

and

scarifications,

three

humours,

viz.,

the

uniformly affect
are

(1)

Chikitsa Ch.

(2)

Ibid Ch.

(3)

We

Chs. XI and

I.

I.

5,

air,

part

(caustics)

to

are

which they
so

called

pp. 497-98.

pp. 2-6.

have adopted Udoy Chand

XIV

punctures

derangements of the
bile
and phlegm, and

diseased

Kshara

applied.

incisions,

relieve

Dutta's Translation
with certain corrections here and there.

of

HINDU CHEMISTRY

33

because they remove diseased parts and destroy

the

and

skin

From being composed

flesh.

of

numerous medicines they can affect the three

humours. Caustics being white in colour are cooling
or of lunar origin.
This origin is not inconsistent
1

with their burning, escharotic and lacerating proof

Being composed

perties.

medicines,

caustics

are acrid,

numerous
hot and

heating

pungent.

They promote

suppuration, destroy parts, improve

sores
and promote granulation, dry up
unhealthy

stop bleeding and abrade the skin.

Their internal use removes worms, acidity, phlegm,

discharge,

skin diseases, some poisons and corpulence.

excessive use causes impotence.

Their

"

Alkalies are of two sorts, namely, for external

application and internal administration.
They are

used externally
in

keloid,

in the skin diseases called kustha,

ringworm

leucoderma, lepra,

fistula-in-

ane, tumours, unhealthy ulcers, sinuses, condyloma,

moles, chloasma, brown spots on the face, warts,
external inflammations, worms, poisons and piles,
in the seven following diseases of the mouth

and

(i)

The

reader will not

fail

to notice that

silver nitrate

the language of Western Alchemy, named lunar caustic.

is,

in

HINDU CHEMISTRY

34

namely, upajihvd (ranula), adhijihvd (tumour on the

tongue), upakusa (inflammation of the gum), danta-

vaidarbha (inflammation of the

and the three

gum from

injury),

sorts of rohinl or inflammation of the

In these diseases of the mouth, accessory

throat.
instruments, in the shape of caustics only, should be
Alkaline solutions are administered internalused.
ly in chronic or
ascites,

slow poisoning, abdominal tumours,,

loss of appetite, indigestion, disinclination

for food, tympanitis, urinary deposits, calculi, inter-

nal or deep-seated inflammation, intestinal worms,

poisoning and piles. Alkalies do not agree with

and weak people, and persons having

a tendency to haemorrhage from internal organs, or
children, old

a bilious temperament.

They

are injurious in fever,,

giddiness, intoxication, fainting, amaurosis and such

other diseases.
"

Alkalies for escharotic use are prepared like

other alkalies by straining alkaline solutions as else-

where explained

in detail.

They

are

made

of three

He
strengths, namely, weak, moderate and strong.
who wishes to prepare alkalies should in an auspicious day in autumn, fasting and in pure body, select
a middle-aged, large-sized, uninjured ghantdpdtali
tree with black flowers

(Schrebera swietenioides)

growing on an approved spot on a mountain, and

HINDU CHEMISTRY

address

35

with certain mantras or incantations as a

it

preliminary ceremony called adhivdsa. Next day

the tree should be cut or killed after reciting the fol"

Oh you with great

not
thy strength be lost Oh you
fiery power may
auspicious tree, stay here and accomplish my work.
After accomplishing my work you will go to heaven."

lowing mantra or prayer

Then

the

ficial fire,

homa, or burning the sacrishould be performed with one hundred red

of

ceremony

The tree should then be cut to pieces and

a place free from wind.
Some limestone
should be placed on the pile which should be set on

flowers.

piled in

fire

by

stalks of

Scsamum Indicum.

When

the

fire

extinguished, the ashes of the ghantdpdtali tree

and the burnt lime should be kept separate. In the
same way the following trees may be burnt with their

is

root, branches, leaves

of alkalies,

and

fruits for the

preparation

namely

Kutaja

Hollarrhena antidysenterica.

Pala^a

Butea frondosa.

A^vakarwa

Shorea robusta.

Paribhadraka

Erythrina indica.
Terminalia bellarica.

Vibhitaka
(i)

Cf. Rasanzava, below,

are enumerated.

where the standard " plant ashes

'

HINDU CHEMISTRY

Aragvadha

Cassia

Tilvaka

Symplocos racemosa.

Arka

Calotropis gigantea.

Snuhi

Euphorbia

Apamarga

Achyranthes aspera.

Patala

Stereospermum suaveolens.

fistula.

neriifolia.

Naktamala

Pongamia

Vrisha

Justicia adhatoda.

Kadali

Musa sapientum.

Chitraka

Putika

Plumbago' zeylanica.
Guilandina bonducella.

Indravriksha

Terminalia arjuna.

Asphota
Asvamaraka

Nerium odorum.

Saptachchhada

Alstonia scholaris.

Agni mantha
Gunja
4 sorts of Ko^a 4

Abrus preoatorins.

glabra.

Salvadora* persica.

Premna

se-rratifolia.

varieties of Luffa amara."

LlXIVIATION OF THE ASHES

<(

Thirty two seers of ashes should be stirred or

mixed with six times their quantity of water or cow's

This
urine and the mixture strained through cloth.
The
times.
strained
should be repeated twenty-one
should then be boiled slowly in a large pan and
When the fluid becomes clear.
agitated with a ladle.
fluid

HINDU CHEMISTRY

37

pungent and soapy to the feel, it should be removed

from the fire and strained through cloth. The filtrate

being thrown away, the strained

From

be again boiled.

fluid

should

this alkaline solution take

three quarters of a seer."

RENDERING THE ALKALI CAUSTIC

"Then

take eight palas each of Banduc nut,

burnt limestone, conch

them

and heat
the

colour of

same

vessel

fire.

and bivalve

shells

above-mentioned three-

with the

a seer of alkaline

quarters of

them

shells,

an iron pan till they are of

Then moisten them in the

in

water and

reduce

powder. This powder should be thrown

on sixty-four seers of the alkaline water and
to

boi ed with

is

and

constant

careful

agitation

by

Care should be taken that the solution

the ladle.

neither too thick nor thin."

How
"When

TO STORE UP THE ALKALI

reduced

solution should be

poured into an iron

(i)

text,

it

This

is

proper consistence, the

removed from the fire and
to

The opening

jar.

evidently a mistake.

should be "the dregs"

i. e.

or mouth of

According to the original

the precipitate.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

38

the jar should be covered, and should be kept in a

called
secluded
This
place.
preparation is

madhyama

kshara or alkaline caustic of middling

the alkaline water is simply

When

strength.
boiled to the proper consistence without the addition of burnt shells, &c., the preparation is called
mridu kshara or weak alkaline solution. The
J

strong alkaline caustic is prepared by boiling the

w eak solution with two tolahs each in fine powder
r

of such of the under-mentioned

available,

namely

ingredients as are

Danti,

Baliospermun montanum.

Dravanti

Salvinia cucullata.

Chitraka

Plumbago

Langaliki
Putika

Gloriosa superba.
Guilandina bonducell.

Kanaka

Salvinia cucullata.

zeylanica.

Kshiri

Cleome

Vacha

Acorus calamus.

11

Aconite

felina.

carbonate of soda,

root,

asafcetida,

black salt and corals.

"

This solution

opening abscesses.

(i)

is

used for bringing to a head or

These three

"Mridu" may be rendered more

varieties of alka-

accurately as

"

mild."

HINDU CHEMISTRY

39

should be used according to the state of the

disease.
In weak persons, the alkaline water withlies

out the addition of other caustic ingredients, should

be applied

to strengthen the parts."

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOOD AND THE

BAD ALKALI

On
"

this subject there are the following verses

Good

caustics

alkaline

strong nor too

They should be white

weak.

should be neither too

in

smooth and soapy to the touch, should not

spread beyond where they are applied, and act
These are the eight good
rapidly and successfully.
colour,

Their bad qualities consist

properties of caustics.
in their being too weak or cool, too strong or hot
too slippery and spreading, too thick or too underboiled, or they
"

may be

In applying caustic to a patient suffering from

remedy, he should be made

in a spacious place, protected from wind and
The physician should then procure the ins-

a disease curable by
to

sit

sun.

this

truments or necessary
laid

deficient in ingredients.

down

articles

in the fifth chapter.

mine the diseased

part,

and then apply the

caustic

rub,

according to the rules

He should then exascarify

by means

or scratch
of a probe,

it,

and

HINDU CHEMISTRY

40

wait for the space of time required to utter one

hundred words. The diseased part turns black on
the application of the caustic which

a sign of its
having been burnt. The application of some acid
mixed with clarified butter or honey relieves the
If

pain.

does not

is

from the thickness of the burnt part,

fall off,

it

the following application should be

thoroughly applied to it, namely, equal parts of

tamarind pulp, of the refuse of kdnjika (fermented
crude vinegar), sesamum seeds and
liquorice root rubbed together into a paste. Sesamum
seeds and liquorice root rubbed together with
rice

water

i.e.

clarified butter

WHY
" If

promotes granulation

in ulcers."

THE ACID NEUTRALISES THE ALKALI

my

you question,

application of the

son

how

pungent acid of

is

that the

it

kdnjika relieves

the burning of the fire-like hot alkaline caustic, then

hear the following explanation from me. Alkalies

possess

all

the tastes except that of the acid.

acrid taste prevails in

degree

,(cf.

ante

when mixed with

up

its

p.

it

28).

acid

sharp quality.

saline

The sharp

becomes very

From

saline taste, the pain of

fire is

and the

one

.saline

mild,

The

to a less

taste

and gives

this modification of the

caustics

extinguished by water."

is

relieved just as

HINDU CHEMISTRY

41

MILD AND CAUSTIC ALKALIES

It will

of

"

mild

is a distinct mention
" caustic " alkalies in the
body of the

be noticed that there

"

and

The process

text.

of lixiviating the ashes

dering the lye caustic by

improve upon, and appears almost

compared to the crude method to which
to

little

very

scientific

M. Berthelot pays a high

"

and ren-

the addition of lime leaves

tribute

Quatre muids de
cendres sont repartis entre deux cuviers, perces de
trous au fond.
Autour du trou le plus petit, du cote
Fabrication de la

Lessive

mets une petite quantite de foin, pour que

cendre n'obstrue pas le trou. Remplis d'eau le
premier des cuviers recueille le liquide filtre qui en
decoule pendant toute la nuit et mets-le dans le
interieur,

la

second cuvier

grade ce qui filtere de ce second

cuvier.
Mets d'autre cendre (dans un troisieme
cuvier).
Epiuse-la et il se forme une liqueur pareille
au nard couleur d'or. Verse-la dans un quatrieme
cuvier.

La

telleliqueur devient piquante et forte

"
Coll. d. Alch. Grecs"
:

est la lessive particuliere."

III.

trad. p. 357.

We

reproduce the remarks of M. Berthelot on

"
On a regarde comme modernes les

the above

precedes

de lixiviation methodique, usites

pour

HINDU CHEMISTRY

42

exprimer

les

materiaux salpetres le
du manuscrit de Saint-Marc,

cendres et

les

passage suivant, tire

montre que ces precedes remontent au Xle
sans doute au dela."-" Chimie des Anciens

siecle et
"
p. 284.

DESCRIPTION OF BLOOD
(Chapter

"The

XIV

of

Sdtrasthanam)

four varieties of food derived from the five

-elements and having the six tastes, the two properties of heat and cold or according to some, eight

properties and

many

qualtities

when taken

in

moder-

and thoroughly digested, produces a fine

substance imbued with energy and fire. This is

ation

called rasa (chyle).

The heart is the seat of the
rasa or chyle. From the heart it proceeds through

24

arteries,

namely, ten ascending, ten descending,

and four transverse to all parts of the body. By

.some unseen cause or destiny, this chyle continually
nourishes and supports the
satiates, increases,
body and keeps it alive. The motion of this chyle
throughout the body is inferred form the processes
of decline, increase, and diseased condition of the
different portions of the body.

whether

It

may be asked

which pervades all the external

parts of the body, the three humours, the tissues,
this chyle

HINDU CHEMISTRY

cold.

As

this chyle is

should be

known

This watery

fluid

the liver and

into

there

blood
is

the

the

the property of heat or

a circulating fluid, and as it

softens, vitalises, supports

it

of

endowed with

is

secretions,

and the receptacles

blood

including the

43

and nourishes the body,

to possess the cooling property.

no doubt assumes a red colour

that

spleen,
these organs.
following verse

is,

On

in

in

converted

is

it

this

subject

"

The rasa (chyle) of living beings is coloured

red by healthy bile. This coloured fluid is called
The blood excreted by women and called
blood.
the menstrual fluid

is

derived also from this rasa.

This menstruation,

coming

ceases at the

fifty.

"

age of

The menstrual

fluid is

at the

age of twelve,

endowed with

the pro-

perty of heat, owing to the womb being possessed

of both the properties of heat and cold.
Other
writers say that the blood of living beings is

composed

The

of the five elements.

five

qualities

of the five elements as seen in blood are as follows,

namely, fleshy smell,

to trickle or ooze,

(i)

and

liquidity,

red colour, tendency

1

lightness.

Blood

is

Cf. ante pp. 6-7 under Vai-seshika Philosopy.

produced

HINDU CHEMISTRY

44

from chyle,

from blood, fat from flesh, bones from

marrow from bones, and lastly the semen is

fat,

flesh

produced from marrow. The chyle produced from

food and drink nourishes these constituent parts
of the

Living beings are produced from

hence sensible people should carefully

body.

the rasa

preserve this
rules of diet

rasa by conforming to the proper

and regimen." 1

ON THE COLLECTION OF DRUGS

(Chapter

XXXVIII

Sutrashanam)

37 classes of vegetable drugs are mentioned

which chiefly constitute the Materia Medica.

There

only one sloka in which the six metals viz.,

lead
copper, silver, krish^aloha (iron) and

tin,

gold,

is

and

their calces are

recommended.

THE SALTS
Rock-salt, sea-salt,

bit,

audbhid, &c. (see ante p.

(i)

The

reader

Vide

"

Traite*

romaka and

29)..

may compare

Chemistry and Physiology

Geber.

sauvarchala,

the above

of Digestion

theories on

the

and Nutrition with those

d'Alchimie Arabe,

"

trad. pp. 201-3.

of

HINDU CHEMISTRY

45

THE ALKALIES
Yavakshara

carbonate

(factitious

or

of

potash),
alkaline

the

natron)
(trona
sarjikakshara
solution prepared according to directions given in

Ch. XI

and borax.

Internal administration of alkali

ed

dissolving the stones or

for

is

recommend-

gravels (urinary

calculi).

INTERNAL USE OF LEAD AND TIN

Lead and

tin

are

property also accepted

Powdered

tin

described

as

vermifuge

by the later latro-chemists.

rubbed for seven days together

with the creamy portion of curd

for internal administration.

is

recommended

MINERALS FOR EXTERNAL APPLICATION

For the treatment of ulcer an external application

of

sulphate

of

copper,

orpiment and realgar, &c.,

(i)

From

is

sulphate

of

iron,

prescribed.

the time of the Charaka and the Susruta,

Pharmacy has always recognised these two

Hindu

alkalies as distinct.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

46

Another recipe includes alum-earth, red-ochre,

sulphate

of

yellowish (basic) sulphate of

copper,

iron, rock-salt,

orpiment and realgar.

ROASTING OF IRON AND OTHER METALS, so AS

TO RENDER THEM FIT FOR INTERNAL
ADMINISTRATION.
Thin leaves

of cast iron are to be smeared with

"
the levigated powder of " the salt
and heated in

the

fire

of the

cow-dung cakes and then plunged

myrobalans and asafcetida.

into a decoction of the

This process is to be repeated 1 6 times. The leaves

are then to be ignited in the fire of the wood of

mimosa catechu and afterwards finely powdered

and passed through linen of fine texture.

The above

process

is

equally applicable to the

roasting of the other metals.

THE ORIGIN OF BITUMEN

The

origin of bitumen

the Charaka and the

much

Bower Ms.

(1)

Chikitsitasthanam Ch.

(2)

See Note on the

"

is

the

same

as in

the only difference

XIX, 37, ed. J. Vidyasagara.

Metals and their Salts " p. 48

HINDU CHEMISTRY

47

according to Siumta, bitumen is related

to six instead of four metals (see below p. 53).

being

that,

IRON PYRITES
Pyrites are collected on the bank of the
of the lustre of gold and silver respec-

Iron

river Tapi,
tively (see

Bk.

II,

below under

77-81

"

Rasaratnasamuchchaya
and prescribed in the treatments

",

of

diabetes, leprosy, &c.

GOLD DUST
Gold

dust,

mixed with

lotus seed, honey, &c. is

used as a tonic.

THE POISONS
The Poisons

are classified as animal, vegetable

and mineral respectively. Under the last we have

Phenasma bhasma and orpiment.

1

(i)

It is

very doubtful

sometimes taken to mean white arsenic

if

but

Susruta meant any native white arsenic by

derivation of the term implies that

.sort of

"
;

stone or ore.

"

Dutt.

it

it.

it

is

The

was obtained by roasting some

HINDU CHEMISTRY

48

USE OF MERCURY
The only

references to mercury, which are however very vague, are CTTT:

r.

*T:

and

NOTE ON THE METALS AND THEIR

J

SALTS
Six metals are
lead, copper, silver

namely

recognised,

and gold.

The

tin, iron,

thin leaves of

the metals by being plastered over with a paste of

" the salts "
(see p. 46) including common salt,

and sulphate of magnesia and afterwards subjected to roasting were no doubt converted into their respective oxides, chlorides or oxysalt-petre

chlorides as the case

(i)

be.

We

have thus

in

^I

\
iT*raiftrJrcT?nf*r

x )9

may

* * *

^I^?T

^^^ir>

Chikit.,

en.

(2)

a^t^^I^ ^ftT^t

^^I?l

Chikit.,

SS^TOTOraii^ftS^tf

XXXVIII,

56.

Ch. XIII,

3.

Sutra., Ch.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
the

Siumta a crude and

49

imperfect, but

all

the

same

potentially modern, process for the preparation of

The much reputed " potable
the metallic salts.
"
in the shape of the chloride of the metal
_gold

was probably

in

this

way

interesting to note the

obtained.

successive

evolution of the chemical processes

It

will

be

in

the

stages
as we proceed.

"
(See below especially under Chemistry in Rasar^ava," where the mixture of the salts is technically

named

"

-common

vi<^a

"

and consists of green

vitriol,

alum,

salt, salt-petre, &c.).

The reader

an analogy in the ancient

Egyptian and Greek methods as preserved in the
Leyden Parchment, one or two extracts from which
cannot fail to be of interest. It may be added by
will find

explanation that mineral acids being unthe ancients they had often to take
recourse to the roundabout way of heating metals

way of
known
in

to

combination with a mixture of blue

peras,

common

Acids")
'"

in

Ayant

salt

order to get their

copMineral

vitriol,

and so on (see under

"

salts.

pris quatre paillettes d'or, faites-en

lame, chauffez-la et trempez-la

une

dans de

la couperose
de
1'eau
et
autre
avec
une
avec
broyee
(couperose)
seche, battez
(une partie)...une autre avec la

matiere melangee: deversez la rouilleetjetez dans..."

HINDU CHEMISTRY

50

"

II
y a la deux recettes distinctes. Dans toutes
deux figure le sulfate de cuivre plus ou moins fersous les noms de
chalcanthon
ou
rugineux,

couperose et de sory. La seconde recette semble un

fragment mutile d'une formule plus etendue. La
premiere presente une grande ressemblance avec
une formule donnee dans Pline pour preparer un

remede avec
torrefies

Tor,

avec

lui

en communiquant aux objects

une propriete specifique active,

designee par Pline sous

nom de

virus

...ce qui complete le rapde Pline et celle du

la
entre
formule
prochement
papyrus. Voici les paroles de Pline
:

"

On

torrefie

avex deux

1'or

dans

son poids de

fois

un vase
sel et

de

trois

terre,

fois

son

poids de misy puis on repete 1'operation avec 2

parties de sel et i partie de la pierre appelee
schiste.
De cette facon, il donne des proprietes
;

actives aux substances chauffees avec

demeurant pur
que

1'on

"

Le

lui,

tout en

residu est une cendre

conserve dans un vase de terre."

Pline

comme

et intact.

ajoute

remede.

que

Ton

L'efficacite

emploie ce residu

de

1'or, le

plus parfait

des corps, centre les maladies et contre les malfices

est un vieux prejuge. De la, au moyen age, Tidee de
I'or

potable.

La preparation indiquee par Pline

HINDU CHEMISTRY
devait

contenir

less

metaux

51

etrangers

sous forme de chlorures ou d'oxychlorures.

fermait-elle aussi

un

sel

d'or

la

rigueur,

Tor,

Renil

se

le chlorure de sodium, en presence

des sels basiques de peroxyde de fer, ou meme du
bioxyde de cuivre, degageat du chlore, susceptible

pourrait que

d'attaquer Tor metallique ou allie, en formant du

chlorure d'or, ou plutot un chlorure double de ce
metal. Mais

tous

cas,

la

Tor

chose
se

n'est

demontree.

pas

trouve affine

dans Toperation

precedente."

(I)

En

"Coll. des Anciens Alch. Grecs," Vol.

I.,

pp. 14-15.

CK A F T EH
Chemistry

in

III

the Bower Ms.

THE ALKALIES
The

alkalies

in

the

Bower Ms.

carbonates of potash and soda.

are the

two

(Yavakshara and

Sarjikakshara)

FUMES OF HORN
The fumes
relief

"

in

of horn are

hiccough.

recommended

[Practically

the

as giving
same as

spirits of hartshorn."]

KSHARATAILA
"

with the ashes of long pepper, is

a remedy for ear diseases" (Pt. ii. fasc. ii. p. 131).
[Cf. The formula given in Chakrapam (see p. 63)]
Oil, boiled

FORMULA FOR HAIR-DYE

Sulphates of copper and iron, boiled with the
* * * are used as a
myrobalans

oil of belleric

HINDU CHEMISTRY
for

remedy

turning

53

grey hair into black

(ibid

p. 162).

RASAYANA DEFINED
called Rasayana because it has a beneficial
on Rasa or chyle and other elements of the

It is

effect

Cf. p. 32.

Dody.

THE DOCTRINE OF BITUMEN*

Bitumen

produced from the following four

Gold, copper, silver and iron. Gold and
other metals in the mountains, when heated by the
metals

is

sun, emit their impurities, oil-like,

like

heavy and clay-

these are the bitumen.

LiNCTUS

"
riparian
vegetable drugs and
2
is
made
of
a
linctus
sulphide
up with
antimony,"
into
a
ii. fasc. n.
(Pt.
honey
p. 123)
paste.

With

(1)

sion,

ch.

is

certain

The whole
found

xii., p.

in

of this chapter, in

the Charaka.

a practically identical recen-

See Bower Ms.,

Pt.

II.,

fasc.

ii.,

167.

it is one of the five kinds of anjana or

used for collyriums. The word literally means produced from a river, especially from the Yamuna. See Garbe's

(2)

Srotaja anjana

substances

"Indische Mineralien,"

p. 54.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

54

FORMULA FOR EYE-OINTMENT

Red
(

ochre, rasot, galena, realgar, calx of brass

'ftfclliS*

in equal parts. % .

With pepper and

boil

gold on a slow

butter.

(2)

calx (of brass)

fire

together

The Bower

Ms., Pt.

I.,

verses

no

one should

with

and in.

clarified

Chemistry

typical

recipe

example

in the

is

Vagbhata.

contained in the following

Sulphate of copper, red ochre, realgar, orpiment

sulphate of iron, &c., are recommended for external
application for genital sores.

PREPARATIONS OF GOLD, SILVER, COPPER,

IRON AND LEAD
Gold, copper, silver, iron or tin are to be taken
with the myrobalans, rock-salt and honey, &c.
Gold, silver, copper and iron are to be taken
in conjunction with

Take 64

"
(i)

the native
it,

we know

bitumen and milk.

parts of stibium

^tcTl^l"
sulphide of

and one part each

of

stibnite

or

"

Srotonjana

is

antimony (See

p.

evidently
53)

not on what grounds, as calx-spar.

Dutt

translates

HINDU CHEMISTRY

56

copper, iron, silver and gold

a closed crucible, &C. 1

now

roast

them

ia

Take 30

parts of lead, 5 parts of sulphur, 2 parts

of copper and orpiment each, I part of tin and 3
Now roast them in a closed
parts of stibium.
crucible.

[Here as well as in the preceding j-loka, we

have distinct mention of ti^^i or a crucible with
the lid on. This is one of the preparations which cart
be brought into

line

with those of the Tantric and

latro-chemical periods.]

PREPARATION OF ALKALI AND CAUSTIC

ALKALI
3

[As Vagbha^a borrows

of alkali almost

word

for

method of preparation
word from SuiTuta, it is

his

quite superfluous to reproduce

(1)

Uttarasthanam, Ch. XIII,

Ch. XIII,

(2)

Ibid,

(3)

Siitra.,

Ch.

p. 31-32.

XXX.

it

here.]

p. 20-21.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

57

USE OF MERCURY
Take equal
them up

parts of mercury and lead and

make

into a collyrium with their equal weight

and

[This is perhaps the

camphor.
instance
in
which
the
mention
of mercury is
only

of stibium

found.]

(i)

"Uttarasthanam," Ch. xin, 36.

but slight
ht variations,
xxiii,

46

occurs also in

This very formula, with

Rasaratnasamuchchaya, Ch.

The Transitional Period

(From 800 A.D. to circa
Chemistry

the

in

and

1100 A.D.)

Siddha Yoga of Vrinda

in

Chakrapanf

VRINDA

(Circa 900 A, D.)

PREPARATIONS

IN

WHICH SULPHIDE OF COPPER

AND

yExmops MINERAL FIGURE

Sulphur,

copper

and

the

pyrites

are to be

pounded together with mercury and subjected to

roasting in a closed crucible and the product thus
obtained to be administered with honey. This is
1 "
as " parpati tamraw.

known
(i)

is to

This preparation does not occur in the Poona edition, but

be found in the Kasmir Ms. under

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Take one

59

part of sulphur and half

its

weight of

mercury [The components to be rubbed together.]

same to be administered
........................ The
with

honey and

clarified

butter.

This

"

rasamr/ta churwaw. 1 "

s.

or piper betle, and applied externally,

Quicksilver,

called

rubbed with the juice of dhatura

kills

lice.

ed. p. 122.)

(Poona

A
Compounded
the

occur

is

(Poona

of 14 ingredients

belleric

copper and blue

COLLYRIUM

myrobalans,

vitriol

all

in the

amongst

which

rock-salt,

killed

powdered form.

edition, p. 470.)

This very preparation,

occurs in

Chakrapawi

arjuna Varti.

in

under

identical

the

recension,

name

of " Nag.

"

PROCESS OF KILLING IRON

The, text which occurs only in the Kaj-mii Ms.

under w?i*nfairrc:
unfortunately in a i^'itii

lated from,"

(i)

the

Vide

Poona

would seem
K&smfr

edition.

to indicate that the iron is

Ms. under ^H3fq*ufa^n*:,

omitted in

HINDU CHEMISTRY

60

to

be

first

the juice

ignited in the fire and then macerated in

of the emblic myrobalan, and trewia

nudiflora and exposed to the sun, and again to be

macerated in the juice of certain other plants and
then to be rubbed in a mortar.

CHAKRAPANI
(Circa 1060 A. D.)

BLACK SULPHIDE OF MERCURY

(KAJJALI)

or

Mineral

The

first

process consists in the purification of

mercury.
"

Quicksilver,

rubbed

expressed from sesbania

munis,

repeatedly in the juice

ricinus comaculeata,

zingiber and solanum

nigrum,

becomes

purified."

"Take one

part of mercury and one part of

rub
the
two together in a mortar and thus
sulphur,
or
rasaparpati?"
prepare kajjali

(i)

Chakrapawi himself claims

introduction

its

discovery or at any rate

^qmlj-fT ^Tcff fa^T

however, recommends its use as well.
its

^tfiqifalT

Vr/nda,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

62

TAMRAYOGA

(LIT.

POWDER OF COPPER

COMPOUND)
Nepalese copper and embed
it in
powdered sulphur. The substances are to be
placed inside a saucer-shaped earthen-ware vessel
11

Take a

thin leaf of

The

and covered with another.

rims are luted with

The apparatus
rice-paste.
sugar or powdered
heated in a sand-bath for three hours. The

is

copper thus prepared

with other drugs.

is

pounded and administered

"

PROCESS OF KILLING IRON

"

shall

now

describe

the science of iron as

[A tedious
promulgated by the sage Nagarjuna."
process given with wearisome minutiae of which
the substance only is reproduced below.]
bar of iron is to be rubbed with the levigated
powder of the following vegetable products among

others
vitis

the

belleric

myrobalans, clitoria ternatea,

quadrangular is, boharhaavia diffusa and
:

verbesina calend.

It

is

then strongly heated to

into the decoction of

the fusion point and plunged

the myrobalans. The iron

then

powdered by

being beaten with an iron hammer.

The powder

is

HINDU CHEMISTRY

63

then digested in the decoction of the myrobalans

and roasted repeatedly in a crucible.

is

MANDURA OR RUST OF
Rust of iron

is

prescribed in

IRON.

combination with

other drugs.

RECIPE FOR A SOAP TO BE USED AS A

DEPILATORY.

The ashes

and cassia

of schrebera swiet.

are to be mixed

with

lime

lixiviated with the urine of

fist.

from burnt shells and

the

ass.

The

lye

is

then to be boiled with a definite weight of mustard

oil-

PREPARATION OF CAUSTIC ALKALI

[Much

the

same as

in the Su.yruta]

CALX OF SILVER
In

"
"
a preparation named yogaraja

calx of silver (probably in

figures as a component.

^^TfloT

or

the shape of sulphide)

The Tan trie Period

From

1000 A. D. to circa 1300 A.D.

Chemistry

[InRasarwava, as in
ledge

tween

in

Rasarnava

all

other

Tantras, know-

the shape of a dialogue beimparted

Bhairava (5"iva) and his consort Parvati.]
in

is

EXTRACTS FROM BOOK IV ON APPARATUS

AND THE COLOUR OF FLAMES
Sri Bhairava said

"The

rasas, the uparasas (see p. 79), the metals,

a piece of
lows,

iron

(see p. 72), a

implements,

known

(see p. 69),

the apparatus

blow pipe

vu/am

pair of belstone pestles and mortars,

cloth,

as Kosh^i

cow-dung,

mouth

substantial

wood

(as fuel), various kinds of earthen apparatus (e.g.

crucibles &c.), a pair of tongs and earthen and iron

vessels, weights

and balances, bamboo and

iron

HINDU CHEMISTRY
pipes, the fats, the acids, the salts

65

and the

alkalies,

poisons all those are to be collected and

chemical operations begun,"
the

DOLA YANTRA^
As

R.

R.

S.

borrows the description of

apparatus verbatim,
here.

it is

unnecessary

it

AN APPARATUS FOR
"

this

to repeat

Make two

length,

the

iron

KILLING METALS
each 12 digits

crucibles

one with a narrow

orifice

in

containing

inserted into the other holding mercury

.sulphur
below the mercury is placed water [in a separate
is

The mercury and the sulphur should

vessel].
be carefully moistened in garlic juice, which has
been filtered through a cloth. The apparatus is

now lodged

in

an earthen pot and another placed

over

cloth previously
it, the rims being luted with
*
*
smeared with earth
now cow-dung fire is

urged.

After continuing heating for three

(1)

R. R. S.

(2)

See Book

is

the abbreviation for

ix. of

R. R. S.

days

'

Rasaratnasamuchchaya."

HINDU CHEMISTRY

66

is taken out."
[This description, in
almost identical recension, occurs in R. R. S. under

the apparatus

name

the

The language

of anrmiq^m.

is

faulty

and

the meaning not very clear.]

GARBHA YANTRA^
"

now

shall

describe
l

for

reducing pistikd

and 3

digits in length,

the

Garbha Yantra^?

Make

ashes.

to

in

digits

a crucible

width, with its

Take 20 parts of salt and one

bdellium and pound them finely, adding water

mouth rounded.
of

frequently

rub

the

crucible

Make
apply gentle heat.

days the mercury

with

this

mixture.

paddy husks and

In the course of one to three

is

fire

of

reduced to ashes."

{Vide

Illustrations.]

EFFICACY OF THE APPARATUS

"

For

paratus

(i)

is

killing

indeed

and colouring mercury, an apa power.

Without the use of

cake of mercury and sulphur.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

67

herbs and drugs, mercury can be killed with the

aid of an apparatus alone hence an expert must
;

not disparage the efficacy of the apparatus."

HA^/SAPAKA YANTRA.W

"Take an
and place

Now

in

digest

with the

this

and

dish

over

it

fill

apply

it

with sand

gentle

heat.

apparatus

five- alkalies (cf.

(see p. 30),

known

earthen

another

[the ingredients]
pp. 45 and 69), the urines

and the "vi^a"

(see

p.

72).

This

is

1
Hawsapaka Yantraw by the adepts:"

as

CRUCIBLES
"

Earth of black

red,

burnt husks of paddy, soot, earth from

the ant-hill, well burnt

horse

the

yellow and white colour

excrements of the goat and

rust

of

iron

"

[varying proportions of the above ingredients are

used for making crucibles, retorts, &c.]
"

There are two kinds of crucibles, viz., open

and covered (lit. blind) * * * the covered one

(i)

R. R. s.

has borrowed the descriptions of Garbha Yantraw

and Hamsapaka Yantraw.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

68

resembles the nipple of a cow and

lid, which has a raised head.

fitted

is

with a

" For the

purification of silver, the crucible is
best made of two parts of the ashes of schrebera

swietenoides, and one part each of brick dust and

earth,"

COLOUR OF FLAMES
"

Copper

the tin

is

a blue

yields

pigeon-coloured

that of the iron

tinted*
"

11

peacock

ore (^asyaka)

is

flame

that

that of the lead

is

tawny;

red."

is

of

pale-

...that of the

TEST OF A PURE METAL

"

pure metal is that which, when melted in a

crucible, does not give off sparks nor bubbles, nor
spurts, nor emits any sound, nor shows any lines

on the surface, but

(1)

The porous

is

tranquil like a

crucible

is

gem.

of the nature of a "cupel".

"Lead compounds impart a pale tint to the nonluminous gas flame." (Roscoe and Schorlemmer.)
The reading in the Mss. seems to be defective.
(3)
(2)

Cf.

(4)

Or

in

modern phraseology shows

''signs of tranquil fusion.'

HINDU CHEMISTRY

69

KosHn APPARATUS
"

For extracting the essence of metals a kosh^i

apparatus [Vide Illustrations] is preferred, which
is

6 digits in width and 2 cubits in length."

COLOPHON TO CHAPTER

IV.

"

Here ends Chapter fourth of Rasarwava,

which treats of apparatus, crucibles and the colour
of flames."

THE ALKALIES
"

The

(natron)

The ashes

three

and Yavakshara
of

sapientum.,

perma,

alkalies

are

the

borax,

trona

(carbonate of potash).

sesamum, achyranthes aspera, musa

butea frondosa,

mochika,

moringa pterygos-

(schrebera

swietenioides) f

raphanus sativus, zingiber officinale, tamarindus

indicus and ficus relig., respectively are regarded
as the standard plant

ashes (a^anT:)

VII.

12-13

THE MAHARASAS
"Bhairava said
pala,

rasaka,

"makshika, vimala,

^asyaka, darada

(p.

78)

.sila,

cha-

and sroton-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

7Q

-these are the eight

jana,

maharasas." [Vide

and "Explanatory Notes on Minerals."]

COPPER FROM THE

"

p.

79

VII. 2-3

PYRITIES.

Makshika, repeatedly soaked in honey,

oil

of

ricinus communis, urine of the cow, clarified butter

and the extract

of

the bulbous root of

iuni)

and heated

in the
"

shape of copper.'

Vimala,

musa

VII.

with alum,

digested

sapien-

an esse'nce

in a crucible, yields

12-13

green
borax and the watery liquid expressed from moringa
pter., musa s., and finally roasted in a covered
vitriol,

crucible in combination with the ashes of schreb-era

swiet, yields an essence in the shape of
of gold-like lustre.)"
(lit. copper

Chapala

[See under

R. R. s.

Bk.

chandrarkct

VII. 20-21

ii.]

BRASS FROM GALA-MINE AND COPPER MISTAKEN

FOR GOLD.
"

Rasaka: There are

of yellow colour, of the

(i)

R. R. s.

appearance of

characteristics of the

that "

Vimala

is

mineral, from

also a variety of pyrjtes.

which
[Vide

namely
and

treacle,

has borrowed this description and

more

"

three, kinds of it;

it
JR.

added some

would appear
R. s. Bk. ii.]

HINDU CHEMISTRY
of the

colour of stones.

71

What wonder

is

it

that

Rasaka mixed with

[certain organic matters] and

roasted three times with copper converts the latter
into gold ?"
VII. 31-34

EXTRACTION OF ZINC FROM CALAMINE.

Rasaka, mixed w ith wool,

borax and roasted

chebula and

T.

lac,

a covered crucible, yields an

essence of the appearance of tin of this there is
in

VIL 37-38

no doubt."

VII. 41-44
[These couplets have been borrowed word for
word by R. R. S. Vide Bk. ii hence repetition is
.Sasyaka.

unnecessary.]

SAURASHTRI.
Saurashtri,
R. R. S.,

alum,

of

distillation

which has also borrowed

(See under

this description

VII. 73-74

-verbatim.}

THE METALS.
"

goddess

the metals.

listen

now

to

what

say about

HINDU CHEMISTRY

72

''

Gold, silver, copper, .iron, tin and lead' these

are the six metals and their resistance to waste
[/. e.

the order in which they have

VII. 89-90

in

is

rusting]

been mentioned."

THE KILLING OF METALS

"

Hear

attentively as

"VLDA."

now speak

shall

of the

killing of metals.

"

There

not be

no such elephant of a metal which can-

is

killed

by_

the lion of a sulphur." VII. 138-148

Bhairava said
sauvira*, the

"
:

Kasisa

1
,

rock-salt, the pyrites,

aggregate of the three spices

the

8
,

sulphur,

expressed from malati* all

these moistened with ,the juice of the root of
saltpetre,

juice

moringa

pter.,

makes a

viafa,

which would

IX. 2-3

[the metals]."
"

kill all

Sulphur, orpim'ent, sea-salt, salt, sal-ammoniac,

these digested with the ashes and the urines,

borax

give rise to another kind of vi^/a."

goddess
have told you
want to hear ?"

ingredients,
tions.

(i)

Green

vitriol.

(2)

long pepper and dry ginger.

Having thus

collected the

begin the chemical operaall,

Stibnite.

what more do you

IX. 4-20
(3)

namely, black pepper,

(4) Echites caryophyllata,

Rox.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

73

PURIFICATION OF QUICKSILVER.
r

Quicksilver rubbed with the juice of the afore-

said plants

(vide original text)

and

times, becomes pure."

"
Quicksilver, made into a paste

seven

distilled

by being rubbed

with copper and subjected to distillation, leaves

behind tin and lead [with which they are often
adulterated] and becomes pure."

X. 55-56

KILLING OF MERCURY.
"

Green-vitriol,

the aforesaid
kill

mercury

alum,

salt,

borax,

mixed with

vegetable drugs, (vide original

in

an instant

[in

mel."]

text),,

the shape of caloXI. 24

KILLING OF GOLD
"

Salt-petre,

green

vitriol,

sea-salt,

rock-salt

mustard, borax, salammoniac, camphor, the pyrites

all these are to be taken in
equal parts. The
crucible

is

to

be smeared with the milky juice of

euphorbia neriifolia and asclepias glgantea

then,,

-having added the powder of the aforesaid "vu/a,"

the gold is to be killed, my beloved !"

XL

83-84

HINDU CHEMISTRY

TESTS FOR KILLED MERCURY

"

When

mercury assumes

the

after having given up

its

fluidity,

divers
it

is

colours

known

as

swooned killed mercury is that which does not

show signs of fluidity, mobility and lustre."
;

XL

197-198

COLOURING OF METALS
"

and copper are coloured by means

the whole turns into gold." (Cf. VII.

Iron, lead,

of calamine

XII. 50

31-34.)
"

and

Mercury

composed

of

the

represents Siva, himself."

"Take one

it

is

five

elements
II.

78

mercury and rub

with the same weight of sulphur and roast the
pala of the ash of

mixture in a covered crucible thus we get vermilion of the colour of the rising sun."
XVI. 81
"
Take the vitriol which is of the colour of the
:

throat of the peacock,

the excrement of a

saffron,

calamine, as also

young calf, the poisons,

powdered plumbago zeylanica, all in equal proportions, rub them with the acids and dry in the
shade.

Having added honey

to the

above mixture,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

smear
in a

it

on a thin sheet of

covered crucible, the lead

the lead which

is

now

lead.
is

75

When

roasted

coloured in no time

of beautiful colour

1
bedecking the persons of the gods."

is fit

for

XVIII. 70-74

Refers probably to the "gold-like alloy used by watch(l)

makers" into the composition o which copper, zinc and lead enter.
See Roscoe and Schor., 1 1. p: 494, ed. 1897.

The latro-Cbemical Period

(From 1300 A. D. to circa 1550 A.

Chemistry

in

Rasaratnasamuchchaya

BOOK
Salutation to him

physician

of the

D.)

world

the excellent, the greatest

by the nectareous ocean

whose benign glance, resplendent with brilliance,

born of everything that is joyous and auspicious
and which acts like unfailing elixir, the diseases of
of

such as

his devotees,

birth,

age and

death, old

worldly attachment, are cured in an instant.

(i)

The

salutation

is

strictly

Buddhistic and

on

is

all

fours with

the opening lines of Vagbha/a's Ashtangarhndaya and of Amarakosha, both of which are known to be by Buddhist authors cf.
;

also Lalitavistara

at fat

vii.

p.

123,

R.

L.

Mitra's ed

>

xii > p-

5o.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
A

Adima,
Kapali,

Lanke^a,

Chandrasena,

77

BLmrada,

Matta,

Mandavya, Bhaskara, Siirasenaka,

Naravahana,
Sambhu,
Sattvika,

Ratnako^a,
Indrada.

Gomukha, Kambali,

Vya^/i,

Nagarjuna,

Khanda,
and
Hari
Brahma,
Govinda,
Lampaka
Kapalika,
these are the twenty seven experts on Alchemy as
Surananda,

Nagabodhi,

also Rasawkusa, Bhairava,

Ya^odhana,

Nandi, Svachchhanda-

Kakachanduvara,

Manthanabhairava,

bhairava,

Vasudeva, /?/shyajringa, the compiler of alchemy,

the ascetic Rasendratilaka, Bhaluki, who has got the
appellation

of

Maithili,

Mahadeva,

Narendra,

Ratnakara and Haruvara.

This
minerals,

treatise

on

2-7

well-tried

mercurials

and

named ''Rasaratnasamuchchaya," adapted

to the treatment of diseases,

is

being compiled by

the son -of Si?hagupta, after having consulted the

works of the aforesaid adepts and others. It will

minerals and the metals, the

treat of mercury, the

construction of the apparatus, the mystical formulae

the extraction of

for the purification of the metals,

the essences

(active

principles),

liquefaction

and
8-10

incineration.

[Here follows a description of the virtues of

mercury and its mythical origin.]
(i)

The Benares Ms.

reads A'gama.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

78

By partaking of mercury, men are freed from a

multitude of diseases, arising out of the sins of
former existence

He who

of this there

falls

foul

generative principle

of

is

no doubt.

mercury,

of Siva,

will

26

which
rot

in

is

oeon after oson.

From

the

the hell

29

God

the mouth of the

of fire
1

mercury dropped into the country of Darada and

The soil of
it has there remained ever so long.
that region, on being subjected to distillation, yields

89-90

mercury.

COLOPHON
Here ends Book

first

of

Rasaratnasamuchchaya,

composed by Vagbha^a, son of Simhagupta, Prince

of Physicians.

(i)

Dardistan,the mountainous region about Kasmir,

for the ores of cinnabar

in fact a

name

from which mercury

of cinnabar.

The

is

extracted.

is

famous

Darada

is

auriferous region of the Daradas

mentioned by Humboldt (Kosmos u. p. 513 E. C. Otte) who

places it either in the Thibetan highlands east of the Bolor chain,,
is

west of Iskardo, or towards the desert of Gobi described also as

auriferous by

Hiouen Thsang.

Regarding Parada and Darada

It seems proi. pp. 848-49.

see also Lassen's Alterthumskunde,

bable that- "parada" (quicksilver)

their

names

to the countries,

and "darada" (cinnabar) owe

their supply was obtained.

from which

HINDU CHEMISTRY
BOOK

;c>

II

THE RASAS.
Hindu

the

[In

is

kingdom
the

divided into

broadly

Uparasas, the

Ratnas

The term Rasa

(metals).
for

mercury, though
mineral or a metallic

works,

e.

has the

g. the
literal

Medica the mineral

Materia

it

is

is

salt.

the

Rasas and

(gems) and the Lohas

in

general

reserved

equally applicable to a
In the oldest medical

Charaka and the Susruta, Rasa

meaning

of

juice

or fluid of the

according to the notions of humoral

body, which

blood, serum, sweat, &c.,

1
Rasakriya in the Su^ruta means
As merextract or concentrated decoction.

pathology engenders
(see
fluid

p.

42).

gradually came
into vogue and even began to supplant the vegetable drugs, the term rasa began to be substituted
curial

and metallic

for quicksilver

preparations

on account of

its

semi-fluid character

and

its supposed miraculous therapeutical action

on the juices or humours of the body (Cf. /?/g-Veda,
In the Bavaprakaya we
Vide Intro.)
"Somarasa"
:

(0
TSfSi'JT

xxxvi, 19.

fssim^T

sfn-ftft

sn^TJ ^

Sutra.

Chap.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

So

find

rasa used

in

ancient and

a two-fold sense,'
J

comparatively modern.
In the older works

Rasayana (derived from

and
rasa, juice,
ayana, way) means a medicine
old
age and prolonging life the Elixir
preventing
Later on Rasayana was almost exclusively
applied to the employment of mercury and other
metals in medicine and at present it means also

vitoe?

Our author uses

alchemy (chemistry).

the term

Vo1
59. ed. Kalisa

In the above sloka, rasa

Tfl

cfclT

??T

Here "rasa"

P-

>

Chandra Sen Gupta.

is

is

flt^T:

used

*3

in the sense of chyle.

^ig^fq

lci:

||

Again

ibid. p.

442.

used as a synonym of
mercury and regarded as a

metal.
(3)

For the

seep. 32;
gadhara.

cf.

definition of the

"^ g^

also

term Rasayana

claUJi

in

the Charaka,

3*3m*nmi^lST?i*T" Sarn-

"Dies Wort (rasa} namlich hat nicht nur der

Kenntniss der Safte, einem Kapitel der Medicin,

Cf. also

rasagnina, d. i.
sondern einer Benennung der Alchemic, rasa^astra, dann rasasiddhi, durch Quecksilber erlangte Vollkommenheit, 'das Vertrautsein
mit der Alchemie, sowiedesgl. rasendradarsana (wortl. UntersuchSafte-Herrschers
d.
i.
Lehre
der
Quecksilbers),

ung des

Alchemisten (dieser heisst Rasayana) seinen

-ausserdam in Compositen einer
Pott "Chemie order Chymie ?"
:

Namen

geliehen

und

Menge chemischer Substanzen."

"Zeit. deut. Morg..Ges,." xxx. 7

HINDU CHEMISTRY

"Rasasiddhipradayaka"
rasa,

siddhi,

mercury,

which

(1-5),

is

Si

deriviedfrom

accomplishment

and

pradayaka, giver or bestower, i.e. lit. giver of accomplishment in mercury i.e. an expert on alchemy.
Wilson in his Dictionary thus happily renders

Rasasiddhi
possession

"
:

of

The knowledge
peculiar

of

familiarity

alchemy, the
with mercury

obtained by the performance of chemical operations

conjoined with certain mystical and magical rites
the securing thence to the adept of happiness,
health and wealth the power of transmuting metals

and

.and the art of prolonging life."

With these prefatory remarks, we

shall

now

allow our author to proceed.]

Abhra
Yimala,

Rasaka

(mica),

Vaikranta,

Makshika

(pyrites),

Adrija (bitumen), Sasyaka, Chapala, and

these 8 rasas are to be identified and col-

Notes

lected.

[Vide "Explanatory
Minerals" at the end of Chap. I] 1

on

the
i

ABHRA
There are three

(i)

minerals

Rasaruava
:

(p.

makshika,

varieties

of

mica,

namely,

69)

recognises

the

following

vimala,

adrija,

chapala,

rasaka,

(cinnabar) and srotonjana (stibium).

eight

darada

HINDU CHEMISTRY

82

and vajrara and each of

these again are of four different colours
white,

pinakaT/z, nagamandfika;;/

red, yellow

and black.

5- ICr

Mica, the layers of which can be easily detached,

is

Mica, which

preferred.

moon and which

is

as bright as the

has the lustre of the rust of

iron,,

does not take up or combine with (lit. swallow)

mercury. That which has taken up mercury can
alone be used with the metals and administered in
Mica, which

medicine.

has been killed,

is

variety which has the lustre of the moon,

internally, brings on dyspepsia

and

pres-

The

cribed in the treatment of various diseases.

if

taken

urinary dis-

orders.

12-14

Mica, heated seven times and plunged into sour

gruel or cow's urine or decoction of the chebulic

myrobalans or cow's milk,

is

freed from

all

impuri-

ties.

17-18

Mica, mixed with paddy grains and reduced to

powder, tied in a piece of cloth and suspended in
sour gruel and then passed through linen,
as

Dhanyabhraw

paddy).
cassia

(lit.

mica

in

is

known

combination

with

Dhanyabhram, rubbed with the juice of

sophora and roasted ten times in a closed

crucible,

is

killed thereby.

24.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

83

VAIKRANTA
Vaikranta has eight

faces and six angles, is

slippery and heavy and of uniform or mixed tint.
It

has 8

different colours, viz.,

white, red, yellow

shades met with

blue, with the

in the

down

of the

pigeon, grass-green, black and variegated

55-56
Vaikranta is a powerful tonic and reckoned

among
of

all

the sovereign
(bodily)

place of diamond.

Vaikranta

days with the

medicines.

disorders and

is

is

a destroyer
employed in the
It is

57-5$
heated
three
purified by being

salts

and the

alkalies or

by digestion
with the acids, urines or a decoction of dolichos
iiniftorus

and the plantain or

culatum.

It is

and lemon

juice

of

paspalum

scrobi-

by being roasted in a covered crucible eight times in combination with sulphur

Vaikranta,

killed

and pasp.

after

scrobi.

being

6j-6 S

heated and

plunged

urine of the horse, ought to be repeatedly

roasted and then reduced to ashes.
69

into

the

Vaikranta after incineration

is

substituted

diamond.

Macerated

for

70
in

the

ashes

of

schrebera

swiet.

butea frondosa and cow's urine and mixed with the

powdered root

of euphorb. antiq., turmeric

HINDU CHEMISTRY

84

made

borax, powdered lac and

into balls with the

milky juice
asclepias gem., and honey and
heated
in a closed crucible,
vaikranta
strongly
of

yields

Of

essence.

its

there

this

no doubt.

is

71-72

COPPER PYRITES
Makshikam

(pyrities)

is

born

of

mountains

bed of
yielding gold
produced
the river Tap! and in the lands of the Kiratas, the
.

and

in the

is

Chinese and the Yavanas.

of

native

Pyrites

former

is

77

golden and silvery the

Kanouj and is of golden

two kinds

is

of

yellow colour. The silvery pyrites is associated

81
with stones and is of inferior quality.
Rubbed with the juice of lemons and sulphur

and roasted

in

a closed crucible

it is

Makshika, repeatedly steeped

killed.

in

honey,

84
oil

of

the seeds of ricinus communis, urine of the cow,

clarified

of

butter and the extract of the bulbous root

musa sapientum and gently

roasted in a crucible,

yields an essence in the shape of copper.

89-96

VlMALA
Vimala
as

it

is described as of three kinds according

has the lustre of gold, silver and brass respec-

tively.

96

HINDU CHKMISTRY
It is

and

rounded and

is

endowed with angles

also

faces.

gj

by being roasted ten times with sulbitumen,

phur,
artocarpus lakoocha and the acids.
It is

killed

100
Vimala, rubbed with borax, the juice of artocarpns lakoocha and the ash of schrebera swict.,

and roasted

in a

covered crucible, yields an essence

of the appearance of gold.

101

Vimala digested with alum, green vitriol, borax

and the watery liquid expressed from moringa
pter.,

musd

cible

in

s.

finally roasted in a

covered cru-

copper

an essence

in the

shape of chandrarka

of gold-like lustre).

103-104

swiet., yields
(lit.

and

combination with the ashes of schrebera

^ILAJATU
Silajatu (bitumen)

the

smell

camphor.
foot of the

The

urine, the other resembling

oozes out in the heat of the sun at the

Himalayas from the bowels of gold,

text reads

The

(cf.

^f^^r^w

conveys no adequate meaning.

(2)

two kinds, one having

of cow's
It

and copper respectively.

(1)

of

is

resins of the styrax

variant

ante

p. 46)

lead-like,
is

silver

106

which however

^cf^f^W

;=gold-like.

benzoicum and also a variety

bitumen, especially the latter are referred

to.

The

description

evidently borrowed from the Charaka and the Susruta.

of
is

HINDU CHEMISTRY

86

SASYAKA
Sasyaka (blue

vitriol)

has the play of

blue
(i.e. has

colour in the throat of the peacock

Mayuratuttham is an emetic, an antidote

and a destroyer of the whiteness of the

tint).

to poisons
skin.

It is killed

by being roasted

in

127-129
a covered cruci-

ble with the juice of artocarpus lakoocha, sulphur,

bitumen and borax,

132

EXTRACTION OF COPPER
Take

blue vitriol and one-fourth

its

weight of

borax and soak the mixture

j

in the oil expressed

from the seeds of pongamia glabra for one day only
and then place it in a covered crucible and heat in

charcoal

the

fire

obtained from

it

coccinella insect.

Or,

by
of

this process

the

an essence

beautiful appearance

enclosed

in

133-134
a crucible with borax and the

lemons and strongly heated,

juice of

it

yields an

essence in the shape of copper.

,

Pure blue
(i)

i.

e.

red

is

of

vitriol,
in the

of the colour of peacock,

Charka, blood

colour of the coccinella insect.

135
in

is described as having the

Couplets 133 and 134 have been

borrowed almost verbatim from Rasamava.

HINDI; CHKMISTRY

B7

combination with the aforesaid drugs and by the

various

of

application
essence.

processes,

up

gives

its

136

CHAPALA
There are four
white, red

varieties

of

Chapala
That which has the

and black.

yellow,
lustre of

most appropriate for the fixation of

The last two are indifferent and readily

.gold or silver is

mercury.
melt like lac and are useless.

when

tin

heated

over

fire

Chapala melts like

hence the name.
i

Chapala
<-rvstal.

has

faces

six

and

43- i 44

the lustre of a

146

RASAKA
of

is

Rasaka(calamine)
laminated structure

is

other, non-laminated,

is

two kinds

known

as

the

one of

dardura

the

called karavellaka.

149
heated and plunged seven
times into the juice expressed from the seeds of
lemon or immersed in the urine of man or of horse

Calamine

is

to be

or in sour gruel or sour milk and thus purified.

154-155

__
(i)

Chapala

It

is

its

not clear what substance

radical

meaning

often given to quicksilver.

is

is

mobile or

really
fickle,

meant by the term

hence

it is

name

HINDU CHEMISTRY

88

EXTRACTION OF ZINC

Rub calamine
robalans,

fourth

with turmeric, the chebulic mythe

resin,

its

weight

soot,

salts,

of

borax and one

semicarpus anacardium, and

the acid juices.

Smear the inside of a tubulated
crucible with the above mixture and dry it in the

sun and close

its

mouth with another inverted over

When the flame issuing from the

it, and apply heat.
molten calamine changes from blue to white, the
crucible

is

tongs and

caught hold of by means of a pair of

mouth held downwards and

its

it

is

thrown on the ground, care being taken not tobreak its tubulure. * The essence possessing the
lustre of tin

which

is

dropped

is

collected for use.

157-161

Calamine

is

be powdered with

lac, treacle,

white

mustard, the myrobalans, natron and borax and the

mixture boiled with milk and clarified butter and

made

into balls.

These are

to be

enclosed in a

and strongly heated. The contents are

poured on a slab of stone the essence of

crucible

then

calamine of the beautiful appearance of

obtained) is to be used.

(i)

The Benares Ms.

reads

which would mean so "as to break

"'JJBJJ

its

sfj^j

tin

w^yjVand

tubulure."

(thus-

163-164
drops ^

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Or

a vessel

with water

filled

is

89

to be placed

and a perforated cup or

a crucible charged as above

inside a kosh^hi apparatus

saucer placed over it

is to be fixed in an inverted
position over the saucer
and strongly heated b) means of the fire of jujube
the essence which
(zizyphus iujuba) charcoal
;

into

drops

medicine),

water

the

should

be

applied

(in

165-166

[vide illustrations]

mixed with orpiment and

thrown over an earthen dish and rubbed with an
This essence

iron

rod

context

till

it is

formed over

it

is

is

to be

reduced

to

[From the

ashes.

evident that the operation

is

to be per-

167-168-

fire.]

BOOK

III.

THE UFARASAS OR INFERIOR RASAS

Sulphur,
realgar,

red

anjana

ochre,

and

vitriol,

alum,

karakushMa

orpiment,
the

these are

eight uparasas, useful in operations of mercury.

[Here follows the mythical origin of sulphur.]

HINDU CHEMISTRY

9<)

SULPHUR
that of the first
Sulphur is of three kinds
resembles
the
beak
of
a
quality
parrot that of the
:

.second quality is yellow whereas the white variety

is the worst.
Another authority says there are four
;

kinds of sulphur according as it is of white, yellow,

red and black colour respectively
the black
variety

is

rare.

Melted sulphur

12-15

poured into the juice of verbesina calendulacea and thus purified.

is

vessel which contains milk has

down with

its

a piece of cloth, over which

is

tied

deposited

the latter again covered

finely powdered sulphur

with an earthen bowl.
Heat
;

mouth

is

applied from above

by burning cow-dung cakes. The melted sulphur

2 4- 2 5
drops into the milk and is thus purified.

GAIRIKA
Gairika (red ochre) is of two kinds the one,
the
pashfu/a gairika, is hard and copper-coloured
other is svanza gairika /. e. of the colour of gold
.

46

(yellow).

Cf..."il y a des soufres des diverses couleurs

(i)
T autre javme un autre blanc pariel a 1'ivoire ;...un autre,
vaut rien.'' "La Chimie au moyen age," i, 307.
;

l'un

rouge,

noir, qui

ne

HINDU CHEMISTRY

91

KASISA
Kasisa (sulphate of iron) is of two kinds
valuka-kfrnsa and
[The former
pushpa-karisa.
termed in other works dhatukasisa is the green
:

and

the

essence

is

variety

the

latter,

or

basic

yellowish
51

variety.]
Its

to be extracted like that of alum.

54

TUVARI
the fragrant earth produced in
Tuvar! (alum)
the mountains of Surat is known as tuvari, which
:

dyes cloth and

A second

madder.

fixes the colour of

variety

of

called

it

phataki

59
or

Another variety
slightly yellow
phullika
known as phulla tuvari is white and acid in taste
is

iron

Bk.

changes
80,

VIII,

copper by the process of lepa [cf.

where the term ",q." is used in the
to

sense of transmutation of the baser metals.

The

author seems to convey the idea that alum plays

60-62
an important part in this process.]

Alum
and
(1)

(2)
<>f

is

astringent, acid, beneficial to the eye...

killer of mercury.
i.e.

forms lakes.

qiT^H^ft

calomel

tant part.

in

Cf.
;

the various formulae

for the preparation

which alum yields sulphuric acid and plays an impor-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

92

Alum

is

to

be macerated

in the bile of the

one-hundred times and then

extracted by distillation

essence

its

to

is

ox
be

a very secret process, not

to be divulged.

65

TALAKA
Talaka (orpiment)

is

of

a leafy structure, the other

and is of golden colour

two kinds

It

found

is

in balls or

and

the one

bright.

is

of

cakes

66

in the juice of

is

purified by being digested

cucumber and the alkaline water of the ashes of

sesamum

or in lime water.

Talaka
thrice

is

to

macerated

69
be rubbed with buffalo's urine and

in the decoction of

of the consistency of honey,

in

butea frondosa

and then

a covered crucible and powdered.

is to be repeated twelve times.
It

tion

be used

in

medicines.

Take one pala

be roasted

to

This operathen fit to

is

1'

74-75

and rub

one day
with the milky juice of calopropis gigantea and mix
(1)

qirlffrf <Rc3*T j

Couplet 65

is

of talaka

here distillation

is

it

for

expressly

mentioned.

borrowed from Rasarava.

Most likely a sulpharsenite of potash is formed. The process

"
Talaka is to be cut
Rasendrasarasaragraha is more scientific.
into small pieces and rubbed with lime water and the alkaline water
(2)

in

derived from the ash

of

achyranthes

aspcra

enclosed in carbonate of potash and roasted."

and

is

then to be

HINDU CHEMISTRY

93

with the same weight of

oil and heat it in an open

and
Collect the
days
nights together.
*
white essence when it has cooled down.
80-8 1
it

place for 7

MANASSILA

Man as.nl a
part of its

and

mixed with

one-eighth

weight of iron-rust, molasses, bdellium

clarified butter

and enclosed

in the kosh/T

and strongly heated, when

ratus [see p. 69]

its

is

(realgar)

it

appayields

essence.

95

THE ANJANAS
The Anjanas

(collyriums)

of these

there

are

Sauviranjana, Rasanjana, Srotonjana, Pushpanjana,

and Nilanjana their properties are described below.
;

97-98

Nilanjana

a killer of gold

is

and copper

gold, silver, iron

and induces softness

pulverizable

the

[as

in

iron,

iron

i.e.

Vagbha/a,
readers

becomes

with the brittle sulphide of iron

The essence

[cf.

in

the killing of

it

p. 55]

easily

impregnated

cf also Bk. viii, 38.]

of the anjanas

is

to

104
be extracted

like that of realgar.

It is

(i)

glass

retort

realgar.

evident that the operation

or

in

the

koshzfi

is

"apparatus

to be performed in a

described below under

HINDU CHEMISTRY

94

quote below the account given in Dutt's

"Materia Medicaofthe Hindus" as our author gives

[We

rather scanty information on this point

"
Galena or sulphide of lead is called anjana
:

or sauviranjana in

and krishna surma

Sanskrit,

in

anjana which literally

means collyrium or medicine for the eyes, from the
circumstance of its being considered the best applivernacular.

cation

It

is

called

of anjana

The

for them.

or cosmetic

other varieties

mentioned are Srotonjana,

Pushpanjana

and Rasanjana.
"

Sauviranjana stSfaiOTT is said to be obtained

from the mountains of Sauvira, a country along the
>

Indus,

whence

supplied

under

it

derives

its

its

name.

Sauvira

sulphide
as sulphide of antimony, but

article

name surma

vernacular

of lead ore.

The

the

is

usually translated
have not been able

is
I

a single specimen of the antimonial ore

from the shops of Calcutta and of some other

to obtain

The

sulphide of antimony occurs in fine,

streaky, fibrous, crystalline, masses of a radiated
The lead ore on the contrary occurs in
texture:

towns.

cubic masses destitute of rays and

crystalline arrangement.
"
^rtal^l
Srotonjana
(

colour,

and

is

said

to

is

be

is

tabular in

described as

produced

in

its

of white

the

bed

HINDU CHEMISTRY
of the

Yamuna and

Surma

other rivers.

It is

95

called Saffed

the vernacular, and the article supplied

in

under this name by Hindustani medicine-vendors is.

calcareous Iceland spar.
It
is used as a
collyrium
J

for the eyes, but

considered inferier to the black

is

surma or galena.
"Pushpanjana
lar

(tj*n^r

is

an

described as

alka-

have not met with any vernacutranslation of this word nor with any person
substance.

line

who

could identify or supply the drug.

Wilson,

his Sanskrit-English Dictionary, translates the

as calx of brass, but

know

T^I^VJ

"Rasanjana

Asiatica

of berberis

in

term

is

not on what authority.

the extract of the wood

called

rasot in the

verna-

the

of the

cular."]

Ka*kushMa0i

is

produced

Some

at

foot

are of opinion that

Himalayas
the excrement of a new-born elephant
is of white and
yellow colour and is
.

it

...

is
it

a strong

109-112

purgative.

(1)

See, however, ante p. 55.

(2)

Not

nal earth,

we'll

made

out.

According to Wilson,
one of a

described as of two colours,

other of a gold colour.

medici-

silvery

and the

it

is

HINDU CHEMISTRY

96

THE COMMON RASAS

J

Navasara -

Gauripashawa,

Chapala

Kampilla,

ka, Kaparda, Agnijara, Hingula, Girisindura, Mr/ddarasringakam these are the eight common Rasas
:

regarded as useful adjuncts to chemical operations

by Nagarjuna and other experts.

2

is

Kampilla
tive

...

like brick-dust

natural

120-121

product

purga-

Surat

of

-and a vermifuge.
3
Gauripashana is of the lustre of rock-crystal,
its white
conch and turmeric respectively

...

essence

be extracted

to

is

like that of orpiment.

124-125

NAVASARA AND OTHER RASAS

Navasara

(sal

ammoniac) is begot of the decombamboos and of the wood

position of the shoots of

of careya arborea

other

(1)

name

navasara

chulikalava;/a

is

The

nine
s

also

known

as

kamala.

substance should have found a place

mineral kingdom.

Not easy

to identify

lit., it

It

deposited

common Rasas

among

capsules
is

not
the

an-

its

alkali,

salt

a maharasa. (see

red mealy powder covering the

Phillippensis,

(3)

an

(lit.

Including Chapala there are

Chapala has already been considered

(2)

is

in

but

p. 87)

of

clear

mallotus

why

this

products of the

means white stone

or marble.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
the hearth),

is

is

it

...

the brick

97

produced during the burning of

it kills
mercury, liquefies iron,
an
absorbent
of the spleen, and aids
a stomachic,

digestion after

much

127-129
Varataka (cowrie or. marine shell): alchemists
prefer shells which are of yellow colour, knotty and
possessed of circular lines on the dorsal side
eating.

macerated for three hours

in

sour gruel,

it

under-

goes

purifications.

Agnijara

It

(1)

is

regrets that

a substance

is

of interest to

note that Royle,

"no Hindu work on

been translated" and

is

130-134
from
the
discharged

who wrote

in

1837,

(chemistry) has yet

bold enough to predict that "Sal ammoniac
this subject

must have been familiar to the Hindus, ever since they have burnt
bricks, as they now do, with the manure of animals as some may
usually be found crystallized at the unburnt
kiln."

"Antiquity of Hindu Medicine."

proved to be

literally

The word "Navasara"

correct.

of Persian origin being corrupted

The

(2)

text

is

is

apparently

from "Nausadar."

almost exactly the same as in "Rasendrasara-

.sawgraha," which gives an

cowrie, namely

extremity of the
Royle's surmises have

"Dig a hole

additional
in

method

the ground and

of

purifying the

fill it

partly with

the husk of paddy, now place on it a crucible containing cowries

cover it with cow-dung cakes and set fire to the mass.
By this'
;

process the cowries are reduced to ashes."

which

is

often used in medicine.

It is

the lime thus obtained,,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

98

womb
.sun.

a kind of sea-crocodile and dried in the

of

Girisindura
rocks) occurs

vermilion

(lit.

among

derived from

the big mountains

135
the

(inside the

rocks).

137
darada, see

Syn.
Hingula (cinnabar
p. 78 )
quicksilver extracted from it is as efficacious as killed
:

When darada is placed in a retort and

essence collected in water, it yields the same
substance as quicksilver of this there is no doubt.
sulphur.
its

(The

referred

apparatus

to

shown

is

in

the

141-144.

illustrations).

Mr/ddarasringakaw [various readings of the text

it is not
are given
easy to make out what subs;

tance

is

yellow and of leafy structure

in Gujarat and round about mount
It is

meant].

and occurs
Abu.

145
a bluish tint but

Rajavarta (Lapis lazuli) has

with slight admixture of red

being powdered

and

sulphur

in

and

it

is

killed

crucible.

(i)

Not

149-153

plant.

Perhaps the origin is mythical. T3i is a

well-known this Saurian never flourishes in the

identified.

crocodile, but as
;sea.

by

combination with lemon juice

roasted 7 times in a covered

is

According to *I5T

ft^g

agnijara

is

marine

medicinal

HINDU CHEMISTRY

99

BOOK IV
THE GEMS
The gems

also are

regarded as the agencies,

which help the fixation or coagulation of mercury.

These are the gems Vaikranta, Suryakanta (sunstone), Hirakaw (diamond), Mauktikaw (pearls),
:

Chandrakanta (moon-stone), Rajavarta

(lapis lazuli)

and Garutffodgara, the emerald (lit. derived from the

vomit of Garu</a)
the topaz, the sapphire, the
;

coral, the cat's

eye are also reckoned among the

to be carefully collected for the

These are

gems.

fixation of mercury.

(i)

The

Vaikranta

"is

ruby

and the

a kind of

gem

zircon

are

also

mentioned.

said to resemble a diamond,

The

and to be

Suryakanta and Chandrakanta

supposed to be formed by the
congelation of the rays of the sun and moon respectively. They
of

similar

properties."

Wilson.

gems

of fabulous

existence,

are

may

also refer to

some

sort of crystals.

gems, other than diamond,

extracts from Manimala or
Saurindra

make up

is

"A

Treatise on

Mohan Tagore, Mus.

description of the

The
Gems" by

Doc.,

will,

to

following
Sir

Raja

a certain extent,

for the deficiencies.

"Mention
the Hindus.

made of gems and jewels in the earliest writings of

The Vedas speak of a place illuminated by rubies

is

and diamonds, which gave out a

planets.

The

meagre and vague.

light

as refulgent as that of the

Precious stones play a prominent part in the mythologies

HINDU CHEMISTRY

ioo

of three kinds
male,
Vajraw (diamond) is
female and hermaphrodite, and its medicinal pro:

perties vary in excellence

in the

order in which

they have been spoken.

The one with

ners,

very

colours

is

female diamond
neuter

8 angles

with

brilliant,

known

26

and 8 faces and 6 corthe

play

of

rainbow-

as the male diamond, whereas the

flattened

is

and rounded whilst the

rounded, obtuse-angled and slightly heavy.

is

27-28

Each

these

of

according to

its

again is divided into 4 classes

colour namely: Brahmawa, Kshatriya,

VaLsya and .Sudra.

30

poems and legends. In the two

Ramayawa and the Mahabharata,

of the Hindus, in their traditions,

of

great epics

Hindustan, the

frequent mention

and the people

(i)

is

made

of stones

and pearls with which the kings

of the period used to decorate their person."

The high

refractive

and dispersive power

of

diamond

is

evidently referred to.

"

Diamonds white
(2)
Brahmawas those which
;

like the conch, waterlily, or crystal are

are red like the eyes

of

the hare are

Kshatriyas those which are verdant like the cool plantain-leaf

are Vaisyas those which resemble in colour the clean sword, are
;

nown

as Sudras."

Manimala, i.ioo.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Diamond

is

abestower

of long

101

life,

a tonic, an

allayer of the three

derangements [namely, of

phlegn and

killer of all the ailments,

bile],

of mercury, a subduer of death

in short

air

a fixer

it is

like

nectar.

Diamond

digested in the decoction of kulattha

uniflorus) or of kodrava
(paspulum
scrobiculatum] for three hours and thus purified.
is

(dolichos

Diamond
of the

is

macerated four times

to be

bug and

flesh of the

enclosed in a ball

in the

made

blood

of

the

musk-rat and then to be roasted in a

covered crucible 30 times or to be heated 100 times

and plunged in the decoction of kulattha.
34~37
Diamond is to be placed in a covered crucible,
the inside of which has been coated with realgar,

rubbed with the decoction

of

juice of artocarpus lakoocha

succession in the

fire

of dry

kulattha and

and roasted

cow-dung

the

8 times in

cakes.

It is

then heated 100 times and thrown into pure mercury the diamond is thus killed and reduced to fine
ashes.

38-39

The

veracious alchemist Somasenanl,after having

convinced himself of the success of this process

by

his

own experiments, has given

Diamond

is

to

be

it

to the world.

40
in
the
blood
times
smeared
7

HINDU CHEMISTRY

102

bug and dried

of the

in

placed in an iron pot and

cassia sophora and heated
is

the sun and then to be

filled

with the juice of

times.

sure to be reduced to ashes.

The diamond

This process has

been described by the sage Brahmajyoti.

41-42
Diamond smeared with the powder of lead,
levigated in the juice of the fruit of madana (randia
dumetorum), and roasted 20 times in a covered

reduced to

crucible, is

used

in

medicines.

fine

powder, which

is

to

be

GENERAL PROCESS OF REDUCING GEMS TO

ASHES
gems with
when roasted

All the

are killed

of realgar, sulphur

the exception of

diamond

eight times with a mixture

rubbed in the

and orpiment,

juice of artocarpus lakoocha.

63

Take asafcetida, the five salts, the three alkalies,

rumex vesicarius, sal ammoniac, the ripe fruit of
croton plant, jalamukhi (anthericum tuberosum) , rudanti (asclepias rosea) , the root of
the

plumbago zeylanica, and the milky juice of euphorrub all

bia antiquorum and calotropis gigantea

(i)

One

or

two processes not mentioned by our author may

be quoted from "Rasendrachintamawis"

HINDU CHEMISTRY

103

these together and make them into a ball.

it the noble and
luck-yielding gems.

inside

Place

Wrap

the ball with the leaves of betula bhojpattra and

tie

them with thread and enclose the ball again in

of cloth and suspend it in a dolayantra

a piece

Bk. IX)

(see

filled

with the acids and sour gruel

and apply strong heat

and nights
thus collected.

for three days

the liquid principle of the

gems

is

64-69
rubbed with the juice
of rumex vesicarius and then transferred inside a

Powdered pearl

is

to be

in a mass of paddy.
At the end
1
heated in a crucible and liquefied.

lemon and stowed

week

of a

it is

70-71

"Take the root of piper betle or of the cotton plant (Gossypium

herbaceum) three years old, and rub it into a paste and enclose
the diamond in it and roast it in a covered crucible seven times,

when

diamond

the

"An

intelligent

which out

will

person should place

of fright will

and plunged into this

times, the diamond is
in

Sarngadhara.
Ms.
(i)

be killed."

pass water.

urine.
killed."

in

a brass vessel a frog

diamond

is

to be heated

This process being repeated several

This last recipe is also to be found

Couplets (44-45) do not occur

in the

Benares

Couplets 70, 71 and 72 do not occur in the Benaares

Ms

HINDU CHEMISTRY

104

Diamond, placed inside the stem of vitis quadand heated four weeks in acids, is

rangulari$

72
when
is
of
white
which
colour,
Vaikranta,
liquefies
macerated in the juice of rumex vesicarius and
liquefied.

exposed

to the sun for a

Take the

of

juice

week.

73

pandanus

odoratissimus

pushpika together with coccinella

Vaikranta melts on being digested in this

rock-salt, svarna
insect.

concoction for a week.

BOOK V
ON METALS

The pure metals are gold, silver, and iron.

The putilohas (lit. metals emitting a foetid odour)
:

are

two

and

lead

alloys

iron

is

The

different meanings.

number

are three in

Dhatulohaw

tin.

proper and often conveys

brass, bell-metal

vartaloha.

(0
as

35T3^fr according to "Vaidyakasabdasindhu"

^f^grcre H^IcTT
(2)

Loha

and

(lit.

i- e -

vitis

iron)

is

is

the

same

quadrangularis.

often used in the wider sense of a

metaL

HINDU CHEMISTRY

10=

GOLD
Gold

known

is

to

be of

the fourth

is

called kshawija

kinds

five

and

3 are attributed to mythical

(lit.

of

celestial

which

origin

begot of mines)

obtained by the transmutation of the

^
baser metals.
(See Bk. VIII, 80-83.)
the 5th

Gold
[if

is

is

to

be purified and killed, as otherwise

it robs one of
strength, virility

taken internally]

and happiness and brings a

series of maladies.

Gold-leaf of the weight of one karsha

smeared with

1 1

to

is

be

and placed between two earthen

saucers and heated on a charcoal fire for an hour

and a

half

The

salt

when

its

true colours will

best method of

killing

come

all

out.

12

the metals is

with the aid of the ashes of mercury.

The next
best is through the agency of the roots, whereas
1

killing with sulphur

When

a metal

is

is

least to

be recommended. 13

killed with ariloha (meaning

not clear), it is injurious.

Gold-leaves, pierced
with holes and coated with a paste of lemon juice

and the ashes

of

mercury and roasted ten times

are thereby killed.

Project into melted gold

ash of marcury
(i)

14.

its

own weight

[when cooled] powder

Generally sulphide of mercury (see

p. 65).

it

of the

and rub

HINDU CHEMISTRY

io6

with lemon-juice and cinnabar and roast it in a

The gold thus
covered crucible twelve times.
it

the

-acquires

colour of

saffron.

(cf.

Rasamava

XVI. 81, p. 74).

i5- J 6
Gold-leaf is killed by being rubbed with onefourth of its own weight of killed mercury and

acid of any kind and roasted eight times.

17

SILVER
Silver

of 3 kinds

is

namely sahajaw (of mythical

22
mines and artificial.

origin), begotten of

lead and borax undergoes

Arrange on an earthen dish a

Silver melted with

purification

mixture of lime and ashes in

place

Now

in

silver

it

roast

it

over

with

equal weight of lead.

until the lead is consumed.

fire

Silver thus purified

a circular row and

its

to

is

be used for medicinal

purposes.)
(1)

(Cf. p.

32-34

68)

This refers to the mistaken notion that the sublimate of

factitious cinnabar (vermilion) contains gold.

(2)

It

will

be seen that although killing with sulphur direct

not recommended, the gold

and afterwards

is

is

^K^ifT Stfaci^fW^fal

by being melted with lead and the ashes."

practically that of cupellation.

is

converted into the sulphide

into metallic gold in a fine state of powder.

under "Killing of Metals."

Cf. Rasarnava ^jffr
(3)
is purified

in reality

The

See

"Silver

process

HINDU CHEMISTRY

107

be rubbed with mercury and

the juice of artocapus lakoocha and is to be embedded in sulphur and heated in a covered crucible
Silver-leaf

is

to

when cold, the mass is once

more rubbed with orpiment and acids and roasted

over a sand-bath

12 times.

this process, the

By

ashes
Silver

is

reduced to

silver is

reduced to

35-37
ashes by being 3 times

rubbed with powdered iron pyrites and lemon juice

and roasted in a covered crucible.
38
Take 4 parts of silver-leaf and one of orpiment

and rub them with the

juice of

lemon and roast the

mixture and repeat the operation 14 times and thus

silver

is

completely incinerated.

40-41

COPPER
There are two

the one
varieties of copper
from
is
that
of
brought
Nepal
superior quality
out
of
the
mines
is
of
other
countries
dug
desig:

nated Mlechchha.

(1)

We

shall

44

complete the account with an extract from Ra"Siver-feaf is pierced with holes and smeared

sendrasarasawgraha

weight of cinnabar and subjected to distillation in

the Patana Yantra (see Bk. ix on apparatus). The mercury comes
with twice

off

and
(2)

its

killed silver

The

remains behind."

generic term for a barbarian or a foreigner.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

io8

by being rubbed with

and
lemon-juice, sulphur
mercury and roasted thrice
is

Copper-leaf

killed

55

IRON
There are three kinds
(wrought
again

is

iron),

of 3

of iron

tiksh?zaw

varieties

viz.,

namely, mundara

and kantaw

mundaw

mridu, kuntk&m and

ka^/araw.

That which

mridu

easily melts, does not break

and

is

that which expands with difficulty

glossy
when struck with a hammer is known as kuntha.m
is

that which breaks

has a black fracture

when
is

from

it.

hair-like

fracture

cast-iron, steel)

One

variety

and

lines

hammer and

kadaram.

Tlkshnam (properly
6 varieties of

struck with a

has

is

and breaks when bent.

-? 2

there are

rough and free

quicksilver-like

Another variety

breaks with difficulty and presents a sharp edge.

7S-7&

Kantaw

there

are

kinds

of

5
namely,
bhramaka, chumbaka, karshaka, dravaka and romakanta.
It possesses one, two, three, four and five
:

faces and often

iron] and

many

it,

faces [with which to attract

and red colour respecThe variety which makes all kinds of iron
tively.
move about is called bhramaka, that which kisses
is

of yellow, black

HINDU CHEMISTRY

109

chumbaka, that which attracts iron is

called karshaka, that which at once melts the iron

iron

is

called

dravaka

is called

is that

(lit.

a solvent)

w hich, w hen broken,

r

and the

fifth

filaments.

84-89
is

Mercury
kanta/ra

like the

is

an intoxicated

elephant and
bent hook wherewith to restrain

like

The wise man

it.

kind

shoots forth hair-like

it

digs

That

out of the mines.

which has remained exposed to the sun and the

92-93
atmosphere is to be avoided.
1

If
it

water

and the

gives up

kept in a vessel and oil poured over

does not spread about if asafcetida
odour and decoction of neem (Melia

is

oil
its

azadirachta) its bitterness and milk, being boiled

in it, does not overflow but rises high like a peak
such be the characteristics of the vessel,

know

made of kanta iron.

Powdered iron is to be macerated awhile

in the

if

that

it is

94

decoction of the three myrobalans, in cow's urine

to be mixed up with clarified butter and

and then

fried in an earthen vessel

rod
fire.

until

The

iron

powder

above process repeated

(i)

and

stirred with

a blade of straw thrown over

is

to

it

an iron
catches

be pounded and the

five times.

Couplets 84-93 are taken bodily from Rasarcava.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

no
Or

iron

roasted

is

times

four

a covered

in

crucible with the decoction of the myrobalans

is

and

reduced to

fine powder.
Leaves of tikshna. iron

104-105

repeatedly to be
heated and plunged into water and then to be
powdered in a stone mortar with an iron pestle

The powder

are

of iron

thus obtained

is to-

be roasted twenty times in a covered crucible in

combination with mercury and sulphur, and after
each roasting the powder of iron is to be pounded
iron thus reduced to ashes is to
as directed above

be used

in medicine.

Take one part

107-110

and twentieth part of its

weight of cinnabar and rub them with lemon juice
and sour gruel and roast the mixture in a covered
crucible.

of iron

The operation being repeated 40

times,,

and mundaw are

of this

kantara, tlkshnam

there

is

killed

no doubt.

Take

113-114.

sulphur two parts

and iron powder three parts and rub them with the
juice of the Indian aloe and after 6 hours transfer
of

mercury one

part,

the mass to a brass-vessel and cover

it

At the end
become heated.

leaves of the castor-oil plant.

hour and a half the mass

(i)

who

The

ascribes

process
it

is

will

practically the

to Nagarjuna.

(See

with the

same

p. 62.)

as that of

of an
It is

Chakrapam,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

iir

under a heap of paddy grains and

taken out after three days and then powdered very
1
fine and the contents passed through linen.
All

then buried

the three varieties of iron are thus completely killed.

Gold and other metals can be killed by this process,
after being reduced to fine

Rust of iron
it

is

reduced

ma^diira.

The

is

to

to

powder

like iron.

134-137
be heated and powdered till
fine

this

powder

called

is

147

qualities

which reside

in

killed

iron are

also to be found in the rust of iron, hence the latter

may be

substituted for the treatment of diseases.

148

TIN

Vangaw
misrskam
qualities

(tin) is of

the latter

two kinds

kshurakara and

endowed with superior

cannot be recommended for

the former

is

medicinal uses.

(1)

"Rasendrasarasamgraha" has the same recipe with

variations.

water like
(2)

(3)

153

According to it the powder

a duck."
Cf. below p. 119,

"
Mandura "
Analysis of
This couplet also occurs

see

in

is

so fine that

Appendix

it

slight

"floats orr

I.

Rasendrasarasawgraha.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

ii2

Kshurakara
readily fusible

is

white,

soft,

cool

(to

the touch),

and bright and does not clink (when

154
This is

struck).
Misr3.k3.rn is

dirty white

an anthelmintic and a destroyer

of the

urinary dis-

orders.

155

Molten

tin is

mixed

-vitex

dropped into the juice

turmeric

with

the

of

Negurido

process

being

repeated 3 times, the metal undergoes purification.

Tinfoil

is

to

154-156
be smeared with a paste of orpi-

ment and the milky juice of Calotropis gigantea

and then to be covered with the ashes of the bark
of Ficus religiosus and TamarIndus Indicus and
roasted and then reduced to ashes.
1

LEAD
Sisakaw

(i)

plays an

(lead)

is

readily fusible, very heavy,

few more recipes are given, in all of which orpiment

the one quoted below from Rasendra-

important part

"
'*
sarasawgraha will yield the ash of tin in the shape of an oxide
" Melt tin in an earthen
pot and to the molten metal add an equal

weight of powdered turmeric and Ajowan (Ptychotis ajoisaan] and

seeds, and afterwords the ashes of the bark of Tamarindus

cumin

Indicus and Ficus religiosus and continue stirring over

tin will be reduced to ashes."

fire.

The

HINDU CHEMISTRY

113

presents a black and bright appearance on fracture,

is of foetid odour and black exterior.
171
1

Take

and apply strong heat

lead 20 palas

of

and drop into the molten metal one karsa of

mercury and throw into it one after another the

to

it

ashes of Terminalia arjuna, T. bellerica, pome-

granate and

Achyranthes aspera, weighing one

The mass being vigorously

pala each.

an iron spoon for 20 nights

stirred with

in succession, the

calcined yielding a bright red ash. 2

is

Lead and brass

(1)

W.

(see

On

E. Ayrton's address

Rep. 1898,

of

it

is

interesting to read Professor

the

present

Book

"
as
describing tin and lead

In the Syrian

tinguished from tin by

absence of fcetid

M, Berthelot very pointedly remarks

que degagent

les

memaux

frottes

avec

Brit. Assoc.

as well as the

Trad., 121,

metals of foetid odour."

its

"

the Smell of Metals

Cf. also "Alch. Syr."

p. 772.

lines

opening

176-179

below) are said to emit an offensive

In connection with this

"

odour.

metal

"

Alchemy
odour

"
;

Silver

is .dis-

regarding this

" on
voit que 1'odeur propre
la

main, ou bien au contact

d'une matiere organique, jouait un role important dans leur etude

chez les anciens auteurs
importance que cette odeur a perdue
;

"La Chimie au moyen age"

aujourd'hui.

The

(2)

juice of

fourth

and

its

stir

Repeat

T.

ii.

121 (trad.)
"

the
Rasendraand " Rasendrasarsamgraha" " Rub lead with the
Adhatoda vasica and melt it in an earthen pot add to it one

chintamam

following process

is

given both

in

"

weight of the ashes of Adhatoda and achyranthes aspera

Adhatoda vasica and heat over a fire.

the mass with a rod

the

process

seven times.

vermilion-like powder."

The

lead

will

be turned to

HINDU CHEMISTRY

ii 4

'of

Leaves of lead are to be smeared with a paste

orpiment and the milky juice of Calotropis

gigantea and roasted in a covered crucible

metal is entirely killed.

till

the

184

BRASS, BELL-METAL, &c.

Pittala (brass)

tundi

the

is

of 2 kinds

ritika

and kaka-

former on being heated and plunged

into sour gruel turns copper-coloured.

192-193
Brass, which is heavy, soft, of yellow colour,

capable of resisting strokes,

is

to

be recommended.
195

Brass, which

is

light

and

of effensive

odour,

is

not good for medicinal purposes.

196
a
with
of
smeared
lemon
Brass,
paste
juice,
orpiment and sulphur and roasted 8 times, is re-

duced

same

The process

to ashes.

of killing brass

as that of copper.
is

Karasya (bell-metal)
is

completely killed

tin.

by being roastad

205
5 times

with sulphur and orpiment.

Vartalohaw
pittala,

the

made by melting together

8 parts of copper and 2 parts of

It

is

201-202

210

produced from Kawsya, copper,

iron and lead
hence it is regarded by
is

metallurgists as an alloy of 5
It is killed

metals

with the aid of sulphur and orpiment.

212-216

HINDU CHEMISTRY
BOOK

115

VI

INITIATION INTO DISCIPLESHIP

[This chapter is full of directions for the mystic

Tantric rites after the performance of which the
pupil is to be initiated into the secrets of mercurial
lore.]

The

must be wise, experienced, wellchemical processes, devoted to Siva, and

instructor

versed in

sober and patient.

his consort Parvati

should be

full

The

pupil

reverence for his teacher, well-

of

behaved, truthful, hard-working, obedient, free from

3-7
pride and conceit and strong in faith.
Chemical operations are to be performed under

auspices of a ruler, who is God-fearing, who

worships ^iva and Parvati and whose territory is

the

and the Laboratory, to be

free from anarchy
erected in the depth of a forest, should be spacious,
furnished with 4 doors and adorned with the
;

portraits of the Gods.

Take
silver

Make

'9

of gold-leaf 3 niskas in

niskas and rub them with acids for 3 hours.

the

amalgam

into a

phallus (emblem of

worshipped

in

due form.

Siva.,

the phallus

the creative principle)

to be

3- I 5

weight and quick-

By

the mere sight

HINDU CHEMISTRY

ii6

of the

phallus of mercury, the sins accumulated by

1,000 Brahmaws and 10,000 cows are

the killing of

redeemed.

19-22
science of mercury was communicated by
^iva himself and is to be imparted by the instructor

The

to the disciple according to

the

prescribed rules

with closed eyes.

30

[Here follows an account of certain disgusting^

and obscene

borrowed from Rasarwava and

rites

other Tantric works.]

The apparatus

and

implements as also the

ingredients required for chemical operations (see

next Book) are also to be addressed in prayer
.

to

and the names

be invoked.

of the 27

[See opening lines

Bk.

alchemists.
i,

p. 77.]

53-6i

The
secret

science of mercury
.

if

it

is

is

to be strictly kept a

divulged,

its

efficacy is

gone

70-

BOOK

VII

ON THE LABORATORY
The Laboratory
which abounds

in

is

to

be erected

in

a region,,

medicinal herbs and wells

,.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

it

is

be

to

n;

with

furnished

the various

The phallus of mercury is to be placed

apparatus.
in the east, furnaces to be
arranged in the southeast, instruments in the

ations in the west

south-west

drying

in

washing operthe north-west.

;

The

kosh^i apparatus for the exa pair of

bellows and various other instruments are slso to

traction of essences, the water vessels,

the threshing and pounding

mortars, the pestles, sieves of various degrees of
fineness, earth for the crucibles, charcoal, dried

t>e

collected as also

cow-dung cake, retorts made of

and conch-shells, iron-pans, &c.

glass,

earth,

Those who are

given

truthful, free

to the worship of

controlled and used

1-18

from temptations,

Devas and Brahmawas,

self-

proper diet

and

to live

upon

regimen such are to be engaged

chemical operations.

Such

iron

in

herbalists as are not deceitful

performing
30

and are well-

in the

the knowledge of the drugs and plants

language of many countries should be

employed.

32

versed

and

in

Probably lime crucibles and retorts are meant.

n8

HINDU CHEMISTRY

BOOK

VIII

ON TECHNICAL TERMS
For the comprehension of ignorant physicians,
1

Somadeva is now expounding the technicalities as

i
made use of by experts.
share
of
half
the
is
entitled
to
The physician
prepared mercury and eighth part of medicated
oils and ghee and seventh part of prepared iron

and other metals.

2-

Mercuary, on being finely rubbed with melted

sulphur and other minerals, attains the tint of
collyrium and

is

called kajjali

(see p. 61

),

which

again on being rubbed with a liquid substance

known

as

Rasapanka

(lit.

mud

of mercury).

is

5-6

TESTS FOR KILLED IRON.

is that which in the
shape impalpable
on water and when rubbed between

Killed iron
floats

powder
the thumb and the fore-finger enters the lines
w hich, on being mixed with treacle, abrus p., honey

The author evidently reproduces this chapter from a

(i)
standard work on the subject by Somadeva. There is a work.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

119

and ghee and heated, does not revert to the natural

which floats on water like a duck and does
state
;

not sink

down even when heavy

grains are placed over

it.

(Cf.

ante

things like
p.

1 1

1,

paddy

foot-note).

25-28
Killed iron (or a general in killed metal) is
that which on being heated with silver does not

mix

(or alloy) with

29

it.

ANTIMONY FROM STIBNITE

2

Nilafijana,

mixed with tiksh^aw

(cast iron)

and

strongly heated several times, yields a superior

kind of lead which is readily fusible and is of mild

black colour.

38

[Here follows a

list

of metaphorical expressions

which are technically used.]

We

named RasendrachuWamam by Somadeva.

in

hope to notice

it

the second volume.

(1)

The Poona

the Benares and the

with

silver.

(2)

The

Stibnite.

kind of lead"

is

ed. has

mixes with silver ; but

^sfffrrf

Kasmir Mss. read ^Tfj

latter is

^TJjm

^^5t?T does not mix

no doubt the correct reading.

synonym

for

it is

evidently antimony.

souviranjana.

The

"superior

HINDU CHEMISTRY

i2o

CERTAIN OTHER TECHNICAL TERMS

The

resurrection

of

dead

the

is

known

as

utthapana

(lit.

39

raising).

The

capacity of mercury to swallow food [i. e.

to combine with certain substances or to take up
the qualities inherent in them]

is

known

as grasa-

mana.m.

64
with
one-sixty-fourth part of
Mercury, alloyed
silver
of
or
acquires a mouth whereweight
gold

its

with to swallow even hard metals.

68-69

Lepa, kshepa and kunta signify dhuma i. e.

smoke. By the process of lepa is meant the
conversion of iron into gold or silver.
80
The conversion of iron into gold or silver with
the

aid

of

emitting

mercury thrown into a smoky flame,

vapour,

known

is

as

dhumavedha

(lit.

83
pierced by smoke).
The conversion of a small quantity of a metal
into gold through the agency of mercury.
.

is

.which has acquired a mouth (see ^loka 68),

called ^abdavedha.

84

(1)

e.g.,

the conversion of killed iron into the metallic state.

(2)

It is

to be regretted that the details of the processes have

been withheld.

We

have here

the transmutation of metals.

sufficient

The

indication of the belief in

processes here mentioned are

probably of the same nature as given in Rasarwava.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Somadeva
nical

terms

mercurial

121

collected these brilliant

with great

lore

gems

of tech-

from the ocean of

care

and strung them into a necklace

which adorns the best of physicians

in assemblies.

89

BOOK

IX

ON APPARATUS THE
Somadeva

'

(YANTRAS)

now

give a brief account of the

apparatus after having consulted innumerable works
will

on chemistry. 2

DOLA YANTRAS
Dola yantraw

a pot

and a rod placed across

suspended

the medicine

The

is

liquid

is half-filled

its

with a liquid

mouth from which

inverted over the

first.

(1)

Vide illustrations

(2)

This chapter also

3-4

Appendix
is

II.

evidently quoted from the

Somadeva.
(3)

is

a piece of cloth.
allowed to boil and a second pot 3
tied in

Unless otherwise stated earthen pots are meant.

work

of

HINDU CHEMISTRY

122

SVEDANI YANTRAM
Svedanl

ya.ntra.rn

a pot with boiling water has

:.

mouth covered with a piece of cloth and the

substance to be steamed is placed on it and a
its

second pot arranged

the rim of the

an inverted position over

in

first.

PATANA YANTRAM
Patana

ya.ntra.rn

and

apparatus for sublimation

[lit.

two vessels are adjusted so that

distillation]
the neck of the one fits into that of the other.
The
:

junction of the necks

made
milk.

raw sugar,

of lime,

[Tedious

measurement

luted with a composition

is

details

rust of iron

and

buffalo's

are given as to the exact

6-&

of the vessels.]

ADHASPATANA YANTRAJ/
Adhaspatana
above apparatus

ya.ntra.rn

a modification

of

the

in which the bottom of the upper

smeared with the substance, the vapour
or essence thereof condensing into the water of

vessel

is

the lower one.

upper vessel

dung

cakes.

Heat

is

by means

applied on the top of the

of the fire of dried cow-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

DHEKI YANTRAJ/
Dheki yantraw below the neck of the pot is a
hole into which is introduced the upper end of a
bamboo tube, the lower end of it fitting into a
:

brass vessel

with water and

filled

hemispherical

made

of two-

Mercury mixed with the

halves.

subjected to distillation till

the receiver gets sufficiently heated.
11-14.

proper ingredients

is

VALUKA YANTRA^/ (SAND-BATH)

Valuka yantraw (sand-bath a glass flask with a
long neck containing mercurials, is wrapped with
:

several folds of cloth smeared with clay and then

The

is buried up to threesand
and placed in art
length
earthen pot whilst another pot is inverted over it r
Heat isthe rims of both being luted with clay.

dried in the sun.

fourths

of

now applied
burnt.

flask

in

its

till

a straw placed on

its

top

gets
34-36-

LAVAA A YANTRAJI/
T

If in

sand,

it

the above apparatus salt is substituted for

is called la.va.na
38yantraw (salt-bath).

HINDU CHEMISTRY

124

NALIKA YANTRA^
If in

the above an iron tube be substituted for

the glass flask, it is called nalika yantraw.

41
Place the crucible containing chemicals inside

mass of sand and apply heat by means of cowThis is known as the Bhudhara
<lung cakes.
.a

yantraw.

TlRYAKPATANA

Tiryakpatana yantrara (lit.

censum) place the chemicals

distillation

per des-

in a vessel provided
with a long tube, inserted in an inclined position,
which enters the interior of another vessel arranged
:

-as

receiver.

The mouths

of the vessels

joints should be luted with

clay.

Now

and the
urge

strong fire at the bottom of the vessel containing

the chemicals, whilst in the other vessel place cold
This (process) is known as tiryakpatana^z.
water.
'

48-50

VlDYADHARA YANTRAM
Vidyadhara yantram
mercury from cinnabar.

is

for

[Two

the

extraction

of

earthen pots are

HINDU CHEMISTRY
arranged as

in

the

125

The upper one

ilhstration.

contains cold water and the mercury condenses at

its

bottom.]

57-5&

DHUPA YANTRA-W
Dhupa yantraw (lit. fumigating apparatus) :
bars of iron are laid in a slanting position a little
below the mouth of the lower vessel and gold-leavesare placed over them and at the bottom of the
vessel is deposited a mixture of sulphur, realgar,,
second vessel, with its convexity
orpiment, etc.,

turned upwards, covers the mouth of the lower one

and the rims are luted with clay.
Heat is now
applied from below.
gold-leaves.

Silver

This

may

is

called

fumigation of

also be similarly treated.

70-74
[This chapter concludes with a detailed description of mortars and pestles
their sizes, measure-

ments, &c.]

BOOK X

ON THE INGREDIENTS FOR

Earth

which

is

heavy

CRUCIBLES, &c.

and

of a pale

colour,

sugar or earth from an ant-hill or earth which

has

HINDU CHEMISTRY

126

been mixed with the burnt husks

of paddy, fibres of

hemp plant, charcoal and horse-dung pounded

in an iron mortar and also rust of iron are to be
the

recommended

for crucible-making.

5-6

V^/NTAKA CRUCIBLE

crucible of the shape of the fruit of br/njal

( Solannm melong) to which is attached a tubulure,

is
expanded towards its mouth like the

.which

flower of

Datura

8 digits in length,

s.,

is

'.

and which

suitable

is

for the

either 12 or

extraction of

the essence of calamine and other readily fusible

minerals.

is

2 3~ 2 4

[The particular kind of crucible described here

same as referred to in the extraction of zinc

the

from calamine

in the couplets 157-161,

Bk.

II.]

[Here follows a tedious account of the different

kinds of crucibles to be used for different chemical
operations.]

CALCINATION, ROASTING, &c.

When

metals

have

undergone
cannot be roasted to their former

they

lose

their

own

properties)

roasting they
condition (i.e.

and they acquire

HINDU CHEMISTRY

superior

up the

fill

qualities,

and do not sink

lines

127

in the fingers

in water.

51

quadrangular pit 2 cubits in length, breadth

and depth respectively is filled with 1,000 cow-dung

The drugs

cakes.
crucible

this

to be

roasted are placed in one

covered with a second, the rims

is

being luted with clay. The crucibles are deposited

over the cow-dung cakes and 500 more thrown over

them

fire is

[The
typical

the

now

applied.

roasting

number

of

The

pit.

above

given

description

is

size of the

that
pit,

54~55
of a

as also

cow-dung cakes often varies accor-

ding to requirements.

It is

unnecssary to reproduce

the minutiae J]

THE METALS
The

six

metals are

lead and iron.

are

artificially

Kawsya and
made

[i.e.

silver,

gold,

pittala

copper, tin r
(see p.

alloys].

114)
70-

THE SALTS
The

six salts are

samudraw

the evaporation of sea-water)

(i)

Cf. VIII.

25-28

(lit.

derived from

saindhava (or rock-

also ibid. 39, pp. 118-119.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

128

salt)

viflfaw,

lava/za.

romaka

sauvarchala,

and

chulika

THE ALKALIES
The 3 alkalies are carbonate of potash, carbonate of soda (trona or natron) and borax.
71
:

THE
list

[A
which

oil is

of plants

is

OILS
given from the

seeds of

73-75

expressed.]

THE FATS
The

fats of the jackal, the

frog, the tortoise, the

crab, the dolphin, the ox, the pig, man and also of
the goat, the camel, the ass, the ship and the buffalo are to be used.
76-77

THE URINES
The

urines of the elephant, the she-buffalo, the

ass and the horse are to be used. (Cf. ante p. 30).

78

THE ACIDS
The
(i)

acids are

rumex

vesicarius,

syn. for navasara (salammoniac), see p. 97.

the citrons

HINDU CHEMISTRY

129

and lemons, oxalis corniculata, tamarind, the acid

exudation

of

clcer

arietinum, zizyphus jujuba,

carambola these are the
averrhoa
pomegranate,
acids well suited for

and

the

dissolution

purification,

killing of mercury and the minerals.

80-84

THE EARTHS
Brick, red ochre, saline deposits, ashes,

these 5 kind of earth are

from ant-hills

earth

recommend-

ed by the experts.

85

THE POISONS
Kdlakuta, aconite ferox, sringika and the
of animals are the chief poisons.

The

minor

strychnos

posions

are

86
gloriosa

biles

super ha,

nux vomica, nerium odorum, anacardium

semicarpus,

datura

stramonium,

calotropis

gigantea?

(1)

See under Mineral Acids.

(2)

The information

Susruta from
as given

whom

later

on

in

on the poisons is most elaborate in

our author evidently borrows the classification
Bk.

XV

namely

^1^;, ^T^:,

gifieW or

It is worthy of note that

vegetable, animal and artificial poison.
opium is not included among the minor poisons.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

i3o

THE SOLVENTS
Treacle, bdellium, abrus precatorious, clarified
these are used for helping
butter, honey, borax

the fusion of the most infusible metals and hence

they are classed

among

the solvents.

BOOK

100

XI

ON THE PURIFICATION OF MERCURY

am now going

to

describe briefly the various

processes for the purification of mercury

having consulted Rasar^ava and other works.

There are
visha

(i)

natural

(poison), va^hi

and two
and

tin.

artificial,

impurities in

(fire)

due to

its

and mala

after

10

quciksilver,
(dirt,

dregs)

being alloyed w ith lead

r

Cf. Rasendrachintama?zi

4-i5

"

Trades-people fraudulently adulterate quicksilver with lead

and tin, hence it is to be freed from these artificial defects [impu"
as given above under
distillations
rities] by means of three

Tiryakpatana

(p. 124).

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Hence
ations
aid of

131

for the purification of mercury, the oper-

(named below) are to be undertaken with the

20
appliances and skilled assistants.

In an auspicious

day and under the influence of

a benign star, a quantity of mercury weighing 2,000

or 1,000 or 100 or 18 or 10 pal as is to be taken and
the operation begun.
21-22
[It is useless to enter into the details of the

several processes described here they are more or

less repetitions of what has already been given.]
;

Patanavidhi

[purification

of

mercury by

distill-

ation as described in the foot note p. 130.]

33

FIXATION OF MERCURY.

Rasavandha
fluidity of

for

processes

mercury

Take mercury

destroying

the

and

one-fourth

its

weight of

killed gold and with the addition of sulphur make

Now add an equal weight of sulphur and
a ball.
roast the

mass

in a

The mercury

(i)

In other

covered crucible.

thus treated

works a glass

retort

is

is

72
afterwards killed

recommended.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

132

with six times

weight of sulphur.

its

73

INCINERATION OF MERCURY
[The chapter concludes with certain recipes
the

killing

of

with the

mercury,

vegetable products.]
Mercury, roasted in

covered

aid

of

for

purely

with

crucible

asafcetida, which has been previously digested in

the milky juice of ficus oppositifolia, is reduced to
*
ashes.
1 1 1

and

serratus

Andropogon

ternatea

clitorea

are to be pounded in a mortar with sour gruel and

with the paste thus formed, mercury is to be triturated and digested 7 times and finally roasted in

(1)

The

shining reddish brown crystalline sublimate of sulphide

is a favourite and
frequently-used remedy

of mercury thus obtained

with the Hindu physicians.

variety of

ills

that flesh

is

It

is

heir to.

reputed to be a panacea for a

In the

"

Rasendrachintainam,"
Rasendrasarasaragraha" and other treatises, this preparation is
"
"
Rasasindura " (lit. minium-like
described as
Makaradhvaj" and
"

mercury).
*'

From

Svarwasindura"

gold of course

the supposed presence of gold

(lit.

is left

tion with gold the

and recommends
(2)

behind.

The

general belief

mercury acquires most

work, Rasapradipa,
its

it is

often

named

gold and vermilion). .During sublimation, the

is

sceptical about the part

being

is

that

by associa-

potent efficacy.

left out.

Sarngadhara also.gives a similar recipe.

later

which gold plays

HINDU CHEMISTRY

133

a covered crucible after addition of fresh quantities

The mercury

above paste.

of the

is

reduced to

ashes, resembling salt.

112-113

The seeds of achy r ant hes asp era and ricinus

communis are to be pounded together. The mercury

to be placed

is

mass roasted
to ashes.

the powder and the

The mercury is reduced

inside

as before.

Purified mercury

is

to

be preserved

in the

low of a horn or tooth or of bamboo.

*_#':#,#',-.*

14

hol1

19

ends chapter XI of " Rasaratnasamuchchaya," which treats of the purification fixation and

Here

incineration of mercury.
Notes on the Minerals

Diamond
diamond
(i) Cf.
trie

work

Belief

in

(vide pp. 101-2)

the

combustibility,

of

was an accepted creed with

Rasendrachintamawi, which evidiently quotes from a TanO Goddess, I shall now enumerate the substances which

"
:

mercury, without the use of sulphur." A list of 41 plants is

given of which any ten may be employed at a time for the roasting

kill

operation.
list

vitis

The names

of the

quadrangularis,

seylanica, clitorea ternatea,

of

euphorbia

neriifolia

following

among

andropogon

others occur in the

serratus,

plumbago

milky juice of calatropis gigantea and

vitex negundo, datura
stramonium,

achyranthes aspera ficus oppositifolia and tinospora cordifolia

t

HINDU CHEMISTRY

134

Hindu latro-Chemists.

the

The reader

will

find

much

useful information in the followng extract.

'This combustibility of the diamond appears to

have been observed

an early period, although

the fact does not seem to have attracted the general
at

attention of the older chemists, as statements of a

contrary character are recorded by them.

for instance,

Kunkel

Thus,

states that his father, at the

command

of

Duke Frederick

diamonds

in

his

of Holstein,

heated

gold-melting furnace, for

nearly

thirty weeks, without their

undergoing any change.

Newton, however, that we owe the first
argument which went to prove that the diamond
It

is

to

was capable
of

its

of

undergoing combustion on account

high refractive power, a property characteris-

tic of the class of oily bodies.

of his
"

Opticks,

Newton

Again the refraction

says

In the second

upon

the

book

subject,

of camphire, oyl-olive,

lint-

seed oyl, spirit of turpentine and amber, which

are fat sulphureous unctuous bodies, and a diamond,
which probably is an unctuous substance coagulated,

have their refractive powers in proportion to one

another as their densities without any considerable
The conclusion to which Newton was
variation."

by theoretical considerations was experimentally

proved to be correct in the year 1694-5 by Averami
led

HINDU CHEMISTRY

135

and Targioni, members

of the Academia del Cimento,

who, at the request of the Grand Duke Cosmo III., of

Tuscany, placed a diamond in the focus of a large

burning-glass and observed that it entirely disappeared.

Francis

I.,

who

is

said to have

from an alchemist an anonymous

diamonds,

and rubies

exposed, in the year 1751,

of the value of 6,000

four hours to the

rubies were found unaltered, but the

altogether

disappeared.

diamond by means

of

diamonds

gulden for twenty-

of a powerful

action

received

receipt for melting

fire

the

diamonds had

The volatilization of the

heat was from this time

forwad made the subject of numerous experiments.

Thus, Darcet observed in 1766 that diamonds dis-

appear when they are heated in a cupel-furnace,

even in closed crucibles, but, continuing his experi-

ments

at the

request of the Paris

together with

found

Rouelle,

that

Academy,

he,

when heated

hermetically-sealed vessels, the diamond

disappear.
Macquer, in the year 1771,

in perfectly

did

not

was the

first

undergoes

to

observe that when the

ed by a flame.
Lavoisier, he

In

it

afterwards

bustion takes place.

diamond

appears to be surroundconjunction with Cadet and

volatilization

In

found that a true comcontinuation of these ex-

periments Lavoisier, together with Macquer, Cadet,

HINDU CHEMISTRY
1

placed a diamond in a glass

vessel containing air collected over mercury, and
on igniting the diamond by means of a burningBrisson, and

Baume,

found that carbonic acid gas was proRoscoe and schor. Vol i. pp. 658-59.

glass, they

duced."

Mr. T. H. Holland,

Survey

logical

A.R.S.M.,

F.G.S.,

of India,

to

whom was

of the

Geo-

submitted

the translation of the descriptions of the minerals

is

will, to

me

with his opinion,

reproduced below in his own words. It

(vide pp. 79-100), has favoured

which

a certain extent, help

the identification

in

of the minerals.
"

have appended notes

giving

suggestions

which may help to explain some of the passages,

but the majority of descriptions are altogether too
vague to permit identification of the minerals.

The names

minerals

already given are presumably recognised translations for the descriptions accompanying the names might just as well,,
in many instances, apply to several minerals known
of

in this

"

country.

and 6 angles

Vaikranta has 8 faces

"

&c.,

(p. 83) possibly refers to a mineral crystallizing in

the

octahedral

form,

crystallizing in this
(i) Lavoisier

(Euvres,

and

form
tome

ii.

of

the

the
38, 64.

many minerals

family of spinels is

HINDU CHEMISTRY
more

exhibit the great range of colours

to

likely

137

given.
"

White"

"Red"
"

Unknown.

Ruby

Yellow

"

luite (yellowish

"

Blue"

spinel.

Rubicelle (orange to yellow)

dys-

brown).

Almandine

(violet).

"

"

Grass-green

chlorospinel, hercynite

when massive, green by transmitted

powder), pleonaste (dark-green)

"black"

"

variegated
to the

some magnesia

and 6 angels

"

in

magnetite, gahnite, franklinite &c.

"

8 Faces

light

(black

and

spinels

might possibly also refer

hexagonal prism with basal planes, a comof corundum, which gives the variety of

mon form

colours referred to even

more perfectly than the

spinels.

But the remarks on

faction

"

spinel or

104 as to the "liqueof this mineral, cannot apply to either

corundum.

p.

Unless there

to appreciate the original

is

some

failure

meaning the statements

are nonsensical.

....

Makshikara (pyrites)
Pyrites is of
two kinds golden and silvery the former is a
native of Kanauj, and is of golden yellow colour.
;

The

silvery pyritss

is

associated with stones and

HINDU CHEMISTRY

138

is

of inferior quality."

Makshika repeatedly steeped in [organic substances] and gently roasted in a crucible yields an
essence of the appearance

[in the

shape] of copper"

(P. 8 4 .)

Iron

and

its

yellow

[Fe S 2 ] is brass-yellow in colour,

dimorphous form marcasite is pale bronzepyrites

but there

other pyrite-like

are

which are silvery white

for

instance,

minerals
cobaltite

(Co S a Co. AsJ, smaltite (Co As a ), lollingite (Fe As 2

with S) and leucopyrite (Fe, As 4 ).
Iron pyrites
.

roasted in air would give a red residue of Fe 2 O g

But it seems more likely that the " golden-yellow "
variety is copper-pyrite, which has a deep yellow

and besides which iron-pyrite when freshly

fractured would appear almost silvery in colour.

colour

In

that

"

case the

essence

copper" might be the metal

"

Sasyaka (blue

in the throat of the

vitriol)

Vimala

(pp. 84-85)

has the play of colours

(p. 86.)

referred to might apply to any

There

or erubescite (Gu g Fe

(i)

the appearance of

itself.

peacock."

The experiments
copper compound.

of

),

a copper ore, bornite

which, on account of its

is

would appear also to be a variety

of pyrites.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

"

ore.

peacock"
Gairika

It

which

is

known

as

occurs in several parts of India.

is red and often hard,

yellow or brown, both occur

is

form of ochres.

'iCamkushMaoz
Himalayas

and

iridescence,

hematite, which

.and limonite
in the

and

colour

peculiar

is

it

is

produced at the foot of the

of white and yellow colour
7

a strong purgative."
Possibly an efflorescence of
is

magnesium sulphate
uncommon. The

or sodium sulphate
both are not
colour
might be due to
yellow
;

dirt

admixture

with

due to oxidation of the ferrous

ferruginous
sulphate produced by similar causes with the other
sulphates.

Vajrawz

would be

"
the remarks " 8 faces and 6 corners

correct

for

an

octahedral

crystal

of

diamond but I know of no crystal form. which has

"
at the same time
8 angles."
The faces of the
diamond are frequently rounded, which may account
"
for the statements about the
female" and " neuter"
;

diamonds.
play

of

Many

refraction

either

through
but the diamond

noticeable on account of

The following
Geology

of

minerals

transparent

colours

its

is

will

or

of course particularly

high dispersive power."

extracts from

India"

give

schillerization

also

Ball's

throw-

"

Economic

considerable

HINDU CHEMISTRY

140

light

on

this subject.

It

be seen how

will

in India

the traditions of the technical arts of which

we

get

vivid glimpses in the Rasar^ava have been preserved even to our own days from time immemorial"

Copper ores are found

Rajputana

in several

independent States of Rajputana, and also

district of Ajmir.
Mining has been

of the

in the British

practised on a large scale, but at present the trade

of miner is becoming extinct and the operations,,

which are only carried on

in

a few of the

are of a very petty nature.

"
The names of the States

mines are as follows

in

Alwar,
Udepur, Bundi and Bikanir.
"

Alwar

State.

which there are

Bhartpur,

According

localities,

Jaipur,.

Mr. Racket there

to

are ancient copper mines at the following localities

in

this

garh,

pura.
"

state

Bhangarh, KusalPratabgarh, Tassing, and Jasing-

Daribo,

Beghani,

Indawas,

The most important of

Deribo. The mine is

anticlinal

bend

in

this is the first.

situated on a sharp
a thin band of black slates inter-

calated in the Alwar quartzites.

There appears tobe no true lode
the one, which is pyrites mixed
with arsenical iron, occurs irregularly disseminated
;

through the black slates, a few specks and stains

only being seen in the quartzites occasionally rich
;

HINDU CHEMISTRY
nests of ore

were met with

141

.....

From an

interesting account

by Major Cadell, the following

the
manufacture have been exregarding
tracted.
The ore, as usual in the native process,
facts

is

pounded, made up into balls with cow-dung,

and then smelted in a closed furnace and

roasted,

an open charcoal fire. Thirty pounds

of ore require four times that quantity of charcoal
refined

and

in

yield 5^

pounds

of

metal,

or 16.6

per cent.

During the last 12 years the average annual outturn has been only 3 tons 8 cwts., and it is diminishing
"

owing

to the influx of

Singhana (Jaipore

European copper.
The copper mines

State).

at Singhana are situated in rocks belonging to the

The earliest account of these mines,
Arvali series.
is believed to have been by Captain Boilcan,
was published in the year 1831. The principal
productions were copper, blue vitriol or copper

Avhich

sulphate, alum, and an

ore

of

cobalt

called sehta

or saita.

"The mines
and

are

described as being tortuous

the working faces it was

of great extent; at

the custom to light fires which caused the rock toLamps were used which the miners
split up.

carried on their heads and with a gad and hammer

-extracted the ore. The principal ore found appears-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

42

to

have been pyrites.

It

was

sold retail

by auction

to the proprietors of different furnaces.

"
The pounding or crushing was effected

on a

hammer weighing eight or ten

when completely reduced to powder the
ore was made up into balls with cow-dung and
The blast furnaces (vide illustrations)
roasted.
stone anvil with a
seers

were prepared in the following manner. A quantity

of common sand was spread on the door of a.
circular

hut,

centre of which a depression,

and 2 or 3 inches deep,

the

in

12 to 15 inches in diameter

was made
of

ashes

adhering
nozzles
sides

of

a layer of fine sand and another

laid to prevent the metal from

in this

were
to the

or

bottom of the receiver

tuyers

this

two clay

were then placed on opposite

and a third between them,

hollow

leaving the fourth side vacant for the slag to escape.

The nozzles were then connected by moist clay

and a

was

circular rim of

mud, a few inches

in height,,

raised, on which three annular vessels

of

fire-

clay were placed to form the body of the furnace,

each of these was 15 inches in external diameter,.
10 inches high,

and

3 inches thick.

They were used

repeatedly, but the lower part of the furnace had

The bellows
to be reconstructed for every charge.
were simply goat-skins connected with the nozzles.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
and were worked by the families

143

of the smelters.

After a preliminary tiring, to dry the mud, the

furnace was charged with charcoal, roasted ore

and iron
''

slag, the latter

In a

maunds

day

of nine

being employed as a
or ten

flux.

hours' duration,

of charcoal, 2\ of the roasted

ore,

and

2 of

The slag was drawn

the iron slag were consumed.
off and the smelted copper which had accumulated
bottom of the furnace was removed on the

at the

It was then re-melted and refined

following day.
in an open furnace under a strong blast from bellows, and cast into small bars or ingots, which

were subsequently removed

up and fashioned into coins.

"The
yi

ore

was

Mint and cut

to the

said to yield only from to 2\ to

but the profits must have

per cent, of metal,

been not inconsiderable as the Khetrl Raja is said

to have claimed one-sixth of the value of the copper
in addition

The

quality

to Rs.
of

14,000 received for the lease.

metal

the

inferior to that of

Basawar,

is

this

said

have been

to

being

attributed to

the use of the iron slag as a flux

.

Considerable

(copper sulphate),
phate)
slate

are

quantities

alum,

manufactured from

and refuse

of

the

of

blue

and copperas
mines.

the

vitriol

(iron sul-

descomposed

The

slates

are

HINDU CHEMISTRY

144

in

water, which

in

steeped

iron

large

vessels,

-crystallized out,

Mr.

copperas.

afterwards evaporatedthe blue vitriol, is

is

when

afterwards the alum, and lastly the

Mallet found traces of nickel and

-cobalt in all three of these substances.

"

Copper

smelting in the

ting having been carried on

District

of mining and smelthis region from a very

Indications exist

(Bengal).-

Singhbhum

in

to
early period, and the evidence available, points
the Seraks or lay Jains as being the persons who,

The number and extent

the

initiated

perhaps 2,000 years ago,

mining.

ancient workings
testify to the assiduity with which every sign of the
presence of ore was exploited by these early
pioneers and those who follow them up to recent
of the

times."

The

Treatise on

(loth to

iith century

similar

descriptions
specially noticeable

attributed to Bubacar

Alchemy
of
is

A.

D.)

the

also

contains

gems and

male andfema/e (cf. Bk. IV, 27-28, p.

append below one or two short extracts.

"Viennent ensuite
savoir

(i )

les

the classification according

to sex

We

many

minerals

les

100).

treize genres de pierres,

marcassites, les

magnesies,

Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, June 1869,

p. 170.

les

tuties,

HINDU CHEMISTRY
1'azur (lapis lazuli

une

etc., et toute

des noms arabes.

145

ou cinabre?), 1'hematite, le gypse,

suite de mineraux designes sous

Parmi

marcassites (sulfures),
blanche, pareille a 1'argent la rouge
les

on distingue la
ou cuivree la noire, couleur de

fer

"

Les

la doree, etc.

de differente
magnesies
2
couleur, Tune noire, dont la cassure est cristalline,
une autre ferrugineuse, etc. Une variete est dite

male

c'

Les

le

brillants, est

appelee

est la meilleure de toutes.

tuties

sont de differentes couleurs

jaune, blanche, etc."

"
La classe des -vitriols
six

aussi

une autre, avec des yeux

iemelle
"

sont

especes

celui qui sert

calcantum,

le

verte,

(atramenta) comprend
a faire du noir, le blanc,

calcande,

le

calcathar,

et

le

II
y en a un jaune, employe par les
un vert mele de terre, employe par les
"
La Chimie au moyen age/' T. I.,
megissiers, etc.-'

surianum.

orfevres

307-

(1)

tels

que

Ce mot
les

designait certains sulfures et oxydes metalliques,

oxydes de

fer

magnetique,

le

bioxyde de manganese,

-etc.

(2)

Offre des yeux brillants.

(3)

Oxydes

et

minerais de zinc, renfermant du cuivre.

IO

HINDU CHEMISTRY

146

ALUM AND GREEN VITRIOL

Dutt speaking of alum states
tioned by
writers

"

not

it is

Susruta, in his list of metallics,

synonyms and

its

give

evidently incorrect.

men-

but later

uses."

This

is

Alum, with green

vitriol,

is-

distinctly referred to in the Susruta,

e.

Sutra. xxxvi, 12.

In the above ^loka surdshtrajd, lit., begot of
Surashtra (modern Surat), is used in the sense of
alum. From the ancient times the " earth of

Surat

"

has been

Amara Siwha

in

known
his

between 400-600 A.
following synonyms

to

this

yield

Lexicon,

sometime

among

others the

D.,

of

gives

alum

mineral.

written

karakshi, tuvari
"

"

and

Rasaratnasamuchchya
same synonyms.
(Bk. III., 59-62).

also gives the

own

days, as the

surashtraja.

facture of alum

survives to our

The manu-

following description will show

"
Alum shales, so called, are of rare
:

in

peninsular India,

(i)
A. D. as

and, so far as

it

occurrence

known, the

The lowermost limit of his age may be taken about 948

made out from an inscription in Budh Gaya.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
only considerable native
in

Rajputana

147

manufacture

is

situated

but as will be gathered from what

follows, the tertiary rocks of the extra-peninsular

regions often contain such shales.
"

In

two

naturally

in

localities

lumps
abundance

sufficient

article of export.
"

Alum

is

used

principally

dyeing, but as a drug

its

of

alum... occur

to

be a regular

as

a mordant in

employment

is

extensive

in India.

"BEHAR.

Sherwill

stated
1846
alum
was manufactured
that a small quantity of
from slates obtained in the district of Shahabad

Captain

in

these rocks,

it is

believed,

pyritous shales of the

dhyan
"

belonged

to the Bijigrah

Kaimur group

of the

Vin-

series.

The alum was

rupee per tola

it

high price of one

was identical with the salajit of
sold at the

Nepal.
Copperas or iron sulphate is obtained in
the same region, which is situated to the north of

Rotasgarh, and to the west of the Sone.

"

In connecRajputana, Khetri, and Singhana.

tion with the copper mines at the above localities

Ci)

Journ. As. Soc. XV., p. 58.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

148

there are manufactories which turn out considerable quantities of blue vitriol

(copper sulphate),

copperas (iron sulphate), and alum. The process

has been very fully described and illustrated by
Colonel Brooke. In 1864 there were twenty of these
factories at Khetri and about double the number
at

The broken

Singhana.

which

contains

the

salts

shale
is

from the mine

in

placed

earthen

gharas, together with the crusts from the refuse

heaps of previous lixiviations and water is added.

are arranged on ledges prepared for

The gharas

the purpose on the heaps of refuse, as will be seen

by reference to the wood-cut (vide illustrations).
"

Each charge

of

shale

is

exposed to three

changes of water and the water itself is changed

from one ghara to another till it has taken up the
It is
sulphates from seven different steepings.
then of a thick dirty-bluish colour and is taken to
the boiling house, where it is boiled in earthen

gharas ; when
cool, and thin
vitriol
is

sticks

crystallizes

addition of

on

concentrated

being
them.

it is left

introduced

The mother

to

blue

the

liquor

and again boiled, and on the

saltpetre, the alum crystallizes at the

then poured

bottom of the
in

sufficiently

solution, are

off

vessel.

The

allowed to

residual sulphates
crystallize

still

out by ex-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

149

**/*,**

posing the mixture to the sun.

"

CUTCH.

There are

the manufacture of alum

by Captain

Me

the exports of

in

numerous
Cutch.

accounts of

The

earliest is

Murdo, who states that before 1818

alum amounted in some years to

hundred thousand maunds, which chiefly

Guzerat and Bombay to be employed in
The following account by Mr. Wynne is
dyeing.
the most recent and complete.
The site of the
several

went

to

operations is at Mhurr or Madh.

"The rock containing the materials

is

a pyritous

dark-gray or black shale, which is in close associawith a soft aluminous pseudo-breccia of the

tion

sub-nummulitic group.
"This shale is excavated from pits and is exposed for four months, a slow combustion taking place

owing
"

decomposition of the pyrites.

then spread in squares resembling salt
and sprinkled with water. After about 12
to the

It is

pans

consolidates into efflorescing mammillated

crystalline plates or crusts called phitkari-ka-bij or

days

it

seed of alum.
iron vessels

These crusts are boiled

(luted

in

inside with lime), together

large

with

saltpetre (or other potash salt), in the proportion

of 15 of 'alum seed' to 6 of the latter when it has
;

HINDU CHEMISTRY

150

settled, the liquor is

placed in small earthen vessels

somewhat the shape

of flower-pots,

These

tion takes place in three days.

again boiled one or

which

solution,

bladder-shaped
small mouth

is

more times

earthen

crystalliza-

crystals

are

to concentrate the

ladled

finally

and

into

large

mutkds or ghards

thin

with

these are sunk into the ground to

their
breaking, and in five days the alum
prevent
The vessels are
is found crystallized in masses.
;

then broken and the alum

"

Alum

is

also

is

stored.

manufactured from the water of

a hot spring north of Mhurr.

The impure saltis
to
which
employed
petre,
supply the second
base

in the

above-mentioned manner,
of

lixiviation

village

refuse."

is

obtained by
"

(Ball's

Economic

Geology", pp. 431-33).

"

IRON SULPHATE. The green

peras of commerce which is known
as kahi and hara kdsis,

is

vitriol

or cop-

to the natives

produced principally from

alum is pre-

the so-called alum shales from which

As

is

the case also

w ith
r

alum, copperas is
found sometimes as a natural exudation upon alum
pared.

shales and other rocks which include iron pyrites.

"

This native copperas goes by several different

names

according to the nature of the

other substances with which it is combined.
in

India,

HINDU CHEMISTRY
"

BEHAR.

the year 1833,

analysis of native
In

Mr.

151

J.

Stevenson

sulphate of iron
published an
obtained from Behar, which was at that time used

by

the native dyers of Patna.

He

found that

it

peroxide

Magnesia
Loss

ibid p. 419.

consisted of

....
.....

Iron sulphate

39*0
36*0
23*0
2-0

loo'o

On

fftetals

and metallurgy
and

In the Vedic Period gold

were not

silver

only known but were worked into ornaments of

various descriptions.
Gold was often called by the

name " yellow" and silver by the name "white."

The warriors of old were protected with coats of
mail and helmets of metal.

ages

the

it

Loha" w as a term apr

metals in

general though in later

came to stand for iron alone. In the Vedic
to

aplied

'

proper seems to be designated by

krishwayas or the black metal and copper by lohitaliterature iron

a
yas or the red metal.
Besides gold and

e.g. iron,

(0
28,

i.

lead and

^KH
Here

''f PCcf" (yellow)

^ITff cTff?T.
iron

to

is

fti*S

its

cfqSTfafecITTST

explained by Sayawa

flfTM ^Tff cWW

^rrf^fHf

AV

Sayawa ^fi^^g = black metal i.

meta i- e copper. The Susruta also

rec^

by the term krishwaloha (black

known by

several other metals,.

are mentioned in the

^tf*BT5T^ sftTOgfa

to gold. s^uTfigTST

according

tin,

silver,

proper

name tamra.

metal),

White

AV

5r

as equivalent
IJ

3. 7-

Here

e.

iron

and

differentiates

though copper

is.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

Yajurveda
^ttf

xr

ag

F,

f^^^ni

=3 *r

*r,

^q^

g%sT cK^-Tinr

%. 3?JW

XVIII,

ir,

13.

Chhandogya Upanishad IV, 17,7. we alsoone binds gold by means of lavarca.

(borax), and silver by means of gold, and tin by
means of silver, and lead by means of tin, and iron
by means of lead, and wood by means of iron, and
In the

read

"

also b

as

means

of leather."

<I^ T

*'?n?T,

is
now
Unfortunately very little material
available to enable us to present a connected narrative of the metallurgical
skill of the
ancient

Hindus.

important links are missing;

shall here try to put together
only a few, which
have been able te recover.

Many

Megasthenes says that the Indians were

the

skilled

in

writer,

the

veins of

arts."

According

to

the

"

we
we

well

Greek

has " underground numerous

sorts of metals, for it contains much

soil

all

too

gold and silver, and copper and iron in no small

quantity and even tin and other metals, which are

employed

in

making

as well as the

Coming
that

articles of use

and

ornament,

implements and accoutrements ofwar."

to

comparatively later times, we find

noted for their skill in the

the Indians were

HINDU CHEMISTRY

54

tempering of

The blades

steel.

of

Damascus were

held in high esteem but it was from India that the

Persians and, through them, the Arabs learnt the
secret of the operation.

The wrought-iron

pillar close to the

Kutub near

Delhi which weighs ten tons and is some 1500

years old the huge iron girders at Puri the ornamental gates of Somnath and the 24-ft wrought;

gun at Nurvar are monuments of a bye-gone

art and bear silent but eloquent testimony to the
iron

marvellous

Hindus.
"

says

It

form of

what

upon
its

it,

age really is. There is an insFrom the

but without a date.

century.

Our own

conviction

it

to the 3rd

Daji, on the same evidence,

Bhau

The

5th

beginning of the 6th

between the two.

or

truth probably lies

Chandra Rajas
quently to A. D.

les

ascribed

alphabet, Prinsep

or 4th century

Vide

the

its

to the end of the

(i)

by

Regarding the Kutab pillar, Fergusson

has not, however, been yet correctly

-ascertained
cription

attained

skill

metallurgical

is

that

it

belongs to one of the

Gupta dynasty, either subseor

A. D. 400.
363

of the

Trempe du Per

Indien

"
:

Elle a ete decouverte par

Indiens et exposee par les Perses, et c'est de ceux-ci qu'elle

-nous est venue."

Berthelot

"Coll. Alch Grec.," T.

3,

trad. p. 332.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
"

155

Taking A. D. 400 as a mean date

and

it

it
certainly is not far from the truth
opens our eye
to an unsuspected state of affairs to find the

Hindus

age capable of forging a bar of iron

larger than any that have been forged even in
at that

Europe up
even now.

to a very late

As we

turies afterwards

find

and not frequently

them, however, a few cendate,

using bars as long as this lat in

roofing the porch of the temple at Kanaruc, we

must now believe that they w ere much more
r

familiar with the use of this metal than they afterwards became.
It is almost
equally startling to
find that after an

fourteen centuries,

and

exposure to wind and rain for

is

it

unrusted, and the capital

and as sharp now as

inscription are as clear

when put up
"There
pure

is

iron.

fourteen centuries ago.

no mistake about the pillar being of
Gen. Cunningham had a bit of it

analysed in India by Dr. Murray, and another portion was analysed in the School of Mines here by
Dr. Percy. Both found it pure malleable iron with"Hist,
of Indian and Eastern
out any alloy."
ed
Architecture," p. 508
1899.
;

The

Ritter

sometime

in

Cecil

charge

Company, thus speaks

von Schwarz, who was

of

the

Bengal

Iron

for

Works

of the superior iron smelting

HINDU CHEMISTRY

156

industry in India

well-known by every manufacturer of

crucible cast-steel how difficult it is sometimes to
"It

is

get the exact degree of hardness to suit certain

purposes, especially with reference to steel for
cutting the blades, etc., With the ordinary process,
endeavours are made to reach the required degree
of hardness

by selecting such raw materials

as on

an average have the required contents of carbon

in

order to correspond with the required degree of

hardness as far as possible. The natives [of India]

reached this degree by introducing into their caststeel an

excess__of_carbon, by taking this excess
gradually

away

afterwards,

tempering process, having

their

power

by means
it

thus

of the slow

completely in

to attain the extact

degree by interrupting this de-carbonsing process exactly at the proper time in order to cast steel of a quality exactly
suitable for the purpose."

ZlNC

The

extraction

followed

both

in

"

in

every

of

zinc

detail

from the ores can be

from the account

left

us

Rasar^ava" and "Rasaratnasamuchchaya."

HINDU CHEMISTRY
"Rasaka"
ral

is

mentioned

in

157

Rasarvzava as the mine-

which turns copper into gold

We

(p. 71).

have

the succeeding couplets a process described

for the reduction of the ore.
This process is so
also in

elaborately given in R. R. S. that it may be quoted

almost verbatim in any treatise on modern chemistry

it is

practically

descensum

same

the

flame

the

of

as distillation

per

bluish tint issuing from

the mouth of the crucible indicates the

combustion

monoxide, so often observed

in metallur-

of carbon

(See

gical operations.

From

we

p. 88).

the time of the Susruta to that of R. R. S.,

find all

along six metals

and 127) and the last work

and bell-metal as simply
veneration paid
alchemists
"the

had

essence

to
at

alloys.

to

Owing

ancient authorities, the

first

some

the

Indian

hesitation in classing

of the lustre of tin "a^iw^" (p. 71) as

a separate metal.
to

recognised (see pp. 48

distinctly mentions brass

In the medical Lexicon

ascribed

king Madanapala and written about the year

(i)

Cf.

"A mixture

of

parts

of

ground roasted ore and

each holding about

40 lt>s. of the mixture. As soon as the temperature has risen high
enough, the reduction begins and carbon monoxide is evolved and
burns from the end of the clay adapter with a blue flame (the italics,
part of coal dust

are ours).
p. 255, ed.

is

brought into

Roscoe and
1879.

the

retorts,

Schorlemmer's Chemistry, Vol.

II., Pt. I

HINDU CHEMISTRY

158

1374 A. D,, zinc is, however, distinctly recognised

i
as a metal under the designation of Jasada.
evident rasaka

It it

es

jmd

J^liny

and

the cadmia of

is

Dioscorid-

of the alchemists of the

tutia

middle ages. The pseudo-Basil Valentine writing

about 1600 A. D. uses the word zinc but "he does
not appear to have classed it with the metals
Paracelsus mentions zinc sometimes as a
proper."

metal and sometimes as a bastard or semi-metal,

but it is doubtful whether he had any distinct notion

character specially as he says, "it

malleability" (keine malleabilitat hat er) or

of

3
"Libavius was the
yielded it.
the
investigate
properties of zinc more

ore which

the

of

first

true

its

has no

to

was not aware that the metal

was derived from the ore known as calamine. He

exactly, although he
I

that

states

East
I

a peculiar kind

Indies

brought

to

called

of tin

Some

Calaem.

Holland and

came

(Roscoe and Schorlemmer).

The terms rasaka, kharpara,

(i)

Intro,
(a)

Roth
to

"Indischen

Studien,"

CXXV.
^S?3J f^fairj^

Gesch.

d.

cl*fffW

Chemie," IV, 116.

into

found
of

in the

this

his

was

hands."

kharpara-tuttha

XIV, 399

Manu,

5TS^
"

is

also

Buhler

HINDU CHEMISTRY
and tuttha are

159

applied to calamine, while

stands for blue vitriol as well.

sometimes

tuttha

all

Some

mistaken
however,
kharpara
for blue vitriol, but R. R. S. is very explicit on
this point.
The name tutenague by which Chinese
writers

zinc

have,

was known

in

commerce

from the Tamil tatanagam.

zinc

"

is

evidently derived

In Persian, sulphate of

called

suffed (white) tutia

sulphate of
and
neela
tutia
(blue)
copper,
sulphate of iron,
hura (green) tutia so, in Avicenna, different
is

kinds are described under this name, which occurs

alsoinGeber" (Royle).

Both the Tamil tatana-

gam and

the Persian tutia are probably corruptions

of the Sanskrit word tuttham.
At the beginning
the Baron de Sacy was at conIn
siderable pains in tracing the history of tutia.
a note appended to certain extracts from Kazwini r

of the last century

the " oriental Pliny/' the learned Frenchman gives

the following description of tutia.
The account
necessarily

some

involves

digressions

on

the

Aristotelian theory of the formation of dew, hailstone,

and the reader may with ad-

metals, &c.,

vantage compare

it

with

that

of the

VaLreshika.

Philosophy. (Chap. I, pp. 1-12).

"
Le khar-sini est aussi nommefer de la Chine
.

et

or cru

Je crois que ce

meme

HINDU CHEMISTRY

i6o

metal est aussi designe sous les noms de djosd ou

chez
djost dans Flnde, de tutie fossile
.

les

enfin

Arabes,

& esprit

....

de tutie

dans F Ayin Acberi, et que c'est la toutenague,

dont il y a plusieurs varietes plus ou moins
analogues au zinc.

"Je vais rapporter, pour mettre

le

lecteur a

portee de juger de ma conjecture, ce que je trouve

dans le Dictionnaire des medicamens simples par
Ebn-Beitar, sur les diverses especes de tutie

fossile,

et un article curieux de \ Ayin

Acberi, omis pour

traduction angloise de

tresgrande partie dans la

j'en donnerai le texte d'apres deux
manuscrits de cet ouvrage, dont Tun m'appartient,
la

M. Gladwin

et Tautre faisoit autrefois partie de la bibliotheque

de feu M. Langles et d'apres le Traite de mede-

dedie au prince Dara-schekouh, ou il se

trouve tout entier (manuscrit de M. Brueix, acquis
par la bibliotheque du Roi, n. 16, fol. 62 et suiv.)
cine,

Je joindrai a cela ce que dit Kazwini de la formation du khar-sini et de ses usages medicaux et

economiques, laissant aux mineralogistes a juger

dans ces descriptions melees d'hypotheses
s'i,
arbitraires,

et

de quelques

traits

latanisme, on peut reconnoitre

"

Voici d'abord

le

la

suspects de char-

toutenague.

passage d'Ebn-Bei'tar.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
"

Edu-\Yafid

dit

y a deux especes de tuties

mines, Tautre dans les

il

trouve dans

se

1'une

les

fourneaux ou Ton fond

cette

ment
a

161

le cuivre,

comme

la

cadmie

derniere espece est ce que les Grecs nompompholyx. Quant a la tutie fossile, il y en

trois varietes

Tune

1'autre

blanche,

verdatre,

derniere d'un jaune fortement rougeatre.

Les
mines de celle-ci sont dans les contrees maritimes
la

de

mer de Hind

la

celle

qui semble
celle-ci,

.apres

la

et

de Sind

la

meilleure est

au coup-d'ceil couverte de
June
quant a la blanche,
;

....

a quelque

sel

elle

chose de graveleux
et
est percee
on 1'apporte de la Chine. La tutie
blanche est la plus fine de toutes les varietes et la
:

la

verte,

neaux,

qui

plus

grossiere

Dioscoride

dit,

quant a

livre

V.e.

du spodion
Acberi expose la

est la tutie, differe

"L

Ay

mineraux

in

la tutie
:

des for-

Le pompholyx,

&c"
formation

des

des metaux

en particulier,
suivant une hypothese, commune, je crois, a tous
les alchimistes anciens
et quoique ces details
et

celle

meritent par eux-memes peu d'attention, je rapporterai le passage en entier, i.

prace que M.

Gladwin

1'a

omis

parce qu'il est necessaire

puisse juger de la nature du khar;

2.

pour que Ton

sini. et de Tidentite que

je
1 1

suppose entre cette

HINDU CHEMISTRY

62

II
metallique et \ esprit de tutie.
y a
texte de \ Ayin Acberi quelques omissions

substance

dans
que

le

retablirai

je

ou

scheko'ih,

d'apres

ce chapitre se

n'est

pas le seul qui

L'auteur de ce
ouvrages.
il

le

va

Traite

commun

soit

dernier

annonce

dedie a Dara-

trouve tout entier, et

a ces deux

traite",

lui-meme,

fol.

62,

sur

tirer

lesquelques chapitres
de
de
feu
Abou'l
formant
metaux,
Fazel,
Fouvrage
Pun de ces textes
le Hl.e tome de \ Acber-nameh

verso,

qu'il

me

servira a corriger Fautre.

De

la formation des

metaux.

"Le dieu createur de Tunivers a donne

1'exist-

ence a quatre elemens en opposition les uns aux

autres, et il a suscite quatre etres d'une nature
admirable

le feu

gerete absolue

chaud

et sec, qui

possede une le
doue d'une

Fair chaud et humide,

Feau froide et homide, qui

une
pesanteur relative, la terre froide et
possede
La chaleur
seche, douee d'une pesanteur absolue.
relative

legerete

produit

la

Fhumidite

legerete,
facilite

la

et

le

froid

la pesanteur
des parties, la
;

separation
Par la combinaison
secheresse y met obstacle.
de ces quatre puissances elementaries, ont ete
produits tous les etres dont Fexistence est due

HINDU CHEMISTRY
['influence des

les

corps celestes,

163

mineraux,

les

animaux.

et les

vegetaux
"
Les particules aqueuses, ayant acquis par les
rayons du soleil et autres causes un plus grand
degre de legerete, se melent avee les particules
aeriennes, et s'elevent en Tair c'est cette combi:

naison

nomme

que Ton

de cette combinaison,

les

Par le moyen
vapeurs.
molecules terreuses etant

melees elles-memes avec

s'elevent aussi en 1'air

halaisons

II

le

egalement
combinaisons
sont

avec

[immediatement]

terreuses.

qui

aeriennes,

particules

nomme

ex-

quelquefois aussi les particules aeriennes

melent

se

les

et c'est ce qu'on

le

molecules

les

y a des philosophes qui appliquent

a ces deux sortes de

nom de vapeurs
elementaires

ils

designent celles

produit des particules aqueuses, par

nom de vapeures humides ou aqueuses

le

et celles

qui doivent leur formation aux molecules terreuses,

par

le

nom de vapeurs

Ce sont ces deux

au-dessus de

seches

ou

fuligineuses.

sortes de vapeurs

la terre

les

nuees,

le

qui forment

vent

la pluie

phe'nomenes semblables et dans

Finterieur du globe, les tremblemens de terre les

la

neige et autres

sources

comme

et
le

les

mines.

On

regarde

corps, et les exhalaisons

des unes et des autres, suivant

les

comme

la diversite

vapeurs
1'esprit

de leurs

HINDU CHEMISTRY

164

combinaisons

et les differentes proportions

dans

les-

dans le laboraquelles elles s'unissent, sont produites

nature un grand nombre de substances
diverses. Suivant ce qu'on lit dans les traites de phi-

de

toire

la

compte pas plus de cinq especes de

losophic, on ne

mineraux

ceux

leur secheresse,

a cause

de

sont infusibles a cause

qui

comme

le

yakout

leur humidite,

ceux qui

comme

le

le

de

sont

\ofargent

ceux qui se fondent promptement, mais qui ne sont

ni malleable,

ceux qui

ne

ni

combustibles,

sont pas

comme

combustibles,

comme

le

vitriol

malleables, mais qui sont

ceux enfin qui
le soufre
;

sont malleables, mais incumbustibles

comme

Tor.

La fusion d'un corps consiste dans la liquefaction

de ses parties, due a la combinaison de la secheresse
et de

1'humidite: la malleabilite [ou ductilite] est

la faculte qu'a un crops de receivoir peu a peu une

augmentation d'etendue, tant en longueur qu'en

largeur, sans separation d'aucune de ses parties
et sans aucune addition.
"

Quand

les

vapeurs et

de maniere que
dominant,

et

que

les
le

les

exhalaisons se melent

premieres soient

melange

le

principe
etant achieve et la

coction parfaite, 1'ardeur du soleil coagule cet amal-

game, le produit est du vif-argent. Comme il n'y

a aucune des molecules de ce produit qui ne ren-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

165

ferme quelque portion cTexhalaison, ce corps a une

il ne
qualite seche dont les effets sont sensibles
:

s'attache

pas

contact

comme

main

la
la

au

contraire,

chaleur a ete

coagulation, la chaleur ne peut la

fuit le

il

principe de sa
dtruire.
Si les

le

deux principes [les vapeurs et les exhalaisons] se

combinent dans des proportions a-peu-pres e'gales,
il se manifeste dans le
melange une humidite' d'une
nature visqueuse et onctueuse
a 1'instant de la
fermentation des particules ariennes s'insinuarit
:

dans

le

melange qui

se coagule alors par le froid,

amalgame sont inflammables.

produits
Si les exhalaisons et la qualite' onctueuse dominent,
le produit est du soufre, qui est rouge, jaune, bleu
de

les

ou blanc

s'il

cet

y a plus d'exhalaisons et peu de

principe onctueux, ramalgame donne Tarsenic qui

enfin si ce sont les vapeurs
est rouge et jaune
;

qui

dominent,

il

se

trouve,

quand

la

coagulation

est achevee, que le produit est de la naphte

noire et blanche.

qui est

Comme, dans ces amalgames,

la

coagulation est produite par le froid, ces corps sont

fusibles par la chaleur
et a cause de 1'abondance
:

de leur qualite huileuse et de leur humidite' visqueuse, ils sont susceptibles de prendre feu enfin,
a raison de leur excs d'humidite', ils ne sont point
;

malleables.

Les

sept

corps

[ou metaux] ayant

HINDU CHEMISTRY

166

tous pour principes constituans le vif-argent et le

soufre, la variete de ces corps ne peut avoir pour
cause que les divers degres de purete de ces deux
principes, la plus ou moins grande perfection de leur

melange, et

Tun sur

la diversite d'influence

exercent

qu'ils

1'autre.

"Si les deux principes ne sont alteres par aucun

melange de parties terreuses, s'ils sont dans toute
leur

purete naturelle,
coction parfaite, alors
produit de

Tor,

egales,

force

enfin

ils

eprouvent une

soufre etant blanc et le

proportion plus grande, le

Tamalgame est de Pargent il est de
;

deux principes sont dans des proportions

et

que

le

colorante.

memes, apres
coction,

le

dans une

vif-argent

si les

si

le

soufre
Si,

les

soit

rouge et possede

circonstances

melange mais avant

ramalgame

est

coagule par

etant
la

la

les

parfaite

le froid,

il

se

forme du khar-tchini, que Ton nomme aussi fer

de la Chine, ce qui
quivaut pour le sens a de Vor
quelques-uns le regardent comme une sorte
de cuivre."
(La meme doctrine sur la formation
du khar-tchini ou dhen-tchini, nomme encore or

cru

cru, se trouve dans cet ouvrage, fol. 60 recto, lig.

I re et
Si le soufre seul n'est pas pur,
suiv).
que
le vif-argent domine, et
la
force
brulante
unisse
que
'"'

les

deux principes,

le

produit est du cuivre.

Quand

HINDU CHEMISTRY

167

n'est pas

fait convenablement, et que

du
proportion
vif-argent est la plus forte, il se
forme de 1'etain: quelques-uns pretendent que
1'etain ne se forme pas a moins que les deux prinle

melange

la

cipes

ne

soient

et

1'un

1'autre

dans un

etat de

deux principes sont mauvais et tresdans le vif-argent des molecules

y
terreuses interposees, et dans le soufre une qualite

purete.

Si les

ait

altere's, qu'il

brulante,

produit

il

resulte,

de I'amalgame, du fer

du plomb,

est

si,

les

enfin le

circonstances

etant

memes,
melange ne se fait pas comOn donne
pletement, et que le vif-argent domine.
a ces sept substances le nom de corps on appelle le

d'ailleurs les

le

vif-argent la

mere des

on considere

aussi

et 1'arsenic

ainsi

que

corps, et le soufre leur pere:

le

comme \ esprit,
comme Vame. Le

vif-argent

le soufre,

personnes, est Vesprit de

du
plomb il n'en est fait aucune
approche
mention dans les livres de philosophie. II y en a

djost, suivant quelques

tutie, et

une mine dans 1'Indoustan, dans le territoire de

Djalour, qui fait partie du soubah d'Adjmir.
"

Les

alchimistes disent que Tetain est un

malade
de la lepre, le mercure un argent
argent
de
frappe
paralysie, le plomb un or lepreux et brule,
et

le

cuivre un or cru,

et

que 1'alchimiste, semmaux par des

blable a un medecin, rem^die a ces

HINDU CHEMISTRY

68

moyens

contraires ou assimiles.

"

Les savans qui s'adonnent a la pratique des

arts, font, avec ces sept corps, des compositions
artificielles dont on se sert pour
fabriquer des

Du nombre

bijoux, joyaux, &c.

tions

est

le

I'exterieur,

nomme

sefid-rou

peut-etre

cans i

par

les

le

de ces composiblanc a
c'est-a-dire,

pe-tong

Indiens,

des

qui se

Chinois],.

compose de

quatre seres de cuivre et d'un sere d'e'tain unis par

la fusion
le rou'i,
compose de quatre seres de
cuivre et d'un sere et demi de plomb, et que Ton
:

appelle dans 1'Inde bahngar :

2
par les Indiens petel et dont

le

biroundj

nomme

y a trois varietes
la premiere, qui se bat a froid, et contient deux,
seres et demi de cuivre, et un sere d'esprit de tutie
il

composee de deux
seres de cuivre et d'un sere et demi d'esprit de tutie
la

seconde, qui se bat a chaud,

ne se bat point, mais qui s' emploie

ouvrages jetes en moule et dans laquelle

la troisieme, qui

pour
il

les

entre deux seres de cuivre, et un sere d'esprit de

tutie

le

peut-etre

sim-sakhteh
faut-il

(1)

Kawsya, See

(2)

Pittala,

See

lire

p. 114.

p. 114.

[argent marque ou pese ;

soukhteh, brule]," dans la

HINDU CHEMISTRY

169

composition duquel il entre cle 1'argent, du plomb

et du cuivre, dont la couleur est d'un noir eclatant,
et qui

s'erriploie

dans

la

peinture

le

heft-djousch

[bouilli sept fois~\,

lequel on se contente
six
me'taux, lorsqu'on n'a pas de khard'amalgamer

dans

tchini

donnent

lui

quelques-uns

talikoun

[catholicon]
talikoun est un cuivre prepare
;

nom

le

mais suivant d'autres,

pose de huit choses, .savoir,

1'esprit de tutie et le canst
sept substances seulement

le

\ escht-dhat, com-

les six

on

de

le

me'taux
fait

susdits,.

aussi avec

le caulpatr
composer
de deux seres de sefid-rou, et d'un sere de cuivre
il
prend une couleur foncee tres-agreable. C'est
:

une des inventions de notre saint empereur."

On the Essence

of

Minerals

CALAMINE
It will

Akbari

is

be seen Gladwin's rendering of A'in-inot very reliable it may, however, be

;

noted here that even Blochmann

in his

much im-

proved and more accurate translation erroneouslv

d)

"

Chrestomathie Arabe/' T.

III.

pp. 453-58 ed. 1827.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

7o

renders fast

as

(spirits of tutia) is

same sense

The ruh i tutia

pewter."
used in the above extract in the

Rasar/zava, which describes zinc

as in

as the svattam (essence) of rasaka (see p. 71).

In R. R. S. also we find that blue vitriol yields a
" 2
"
svattam," which is no other than copper
(p.
86).

THE VITRIOLS
From

the writings of Dioscorides and Pliny it

not appear that the ancient Greeks and

does

Romans drew any

(1)

Vol.

I.

The

"

(2)

sharp distinction between blue

P 40.
"
is used here in a difessence or spirits of minerals
ferent sense from that of the generality of the Arabian and Euro.

According to the

pean alchemists.
minerals,
~"

namely, sulphur, arsenic,

Les mots

les

esprits, corps,

ames,

latter there

are four spirits of

sal-ammoniac and mercury.

sont frequemment employes par

alchimistes dans un sens special, qu'il importe de connmtre

pour T intelligence de leurs ecrits. Les passages suivants, quoique

d'une epoque plus moderne, jettent beaucoup de lumiere sur ce
point."

(L_

"On

lit

I. tr.

I,

cident

dans

le traite

ch.

er)

"

de Mineralibus, pretendu d' Albert le Grand

s'evapore au feu est esprit, ame, ac-

'ce qui

I.

pp. 247-8.

Cf.

"

Le cuivre

est

et

ame."

Introd. a la

pp. 168-70; also ante

p. 91.

"Coll. des

comme 1'homme

Chimie des Anciens,

La chimie au moyen age," T. I. p. 73, and

a corps

-also,

ce -qui ne s'evapore pas, corps et substance.'

Alch. Grecs,"
il

p. 294.

ibid.

See

T. in.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

171

and green vitriol respectively. The word chalcanthum was applied now to the one, now to the
*

other.

In

Hindu

the

Su^ruta tutthara

Materia

Medica no such

the

Charaka and the

Even

confusion occurs.

(blue

in

mentioned side by

vitriol) are

and kimsa (green

vitriol)

side.

BLUE VITRIOL
The word
vitriol

tutthara

is

generally applied to blue

Rasendrasarawgraha and Sarngadhara,

in

the following

synonyms

are given

R. R. S. uses mayuratutthaw
ii.

129,

which

names

first

"
(i)

Ich

is

in

^3?;gc5i)

in

Bk.

a combination of the last and the

the above

sloka

habe schon bei der

.Slkhigrivaw

(lit.

Geschichte des Eisenvitriols

darauf aufmerksam gemacht, welche Unsicherheit in den friiheren

iiber

Mittheilungen

Vitriol

Angaben, welche

alteren

im Allgemeinen

am

Auch

herrscht.

die

passendsten auf den Kupfervitriol

bezogen vverden, konnen zum theil auf Eisenvitriol gegangen sein."

<(
Ges. der Chem.'' IV. p. 168.
"

Observons

les

sens divers de ce

ou de son equivalent
cuivre

vitriol,

vitriol vert: sulfate

jaune te rouge
241-242.

de

tels

mot couperose [chalcanthon',

que

fer, et sulfate

sulfates de fer basiques."

vitriol

bleu

sulfate de

de cuivre basique
"

Coll. d. Grecs."

vitriol
I.

pp.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

72

resembling the neck of the peacock)

is

practically

same as ''mayurakantha sachchhayaw"

the

127,

in jloka r

having the play of colour in the throat of

i.e.

the peacock.

The term sasyaka as a synonym for blue vitriol

does not ocur in any other medico-chemical work
that

have come across except R'asarwava.

That an essence

the

in

yielded by blue vitriol

historical point of view.

is

shape of copper is
worthy of note from a

Rasarwava very often hits

not
so
upon
explicit as R. R. S., as it
modestly contents itself with the mere assertion
that the essence is of the colour of Coccinella insect
it

i.e.

red

but

is

In

the

Bhavapraka^a (ca.
1550 A.D.) occurs this remarkable passage '"ncsi g
(see p.

86).

aTOTq^igfs faNrtiTO*a cnrafa"

blue vitriol

is

indeed a

semimetal of copper as it is derived from copper.

The nomenclature itself is in wonderful agreement
with that adopted nearly two
1

Boerhave (1732

centuries

later

by

A. D).

"

Die krystallisirten Verbindungen eines Metalls mit

(i)
Sauren erkannte er nicht unbedingt als Salze an die Vitriole
namentlich rechnete er zu den Halbmetallen." Kopp " Ges. d.
;

Chem. in.

p. 6.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Our knowledge

173

of the nature of the

of blue vitriol has thus been gradually advanced from

Rasarwava downwards.

known

"Basil Valentine" seems to have

(i)

mean sulphate

of copper.

bei Basilius vitriolum

commune

sarily

"blue

contained copper, but his

vitriols

gennant wird,

ist oft

"
:

vitriol

Der blaue

was

bei

"

some

that

does not neces-

Vitriol

heisst

ihm Vitriolum Veneris

Griinspan, und iiberhaupt geht diese Bezei-

schriftstellern auf sehr

verschiedenartige
Kupfersalze, wie denn Libavius in seiner Alchymia (1595) fur die

chnung

bei

Bereitung des

altern

vitrioli

"

Veneris vorschreibt

(1494-1555), contemporary

of

Even Agricola

Bhava does not make any great

between green and blue vitriol. " Agricola beschreibt

In seiner Schrift de re metallica die Darstellung des Kupfrevitriols
distinction

bei der des Eisenvitriols

als wesentlich

lung

"

und des Alauns, ohne

die ueiden ersteren

verschieden anzusehn, und auch in seiner Abhand-

de natura fossilium

"

unterscheidet

er

nur

gefarbte, nicht aber wesentlicr verschiedne Vitriole"

d.

Chem." IV 170-171.

verschieden
"

Ges.

ON

Gunpowder, Saltpetre
AND THE

Mineral

Jlcids

GUNPOWDER
The ancient Hindus

are

sometimes

credited

with the knowledge of the art of manufacturing gunpowder, in support of which the several recipes
Sukraniti or the Elements of Polity of
Sukracharya which we have already had occasion
to quote, are cited.
Take for example the follow-

given

in the

ing:

ii

201

'

fq?f

ai^T^^cT^f^

wt?i

202

HINDU CHEMISTRY

175

203

11

205

206

||

207

208

209

||

210

\\

(i)

Ed.

J.

Vidyasagara, pp. 555-57.

211

HINDU CHEMISTRY

i;6

"

Take

palas of saltpetre, one pala of

sulphur and one pala of charcoal, prepared from
the wood of Caloiropis gigantca and Euphorbia
five

by destructive distillation
powder
them and mix them intimately and macerate them
neriifolia

in the juice of the

above-named plants and

of garlic

mixture

sun and

the

-and afterwards dry

it

pulverise

in the

to the fineness of sugar.

Gunpowder

201-202
fire-powder). is thus obtained.
" If
the fire-powder is to be used for a gun, six
or four palas of saltpetre are to be taken, the pro(lit.

portion of charcoal and sulphur remaining the same

as before.
"

203

For a gun with a

light

barrel,

balls of iron or

of other metals are to be used.

"

The gun made

204

of iron or of other metals are

to be constantly kept clean and bright by the skilful

205

artillerymen.

By
viz.,

varying the proportions of the ingredients,

charcoal, sulphur,

saltpetre, realgar, orpiment,

calx of lead, asafoetida, iron powder, camphor, lac,

indigo and the resin of Shorea robust a,, different

(2)

^JJrj^flf^q^i'
*N

through

it.

lit.,

(wood)

charred by

smoke

circulatin

HINDU CHEMISTRY

kinds

177

devised by the pyrotechnists

206-208
giving forth flashes of starlight."
of

From

are

fires

the circumstantial details given above, esmethod of preparing the charcoal, one

pecially of the

naturally led to suspect that the lines relating to

gunpowder as quoted above are later interpolations.
is

The

suspicion

mind

is

when

further enhanced

it is

borne

Kamandaki, an ancient
undoubted authenticity, there occurs no
reference whatever to firearms nor is there any in

in

work

that in the Polity of

of

the Agnipura//a in which the subject of training in

the use of arms and armours takes up four chapters,
*

archery forming the leading element.

The more rationtal conclusion would be that
a patch work in which portions of
chapter IV were added some time after the introduction of gunpowder in Indian warfare during the

the^ukraniti

Moslem

is

period.

Dr. G. Oppert,

how ever, stands up

r

for its

antiquity.
In Halhed's "Code of

passage which
(1)

See

is

Gentoo Laws/' there is a

sometimes quoted as a proof that

Intro, to Dr. R. L. Mitra's edition of

Agnipurtma.

Dr. R. L. Mitra, judging from the description of guns

alone, concludes -this portion to be spurious ;-^-vide Notices of
(2)

Sanskrit Mss. Vol. V.

M.

p. 135.

Berthelot's concluding remarks on

Marcus Grsecus' "Book

of Fire'' are equally applicable to Sukraniti

12

HINDU CHEMISTRY

178

ancient

the

Hindus knew

the

use

of

firearms.

Halhed, not having an acquaintance with Sanskrit,

had to depend on the Persian translation of the
Sanskrit digest prepared by some learned pundits.
have been at some pains in rinding out the

We

is generally credited to Manu.

a
forced
interpretation that anything
only by
in Manu may be taken to refer to a projectile dis-

original text which

It is

charged from a gun.

"

Mais

je n'insiste

pas,

si

ce n'est pour rappeler

comment

ces

additions manifestent le caractere veritable de la composition de

qes manuscrit et iivres de. recettes, deja repandus dans 1'antiquite
et dont

meme

lis

formules sont venues jusqu au XVIIIe

siecle,

parfois

Le Liber ignium en est un exemple,

et 1'analyse precedente montre bien comme il a ete compose avec
des materiaux de dates multiples, les uns remontant a 1'antiquite,
les

jusqu'a notre temps.

autres ajoutes a diverses

poques, dont les dernieres etaient

contemporaines, ou tres voisines de celle de la transcription de

"
La Chimie au moyen age" T. 1.135.
chaque manuscrit."

The passage

(l)

in

Manu

runs thus

We
Bhatta

II

1^, VII. 90

give below the commentaries of Medhatithi and Kulluka

:

HINDU CHEMISTRY
In

Sanskrit literature,
'

vague references

to.

have no reason

to

matter these

power

fire

of the

missiles

179

frequent but

there are

agni astra" or firearms, but we

suppose that the combustible

arms contained supplied a motive

nature

of

were probably of

The
gunpow der.
the same category as
T

fire

the

sfcf

^^if^m:

"
The correct rendering should be as follows
The king sha
not slay his enemies in warfare with deceitful or barbed or poisoned
:

weapons, nor with any having a blade made red hot by fire or
tipped with burning

materials";

Biihler,

who

also follows the

above commentators, thus translates ;." when he (the. king) fights

with his foes in battle, let him not strike with weapons concealed
(in

wood), nor with \such as are) barbed, poisoned,

which are blazing with

magistrate shall not

fire."

make war

or, the

Whereas Halhed's version

points of
is

"the

with any deceitful machin.e or with

poisoned weapons or with cannon and guns or with any other

kind

of firearms."

HINDU CHEMISTRY
arrows or darts tipped with oiled
flax, resin, regalar, naptha or other bituminous substances discharged from bows sometimes elaborate

-Greek

fire," Le.

machines being devised

more deadly

In the

effect.

Mahabharata, Yudhisthira

flammable

was

is

described as

is

in us'e

The- mention
Jexplosives with

simultaneously

...

gunpowder and

of

In

nth

"

sort of

work on

century,

Kasmfr remained

safe
all

behind

its

foreigners with

Here, according to Albiruni, Hindu sciences retired

out exception.
shelter

when

the

indigenous mode

to be found

some

Antiquities of Orissa," 1.121.

mountain ramparts and was hermetically sealed to

is

war."

identical formularies occurs almost

See Dr. Mitra's

in the

in-

that

in the I^atin redactipn of the

(2)

But

collec-

tow, and other

>

of

(1)

the

show

of the

gunpowder of any
wooild act as
which
or any chemical
to

nothing

a propelling -agent.

and took

"

articles for his great fratricidal

But there
s6rt

Udyogaparava

of resin,

ting large quantities

weapons with

the

to hurl

Mohammedan
of warfare

invasion of India began.

no reference to gunpowder

thus we read in Kalharca's JRajatarangini that in

"
1090 A. D. he (Kandarpa) threw into the melee burning arrows
smeared over with vegetable oil, struck by which the enemies

caught
fire

fire.

Believing that he knew. [the use of] the weapon of

(agneya astra), they became frightened and

ment, cursing their return."

Stein's Trans. Vol.

I. p.

344.

fled in

bewilder-

HINDU CHEMISTRY
"

r8r

by Marcus Graecus and in the writings of'

Roger Bacon about the i3th century. \ Greek fire
was introduced into Constantinople from the East
Fire"

.abuot the

knew

year 673 and the Byzantians evidently

was its basis but they kept this

that saltpetre

knowledge strictly a secret, and abstained from

speaking of it by any distinct name'lest the information

might leak

The

Thus the very word

out.

saltpetre

is

original passage

m5^*

fw

it

vii. 983,989.
For further references to similar
or

Hamimana Na/aka

fire-missiles

see

MahanaVaka

Wilson's " Hindu Theatre/' Vol.

in

II.

ed,

1835, appendix, pp. 369-70.

The

first

of

the use

in the

memoirs

record

Indian warfare

is

of

cannon

of Baber.

and gunpowder

in

In 1528 he forced the

passage of the Ganges near Kanauj with the aid of artillery.

P"or much valuable information on the subject of the early Asiatic
fire-weapons the reader may consult an exhaustive article by Maj.
<jen. R.

pp. 30
'

(i)

Maclagan

in

the

"

Journ. As. Soc., Bengal,

ff.

'La Chimie au

moyen"

age,

I.

p. 94.

"

Vol.

XLV.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

i82

is

conspicuous by

its

in the literature of the

absence

ancients. Niturm (natron)

was

applied to carbonate of soda.

all

along exclusively

SALTPETRE.
thus be

It will

mon

seen that

there

is

much. in com-

history of the word used for nitrate of

potash both in the Sanskrit and in the Latin lan"
"
sauvarchala and "yavakguages, as in theformer
in the

shara" are indiscriminately applied to it.

It is
very rdmarkable that in the later

chemico-medical
chala,

and

which stands

in the

plied

literature the

to

it,

saltpetre in the

,5\ikraniti

Rasarwava, ceases altogether to be apbut is used as a synonyrfi of sarjika

:

(natron), while
service, it

for

Sanskrit

very word sauvar-

yavakshara has been pressed intoforgotten that from the time

being clean

of .Charaka

and Su^ruta

this

word has been used

Cf. "C'est par erreur que la plupart des editeurs des auteur.s^
(i)
grecs ou latins traduisent ces mots par nitre ou salpetre, substance

presque inconnue dans I'antiquite, et que apparait seulement a partir

siecle a Constantinople, avec le feu gregeois dont elle etait
la base.
Les anciens parlent aussi du nitrum factice, prepare avec

du VI e

es cendres de chene, c'est-a-dire

la 1'etude

de

la

Chimie/'

p. 263.

du carbonate de potasse."

"

Intro-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

183

ashes of barley (impure

carbonate of potash, from yava, barley and kshara,
Both Wilson and Monier Williams in their,
ashes).

in its radical sense, viz., the

Sanskrit-English Dictionaries, following no doubt

the authority of modern writers, erroneously render
yavakhara as saltpetre as also does Colebrooke in
Roth and Bohtlingk in their
his "Amarakosha".

Worterbuch, however, correctly translate

"
Aetzkali, ous der Asche von Gerstenstroh."

as

it

It is strange indeed that a substance which

occurs extensively in Bengal and in upper India as
an efflorescence on the soil should have been allow-

ed to go without a definite name for several cen2

Dutt says " nitre was unknown to the
turies.
ancient Hindus.
it

in

(1)

Sanskrit.

In

There is no recognised name for

* * * Some recent Sanskrit

the chemistry of Bubacar,

equivalent of

"

yavakshara

"

le

sel

de cendres"

La Chimie au moyen age,"

i.

is

the

308.

"
purposely use the words allowed to go without a
definite name," for the term sauvarchala was all along vaguely used

(2)

now

We

for saltpetre,

(3)

He

is in

now

for natron.

error

on

this

point, as he

had not consulted, or

probably had no acquaintance with, the old literature on the subProf. Macdonell very properly points out "the dangers of the
ject.

argumentum ex

silent io

most necessary

of minerials, is

[as]

furnished by the fact that

never once mentioned

salt,

in the

the

Rig-

HINUtJ CHEMISTRY

i84

formulas for the preparation" of mineral acids containing nitre mention this salt under the name of
"soraka".

This word, however,

is

not met with in

any Sanskrit dictionary and is evidently sanskritized from the vernacular sord, a term of foreign
The manufacture of nitre was therefore
origin.
most probably introduced into India after the adoption of gunpowder as an implement of warfare."
Mat. Med. of the Hindus, pp. 89-90, ed. 1900.
veda.

And

yet the northern Panjab

most abounds.

is

the very part of India where

occurs in the salt range between the Indus

and the Jhelum in such quantities that the Greek companions of
it

It

Alexander according to Strabo, asserted the supply to be sufficient

wants of the whole of India." It would be equally h-azar-

for the

dous to rush to the conclusion that

nitre

was

"

unknown"

to the

Hindus.
Dutt is probably correct in so far as he states his views
(i)
with regard to "the manufacture of nitre" as an ingredient of gunpowder.

For

it is

well

known

saltpetre has been in use

from time

immemorial as the basis

of

China and

Dasakumaracharita by Dandi, mention

is

made

India.

In the

of yogavartika

rocket and other fireworks both in

(magic wick) and yagachuma (magic pow-

The earliest acder), of which saltpetre, was probably the basis.

count of the manufacture of saltpetre on a .commercial scale that
we have come across occurs in a rare work entitled: "The Travels
John Albert de Mandelso from Persia into the East
London, 1669." The book is in the valuable collection of my
Mr. Prithvfsa Chandra Raya. Says our author

of

Indies.
friend,

HINDU CHEMISTRY
MINERAL ACIDS.
Geber was up till recently credited with being the
discoverer of nitric acid, aqua regia, silver nitrate &c.

A careful

examination of the works of Geber, both

and pretended, notably

real

of the celebrated

Summa

perfectionis magisterii, has convinced M. Berthelot

that the knowledge of the mineral acids was un-

known

not only to the Arabs but also to the European

alchemists of the thirteenth century. It was a Latin

author of the latter half of the I3th century who

wrote the above memorable work and assumed the

"

Most

of the saltpeter

which

is

Guzuratta comes trom

sold in

Ajmer, sixty Leagues from Agra, and they get it out of Land that
hath lain long fallow. The blackest and fattest ground yields

most
they

of

though other Lands afford some, and it is made thus

certain trenches which they fill with their Saltpetrous
:

it,

make

Earth, and

serve for

let

its

into

them small

make use of
the Water hath drawn

out

it

it,

and dispose

and then they

grows
it, and then they put
thick,

scumming

it

boil

begins to thicken, they take

wherein

where
it is

as will

it

it

it

into another Trench,

it

like salt,

into earthen

remainder of the Dregs goes to the bottom

the sun,

much water

the salt-peter which was in the Earth,

all

they take the clearest part of

where

Rivulets, as

soaking, which may be the more effectually done, they

When
their feet, treading it till it becomes a Broath.

and when the water

out of these pots, to set

grows hard, and

brought into Europe."

is

continually

pots, wherein the

it

a-drying

in

reduced into that form

pp. 66-67.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

186

venerable name of Geber to gain public confidence. 1

Such instances of literary forgery are by no

means uncommon

in the

alchemical literature of the

East and the West.

The

distillation of

#ava and

alum

is

referred to in Rasar-

R.R.S. (see pp. 71, 92)

We have, 'however, no evidence that the acid thus
derived was ever used as a solvent. Hoefer justly
of green vitriol in

remarks that

real progress in

chemistry was impos-

and China, as the preparation of

mineral acids was unknown in both these countries. 2
sible

in

India

At the same time we should remember that Rasarwava and similar other works lay stress upon vi</a,
which aqua fegia may be said to be potentially
present and which is fitly described as capable of
in

"

killing all the metals

The preparation
described

"

(see p. 72)

of mineral acids

is

incidentally

exclusively medical works,

in
the
i6th and i7th centuries,
probably
in

several

composed
e.
g. "Rasakaumudl" by Madhava, Rasaratnapradipa,
and "Bhaishajyaratnavall" by Govindadasa, &c. In
"
(1)

L'hypothese

qu'un auteur

latin,

la

reste*

plus

vraisemblable a mes yeux, c'est

inconnu, a

crit

ce livre dans la seconde

XI lie. siecle, et 1'a mis sous le patronage du nom

de Ge'ber." " La Chimie au moyen age," I. 349.
moide* du
"
(2)

Hist, de la Chimie," T.

I.

p. 25, ed.

1866.

ve'ne're

HINDU CHEMISTRY
the last

work under the heading

are given

directions

for

187

of mahadravakarasa,

distilling

mixture

of,

among other things, alum, green vitriol, salammoniac

In this way
saltpetre and borax in a glass retort.
a dilute solution of nitro-muriatic acid

which

is

in

prescribed

derangement

is

of

obtained,
liver

and

We

have a similar recipe in which in

addition to the above ingredients, rock-salt and
spleen.

sea-salt

are

used,

"sawkhadravaka"

yielding what is called

solvent for conch-shell.)

thus

(lit.

The term "dravaka"

(solvent)

seems

to

have been

expressly coined to do duty for the mineral acids.

have seen all along that in the older works
dravaka was used invariably in the sense of solvent

We

or flux

(see p. 130)

but never in the sense of a

mineral acid, the knowledge of which seems to hav'e

spread both in the East and the West almost simulta-

The regular application of the mineral

neously.
acids to technical operations dates from the time of
Emperor Akbar or perhaps a little earlier. Thus
in-i-A kbari under the " Method of Refining
"
Silver
mention is made of the. use of rasi (aqua
It is not
fortis).
easy to make out how much of
.the

in the

processes of the assay of gold and silver as

described in the
in is of Hindu origin.

the

Royle,

Sir

W. O'Shaughnessy ("Manual

of

HINDU CHEMISTRY

188

Chemistry"),

Ainslie

and others maintained that

were acquainted with the methods of

preparing the mineral acids. These authors who
the Hindus

wrote more than half-a-century ago derived their

information at second-hand as none of them had

probably read the Sankrit works

Ainslie

gives

the

following

in the original.

recipes

as

used

in

Southern India among the Tamil physicians for the

preparation of sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids
respectively

The Tamil physicians prepared

nearly in the same way that we do, viz.,

Sulphuric acid :"

their article

by burning sulphur with a

small with a small piece

of nitre in strong earthen vessels."

"

O'Shaughnessy says
sulphuric acid, the Gundak kd attar of the Hindus has long been known
:

southern

India

it

has been prepared for many centuries."

Nitric acid
This acid the Hindus

make

among

the

Eastern nations.

In

clumsy attempt at preparing in the following manner which must not be rigidly criticised by the
chemists of Europe.

Take

of saltpetre

,,

alum

,,

the acid

20 parts.
16

liquid

of the BengaJ hqrsegram

,;

from the leaves and stem

18

,,

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Mix and

with an

distil

whole of the acid

Muriatic acid

common

salt

'*
:

Take

till

the

of
.

8 parts

6 parts

al-um

The

is

increasing heat
condensed in a receiver.

189

acid

&c."

liquid from the horse gram and

distil

The very name of sulphuric acid, Gundak ka

is Urdu i.e. the hybird
lingua franca, an ad-

attar

mixture of Hindi with Persian. Attar in Persian

means the volatile princinple, often odoriferous, e.g~
Gulab ka attar i.e. otto de Rose. "Gundhak" in
Sanskrit

is

the equivalent for sulphur.

Knowledge

of Technical Arts

AND
Decline of Scientific Spirit
In ancient India the useful arts

and sciences, as

distinguished from mere handicrafts, were cultivated by the higher classes.

In the White Yajur-

Veda and

in the Taittiriya

Brahma^a, we meet with

the names of various professions which throw light

on the

state of society of that period unfortunately

a knowledge of these perished with the institution
1
of the caste system in its most rigid form.
Among
;

the sixty-four "kalas" or arts and sciences which are

enumerated

in the

Kamasutra occur the

(1)

See Dutt's

"

work of Vatsayana 2
names of the following

old

called
:

Civilization in Ancient India," pp. 155-157,

Calcutta ed.
(2)

"Vatsayana

occurs in Pawini
tras

the

is

The name
another old authority
and probably the author of the Kamasu-

4. i. 73.

was meant as some

latter.

ing

from

its
its

The

great

text has

popularity

terms chiefly used in

undefiled, show-

of his rules

refer to

come down

to us almost

among

our ancestors, which

commentaries and reference by Dandi,

.great writers."

is

also clear

Vamawa and

Preface to Barua's "Amarakosha," preface,

other

xiii.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

or

L9

the examination and valuation of

gold and gems.

:

or chemistry and metallurgy.

r
:*
lknowledge of the colouring of
and jewels, as also of mines and quarries.
:

gems

Sukranitisara or the Elements

In the

by

,5\ikracharya,

various <-kalas"

we

also

read an

of Polity

account of the

e.g.

qmim^T^Tfeifci^HWt^nr

WT

"
;:

the art of piercing

and incinerating the stones and the metals

is

known

as a "kala."
^isfi^^sft TrqiJifsfigT^T^

"
-5\<3i

w,<n

the combinations of the metals

the plants

is

a knowledge of
and the herbs and

also regarded as a "kala."

"

is

The art of alloying and separating

also known as a "kala."

the metals

"

The

art of extracting alkali (see pp. 3 1-38

is

Su^ruta)
science of
"kalis'?

likewise

counted as a "kala".

Ayurveda, there are

under
In the

altogether ten

HINDU CHEMISTRY

192

We

also find that

among

the companions of the

poet Va^a were an assayer and

'

metallurgist.

Such terms as "lohavid" and "dhatuvid" which occur

repeatedly

metallurgists Were held

knowledge sought

The

of

art

perfection, the

show

Sanskrit literature

in

in

that

the

high esteem and expert

after.

was

dyeing

fast colours

carried

almost

to

resembling the Tyrean

purple.
In the Vedic age the /?/shis or priests did not form
an exclusive caste of their own but followed differ-

ent professions according to their convenience or

natural tastes, thus fulfilling the ideal laid down
" Has he
(man) not a calling in his
by Emerson
The
character? Each man has his own vocation.
:

talent

the

is

the call."

B.ut all this

was changed when

Brahmins reasserted their supremacy on the

decline or the expulsion of Buddhism.

The caste system was established

a more rigid form.

later

Pura^as

priestly class,

is;

The

in the

drift of

direction

which set up most

de novo in

Manu and

of the

glorifying the
arrogant and out-

'of

rageous pretensions. According to Su^ruta the

dissection of dead bodies is a sine qud,.non to the
?

student of surgery and this high authority lays par(i)

Cowell and Thoma's Trans, of Harsha-charita,

p. 33.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

193

cular stress on

knowledge gained from experiment

But Manu would have none of
and observation.
a

The very touch

it.

is

enough

to

of a corpse, according to

Manu,

contamination to the sacred

bring

Brahmin. 2

Thus we find that shortly

after the time of Vagbha^a, the handling of a lancet
person of

was discouraged and Anatomy and Surgery fell into

all intents and
purposes lost

disuse and became to

sciences to the Hindus.

clops.

more

Hence
refined

It

was considered equally

sweat away at the forge

undignified to

the

like a

we get
ancient Sanskrit literature

classes of the society of which

such vivid pictures

in the

(0

95?
\\

43-45

x-

?:

<2)

The

"

ii

48

Sarira. Ch.

Laws

of

Cy-

kalas by the

cultivation of the

Manu," V. 64,85,87.

13

V.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

194

has survived only in traditions

1
time past.

a very long

since

Similar dangers have theartened Europe from time to time

(i)

but her sturdy sons have proved better of them in the long run.

Thus

"Aristotle's opinion that 'industrial

work tends

to lower the

the standard of thought' was certainly of influence here.

dance with

In accor-

dictum the educated Greeks held aloof from the

this

observation and practice of technical chemical processes; a theoretical explanation of the

circle of

Gowan,

interest."
p. 10, ed.

reactions involved in these lay outside their

Meyer's

"

Hist, of Chemistry," trans,

by Mc-

1898.

Paracelsus flings a sneer at the physicians of his time and compares them with the alchemists in the following terms
are not given to

idleness nor

velvet garments,

often

wearing swords with

go

their

showing

silver

in

hilts

by

proud
rings

their

habit,

"For they
and

their fingers or

upon

sides,

or plush

or

fine

and gay

gloves upon their hands, but diligently follow their labours^ sweating whole days and nights by their^ furnaces.
They do not spend
their time abroad for
tory.

They wear

recreations but take

delight in

leather garments with a 'pouch,

their labora-

and an apron

wherewith they wipe their hands. They put their fingers amongst
coals, into clay, and filth, not into gold rings.
They are sooty
:

and black

like smiths

upon clean and

"

and

and do not pride themselves

Quoted by Rodwell in his

colliers,

beautiful faces/'

Birth of Chemistry."

Even so

late

as the middle

.of

the last century, the pursuit of

England was not regarded in a serious light and

"
chemists were ashamed to call themselves so because the apothe-

Chemistry
caries

in

had appropriated the name"

Liebig in

1837 to declare

"that

circumstance

which led

England was not the land of

HINDU CHEMISTRY

195

The arts being thus relegated to the low castes

and the professions made hereditary,a certain degree
of fineness, delicacy and deftness in manipulation
was done

at a terrible

portion of the

community

was no doubt secured but

The

cost.

intellectual

this

being thus withdrawn from active participation

how and why of phenomena

arts,
coordination of cause and effect were lost
the

in

the

the

sight
the spirit of enquiry gradually died out among
a nation naturally prone to speculation and metaphysial subtleties and India for once bade adieu to
of

Her soil
experimental and inductive sciences.
was rendered morally unfit for the birth of a Boyle,
a Des Cartes or a Newton and her very name was
(i)

The Vadanta

philosophy, as

Sawkara, which teaches the unreality

to a large

extent

modified and expanded by

of the material world,

responsible for bringing the

is

also

study of physcial

science into disrepute.

Sawkara is unsparing in his strictures
on Kawada and his system. One or two extract from Sawkara's
Commentary on the Vedanta Sutras, will make the point clear
:

Vedanta Dar5ana," Bombay

ed.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

196

but expunged from the

all

world.

map

of the

In this land of intellectual torpor

the artizan

and stagnation

very much to themselves

mother wit and sound

classes, left

and guided solely by

commonsense, which
"

scientific

their

their only heritage in this

is

appears that the atomic doctrine is supposed by very

only, is opposed to those scriptural passages
which declare the Lord to be the general cause, and is not accepted
It

thus

weak arguments
by any

of the

Manu and
high-minded
fare/'

II.

"The

authorities taking their

others.

2,

Hence

it is

men who have a

to be

stand on scripture, sush as

altogether disregarded by

regard for their

spiritual wel-

account of which the doctrine of the Vaise-

reasons on

shikas cannot be accepted have been stated

may

own

17

above.

That doctrine

be called semi-destructive (or semi-nihilistic)/'

trans., Ibid.

Thibaut^s

18.

a.
people ridden by caste and hide-bound by the
and injunctions of the Vedas, Purawas, and Smir/tis
and having their intellect thus cramped and paralysed, no Boyle

(i)

Among

authorities

could, arise to lay

down such sound

XXVI." ...

principles for guidance as

saw that several chymists had, by a laudablt

diligence obtian'd various productions, hit upon many more phe
P.

nomena, considerable in their kind, than could well be expected

from their narrow principles but finding the generality of those
:

addicted to chymistry, to have had scarce any view,

but to the

preparation of medicines, or to the improving of metals, I was

tempted to consider the art, not as a physician or an alchymist,
but a philosopher. And, with this view, I once drew up a scheme

HINDU CHEMISTRY

197

world, have kept up the old traditions.

own way
cening,

they display marvellous

ornamental

making

In their

dames-

skill in

designs on metals,

carving on

ivory, enamelling, weaving,

dyeing
2
lace-making, goldsmith's and jeweller's works, etc.
The successive stages in the manipulation of one
branch of the arts have been carefully watched'by

Mr.

Jnanasara^a Chakravarti M. A., late Scholar,

Presidency College, and his experiences embodied

in a paper,

most

which, for the

part, is

below with certain alterations;

interest

as a

contribution

Indian technical arts.

that

some

to

is

it

the

history

now remains

It

of the processes described

for a chymical philosophy;

ments or observations

complete/
P.
XVIII.

"...

which

mine

of

And,

singular
of the

only to add

below were

in

shou'd be glad that any experi-

might any way

truly,

the advancement of philosophy,

reproduced
of

if

men were

more than

their

contribute to

willing to regard

own

reputations,

were easy to make them sensible, that one of the most considerable sevices they could do the world is, to set themselves diligently
it

to

make experiments, and

to establish
all

the

theories

collect

that are

phenomena

observations, without attempting

upon them, before they have taken

to be

solved."

Shaw's ed.

notice of

of Boyle's

works, 3 vols. 1725.

(1)

Vide manufacture

(2)

For detailed information on some

reader

may

consult

of alum, pp. 147-51.

Birdwood

of

these branches the

Industrial u'Arts of India".

HINDU CHEMISTRY.

vogue

at the

time of the Emperor Akbar and pro-

bably existed long before,

as

Rasar^ava amply

The very terms

testifies (p.

68).
"poonoor", (pun"
Neharwalla" (Niariyah) occur- in the
hdr) and
1
descriptions of the assay of gold in ^in-i-Akbari.

The wastage

of Gold in the course of Preparing

"

Jewelry

in

Bengal

SOLDERING

The next process

that

we

shall

consider

is

soldering.
undoubtedly the most important
process that the goldsmith has to perform from a

This

is

commercial point of view.

this

j,

It is in

process that the practical goldsmith plays those

(i)
Along with Mr. Chakravarti's Essay should be read A'ins
8 and 9 "on the Manner of Refining Gold," "the Method of
" "
and the Method of
Silver
the Silver

Refining

from the Gold," Blochamann's

.

the course of

Separating

trans. Vol.

I.

pp. 20-25.

"Indian Engineering." XIX (1896).

The. Mechanical
Operations of Melting and Hammering have been left out.
(2)

HINDU CHEMISTRY

19$

mischievous tricks which go so hard against those

purcha-se his productions or order for them.

who
The

quality or quantity of solder (or pan} employed

the first question that is universally enquired into
in all cases of commercial
dealings in Indian
jewelry and while by melting some articles the
i's

value of the gold per tola is reduce'd by Re. i or

2 only, we frequently find cases in which the value
is

decreased at the ruinous

This

state

last

of affairs

almost

consists

metals and
in larger

is

entirely

rate of Rs. 8 or Rs. 10.

arises
of

when

the solder

mixture of baser

same time fraudulently used

than what is absolutely necess-

at the

quantities

ary.

Considered, however, from the standpoint of a

chemical student who investigated the subject oi
ascertaining the amount of metal that is lost in the
operations of the goldsmith, the process of solder r
ing is scarcely important enough to receive a

The preparation of the solder

separate treatment.
and its reduction to the condition] of small thin
bits are embraced in the discussion of melting and
during the blowing
operation, during which the reducing flame of an

hammering

oil

lamp

parts

is

it is

while

made
meant

the

to play

loss

upon the solder and the

to join together,

may be supposed

HINDU CHEMISTRY

200

to

have been treated during the discussion of the

The fact
subject of loss of gold by volatilisation.
all solders contain a little zinc perhaps

that almost

makes the

loss

much

their case to be

in

greater
than in that of an alloy of gold and copper only.
The following three sets of figures give the weight

and the weight of solder before the process

and the weight of the article after the

of gold

of soldering

operation has been finished

,
,

Wt.

of

Gold

&

Solder

after operation.

Tolas annas
6
2

oo
oo
80

pies.

Thus, on

100
080
140

Tolas annas

pies.

the whole a loss of

Tolas annas peis

o
6
15
2

13/4

10

uj

pies takes

dealing with 14^ tolas of materials. This

gives the rate of loss at 79 pies per tola.
It is proper to observe that of the loss that
place in

takes place

due

during soldering, about

one-third

is

g. the loss of pieces

of solder which fly off before the blowpipe.
The
above figures are accordingly not to be supposed as

to purely physical causes,

affording an
material that

e.

accurate estimate of the amount of

is

lost

by vapourisation during the

operation of soldering.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

201

FILING AND CUTTING

These are the two operations of the goldsmith

course of which gold is lost to an appreciable

in the

extent.
of

men

are

The work

of cutting

called nakdshiwalds to

made over

for

the

done by a class

is

whom

purpose.

of the fact that loss of gold

the articles

In recognition

must inevitably take

place during the operation of cutting, the goldsmith,

when he takes back the articles and the particles
that are

chopped

off the surface

from the nakashi-

walds, generally makes an allowance of one pie per

tola in favour of the latter.

The

loss

which takes place during the operation

of cutting as

well as the loss during

filing,

i.e.

rubbing the surface of gold with a steel file to make

smooth, is due to causes of a purely mechanical
nature and can be prevented to a great extent

it

by the means suggested

for

minimising such loss

hammering and drawing.

The operation of cutting is always, and that of

in the

filing

course of

some

times, effected after the article has been

coloured and polished.

But as the chemical process of colouring will be treated of separately in the
following pages,

the

mere

mechanical

operation

HINDU CHEMISTRY

202

of cutting

and

here put in for the purpose

filing are

of preserving continuity.

THE CHEMICAL OPERATIONS OF THE GOLDSMITH

CLEANSING, COLOURING AND POLISHING

We

now -come

important

in the

to

-a

eyes

process which, though, not so

o-f

the' goldsmith as

some

of

the processes before described, -is yet of the greatest

consequence in the enquiry in which we are engaged.

This

is

If

.with

would

the process of colouring.

it

were possible
the

pure gold,
suffer very

for our goldsmiths to

appearance

of

work

the material

by the various processes

&.c., and a mere mechanical

little

of heating, hammering,

rubbing would throw

off

the superficial dirt and be

expose the natural yellow surface of

the unalloyed metal.
This property of pure gold
is due to the fact that no oxides of gold are formed

sufficient to

at temperatures

to

which the metal

is

exposed

during the operations of the goldsmith. Indeed it

is well-known thst gold does not unite with
oxygen
at

any temperature.
But the case is different with copper, the oxide
of which is formed at temperatures which are ordiby the goldsmith in the course of
Hence, if a mass of copper is
operations.

narily attained
his

HINDU CHEMISTRY
heated in the goldsmith's

fire, it

is.

203

divested of

its

bright red colour and acquires a dirty black appearance due to the formation of a coating of cupric
oxide.
Now, an alloy is nothing but an intimate

mechanical mixture of

constituent metals

its

the

molecules of the several metals lying promiscuosly

as it were. In an alloy of gold accordingly in which

copper forms a constituent

part, the particles of the

latter are freely interspersed

between those

When

heated

such a substance

is

of gold.

in air, the

particles retain their primitive yellow,

gold
but the par-

ticles of copper, which are exposed to air, are

oxidised into CuO. This substance is, as we know,

a black amorphous powder and it gives to the whole

mass a black appearance, which becomes darker
as the metal

is

hammered over and

the

powder

is

thoroughly spread over the surface of the metal.

An interesting and rather curious experiment
a piece
of gold containing a little copper be heated in air
and care be taken not to rub the metal in any way

clearly illustrates the above explanation.

If

so as to spread the black oxide of copper over the

surface, it will be found that the metal, if free from

external dirt or soot, will be

ably

bright.

The yellow

of

still

yellow and toler-

the more numerous

gold particles overpowers the colour of the black

HINDU CHEMISTRY

204

oxide of copper.
If, however, this black substance
be spread over the surface of the metal, the colour

The spreading

instantly changes,

of

oxide

the

is
easily brought about by hammering, and thus we
can take an apparently bright piece of metal and,
by hammering reduce it to a jet black mass.

The

ignorant goldsmiths explain this blackening by supposing the stain of the black steel hammer
to adhere to the surface of gold.

We

may, perhaps, in this connection mention

a particular artifice which is sometimes employed
by our goldsmiths to cleanse the surface of a gold

and copper alloy, which has been blackened by fire.

This method is employed whenever it is desirable
in

course

the

surface, but

of

where

working to expose the bright

would be inconvenient, impos-

it

unnecessary to apply the long and laborious

mode of cleansing or colouring which we shall

sible or

hereafter describe,
of gold

piece
charcoal

on the

fire to

It is

found that

if

a blackened

and copper alloy be heated

in

redness and then water be sprinkled

the alloy at once acquires the bright

colour of gold.
This phenomenon, though often
fire,

practised

by our goldsmiths,

most

intelligent

true

explanation

among
of

them. *

the

is

a puzzle

operation

seems

to

the

The
to

be

HINDU CHEMISTRY

that,

when placed

oxide

is

in

a charcoal

it

comes

the cupric

fire,

reduced to metallic copper.

taken out when hot,

205

But

if

it is

into contact with the

What the goldsmith

again and is oxidised.
does is to suddenly cool down the metal when in
air

the reduced state and not to allow

it

to

come

into

contact with the open air, until it has cooled sufficiently down, so as not to be liable to re-oxidisation.

From what has been stated above, it will be

easily seen that when a piece of golden ornament
been

has

completed by the manufacturer, it is

of a dirty dark colour and must be cleansed before
In this country mere cleansing is
it can be used.
not sufficient, for the popular taste does not approve the new golden articles appearing and being

yellow colour of true gold. The

"
"
before they can be
articles must be
coloured
made over to the customer, by which is meant that

used

in

the

a bright reddish colour must be imparted to them.

The

particular

tinge

which

is

liked

by

different

some people

different,
liking a colour
persons
verging very nearly on red or orange, while others
is

have a fancy for a colour w hfch approaches to

r

reddish violet.

The process
of

colour to

of imparting the requisite shade

articles of

gold

is

one of the most

HINDU CHEMISTRY

2o6

cumbrous and complicated chemical operations

whole range of indigenous arts arid manufac-

in the

tures of India.

The numerous chemical

reactions

that take place in the several stages of the business

are of more than ordinary interest while the im;

mense

loss of gold that apparently takes place leads

one to wonder why the subject has not as yet been

taken up seriously by commercial or scientific men.
"

The process of colouring,

ago, was universally carried

so recently as 20 years
out by the goldsmiths

themselves, and in the villages and smaller towns

state of afairs is still the same.
But in the

the

metropolis and at the bigger stations of the province, the advantages of the principle of division of

labour have lately begun to be felt in every branch

of art and manufacture, and the result, so far as this
particular subject

is

concerned, has been the springwhose sole business is to

of a class of people

ing up
colour ornaments and other articles of gold.
These
men are known among our goldsmiths as the
rungwalas.;

They do not charge any remuneration

labour, but retain the fluid in which,

the
during
process of colouring, a quantity of gold
is dissolved.
for

their

We

will now follow the

rung-wala through the
course of a complete "set of
processes for colouring,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

207

skipping over the mere mechanical parts of the

work, but dealing a little fully with the portions
which are of a chemical nature.

THE PROCESSES OF THE RUNGWALA

The shop

of a

most, miserably

Calcutta rungwala

furnished

is

one of the

working-places

in

the

whole metropolis. A charcoal fire, a pair of bellows,

a few crude pieces of indigenous earthern-ware,

two or three coarse pots of China, together with

a few other little things, are all that greet the eager
sight of the observer

whom

The rungwala has

to wait

business or curiosity
leads to his dark and ill-ventilated den.
till a.

sufficient

num-

ber of golden articles are accumulated in his hands.

He does not generally commence the process until
he has got at least ten tolas of gold, for colouring.

Because the

cost, the trouble

and the time required,

as he says, in going through a complete series of

operations are such as to prohibit his doing the

smaller amount of gold at a time.

"
a
as the amount of gold colourkhola",
Ordinarily
ed at one operation is called, consists of about 20-

work with a

to

30 tolas of gold.

Having got the amount

working a khola, the

first

of gold

thing

that,

sufficient for

the

rungwala

HINDU CHEMISTRY

208

has to do

is

to cleanse the articles of all

dirt as well as of the

of

CuO.

With

charcoal

fire,

view he

this

external

blackess due to the formation

thus causing

first

all

the

heats them in a
oil,

charcoal dust,

and other foreign substances on the surface

off. He next puts an earthen vessel on his

to

burn

fire

and

about a seer of the unripe fruit of tamarind

(Tamarindus Indica), a sustance containing consi-

boils in

it

amount

derable

of

tartaric

and other acids

in the

Taking out these boiled articles and

squeezing them so as to extract the extremely acid
In this fluid he
pulp he forms a thick syrupy fluid.
free state.

boils the articles

the dilute acids dissolve

till

away

the cupric oxide, leaving a yellow surface of pure

It is found that the solution of tamarind
gold.
pulp

becomes

distinctly

blue in vitrue of the

formation

of copper salts.
In

the

place

cleansing, which

of

this

rather clumsy

mode

of

largely practised even in the

metropolis, some of the more adventurous rungwalas use a rather more clever and neater method.
is

preparing a large amount of tamarind

pulp, they obtain from the grocer's an ounce or two
of a dull white crystalline substance which they
Instead

of

call "acid,"
if

not

and a solution

of this serves equally well,

better, for their purpose.

To

the question

HINDU CHEMISTRY

209

as to what the substance called "acid

And even

not give a satisfactory reply.

who

sells

cannot enlighten the

it

they can-

is,

the grocer

more

inquirer

than to this extent that the article is a gad (scum)

or a bye-product in the manufacture of some acid.
substance to a rough
Having subjected the
chemical analysis, we came to to conclusion that
the substance should be nothing more nor less than
4 or hydric potassic sulphate, an acid salt

KHSO

and a bye-product,

as

nitric

we know, in the process of

The reaction of this

acid.

manufacturing
substance on the copper seems to be
2

this

KHSO 4 + CuO==K SO 4 + CuS0

2

The normal

salt

-j-H 2 O.

copper

di-potassic sulphate,

sulphate and water are formed.

What takes place in the gold as regards the
particles of copper takes place also in the solder

used as

regards the

particles

of

both

zinc

and

copper that are on the surface.

The oxides

copper and zinc are acted on by

the dilute acids of the tamarind or the hydric
potassic sulphate as the case may be, and are
dissolved

away

of

in

the form of soluble salts.

reaction in the latter case

2

is

KHSO + ZnO=ZnS0

As

The

-f-K 2

the solder contains a large

14

SO 4 + H

amount

O.
of

silver,.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

2io

its

appearance after the copper and zinc have been

dissolved away, is almost perfectly white, which

appears rather prominent by the side of the bright
yellow surface of gold.

The next operation

of the

rungwala

is

perhaps
intended to carry on the operation of cleansing to
He takes about half a pound of
a further extent.

common

salt,

and mixes

it

with an equal amount of

ordinary potash alum, purchased from the bazar.

The mixture is then reduced to the form of a
fine paste.

The rungwala now covers each

of the

be coloured with a thin layer of this

paste of salt and alum and then places them on the
After the paste has dried up it is washed
fire.

articles

off

to

with water, and

gold appears a

generally the

little bit

improved.

this lies in the fact that the

colour of the

The reason

of

few particles of cupric

oxide that remain on the surface are not wholly

dissolved out by dilute acid in the first operation
are got rid of

by

this process.

After having been subjected to these two

processes, the article acquires almost perfectly the
beautiful

stated

yellow of pure gold

already the

pan

or solder

but as has been

appears

at the

same time as white as pure silver. The contrast

of these two different colours placed in close con-

HINDU CHEMISTRY
is

tiguity

rather

marked

211

and the next

operation
intended to remedy this defect.
In order to make the solder and the metal
appear

of the

rungwala

of the

same

is

colour, he actually covers

of the solder with a

article

This

itself.

third process,

as

it is

layer of gold
is

done

which we

will

taken from the

course of the

in the

describe rather

the most important of these

pulation at which loss

the surface

fully,

mani-

stages of

takes place in con-

of gold

siderable amount.

fire

Having placed an open earthen vessel on his

and having put some water in it, the rungwala

prepares a mixture consisting of about four parts

of nitre (say

lb.),

common
He then

one part of

alum (say J lb each).

and

salt

puts the
mixture into the vessel, taking care always that the
water in the vessel be not more than what is necessi

part of

ary for dissolving about half the amount of salts

added. The solution is then heated till it boils
evolving

large

of

quantities

amongst which chlorine can be

its

(i)

gases

and

fumes,

easily detected

by

unmistakable corroding odour.

Cf.

a mixture,

p.

"
73 under
killing of mercury and

among

other ingredients, of alum,

saltpetre technically called a vida,

is

used.

gold,"

common

where

salt

and

HINDU CHEMISTRY

212

In this boiling solution the goldsmith places the

cleansed ornaments so as to keep them wholly immersed. He examines them from time to time and
after a while

finds

that a layer of shining gold has

formed on the surface of the white solder.

this

deposit

is

sufficiently

thick

When

and the whole

presents the appearance of being formed

out of a homogeneous material he takes them out

article

and, washing them well, prepares them for the next

operation.

CHEMICAL EXPLANATION
out exactly the series of
take place during this
Various impurities in the articles employed
to

find

reactions

that

It is difficult

chemical

period.
make the

It would,
inquiry doubly complicated.
do
for
our
to
however,
purpose
investigate briefly
the principal decompositions and formations that

occur,

and with

view

this

reagents employed
foreign substances.

to

be

we may suppose

the

chemically free from

It is well-known that if nitric and

hydrochloric
acids are brought together, certain reactions take
If the acids be
place.
tolerably concentrated they

act

upon one another

at ordinary temperatures, the

mixture becoming yellow and giving

off

minute

HINDU CHEMISTRY

213

If the acids
bubbles of gas, smelling like chlorine.
be dilute, we have to heat the mixture to bring about
The action that takes place
the chemical change.

two

consists of

First, the

of stages

from- the nitric acid oxidizes

oxygen

the hydrogen of the hydrochloric acid, thus

'

HNO,

-i-

2HC1=H

+ HN0 + Cl a

unstable

the

nitrous

(i)

acid

that

is
Secondly,
formed acts on another molecule of HC1, producing
a compound known as nitrosyl chloride and water,
thus
:

HNO + HCl=NOCl + H
a

The

reactions

single equation

(i)

and

may be

6...

(ii)

(ii)

when expressed by a

written as follows

NO OH + 3HC1=NOC1 + 2H O + C1
2

Now, here, instead of

acids, we have saturated

(iii)

and hydrochloric
solutions of a nitrate and

free nitric

a chloride, and an action similar to the above

may

take place under the influence of heat only, instead

of water,
the hydrates of
the metals present
in the n-itrate and the chloride are formed.
Thus,
instead of equation
action

(iii)

we may have

the following

NO .OK+ 3 NaCI
2

KOH + CI
When

-f

2H 2 O

==

NOCI +3NaOH +

the

solution

boils

and these actions

set

HINDU CHEMISTRY

214

the

in,

rungwala puts the golden

chlorine

as well as

liberated

articles in

it.

The

the chlorine in the

nytrosyl chloride attacks the gold and reduces it

to the form of a soluble chloride, which mixes with

mass

the

which

the

of

The

fluid.

NO

of the nitrosyl,

a colourless gas, but it

liberated,
rapidly unites with the oxygen of the air and forms
the red fumes of nitrogen peroxide which, together
is

is

itself

with chlorine, are liberated in large quantities during

the third stage of colouring.
NOW we know that if a solution of gold chloride
T

formed and a piece of silver

gold is deposited on the surface
while a portion of the silver is worn

of sufficient strength
is

dipped into

of the silver,

The

away.

AuCl

is

it,

reaction

is

as follows

+3Ag=3AgCl + Au.

This reaction takes place in connection with the

surface of the solder which is exposed.
A layer
of gold

is

formed upon

it

entirely hiding the white

all
appearance the whole
be composed of the same material.

surface, so that to

seems

to

In the explanation given above, the use of

that

is

added

to

make up

the

jamak

article

alum

(as the solution

the third stage described above is

employed
has
not been shown, and indeed this point
called)
we have not been able to clear as satisfactorily as
in

HINDU CHEMISTRY

215

It seems to undergo
perhaps it is capable of.
no chemical change, and hence does not act in the

capacity of a mordant

widely
It

is

the arts

in

of

found that

also

in

this

case,

as

it

does so

dyeing or calico printing.

no alum is added to the

if

jamak, the coating of gold on the solder is produced, but it adheres very lightly to the surface
and does not stand such processes as rubbing or

Hence
brushing.
of the alum is to

seems that the only function

it

the coating,

fix

i.

to

e.

adhere firmly to the surface of the solder.

make

it

Expe-

rienced goldsmiths are also of opinion that, but for

the alum, the gilding of the pan would not be

permanent.

alum

We

is

The way

in

which

to a certain extent a

suppose that the action

is

this is

done by the

matter of conjecture.
of a mere mechanical

When

the particles of gold stick to the

surface of the solder, small quantities of alum
solution remain in the pores between the separate
nature.

particles.

and
(i)

the

These afterwards dry up and crystallise,

minute crystals act as a sort of mortar

Mr. Chakravarti

part which

alum plays

all

in

along

fails

to realise the important

yielding sulphuric acid.

Moreover

in

the above equation chlorine cannot be expected to be set free in

presence of alkalies; see below under "the Hindu method of

manufacturing calomel."

HINDU CHEMISTRY

2i6

between the particles of gold and the surface of

the solder, as well as between the particles themselves.

The

course of colouring
source
of loss of gold
is by far the most important
in the whole series of manipulations that the metal
third

process

in

the

We

have seen that the losses,

has to undergo.
at all other stages are due to causes of a mere
mechanical nature and are

In
necessarily small.
the
vigilant eye
gold escapes
of the worker and hence the extent to which it

all

these cases, the

sight of

is lost

is

Here

minute indeed.

for the first

chemical change it
time
gold undergoes
ceases to exist as gold altogether and is consea

the

quently lost for ever to the illiterate goldsmith.

should remark that only a very small part
of the gold that is dissolved out in the jamaka.&

We

the solution of nitre, alum

and

third stage described above

called

is

on the surface of the solder.

2H

in

the

is

re-deposited
large portion of

the gold remains in the solution as

AuCI r NaCL

The

O.

with

used

salt

his

helpless rungwala can do nothing

valuable fluid but dispose it off for a

trifling sum to a class of men called jantakwalas.

who have a crude method of their own to extract
some quantity of the gold from the jamak. We

HINDU CHEMISTRY
shall return to the

217

We

jamakwala

subsequently,
proceed to the fourth or last stage of
during which the requisite colour is

must now
colouring,

imparted to the metal. The articles, after being

extracted from the boiling jamak solution, are
thoroughly washed and rubbed with a brush, after

which another bath

is

common

This

prepared for them.

consists of a solution of tamarind pulp,

nitre

and

water, which is placed in an

earthen pot on fire and heated to ebullition. A
little sulphur is then added after which the articles
salt

in

The sulphur is added in

are placed in the liquid.
a finely divided state, obtained by rubbing a stick
water on a piece of slate.
Care is always taken to add an insufficient amount
of sulphur at first, for it is found that the shade of
of sulphur with a

colour that

is

little

produced

on the quantity of

in

the gold depends solely

this ingredient,

which according-

The
requires exceedingly carefuly regulation.
time
to
now
colour
from
examines the
rungwala
ly

time, adding

more sulphur gradually

of colour

is

if

he wants

When

the requisite shade

reached, he stops adding the sulphur
on boiling for some time more, after

the colour to deepen.

and keeps
which he takes the

articles

off

the solution and

gives them a final wash and polish.

If

too

much

HINDU CHEMISTRY

2i8

sulphur

is

added

becomes deep

in

operation

and

violet

whole

this

black,

finally

vitiated.

is

process
stances the rungwala has to

the

colour

and the

Under the circumrecommence the work

from the very beginning.

It
may be noticed that the acid or the commercial
hydric potassic sulphate is never used in this stage,
as it is used in the first, instead of the tamarind

The reason seems

pulp.

to be that as nitre

is

also

present in the mixture, the addition of KHSO^, in

the presence of other substances, may result in the
formation

of

under the influence of

acid

nitric

heat.

The chemical actions that take place during

the fourth or last stage of colouring seems to be
extremely
violet

colour

layer of

the

difficult

is

articles.

which

it is

The

It

There can be

to the deposition

is

of gold

the

fact

of the colour

of a thin

on the surface of

determination

of

this

of the exact nature of the process

formed that presents

that the

essential things

first

due

some compound

compound and

the

of explanation.

doubt, however, as to the fact that the reddish

little

sulphur

by

the difficulty.
one of the most

all

is

that are required in the production

would seem

strongly to suggest at
glance that the reddish violet tint is due

HINDU CHEMISTRY
to the formation of

219

one of the sulphides of gold.

appears that the subject and constitution of the

compounds of gold and sulphur is one which has
It

not yet been fully investigated by chemists.

But
seems to be a well-established fact that no sul-

it

phide of gold is known which is of any other colour

than black. This stands in the way of our accepting the hypothesis that the reddish violet colour
of gold obtained by the Indian goldsmith is due to
the formation of a layer of sulphide on the surface.
From the fact that if the colouring is allowed to

be overdone

/.

e.

if

the articles be boiled further

after the required tint has

been obtained, the gold

acquires a deep violet colour, the

arrived at.

same conclusion

is

Accordingly, in spite of the fact that the amount

of sulphur added regulates the whole operation of
the last stage of colouring, we are constrained to

search for the

reddish violet colour that

same

violet

would be produced by a thin layer of

substance on a yellow surface, it follows

that the
violet.

deve-

some other compound

The nature of the colour being

loped
than a sulphide.
the

is

the formation of

in

as

colour of the

And

overdone,

/.

the
e.

fact

compound formed must be

that when the
colour is

when a

thick layer of the coloured

HINDU CHEMISTRY
substance

is

formed

pearance of the metal

on
is

the

dark

the

surface,
violet,

ap-

abundantly

The only compoumd of

hypothesis.
gold that possesses this characteristic colour being
aurous oxide Au 2 O, we are forced to the concluconfirms the

sion that the colour of gold is due to the formation

of a thin layer of suboxide on the surface of the

metal.

An

examination into the nature of the chemical

actions that take place during the operation clearly

shows that Au 2 O is the compound formed.

We

have seen

in investigating the

chemical changes durand

stage of colouring that
3

KNO

ing the third

NaCl being heated together, yield free chlorine
and NaOH.
This chlorine
together with

KOH

being liberated in the fourth stage attacks the

and
a small amount of auric chloride is formed.
gold
But at this point sulphur is added, and the nascent
after

instead of going to attack the gold any

combines
with the sulphur to form one or more
more,
chlorine,

of the sulphur chlorides.

rine being thus cut

decomposes

off,

The supply

into aurous chloride

chlorine thus liberated combines

while

the aurous

KOH

and

NaOH

chloride

with

of fresh chlo-

the heated auric chloride

the

is

and

chlorine.

The

with the sulphur,,

acted on by the

result .that

Au O

is

HINDU CHEMISTRY
This

formed.*
the

of

gold

partly deposited on the surface

producing the required colour and
is

mixed with the

partly

221

saline solid matter present

the solution.

in

The

series of chemical reactions

ed by formula as follows
1

KNO + 3 NaCl

KOH + C1

express-

-f

H O = NOC1 + 3 NaOH +

reaction

this

may be

itself

consists

of

two

stages as explained before.

3 Cl

(2)

+ Au = AuCI

2Cl-fS 2

(3)

(SC1 ?

may

also be

formed

precence of excess of nascent chlorine).

in the

Au Cl, =
2 Au

(4)

(5)

will

It

be observed from the above formula that

addition

the

= S Cl

If

operation

moved by

indispensable in this
the excess of chlorine were not re-

of sulphur

sulphur, as

is

is

done

in (3)

above, the gold

would continue to be dissolved out and a large loss

of the metal would arise as in the course of the
third stage.

Moreover, with a free supply of chlorine, the

would never be reduced toaurous chlo-',

auric chloride
(i)

for

The explanation

what

it is

worth-

is

scarcely satisfactory

it

may be

taken

HINDU CHEMISTRY

222

ride, and. thus

take place.
used is not

no formation of aurous oxide could

thus seen that, though the sulphur

directly contained in the compound

It is

which gives the colour, it regulates the whole reacmost important stages of its progress.

tion in the

The above hypothesis

that

if

little

sulphur

is

supported by the fact

added to the fluid obtained
is

in the fourth stage of colouring,

disslove in the fluid.

unless a

compound

like

will

it

be found to

This could not be the case

S a Cl a which can hold

,

sul-

were formed during the re-action.

phur
It has been mentioned above that the loss durin solution,

ing the third operation of colouring is considerable.

Indeed, from the records of observation given at the
end of this section, it is clear that the loss is not

only large, but that its extent

In some cases
the extreme.

is
it

also uncertain in
is

as low as half

a pie per tola, while in others it reaches the

ruinous figure of six pies per tola, or nearly one
The average amount
tenth of the w hole weight.
T

2\ pies per tola, which is obtained from our

the idea of expefigures, is not very different from
of

rienced rungwalas and goldsmiths on the subject.

The largeness and uncertainty of loss are easily

accounted for by the ever-varying constitution of

the bazar articles used in the operation, some of

HINDU CHEMISTRY

223

them being very nearly pure, while others contain

as

much

as 25 to 30 per cent of impurities, as well

as by the want of any accurate precision as regards

the proportion of materials employed. The ingredients are seldom weighed before being mixed toge-

ther

and the varying amount of water present

physically in the salts

and confusion

in

is

an additional source of error

proportion by mere

settling the

inspection of bulk.

The

following figures will give some idea as

the magnitude of the loss in colouring

to-

Weight

before

after

Weight

colouring.

Loss.

colouring.

Tolas.

Annas.

Pies.

10

Tolas.

Annas.

Pies.

671-5

532520
3O2

14

12

12

12

Pies.
io'5

15

26

12

l8

THE RESTORATIVE PROCESSES

Having

previous paragraphs described

fulness the various sources of loss of

in the

with tolerable

gold in the course of its artistic manipulation by the

Indian goldsmith and having in each case pointed
out the form in which the metal escapes the hold of
we will now turn our eyes to the meth-

the worker,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

224

now

ods which

obtain in our country for recovering,

the amount of material which is

as far as possible,
lost.

perhaps worth while here to point out

It is

that to re-obtain the entire

amount

of lost material

absolutely impossible from the innate property

of the extreme divisibility of matter
and our sole
is

these restorative operations should be to seobject

cure the recovering of the largest amount of metal
in

that can

possibly be saved.

classes of

men

in

Bengal who

There are two small

obtain their living by

extracting gold from the refuse and bye-products of

the goldsmith's workshop.
These are the nehar-

wala and the jamakwala before alluded

classes of

men

to.

These

are found to cluster in the suburbs of

large towns and important centres of jewelry manuIn the smaller towns and more insignififactures.

cant villages, the bye -products have either to be

thrown away or to be disposed of in the best manner that the goldsmith can hit upon.
Not unfrequently in such cases the goldsmith himself undertakes to play the part of a jamakwala and neharivala to the best of his abilities. But the unpractised

manipulation of processes, which are themselves far

from being satisfactory is sure to result always
in the loss of

We

will

a large portion of gold.

to describe the operations

now proceed

HINDU CHEMISTRY

225

neharwala and the jamakwala. It may,

however, be marked here that the immense diffi-

of the

culty in the

way

of obtaining the slightest informa-

the indigenous methods adopted by

these workmen, in the exercise of their profession,
tion regarding

can hardly be appreciated by one who has not personally made an attempt to penetrate into the mysteries of

of India.

any

of

the trade

or manufacturing secrets

The unfortunate

stagnation of almost

all

and industry in
knowledge,
departments
India that perplexes and mortifies an inquirer, owes
art

of

longstanding and universal spirit of

inherent
in our people which, however
conservatism
defended
by orthodox advocates of caste,
eloquently
its

origin to a

manifestly one of the principal causes why the

Indian craftsman lags so far behind in the modern

is

The

race of nations.

healthy broadness of views,

resulting from the dissemination of

ideas

among

of the
tual

the masses, has,

English
indeed, broken some

most pernicious strongholds

monopolies

men who

still

in

of

India

liberal

of

the intellec-

but there are classes of

obscure nooks of society keep to

themselves what they regard as the treasures of

professional secrets but what, after all, may be

mere

child's

play

to

the

eyes

world.
'5

of

the

scientific

HINDU CHEMISTRY

226

To

our enquiries about the nature of the nehar-

wala and the jamakwala the deafest ears were turned. Our attempts to impress upon these people the
necessity of the application of chemistry to improve
methods were mere cries in the wilderness.

their

And

it

was not

we had spent

until

several

weeks

in

these people that we

could begin to collect the information necessary for
such an inquiry. Bit by bit we gained from differ-

constant intercourse with

ent sources some

knowledge of the processes

which are given below in a continuous and well-

arranged form.

THE NEHARWALA

Now

and then the neharwala makes

his appear-

order to
workshop,
obtain the collected sweepings and other refuse

ance

in

of the

one

the

to the

goldsmith's

rooms,

to three

work

that

in

The

of time varies

interval

months according
carried

amount

of

on

in

the

gold that

is

from

nature of the

to the

rooms as well as
manufactured into

It is useful to state here that every

is commenced, the room is swept
work
before
day
very clean and the sweepings, instead of being

ornaments.

thrown away, are carefully stored up

in a corner.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
The heap

of dust

227

and rubbish thus accumulated

from day to day is the chief object of the visit of the

neharwala. Having inquired as to the amount of
gold that has undergone manipulation since the last
disposal of sweepings or nehar (from this the nehar-

wala gets
settle

his

that

articles

the

name) as well as the nature of the

were manufactured, he proceeds to

price

conditions.

which depends chiefly on these

The nehar

twenty tolas of good

gold manufactured into articles, which required drawing, beating as well as soldering would generally
of

be disposed of for a single rupee. It may be

interesting to observe that a goldsmith, however
dishonest in other respects, would never deceive a
neharwala by selling to him a heap of ordinary
rubbish for fear of losing credit and custom in the

department of nehar-selling.

The next
obtain

is

thing

that the

neharwala wants

to

the heap of rejected crucibles.

has been stated before that indigenous crucibles cannot be employed more than once formelting
It

purposes, and hence the number of waste crucibles

is not
small in our goldsmith's workshop.
The
nature of the crucibles and the amount of metal

melted
gold,

in each,

settle the

together with the qualities of the

have seen a score of
price.

We

HINDU CHEMISTRY

228

crucibles of average size selling for eight annas.

the goldsmith's shop

is

large, the soot

from the ceiling and walls

is

also purchased.

If

The

thing that the

last

hanging

neharwala asks the

whether that day he would give a

shopkeeper
taljhar, by which is meant if he would allow the
workmen's mats to be removed and shaken and
is

the space below the mats swept.

is ordinarily perfomed once a year.

This operation

The sweepings

And after paying

thus obtained are again valued.
the prices the neharwala returns home with his
heavy load, which sometimes reaches the respectable weight of 50 or 60 pounds.

The

thing that the neharwala does with his

This is only
to crush them
fine.
earthen
of
when
large size are
necessary
lumps
formed and mixed up with the nehar in considerfirst

materials

able

is

numbers and

is

dispensed with

in

most cases

where the large pieces are few in number and can

be picked up and thrown away.

The second process

is

to

throw the curshed

materials into a big earthen pot in which the nehar

remains immersed in water for a certain number of
days, depending on the quality and quantity of the

nehar. The object of this is to reduce fragments

of clay to a fine state of division by which particles

HINDU CHEMISTRY

mass

inside the

posed

remain imbedded

otherwise

gold that might

of

of earthy

229

lumps are

once ex-

at

to view.

The next and the main operation is that

working. The thoroughly soaked nehar is put
large earthen vessels

and more water

The mass

necessary.

is

is

then thoroughly

added

of
in
if

stirred

and the

when

lighter earthy material which yet floats

the heavy metallic matter has settled in the

bottom,

taken

is

By

off.

bulk.

It is

slowly poured
is

repetition

of

this

off.

is

The moisture

that yet remains

dried up either on fire or in the sun.

When several nehars have been

Avashed in the
the washings
in

the

reduced to a very small

then allowed to settle and the water is

process the solid matter

separately
the
remnants
of all
preceding way,
are mixed together and the mixture

washed once again.

like

the

fully

and

preceding but

completed,

in

better

This operation is exactly

is carried on more care-

vessels.

When

it

has been

about one-quarter of the mixture

be perceived

may

to consist of metallic substances.

the metals present in this mixture, iron

found and, as its presence is extremely
undesirable when the meterials are placed on the

Among

is

often

crucible for melting,

it is

generally got rid of at this

HINDU CHEMISTRY

230

stage.

Formerly

this

of

iron

bits

separate
a-days the magnet

is

was done by picking up the

by fine pincers, but nowalmost universally used for

the purpose.

The next process

is

that of

melting.

This

is

carried on in the ordinary way, care being taken to

procure a crucible big enough for the purpose.

The earthy matter sticks to the sides of the cruciwhile the metallic portion melts and falls to the
A mixture of gold, silver, copper and

ble,

bottom.
zinc

is

thus obtained.

The

old

method

from

of obtaining pure gold

such a mixture as this

is

said to have been as curious

and interesting as certainly

The alloy was
protracted.

it

was laborious and

first

of

all

beaten

into-

leaves of extreme thinness, about 5 inches square

in size.

Each

layer of a

leaf

was then covered with a

and common

paste of brick dust

thin
salt.

The

leaves were finally arranged one above another

and exposed to the heat of fire. After a certain

number

of days,

depending on the nature

of the

and the temperature of the fire, the gold was

found to be very nearly pure.
This method has now, however, been entirely

alloy

superseded by the far easier and more economical

process of treating the alloy with strong nitric acid.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
For

this

in

must be

however, the metal

purpose

obtained

231

a fine state of division.

This

is

done

rather ingenio'isly by
melting the material and,
while molten, by suddenly dropping it in water.
By this means the metal is at once reduced to a

powder without the expenditure

fine

labour in the

way

of

hammering.

of

any manual

Care, however,

should always be taken to see that the vessel of

water in which the molten metal is dropped has a

On one

wide mouth.

occasion, at which

we were

present, the liquid metal was poured into a narrowmouthed vessel, and the steam suddenly generated

was

and powerful as

so great

to very nearly cause

an explosion.

The
is

extraction of gold from rejected crucibles

These are
in the same fashion.

done much

pulverised and treated in the same way as ordinary

nehar. Sometimes the powders of crucibles are

mixed up with the common nehar

necessity

of a

separate

series of

to

avoid the

operations,

but

more frequently the smallness of their bulk induces

the neharwala to treat them separately.

THE JAMAKWALA

We
of the

will

now

turn

jamakiv ala.

He

our attention to the methods

periodically visits the work-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

232

rungwala from whom he

obtains the .necessary amount of jamak on the
payment of a price which depends on the quality
and the quantity of gold that has been coloured,
shops of his patron, the

as well as

weight that has taken place

during their make. To give an

the loss of

the articles

in

approximate idea of the commercial value of jamak

may suffice to state that we once purchased

it

20 tolas of sovereign gold (which is

22 carats or 9i6'66 per mille fine) for one rupee

jamak

only.

of

We

also

may

observe that the demand of

not at present at par with the amount

of its supply and at some of the bigger rungwala's
working-rooms, one may see big earthen jars full
is

jamak

and stored up for want

be interesting to add that

of this substance, collected

of purchasers.

even

It

may

obscure department of business, the

evil genius of man has set to work, and one has
to be careful in dealing with a jamakwala, if one
is

in this

new hand

in

these

affairs.

On one

occasion

we happened

to be defrauded and were given a

substance as a jamak of 35 tolas of gold for what
(i)

It

may

be observed,

however, that a rungwala would

never deceive a jamakivala in the same

way

as he would deceive

a stranger for fear of losing credit and custom

of jamak-selling.

in the

department

HINDU CHEMISTRY
we considered

modest price

the

233

of

Rs.

2.

But

thing turned out to be an imitation jamak

only and all our best efforts could not discover
the

in

the slightest trace of gold.

Having obtained a sufficient

it

fluid the

jamakwala

to

rid of

is

get

For

amount

returns home.

the

fluid

part

of

His
the

of

first

this

step

jamak by

purpose he has got large

earthen vessels with wide mouths which can be
it.

boiling

this

When almost the whole amount

placed over a fire.
of water has been evaporated off, he pours out
the viscous mass into an open eathern vessel and
porceeds to what we shall call the second process
of the jamakivala.

With the
by

the

first

matter of the jamak obtained

operation, the jamakwala mixes a
solid

quantity of borax as well as a large amount

substance known as poonoor. The weight
of powdered poonoor that is thus added is about
small

of a

four times the weight of the

jamah matter. Having

mixed
these
with such an
substances
thoroughly
amount
tency

of about
dries

of

to

cow-dung
the

as

material,

is

required to give consis-

he

two or three inches

these

balls

forms them into balls

in diameter.

He

then

and when perfectly dried they

are ready for the third process.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

234

The poonoor employed

above process

in the

is

a hard quasimetallic substance that can be purchased

from certain grocers at the rate of three or four
seers

It

per rupee.

is,

they say, nothing but a

bye-product in the operation of rupd-pdkdno by

which is meant the operation of chemically purifying silver which has been alloyed with a large

amount

of

copper and other metals.

The

usual

method of conducting this operation in our country

is to mix up the alloy with a large amount of lead
and after melting the whole mass to blow air
from above.
is

[This operation, as also the next one,

practically that of cupellation]

The pure

silver,

it

found, separates in the course of the operation

and collects at the bottom, while the partially oxiis

lead, together with the impurities which

existed originally in the silver constitutes the poonoor of trade.
analysed qualitatively a sample

dised

We

of ordinary bazar

solving

it

poonoor by the wet way after disand found it to contain lead,

in nitric acid

copper and zinc with traces of

The

third process of the

silver

and

jamakwala

iron.
is

the main

He scoops out on
the reduction of gold.
step
the earth in an open place a hollow of the shape of a
in

hemisphere about a foot in diameter, and having

thoroughly smoothed the interior of this hollow, he

HINDU CHEMISTRY
covers

235

with a layer of slaked lime about half an

After the lime has dried, it presents

it

inch thick.

the appearance
bedded in the

of a course
earth.

In

white china vessel, imthis

the balls prepared

The jamak-

by the second process are placed.

ivala then forms a powerful charcoal

fire

over

it

and with two or three large pairs of bellows causes

the flame to play on the mass below.
The lead
of

the poonoor

as

it

soon

is

reduced

were, the reduced

and

silver

dissolves*

and copper.
the bottom

gold,
large metallic mass thus collects at
of the hollow,
consisting mainly of lead.

The

blowing is now continued as hard as possible from

above and the metal being oxidised to litharge
begins to be blown off. The process must be continued

till

the whole of the lead has passed off and

a mixture of gold, silver and

copper remains behind.
Care should always be taken in this operation to
see that the last trace of lead
of

for

virtues

most important

poses of the goldsmith

little

thoroughly got rid

nothing affects so much the ductility and

malleability

so

is

of lead.

renders the

metal

Thus
too

for the

"

one two-thousandth part

rolling and its.

brittle for

very fumes produce a serious effect upon

(i)

Maunders Treasury

pur-

of gold as a mixture ever

of Science, Article

it."

Gold.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

236

Such

is

the tedious length and such the labo-

rious and complicated nature of the processes by

which the neharwala and the jamakwala extract
precious metal from the large heaps of rejected

sweepings and
smith's

dirt

workshop.

and bye-products
But their

of the gold-

have only

labours

the empirical experience of years to guide them

and not the acuteness of a well trained scientific

and accordingly we find that a large portion

of their work is directed to achieve in a laborious

mind

and round-about way an

object which a slight

enables us to secure in

of chemistry
the simplest manner imaginable.
With a view to shorten the labours of the jamak-

knowledge

wala as

far as

experiments,

jamak and

possible,

investigating
trying

to

we began
the

properties

find out the easiest

extracting gold therefrom.

As

of

series

the results

of

the

mode

of

of our

experiments we have found

nary plans

amount

in

that, working on ordithe wet way, we can recover an

which is equal to, if not in all cases

the
greater than,
quantity which the ja?n>kawala
can obtain by his expensive and protracted
of gold,

'

methods.

We

need scarcely give the properties and the

constituents

of the

various

specimens of jamak

HINDU CHEMISTRY

237

which we obtained from the bazar from time to time

for

experimental

formed having been

is

jamak

The way

purposes.

in

before

which a

described

the results of analyses will be nothing but

It will be sufficient to observe that in all
tedious.
in

full,

cases

jamak was

the

rather

liquid of

mass of grey

thick

clear

greenish-yellow
consistency with a large

solid matter at the

bottom consisting

almost wholly of soluble saline matter.

It
may be also added that among bases,

silver,,

copper, zinc, gold, aluminium, potassium and sodium

were the principal ones that were found while
;

the

amongst

hydrochloric

acids present, nitric,

were recognised

in

sulphuric and

large

quantities.

Traces of free chlorine could also be found

were found

in

almost

gold

exists in

of

showing the exact

the

some

of iron

all.

The microscopic appearance

interesting as

in

perceptible amounts

of the solution, while

solution.

state in

With

examined under a miscroscope

jamak may be
this

which

view

we

(magnfying 375

times) a drop of a clear solution of jamak as well

as an amount of the solid saline matter lying at the

bottom.

The appearance,

the same,

only in

more numerous and

the

in

latter

both cases was the

the

closer together.

crystals

were

The octahedra

HINDU CHEMISTRY

238

of alum with occasional facets of cubes, the long

furrowed and rhombic prisms of nitre and the cubes
Between
of common salt were very prominent.
these, in numbers far less, could be discovered long,

transparent needles. These were most probably

crystals of double chloride of gold and sodium which
is

invariably formed when a solution of auric chloThe constiis mixed with chloride of sodium.

ride

is AuCl
NaCl + 2H 2 O, and
s
the commercial " non-deliquescent chloride of
gold" which is ordinarily sold in one gramme tubes.

tution of this substance

it is

Besides the above crystals,

we
or

amorphous particles, wholly

Those that did not transmit light

frequently found
partially

opaque.

were probadust or other earthy matter which

bly particles of

at all

were present in the ingredients in the shape of

impurities. But there were others which transmitted
a beautiful green

light

line particles of gold.

number,

and these were

As

might be inferred that

it

-existed chiefly in

combination.

that the greatest part exists as

From a
difficult

be

in the
It

is

yamak, gold

also probable

NaAuCl 4 + 2H 2 O.

liquid containing such a variety of subs-

tances in solution as the

a

likely to

these were rather few in

task

to

present perhaps

jamak

does,

the

no doubt

gold which is
minutest quantity of all.

precipitate the
in

it is

HINDU CHEMISTRY
The reducing agents

239

mentioned by chemists as suited for reducing gold from solutions

Of those that are pracare exceedingly numerous.
tically

that are

employed, the

pricipal

ones are ferrous

sulphate, oxalic acid, sulphurous acid metallic iron.

We

tried

cases and

each

of

these

in

number

a large

of

found that ferrous sulphate gives the

best result of

The

all.

reaction that takes

during reduction by ferrous sulphate

like the following

is

place

sometihng

2 Au 4- 2Fe 2 (SO 4 ), + Fe,CL

2AuCl, + 6FeSO<
The gold is precipitated as a fine, heavy, black
powder and easily settles at the bottom.
At first we used the pure material obtained

from the chemists for

precipitating

jamak

but

afterwards found that the crude article of the bazar,

after being dissolved in water and filtered, yields

a solution which serves equally well.

This makes the process a matter of very little
expense and with an anna worth of good crystals of
hirakash (the Bengali name of ferrous sulphate), a
jamak containing 8 annas weight (for about Rs.
14 worth) of gold can be satisfactorily extracted'
are far from thinking that in our experi-

We

mental attempts to extract gold, we were able to

catch the whole of the material that was present

HINDU CHEMISTRY

240

in the

solution.

It

is

of division,

fine state

very probable that

in

which the

in

the

precipitation

takes place, a considerable amount of the metal

But
is washed away in the process of collection.

due to causes of a mere physical nature

and can be prevented to a large extent by the
use of better and more refined instruments.
loss

this

is

however, been ascertained that even

the easy and inexpensive
instruments
with rough
It

mode

has,

w et working

gives as good results as

the laborious and costly method of the jamakwala.
The indigenous worker thinks himself fortunate if
the

of

amount

of gold

which he extracts

is

of

twice

jamak from which it is obtained,

and we are convinced from the results of repeated
the value of the

experiments that the wet method promises in general no less than twice the amount of profit with
the advantage of saving time, labour and expense.

CONCLUSION
The importance
described and

of the

discussed

subject that has been

the
major portion

in

the

preceding pages is far greater than it

appears to be at the outset. Month after month,
in Calcutta and in the larger towns of Bengal,,
of

considerable quantities of gold undergo transforma-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

241

under the goldsmith's hammer; and as every

so manufactured is coloured before being
used, the amount of jamak that is produced must

tion

article

be large indeed.
By a rough calculation we have
estimated that about 3500 persons earn their bread
in Calcutta

facturing

by following the occupation of a manuand allowing for holidays,

Jeweller
;

and want

illness

that

about

ries

of

work

of

2,000

it

may be

safely

held

hammers ply on an

average
every day on gold and silver within the boundaCalcutta and

2,000 hands

1,500

its

Out

of

these

supposed

to

work

suburbs.

be

may

on
On
precious metal of gold alone.
the modest calculation that a man works one-half
the

more

of a tola of gold in

the course of a day, 750 tolas

of golden articles are turned out every day in the

metropolis.
Supposing as we have pointed out
before that in colouring only one-half of an anna
of weight of gold is dissolved out into the jamak

per

tola, as

tolas

alone.

much

annas or more than 23

as 375

of gold are every

day dissolved

As has been shown

before,

in

Calcutta

we have ample

reasons to believe that the jamakwala can seldom

get out as much as one-half the amount of gold
that exists in the jamak by his crude and imperfect

methods.

Granting, however,
16

that he can reclaim

HINDU CHEMISTRY

242

so

much

we

are

as two-thirds of the gold lost in colouring,

forced to the astonishing conclusion

still

that seven tolas of gold are absolutely lost in the

town of Calcutta alone with the lapse of each day.
There can be little doubt that if the whole

ihejamak that is now thrown away or otherwise

washed could be collected and worked on the
lines suggested by the newest and the most refined

of

chemical

methods,

no

less

of the entire loss could be

amount

some thing

to

per annum

in

these

not

the

than

three

reclaimed.

like 15 or

fourths

This would

6 lakhs of rupees

hard days of

struggle

for

place for giving even

elaborate scheme by which

the

existence.

This
outlines

is

of

any

the

jamak and the extraction of gold

therefrom may be carried out in practice on an
collection

of

extensive scale.

Business

may be commenced

at

once by setting

a laboratory fitted up for the purpose after

the latest fashion, at a convenient station in the

up

Province and by purchasing the

centre

of

jamak

that has already accumulated in the hands

the

of the rungwala.

In the

meanwhile agencies may

be established

every

district

and storage

in

of

jamak.

When

for the

the

purchase
accumulated

HINDU CHEMISTRY
jamak

is all

to

feed

of

fresh

the

243

exhausted, these agencies will be able

laboratory continually by the supply

jamak from time

to time,

from

all

parts

of the country.

NOTE ON THE
also

Romaka,

called

SALTS.

.Sakambari,

the

is

Sambar Lake near

produced from the

salt

Ajmere

(Dutt).

see under saltpetre.

(lit. begot of the soil)

Sauvarchala

Audbhida

name
known
as
commonly

the saline deposit

to

applied
the
reh

efflorescence.

It

consists

sodium chloride and sulphate

tions.

of soda,

In addition there are

the

is

"chiefly

of

in varying proporsometimes carbonate

and we have usually found some magnesian

named

salt is

very considerable proportion. In other

nitrate of lime or alkali is present."

cases

In certain localities the last

sulphate.
in

"The

efflorescences thus
ist,

carbonate

soda

sodium

of

chloride

magnesium

produced consist

of

the neutral, which contain no

three groups;

(these

and

sulphate)

consist

sulphate,

2nd,

the

chiefly

and

See pp.

29,

frequently

alkaline chlorides

and sulphates, but no lime or magnesian

the nitrous efflorescences."

of

salt

3rd,

Dr. Center's Note on

44 and 127.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

244

Watt's Dictionary of the " Economic

Products of India". Vol. VI. Part I. pp. 410-417.

Reh quoted

in

We

have thus a ready explanation of the

conversion of mercury and other metals into their
chlorides when they were heated in combination
with

audvida and other

salts

(see

p.

48).

The

magnesium sulphate would readily yield sulphuric

acid, which with sodium chloride and nitre, might
be expected to produce aqua regia (for further information see under "rasakarpura" or the chlorides
;

of mercury).

Vi^a or Vit

at present

is

taken to be the same

substance as the kalanimak or

ascertain

difficult to

the

Charaka

and

what
the

it

"black salt";

it is

stood for at the time of

Su^ruta.

The

following
given in Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. "BLACK SALT is pre-

account

pared
Hissar

in

is

upper India chiefly

at

Bhewani

the

in

by heating together in a large earthen pot 82lt) of common salt, one pound of the
fruit of
Terminalia chebula, and one pound of
district

Phyllanthus emblica, and one pound

of

sajji

pure carbonate of soda), until by fusion of the

the ingredients are well mixed,

removed from the

cool

fire

and form a hard

and

its

when

(imsalt

the pot

is

contents allowed to

cellular mass.

This prepa-

HINDU CHEMISTRY
ration

245

used medicinally principally as a digessalt has a reddish brown colour and

is

The

tive."

mainly of sodium chloride with traces of

sodium sulphate, alumina, magnesia, ferric oxide
and sulphide of iron.
Most of the samples, we
consists

have examined, were found to evolve minute quantities of

an acid

sulphuretted hydrogen

even when placed

of this gas

was

when

in the

treated with

mouth the

taste

It is
very probable
fused with the organic
matter [T. chebula], a portion of the sodium sulphate is reduced to sulphide, which by double

when

that

distinctly

the saline mass

felt.

is

converts the

decomposition

traces

of

iron

salt

The sulphide was

present into the sulphide.
detected both in the insoluble residue (as FeS) as
well as in the aqueous extract.
In the

Chemistry of Bubacar, the following

are mentioned

La
sel

salts

classe des

sels

renferme onze especes

commun, que Ton mange,

le

sel

pur, le

le

sel

amer, employe par les orfevres, le sel rouge \ le

*
le sel gemme proprement dit, le sel
sel de naphte
s
indien
le sel alcalin, *, le sel d'urine, le sel de
,

(1)

Sel

(2)

Sel

gemme
gemme

colore.

bitumineux.

(3)

Salpetre

(4)

Carbonate de soude.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

246

cendres
age, T.
It

I.

2
.

(La Chimie au

moyen

308).

p.

will

be seen, however, that the

are

products

de chaux

le sel

*,

3 or

last

Hindu Chemistry very properly

in

placed under the ksharas or the alkalies

(p. 45).

NOTE ON THE KILLING OF METALS

From

we

find

the time of the Charaka and the Su^ruta

metallic

the

oxides,

shape of
sulphides and sometimes chlorides recom-

mended

for

preparations

internal

formulas, which

in

administration.

The

various

be found scatttered throughout

*
above, give us methods for killing the metals.
But a killed metal is not necessarily a compound
will

it

sometimes means a metal deprived of

its

well

characterised physical properties, e.g. colour, lustre

&c. Thus the Ayurvedic killed gold and silver
often represent the respective metals in a fine state
of

recipe from
"

Take

division.

Rub

"

for

instance

Rasaratnakara

gold leaf with 4 times

(1)

Carbonate de potasse.

(2)

Potasse caustique impure.

(3)

See pp 30-31, 48 72-73.

the

following

"

by Nityanatha
its

weight of killed

HINDU CHEMISTRY

247

sulphide of mercury) and sublime the

a closed crucible. On repeating the

mercury

(/. e.

mixture

in

process 8 times, the gold

processes described in pp.

is

killed."

(Cf. also

105-106). In the

the

prepa-

ration of "

which

is

same

makaradhvaj a" (p. 132, note) the gold,

left
behind, would be regarded in the

As

light.

the

Hindu latro-chemists were

very particular about the killing of the

being ensured, they had often to

hit

tests for securing this purpose. Thus

"
-"In order to examine
kara
says
:

mercury has been completely reduced

has to be heated over a gentle fire

metals

upon proper
"

Rasaratna-

whether the
to

ashes,

for

it

hours.

weight remains constant, know then that

In
other
killed."
it
has
been
completely
words it means that if there be any free
If

the

mercury present,
there would be a
will

also

it

be found

would

loss

in

some

volatilise

weight.
tests

for

off

In

and thus

page 118

killed iron.

The language of a portion of couplets 25-28 is

somewhat obscure and the meaning seems to be
the very reverse of what the context would suggest
killed iron is that which, on being mixed with

'

'

honey and heated, docs not revert to

"
the natural state"
By natural state" the author
treacle

probably conveys the state in whichit originally was.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

248

i.e

of an oxide, as immediately

speaks

of

below he figuratively
the resurrection of the dead (p. 120).

Indeed, the

ideas of

the alchemists

and the West ran so closely on

commentary we can

the best

the above

to

extract from Hoefer's work, des-

the

is

lines that

parallel

offer

East

the

of

following
cribing the notions current

among

the

old

Egyp-

tinas.

"

Experience. On brule, on calcine du plomb

ou tout autre metal (excepte Tor et Targent) au
Le metal perd aussitot ses
contact de Tair.
caractristiques, et se transforme en
proprietes

une

pulverulente, en

substance

qui sont,

com me on

metal, et en les

espece de

ces

cendres,

disait le resultat de la

mort du

dans un creuset avec

chauffant

froment, on voit bientot

des grains de
renaitre

une

En reprenant

cendre ou de chaux.

de ses cendres, et reprendre

le

metal

sa

forme

et ses proprietes premieres.

"

Conclusion

Le

est

revimfie
par
Faction de la chaleur.
"N'est-ce pas
tion
(i)

la

que le feu de'truit,

grains de froment et par

metal,

les

(T.

operer

I.

le

p.

228).

miracle de la resurrec-

T.
Les mots

hui employe's

revivfier,

comme

rivivification

sont

i.

p.

228

encore aujourd'-

synonymes, de reduction de desoxydation.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

249

Other "experiences" as well as technical terms

have also their exact analogues in the language of

Western alchemists.

the

Thus

by side with

side

the "tests for killed mercury" (p. 74) and the "process for the fixation of mercury" (p. 131) we may

quote

"Viennent

ensuite

de

toutes sortes

recettes

pour la "combustion" de 1'argent, de Tor, du cuivre

de Tetain, etc., faisant parfois double emploi avec le
le livre II.
nifiait

Rappelons

la calcination

ici que le mot combustion sigdes metaux en presence de di-

verses matieres specialement

sulfures

les

taient

des

moyen age",
"La
epoque

metalliques,
lors
i.

fort

le soufre,

etc.

Les
"

multiples.

le

mercure,

produits

en

La Chimie au

p. 309.

calcination du mercure etait appelee a cette

Ibid, p.
coagulation ou fixation du metal'"

154-

The passage

in

Rasarwava describing the

the line

effi-

"without

cacy of the apparatus especially

the use of herbs and drugs mercury can be killed
with the aid of an apparatus alone" (p. 67.) is highly
It refers no doubt to the formation of
significant.
the red oxide of mercury, the precipitate per se.
"II s'agit de la
fabrication de 1'oxyde de

Cf.

HINDL CHEMISTRY

250

mercure prepare per

se,

d'aucun corps Stranger."

c'est-a-dire sans addition

Ibid, p. 154

ON THE HINDU METHOD OF MANUFACTURING

CALOMEL THE HINDU AND JAPANESE
METHODS COMPARED THE EXPLA;

NATION OF THE REACTIONS INVOLVED

According

to

Hindu alchemists, there are

the

four kinds of the ash (bhasma) of mercury, namely

p. 61), red (vemilion), white and

black (kajjali,
1

The white

yellow.

variety

or

often

is

of

spoken of as

it
is often
rasakapura
camphor
mercury
found to be almost pure calomel and sometimes a
mixture in indefinite proportions of calomel and
;

corrosive sublimate.

The

mercury are found

various

recipes are

earliest

(ch. XI. 24),

given

(i)

to

fi^THW,

out.

find a mixture

alum and

^H3T. or T^fa^T-

T^'S^l^f?^^:

make

medi-

their preparation.

for

account seems to occur

where we

drugs of green vitriol,

Vide

to be

used from the I2th century downwards and

cinally

The

chlorides of

among

salt,

^ri3T

what the yeilow ash

Rasarwava

in

other

described as

and

refers to

is

not easy

HINDU CHEMISTRY
capable of "killing mercury
73).

more

detailed

in

251

an instant"

description

(see p.

found

is

in

"Rasendrachintamam" a work which may

placed

the

in

3th- 1 4th century.

Dhundhukanatha

"I

am now going

process of preparing rasakarpura,

for all diseases

dy
fill

it

one-fourth of

safely be
Says the author

it

to explain the

which

a reme-

is

take a strong earthen pot and

with common salt and place over
:

a mixture of brick-dust,

alum and

rock-salt.

Rub

mercury with the juice of Indian aloe and an equal

weight of the above mixture into a paste deposit
it in the earthen
pot and cover it with the same in;

The pot

gredients.

lid.

well-fitting

is

Now

to

be firmly closed with

apply heat for three days

together."
(1)

^H5Tt IS^f^cTiqi^
*jcr?

HINDU CHEMISTRY

252

Another work

latro-chemical period,
the following
describes
Rasendrasarasa^graha
process for obtaining the svetabhasma or white
of

ash.
(/'.

the
"

"

e.

"Rub mercury repeatedly with parasu salt

audbhida salt see p. 243) and the juice of Eu:

phorbia neriifolia] place the mixture inside an iron

bottle, the mouth of which is closed with a piece of
chalk.
(cf.

The

bottle

is

embedded

the salt-bath, p. 123) and then

an entire day.
the bottle

The

is

to

a mass of salt

in

fire is

The white deposit

be collected."

in

urged for

the neck of

Bhavapraka^a written about 1500 A. D.

prescribes calomel in the treatment of Phirangaroga (lit. the disease of the Portuguese i. e. syphilis)

and gives the following recipe

"Take

of puri-

fied

mercury, gairifta (red-ochre), brick-dust, chalk,

alum, rock-salt, earth from ant-hill, kshdri lavana

(impure sulphate of soda) and bhdndaranjika or

red earth used in colouring pots in equal parts, rub
Place the mixtogether and strain through cloth.
,

HINDU CHEMISTRY
true in an

earthen pot, cover

253

with another pot,

face to face, lute the two together with layers of

clay and cloth.

on

fire,

and

it

The pots

so luted are then placed

heated for four days, after which they

are opened, and the white camphor-like deposit in

"
the upper part is collected for use.

(1)

it

HINDU CHEMISTRY

254

The Japanese method has been described by

and a summary of it is
in
the
below
eminent
chemist's
own words
given
"The Japanese prepare calomel pure, above all
Professor Divers at length

things from corrosive sublimate.

They heat balls
of porous earth and salt soaked in bittern along

with mercury, in iron pots lined with earth.

The
heat forms hydrochloric acid from the magnesium
chloride in the bittern,

and the mercury sublimes

close-fitting but unattached clay covers

Air enters by diffusion and oxygen
of the pots.

into

the

and

hydrochloric acid gas act together in

hollow cover 'on the vapour given off from

the
the

sublimate of mecury there formed."

It will be seen that the
process somewhat approaches that of " Rasendrasarasa^graha" in which the

pamsu

salt,

(see p. 252)

which contains
sets

free

magnesium sulphate
acid.
The
hydrochloric

recipe of "Rasendrachintarnam" and Bhavaprakasa

would seem to have their analogue in the- Chinese

method, for a short account of which we are also
indebted to Professor Divers' Memoir
:

The

translation

from

"

Bhavaprakasa

"

as

given above

is

Dutt.
"
(i)

Journ. Sec.,

Chem.

Ind." Vol

XIII. (1894) pp. 108-1

1.

by

HINDU CHEMISTRY
"

The Chinese

process, if correctly described,

from that used

in

points, one of which

is

differs

255

Japan

in several

that the

material

mercury

is

inti-

mately ground up with the other materials, and one

fails to see what reaction can take place between

and the two others, namely

Heated, the mixture must give

it

salt
off

and

alum.

mercury and

hydrochloric acid,and then these, as in the Japanese

process, will with air give the calomel, but this is
independent of the previous intimate mixture of
the mercury with the salt and the alum.
Another
is that in place of the
magnesium chloride
point
of sea-water as the source of hydrochloric acid, the
Chinese are said to use alum or copperas, which,

with the

third

salt,

react to give hydrochloric acid.

that the cover is said to be

will

point

is

closely luted to the iron pot, which must nearly

exclude the air, without which it is impossble to

explain the formation of calomel.

Feiliaps this
is the reason why the Chinese process is said to
take four or five hours' firing, since this may
give time enough for the needed oxygen to diffuse
through the cup and luting, it will also account
for the fact,
is

markedly

used."

is

if it

less

one, that the yield of calomel

weight than the mercury

in

HINDU CHEMISTRY

256

The Chinese and Hindu methods

tially the

same

essen-

are

both alum plays an

as in

important

Professor
sulphuric acid.
Divers in his explanation of the Japanese method

part

that

in

it

yields

supports the view that the hydrochloric acid at first

liberated undergoes aerial oxidation, thus: 2HC1 +

O=H

9
/

O -f CL

;
7

and

it is

the chlorine thus set free,

which attacks the mercury, forming calomel a

view which has been accepted by no less an authority
than Mendeleeff.
tertained

The author has

all

along en-

doubts as to the correctness of Divers'

hypothesis and he has, in his lectures, pointed out to

his students that some " catalytic agent" as in Deacon's process must account for the reaction involved.

This now turns out to be

(i)

"

To

which

may be added

Argentum vivum

vitrioli rubificati libras

et salis
et

sic

so.

It

is

that of the Latin

sublima.

Sume

semis, et salis petrae quartam

et

collige

partem,
album, densum, clarum et

ponderosum, quod circa vasis sponditia inventum

ut tibi de aliis scripsimus.
fuerit,

Geber

de eo libram unam,

duas,aluminis rochae calcinati libram unam,

communis libram

incorporatum sublima,

tum

the ferric

Sed

si

in

fuerit, et serva,

prima sublimatione inven-

turbidum vel immundum, quod

tibi

accidere

poterit

propter tuam neglegentiam, illud cum eisdem fecibus noveris

"
iterum sublimare, et serva."
Ges. d. Chem." IV. p. 189.
"
2)

1897).

Principles of Chemistry," Vol.

II.

p.

54 (Eng. trans, ed.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

257

"
mitsuchi"
oxide, a constituent of the burnt earth

which

acts as

really

we may

so

call

the

chlorinating

in that

it,

agent,

if

combines with the

it

hydrochloric acid forming ferric chloride, and the

latter in turn dissociates into
ferrous chloride and
v

free chlorine.
The alumina of the clay also plays a similar
A series of experiments were undertaken
part.
establish

to

stated below
I.

this

Mercury,

magnesium

the

point,

results of

which are

in

with

moist

was

chloride,

combustion tube

rubbed

intimately

gently heated in a
current of carbonic acid

globules of mercury and hydrochloric acid

in the cooler parts of the tube, but
no calomel was formed.

gas

condensed

II.

Mercury, intimately mixed with magnesium

chloride
(i)

and a small quantity

The composition

of

the

works, but rendered anhydrous,

is

Combined
Alumina

earth, as

as follows

38*4

Quartz
Silica

...

24/2

...

26*3

Ferric oxide

IO'5
-

Magnesia

...

...

o3

997
17

of jeweller's
found
:

in

rouge

use at the

HINDU CHEMISTRY

258

was treated exactly as above a

sublimate of calomel was at once ob-

oxide),

(ferric

crystalline
tained, with only a faint trace of corrosive subli-

There was very

mate.

little

free

The experiment under

III.

left.

mercury

was

ii

repeated,

only alumina being substituted for ferric oxide

almost chemically pure calomel was obtained, the
yield being rather less.
IV.
Mercury, was vapourised

in

a current of

mixed with hydrochloric acid gas calomel was

formed, but the yield was proportionately very

air

much
of

than in

less

mercury

by

volatilised

far

as

the

in the cooler parts of the tube as globules.

The formation

of calomel as

amount

largest

and condensed

such

in

exp. IV.

is,

in

itself, an interesting reaction and it is rather surprising that Roscoe and Schorlemmer's latest edition

standard work on Chemistry

of the
(i)

The

fails

to take

author avails himself of this opportuntiy to express

his indebtedness to Mr.

Chandrabhushawa Bhadurf,

B.A.,

Demons-

Chemical Dept., Presidency College, with whom he has,

of late, had frequent discussions on the chemistry of the Japanese

trator,

Process.

It

by him.

Bhaduri who
The experiments i, ii,

was Mr.

as given above.

iii

on the true explanation

iv were all performed

and

As Mr. Bhadurf has expressed a desire to work out

all its
bearings, we can confidently look forward

the subject in

to

hit

some very

interesting results.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
note of

it.

Our

contention, however,

259

is

that

the

traces of air that would diffuse through the porous

lid would
give rise to a quantity of calomel

which may almost be regarded as negligible.

For

the true explanation, as we have already pointed

out, we should look to the presence of ferric oxide.

Our view receives

fact that the

additional

residue in exp.

li.

support from

was found

the

to con-

ferrous chloride.
The Chinese method as also that of the Latin

tain

recommends the addition of saltpetre as

thereby more of corrosive sublimate would be
Geber

formed than calomel, and this purpose is equally

served in the process of Bhavapraka^a which uses,
over and above brick-dust, gairika (red ferruginous earth, see

p.

139, thus further increasing the

chlorinating capacity. Professor Divers is of opinion

that the sulphuric acid set free by alum acts upon

sodium chloride giving rise to hydrochloric acid

our view is that
(loc. cit). and does nothing more
;

the sulphuric acid simultaneously acts in a two-fold

capacity;

first, it

liberates hydrochloric acid; second-

it
acts upon mercury forming mercurous or
mercuric sulphate as the case may be and then
double decomposition takes place between the

ly,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

2 6o

Hg SO, -f 2HCl=Hg
2

C1 2

+ H SO,
2

upon a fresh
sodium chloride and mercury and so on.

The

acid

sulphuric

turn acts

in

quantity of
chlorides of mercury
By far the larger portion of the
formed
be
through the
would
however, to

seem,

of the ferric oxide.

"
"
and
The processes of Rasendrachintamam
"
were also put to an experimental

agency
"

Bhavapraka.ya

being

were broken up by
globules of mercury
a mixture of brickwith
rubbed continuously

dust,

alum and common

the

test,

transferred to
several

in

The

bottle

3 hours

folds

The

(1)

who

is

(2)

in the

smeared

cloth,

was
;

in

by

well skilled in the

of

calomel

that

and

one -experiment brick-dust

experiments were

supervision

with

The sublimate

a mixture
in

was wrapped

clay
sand and heated for

vide illustration.

mercuric chloride

personal

of

was embedded

was obtained

and the mass was

salt,

a stout bottle, which

Kaviraj

conducted under the author's

PrakHtiprasanna

Hindu methods

Kaviratna,

of killing metals.

The heating for 3 or 4 days together as recommended

Hindu method need not be taken seriously, indeed it must

be regarded as an extravaganza of the old alchemists. Professor

Divers in applying his theory of eerial oxidation to the Chinese
has been led to suppose that it "takes 4 or 5 hours'
process
since this

firing,

to uliTuse

Imou^h

may

give time enough for the needed oxygen

the cup and luting."

HINDU CHEMISTRY
pure calomel \

was omitted and the product was

There was necessarily some

mercury by
and the yield was

cases

of the theoretical quantity.

short
that

these

in

volatilisation

of

loss

common

salt,

quite

competent

but

the

to

addition

with

It

will

alum or green

be seen
vitriol, is

convert mercury into calomel

the
brick-dust increases
;

of

chlorinating capacity, giving rise to a certain proportion of corrosive sublimate, which can probably

APPENDIX
Analysis of

in the

gentle heating as

be avoided by
method.

some Preparations used

Japanese

in

the Hindu Medicine

MINERAL
(Kajjali or rasaparpati p. 61)

As might be expected from

paration,

the

substance

always

mode of precontains a large

its

excess of free sulphur.

(i)

Dutt writes:

"The

now

white form called

rasakarpitra

is

prepared, not according to the processes described in Sanskrit

works, but by subliming the black sulphide of mercury with
common or rock salt. In this form it is largely manufactured

and sold

in all

the bazars."

HINDU CHEMISTRY

262

gram subst digested with carbon bisulwhence free

phide, yielded o*2845g. sulphur
sulphur amounts to nearly 44 per cent.
0*645

SULPHIDE OF COPPER
(Parpati tamrarn p. 58)
0*704 g. subst., heated in a current of hydrogen
with powdered sulphur (Rose's method), till the

weight was

constant,

gave 0*697

evident that this preparation

is

g-

1S

thus

nearly pure cuprous

sulphide (Cu 2 S).

CALOMEL
(Rasakarpura, p. 250)
Five samples, procured from the market and
prepared according to the indigenous method,

when exhausted with water gave

only faint

brown

hydrogen.

It is

the filtrate

in

coloration with sulphuretted

thus evident that these were all

free from corrosive sublimate.

Dutt,
.chemical

we

are afraid, derived

subjects from

sulphide of mercury with

salt,"

of his information

"

By

hearsay.

common

much
we

subliming the
got, as

on

black

we expected,

merely cinnabar. The sodium chloride was simply left behind.

It is to be regretted that the new edition of Dutt's valuable work,

which claims to be " revised," reproduces

of the

first.

all

the

glaring

errors

HINDU CHEMISTRY

263

RUST OF IRON
(Mandura,

p.

1 1

1)

Hindu physicians generally procure the scales

from the black-smith's forge, which peel off the
red-hot bars of iron,

to

further

when they

roasting,

times and powdered very

Sample

are struck on the

These are subjected

sometimes as many as 500

hammer.

anvil with an iron

fine.

The powder was

reddish brown in colour

and

magnetic 0-6638 g was boiled a few hours

with hydrochloric acid in a current of carbonic
acid
On adding a drop of potassium
gas.

slightly

ferricyanide solution to a drop of the iron solution,

a faint blue colour was noticed. Weight of insoluble

which was simply

residue,

was equal

to

o-ioyg

equal to o*6638g
distinctly

yellow

ammonia and

siliceous

the oxide of iron

-

o'loyg.
in

o 5568g.

colour,

was

The

Sample

II.

solution,

treated

with

the precipitate, ignited in the usual

0-560 g. The sample

practically ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ).

way, weighed

matter,

was therefore

was

thus

HINDU CHEMISTRY

204

was

magnetic and of dark iron colour

2 59g> digested as above with hydrochloric acid,
It

'

gave as residue

(sand &c.)

The

real

oxide=i28g.
ammonia and the

oT3i g, Wt. of the

was treated with

solution

precipitate,

The

o'^og.
dissolved in HC1 and
weighed

latter

was

salt

usual,

more

K Fe Cy
was obtained.

tested with

no indication of a ferrous

as

once

ignited

but
It

is

thus evident that both the samples contained only

a trace of ferrous oxide.

As a check upon

above analyses, black

the

were procured from a smith's and examined.

These w ere carefully sifted by means of an electroscales

magnet and

from dust and other foreign

impurities.
g scales was heated in a platinum crucible over a blow-pipe flame and cooled
freed

0*622

at intervals,

till

'

was constant at o'649g.

Fe 63/2. Fe 2

the weight

Now Fe O. Fe O thus becomes

O or 232g
Now 0-622 x 2^ pr=
3

The

difference

between the theoretical amount

and that actually found

This

is

240g

no doubt due

minute traces of metallic

is

to

thus only 6 milligrams.

the scales enclosing

iron.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
Hindu method

In the

of killing

265

and purifying

expressed from various plants

are frequently used (cf. pp. 61, 132).
The ashes
of plants rich in potash are also
utilised as a
metals, the juices

source

of alkali.

(Cf. pp.

We

35-36).

give below

one or two typical analyses.

(*qTu*r)
Achyranthes aspera
'The ashes are used by the Hindus
i

(i)

in pre-

paring alkaline preparations. The diuretic properties of the plant are well known to the natives
of India, and European physicians agree as to
value in dropsical affections.
5f

-5f

-fc

Chemical
collected

in

analysis

failed

composition.

August
to

was

indicate

its

-X-

The
used.

the

whole

plant

proximate
presence of any

No alkaloidal body
of special interest.
was detected, and the alcoholic extract contained
no principle reacting with ferric salts.

principle

"For- the ash determination, the roots, stems

separately examined with the

and leaves were

following results

IN

D U C H ii M

bT R Y

HINDU CHEMISTRY

267

stems to 38*0122 per cent, and in the roots to

28*5830 per cent. It is possible that the plant
might be of value as a cheap green manure on
account of potash content. (Warden, Chem. News,
Vol.

ii.,

(ii)

1891)."
Juice of

Trianthema monogyna (^flHi'foT)

is Boerhaavia
diffusa,

Although Punarnava

the plant universally used by our Kavirajes as

%wg-*i5?*T^

is

different.

to the authorities of the

sample was

submitted

Royal Botanical Gardens,

Sibpur, for examination, and it

as Trianthema monogyna (nat.

was

indentified

ord.

Ficoidae).

On

chemical analysis of the juice of the succulent

stems, we found it to consist of a large proportion of potassium and sodium chlorides a nitrate
;

was

The

and

diuretic
cooling
properties of the plant are thus easily explained.

[also]^detected.

APPENDIX

II

7:
o>

in
<D

TJ
to

Cn

s.

CD
CD

a
T3

Copper Reducing Furnace

From

Ball's

Economic Geology

at Khetri.

of India.

(See

p. 140-41).

1-N

Alum and Sulphate

From

Ball's

of

Copper Works Khetri.

Economic Geology

of India.

(See

p. 148).

INDEX

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES.

PAGE
Abul Fazel,

162

/Esculapius,

xxxiv
xxi

Agnivesa,
ci,

173

civ,

188

Agricola,
Ainslie,

Albert the Great,

cxxvii

...

Alberuni,

xciii,

xcvi, cxii, 180

cxxix

Alfazari,
Alviella, Goblet de,

xlii, xliv

Amarasiwha,

Ameer

Ali,

...

Ixxix, 146

...

xcix, cviii

xxxvii

Ananda,

22

Anaxagoras,

Annaw Bha^a,

xvii, xxiii

194

Aristotle,

Asvaghosha,

xxxviii

A trey a

xxxviii

(Punarvasu),

Avicenna,

Ayrton,

W.

ci, cv,

cxxvii

U3

E.,

B
181

Baber,
Bacon, Roger,

...

cxxvii, 181

139

Ball,

Barua, A. M.,

Barzouhyeh,

1,

190

cxxvi

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

288

PAGE
Basil Valerftine, pseudo,

xcviii, 158,

Berthelot, M.,

xxviii, c, cxxvi, cxxvii, 41, 113, 177, 185

Bhaduri, Chandrabhusawa,

258
xxxi

Bhaskara,

Bhava,

Bhau

173

xxxviii

Beal,

79, 172

154

Daji,
xxi, xxvi,

Bhela,

...

Bhoja,

xxx,

xlviii

xv, xcv

Birdwood,

197

Blochmann,

198

Bloomfield,

v,

'>,......

Bodas,

viii, x,

Ixv

xvii, xxii

Boerhave,

172

Bohtlingk,

183

Boyle,

195

Brahmajyoti,

102

...

Bubacar,

144

Buddha,

....

Buhler,

Bukka

....

xxxvi, xlix

xvii, xx, xxviii,

179

Ixxviii

i,

Burnell,

xxi

Cantor,

xl

Chakravarti, Jnanasarayja,

Chakrapawi,
chemistry

Charaka,

age

of,

in,

197
liv, xcii

58
xi, xiii, xvi, xxvii^ ci, cvi
xiii

INDEX OF PROPER' NAMES

289
PAGE

chemistry

in the,

24.

Colebrooke,

23

3.

Cordier, P.,

xxii,

Csoma, de koros,

li

Cunningham, Gen,

155
cviii

Cureton,

xxiv, xxxi

Dalva;/a,
Daridi,

184
xxxviii

Davids, Rhys,

Deacon,

256

Democritus,

Des Cartes,

195

XXV

Dhanvantvari,
Dietz,

22

2,

cxiv

cviii,

Dioskouroi,
Dioscorides,

cxxiii, 158,

170

254

Divers, Professor,

cxvii

Draper,

xii,

Drir/avala,

xvii, xxi

Dutt, R. C.,
M

U.

C.,

vi,

ci,

32,

83

cxxiii

Dymock,

Rbu-Be'itar,

Kmpedocles,
doctrine

190

I,

60
22

of,

19,22

Fdu-Wafid,

161

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

PAGE
154

Fergusson,

...

...

...

Fleet,

...

...

...

xx

Fliigel,

...

...

...

cviii

Galen,

...

...

...

ci

...

...

xvi

Gangadhara Kaviratna,
Gargya,

...

...

...

xviii

Gayadas,

...

...

...

xxxi

Geber,
Latin,

Gildemeister,

Ixxxvii, cxxvi, 159

...

...

...

...

...

185, 256

...

...

...

ex, cxxiii
161

Gladwin,

...

...

...

Goldstiicker,

...

...

...

xli

Gotama,

...

...

...

xvii

Umesh Chandra,

...

...

xxiv

Gupta,

H
Haas,

...

...

Ha

...

...

...

...

...

...

177

ji

Khalifa,

Halhead,

xxxiii,

xxxix, xliv
cviii,

cix

Harita,

...

...

..,

xxi, xlviii

Harun,

...

...

...

cviii

Hero, school of,

...

...

...

xli

Hippocrates,

...

...

...

Hoefer,

...

...

...

xi, cxxiii,

cxxvi, 248

xxvi, xxxiii, xcix

Hoernle,

...

...

Hooper,

...

...

Humboldt,

...

...

...

78

Huth, Georg,

...

...

...

li

...

cxxiii

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

291

292

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

293

PAGE
cxxvi

Nashirvan,

Newton,
Nitya Natha,

xxxvm

Olden burgh,

O' Shaughnessy, Sir

95

246

187, 188

VV.,

Pa//ini,

Paracelsus.

xiv, xviii, xxxvi, xli

xcviii, ci 158,

194

Parasara,

xxvi,

Patanjali,

xv, xcv

Parmenides,

Percy, Dr.,

155
ciii

Playfair, George,
Pliny,

...

50, 158, 170

Pliny the Elder,

cv

Pott,

80

Prakritiprasanna, Kaviraj,

260

Prinsep,

154

Rases (Rhases),

CV, CXXVI, CXXVI

Rodwell,
Roscoe,
Royle,

Sachau,
Sacy, Baron de,

194
...

68,157,158

cxiv, cxxiii, 159, 187

cxin, cxiv, cxxvn,

cxxvm

cxxv-cxxvii, 159

294

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

295

u
PAGE
Udayanacharya,

...

...

Useibiah,

...

...

...

15

cviii, cxii,

cxxii

V
xxi, xxvii, xxix, xxx, xxxiii, xlvii, xlix,

Vagbhate,

Ivi,

chemistry

in the,

Vawa,
Varahamihira,

...

...

,..

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

Vatsayana,

...

...

...

Vr/nda,

...

...

55
xx, 192, Ixxxi
Ixxxi

...

Vasudeva,

1,

xcv, 193

-xvii

190

Ivi, Ivii, xcii,

58, 61

w
Warden,
Weber,
Williams, Monier,
W'ilson,

H. H.,

Wustenfield,

...

...

...

...

...

..

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

cviii, 23,
...

cxxiii,

267

xxxviii
183.

81, 181, 183

cviii

Y
Yakub Ibn T^rik

...

...

...

cxxix.

Yaska,

...

...

...

xviii

INDEX OF SUBJECTS
A
Abhra

(mica),

gj

killed

82
"

Acid, the

...

40,128

mineral,

...

174,185

"itric,

...

I88

l88

sulphuric,

Adrija (bitumen),

81

*'

Aetzkali,"

l8 ^

Aethiops mineral,

Agneya

58,61
180

astra,

Agni-astra (Fire-arms),
Agnijara,

179

...

96, 97

166

Ahen-tchini,
Air,

Akasa

4
4

(ether),

Alchemy, Syrian,
Alchemical ideas

113
in

the Vedas,

Alchemy (Hindu), down

...

...

of,

Alkali (kshara), the,

...

...

Hi

39-41, 69, 128

art of extracting,

caustic,

mild,

191

...

...

37,41
...

neutralisation of,

use and preparation'of,

Alloys, the,

41

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

40

...

...

...

41

104

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

298

Almandine,

...

Alum,
distillation of,

essence

Alum
Alum

of,

earth,

...

seed,

Analysis of sethiops mineral,

calomel,
rust of iron,

sulphide of copper,

Antimony,
sulphide

Anus

of,

(atoms),

...

...

...

...

Apologia, Vagbhata's,

Apparatus

(see yantram),

efficacy of,

on,

Ashes,

lixiviation of the,

Atomic theory, the,

...
Atoms,

...

binary,

...

double,

quarternary,
simple,

ternary (tryarcuka),

theory

of, ...

Ayurveda (Science

of Life)

xii, xiii

B
Bell-metal,

Bhasma

(ash),

104,

114

250

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

299
108

Bhramaka,

64,72

Bidam,
Bile, of the ox,

Bitumen, origin

92

46

of,

doctrine of,

53

Blood, description

of,

...

...

...

Bornite,

Bower

...

42

...

138

MS

xxvii, xcix
in the,

chemistry

...

...

...

...

5 2 ~54

70,104,113

Brass,

calx

54

of,

114

killing of,

c
158, 161

Cadmia,
Calamine,
essence

...

of,

...

...

70^74, 87, 88, 158, 169

88
...
...
31

Calces, the,
of the six metals,

44
...

...

...

126

manufacturing,

...

...

250
258

Calcination, of metals,

Calomel, method
formation

of

of,

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

Cat's eye,

99

Caustics, alkaline,

Chandrakanta (moon -stone),

99

69,81,87,96

Chapala,

137

Chlorospinel,

Chulika

lava.na,

Chumbaka,
Chyle

(rasa),

32

33

lunar,

...

96
...

...

...

...

...

109

...

...

...

...

...

42

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

300
Cobaltite,

...

...

Collyrium, a,

PP er

13

30,57,59

Combustion,

I3 8

...

Colour,

249

...

3i

>

44, 55,

7.

72, 74

extraction of,

86

killing of

108-

killed

...

sulphate
sulphide

Copperas

...

...

...

of,

...
...

...

50,

31,45,53,55
^&

of,

iron sulphate ),

...

...

....

...

...

...

143, 147

Coral,
Crucibles,

0.9
...

...

...

64

ingredients for

125

D
Darada (cinnabar)

...

Dhanyabhra;;/,

...

...

...

Dhatuloha?;/,

...

69, 78,

104

...

Dhatuvid

192

Dhuma

120

Dhumavedha

...

...

Diamond,

...

...

dispersive power
killing of

...

liquefaction of
refractive

9$
82

...

of

120

...

...

...

...

...

...

101

...

...

...

...

100-

...

...

...

...

...

...

101

...

...

...

...

...

104

...

100

power of
descensum

Distillation, per

157

E
Earth, the
Earths, the

4,6
...

...

...

129

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

301

22

Eleatics, doctrine of the

Elements, the five

Elixir vitae

Ixii,

Erubescite

80
138

Essences, the

77,170
F

Fats, the

128

Fire,

Firearms, the

...

...

...

...

...

Flames, colour of

15

Fluidity,

Franklinite

Furnace

179
68

137

blast

...

...

...

...

...

142

G
Gahnite

137

Gairika,

90, 139

Galena

54.94

Garurfodgara

(lit.

derived from the vomit of Gariu/a)

GauripashSwa,

Gems,

99
96

the

99

killing of

Girisindura,

102,100
...

...

...

Gold

...

...

...

96,98

8, 15, 25, 31, 44, 55, 72, 152

dust

...

...

...

...

...

...

47

killing of

...

...

...

...

...

...

73, 105

...

...

...

...

...

198

...

...

...

...

...

Grasamanam

...

...

...

...

...

25
120

Gravity

...

...

...

...

...

wastage

Gorochana

of
...

...

15

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

302
Greek-fire,

...

...

"Culture"

180
*lii

Gunpowder

i?4-7

H
Hair-dye, formula for
Harakasisa
Hartshorn,

52
150

52

spirits of,

Haematite,

139

Heft-djousch,

...

...

...

...

...

169

Hercynite,

...

...

...

...

...

137

...

Hindu, Pharmacopoeia,

Hingul (cinnabar)

Hirakam

96,98

diamond

99

Hirakash

239

Horn, fumes

of,

Incineration,
Initiation
I

...

...

...

...

into discipleship

Iron ,

...

...

...

...

...

77

...

...

...

115

29, 30, 31, 44,

45*55-6, 72, 74, 108, 152-3

59,62,111

killing of,

118

killed, tests for,

roasting

of,

...

...

...

...

...

46

...

30,63,111
xcv

rust of,

science

52

...

...

of,

...

...

...

Iron pyrites,

47, 138

Jamak,
Jamakwalas
Jasada

zinc

239
...

...

...

...

...

...

240
158

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

303

170

Jost

K
Kadaram,

108

...

Kahi,

150

Kajjali

Kakatundi
Kalas

114

arts

and sciences

190

Kamkshi
Kamkushthaw
Kampilla

Kamsya

146
89, 95, 139

...

...

...

...

...

Kaparda
Karshaka

114
108-9

...

...

...

...

...

...

96

...

...

...

...

...

...

109

...

...

...

Kasisa

( sulphate of iron
essence of
...

72, 91

)
...

91
159, 166

Khar-tchini

Kharpara
Krishnaloha

96

...

bell -metal )

Kanta>

158
(

iron

44,152

152

Krish;;ayas

Kshara, madhyama, mridu

(

61

...

...

...

38

..

alkali )

30

Ksharataila

Kshepa
Kshurakam

...

...

...

...

...

Kunta,

...

...

Kunthaw

...

...

...

52
120

...

...

111-2

...

...

...

...

108

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

Kutuv,

20

154

L
Laboratory, on the

...

...

...

...

...

116

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

304
Lead...

44,56,72,74,112,152

...

..................
use of
...............
Lepa .....................
killing of

114

45

...

Leucopyrite

...

...

Liber ignium

...

138

...

15

...

17$

.....................

7, 19.

...

iron

...

...

.........

Liquefaction

Loha

...

..................

Levity

Light

...

120

...

......

............

Lohasastra

77

...

104, 152

..................

xcv

............

...

...

...

Lohitayas

...

...

...

...

152

Lollingite

..................

138-

..................
...............

xxxvi

Lohas,

the metals

Lohavid

Magnetite

79.

192

...
...

...

137

Mahabhagga

Makaradhvaja
Makshika ( pyrites

...

...

...

...

.........

Manassila (realgar),

............

93

......

Matter, constitution and properties

of,

Mayuratuttham

...

...

...

...

...

Mercury

...

...

...

...

...

ash

of,

...

132

...

69,81,84, 137

171

73

...

74,105

............

black sulphide of
earliest historical

evidence of the internal use

61
of,

xxviii

fixation of,

...

...

...

...

...

131

incineration of,

...

...

...

...

...

132

killing of,...

...

...

...

...

...

37

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

305

philosophy

of,

...

...

...

...

...

purification

of,

...

...

...

...

....

swooning state

of,

tests for killed

(mercury)

130
Ixxiv

...

...

use of

...
...

Metals, the

74
48.

24, 48, 104, 127, 152

"bastard"

...

...

...

...

...

calces of,

xcviii

24

colouring

of,

calcination

of,

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

killed

74
126
31

72

killing of,

smell

xcvi

of,

...

...

roasting

of,

...

113.
...

...

...

...

the five

44 157

the six

a pure

tests of

...

...

...

...

...

Minerals, the
definition of

essence

...

81

169

of.

external application for,

notes on the

Misrakam

...

...

45
133
112-

Mriddarasringakam
(wrought iron)

Nagarjuna varti
Nakashiwalas

Nausadar

68>

152

Metallurgy

Mundam

46, 126
25, 72 (x)

(sal

ammoniac)

96, 98
108-

59
201

96,97

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

3o6

Navasara

96,97

Nehar
Neharwala
Nilanjana

Nitrum

...

...

...

....

....

198, 225, 226,

...
...

natron

93, 119

...

...

...

;:.

...

...

...

...

...

...

Ochres
Odour...

...

227

...

...

182

...

139

...

14

Oils,the

Orpiment

29, 45, 46, 55, 72,

89

P
Parada

...

(quicksilver)

...

...

78

Ixxi,

...

Parchment, Leyden

49

Parpatitamram
Patanavidhi

58

...

...

131

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

103

...

...

...

...

139

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

Pathology, humoral

xxxv

Pearl, liquefaction of

""Peacock" ore

...

Period, the Ayurvedic

the latro-chemical

xc

...

the Tantric
Petel...

Ixii
...

Phallus

170
...

...

...

...

...

Philosopher's stone

...

...

...

...

Phiranga-roga

...

...

Phitkarikabij (seed of alum)

Pitta

( bile )

68

168

Pe-tong
Pewter

...

...

115,
...

1 1

6,

117
Ixii

Ixxxviii, 252

149
xxxviii

INDEX OF SUBJECTS
Pittala (brass)

307

...

114

Pleonaste

137

Poisons, the

Book

on,

...

Pompholyx

...

Poonoor (punhar)

...

...

...

...

...

....

...

...

...

...

...

161

...

...

...

...

...

19$

45,52

Pushpanjana

94, 95

metal emitting foetid odour

lit.

cxiv

...

Potash, carbonate of

Putilohas

47,129
cxii,

104

...

Pyrites

70, 73

iron

...

...

...

...

...

...

47

...

...

...

59

Q
...

Quicksilver

putrifaction of

...

...

...

73.

R
Rajavarta

Rasa

98, 99
42,43

lapis lazuli)

chyle

the term

)
...

Rasabandha

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

Rasaka (calmine)
essence of

79-

131

70,71,81,87,157,158
...

...

...

...

...

169-

244,250

Rasakarpura

79-

Rasakriya

Rasamritachurwam

...

...

...

...

59

...

118

Rasapanka

61

...

Rasaparpati

131

Rasaratnasamuchchaya
chemistry
Rasas, the
the

in,

common

...

...

...

...

.1;

.:*

...

...

...

...

76, 156-

...

76,

64,79
156

INDEX OF SUBJECT^

3 oS

Rasasindura

Rasayana

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

definition of,

Rasi (aqua
Rasot ...

Ratnas

gems

),

...

...

...

...

187,250

...

...

...

...

...

54

...

...

...

...

79

the

Realgar

...

Red ochre
Reh ...

45,46,54,55,89

46,54,55,89
244

Ritika

114

Rock-salt

46,55

Romaka
Romakanta

108
...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

44, 128,

Rubicelle

Rubi

spinel

80

32,53,80

fortis)
...

132
viii,

243
137

...

137

Rungwala

207

s
Saindhava

...

Salajit (alum)

Sal

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

ammoniac (navasara)

Saltpetre
Salts, the

72,

29, 127

147

73,96,97,

72, 73, 174, 182

..*.

...

29, 44, 73, 127

...

notes on,

243

Samkhadravaka

187

Samudra

...

...

...

...

...

...

Sapphire

...

...

../

...

...

...

99
45, 82

Sarjika,kshara (trona or natron)

69,70,81,86,138,172

Sasyaka
Saurashtri (alum), distillation of,

29, 127

...

....

...

...

71

INDEX OF SUBJECTS
Sauvarchala (Saltpetre)
Sauvira
...
...
Sauviranjana

Savour

29, 44, 128, 182,

...

...

...

...

94

...

...

...

...

i^.

...

...

...

...

IQQ

...

44, 72, 73

...

...

...

...

...

168

in the...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

chemistry
Sikhigriva

58
i-ji

Sila

69

Silajatu

85

Silver..

...

incineration of

31,44,55.72,106,152

...

...

...

...

...

107

...

...

...

...

...

168

...

...

..

...

...

phlegm

nitrate

31

Sim-sakhteh

Sisakam

Sleshman,

lead
(

112
xxxviii

Smaltite

j^g

Soap, recipe for a

Soda, carbonate of

...

...

...

...

...

63

...

...

...

...

...

52

...

198

...

...

...

...

,..

130

...

...

...

...

...

Soldering
Solvents, the

Somarasa

...

Soraka, Sora

70,

184

Sound

16

Spinels
Spirits

243

72,

94, 119

Sea-salt

Siddhayoga

...

...

Scientific spirit, decline of

Sefid-rou

309

137
(

essence

Srotanjana
Stibnite

...

169

)
...

53,55.70,81,93,94
55, 119

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

3 io

Stibnium

...

Sulphur
Sulva (sutra)

55, 57,81

90

31, 72, 89,

xl

...
...

Surashtraja

...

Suryakanta (sun-stone)
Svarnasindura

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

146
99,

932

Svetabhasma

252

T
Talaka

orpiment

essence

of,

)...

...

...

...

...

92

...

...

...

...

...

93^

62

Tamrayoga
Tanjur

...

Tanmatra

li

(particles)

3,

18

Tantras, Brahminic and Buddhistic

...

...

Ixx

Tantric

...

...

115

...

Ixii

rites

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

cult

origin of the,

works
Tastes, the

116
...

a discourse on the

Tatanagam

...

...

...

24

...

159

25

Terms, technical

118,120

Tikshnam

108, 119

Tin

...

use of

Topaz

...45, 55, 72,

in, 152
45

...

...

...

...

...

...

Tripitaka

...

...

...

...

...

xii

Trona (natron)

...

...

...

...

...

69, 192

Tutenague
Tutha

...

...

99-

159,

159, 171

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

311

Tutia

158, 159

hura (green)

Tutie, spirit

159

160,162,170

...

spirit of,

160,170-

of,

Tuvari (alum)

...

...

...

...

...

91, 146

Tyrean purple

192

u
Uparasas, the

64, 79,

89
128

Urine, the
eight varieties of,
of buffalo

...

...

30
...

...

...

Utthapana

92
120

...

...

V
Vaikranta

81, 83, 99, 136

liquefaction of

Vajram (diamond)

Vangam

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

103
loo,

139
ill

(tin)

Varataka (cowrie or marine

97

shell)

Vartaloha

104, 114

Vata

xxxviii

Vermilion

Vida

64, 72, 73,

Vimala

74
186

69,70,81,84,85,138

Vit

244

Vitriol

...

74,

blue

essence

green

89

59, 86, 138, 144, 148, 171, 172, 174

of...

174

...

...

...

73> 74, 146, 171

w
Water

..

...

...

..

4,

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

3 i2

Yantram (apparatus)

121

122

Adhaspatana
Dheki

...

Dhupa

...

Dola

...

Garbha

123
125.

65, 121
66,

Hamsapika

...

...

...

...

...

Kosthi, on

67
62, 89, 93.

Lavawa

123

Nalika

124

Patana
Svedani

122
...

122

...

124

Tiryakpatana

Valuka (sand-bath)

...

...

...

...

123

124

Vidyadhara
Yavakshara

45, 69, 183

21

Yoga
z
Zinc

...

...

extraction of

" Zinken"

...

...

...

...

...

...

156

...

...

...

...

...

ji t 88
xcviii

SANSKRIT TEXTS

Sanskrit Texts
Extracts from Vrinda
Abbreviations used

M.Ms. = Madras Manuscript.

K; Ms;

R.

Rr. by

= K&8miT

Manuscript.

R. S. = Rasarati)? samuchchaya.
Nag. = R s?,ratna'kara by
J

NagaVjupa.

^f

f^ff^rfT

LX, 148-149.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

II

(1)

The

edition of

srama Press^ Poona_,

g^

p,

aed by the Aiianda-

does not contain the last three

slokas, which, 'however, occur in the

same.

K. Ms. of the

Extracts from Rasarnava

ii

1
i

11

g^rr

(1)

Cf.

Rr. by N^g. Ch. IV.

(2)

M. Ms. reads

(3

M. Ms. has ^

HINDU CHEMISTRY

n
n

zz t
t^r f%3

(1)

K. Ms, reads

reading adopted

TW^ ^RfTii^^^ ^

in the text

is

which quite agrees with R. R.

(2)

M. Ms. reads

(3)

Rr. by N^g. reads

n&

The

that of the M. Ms.,

S. (see p. 73,

g T^f^rfcr:

Poona

HINDU CHEMISTRY

(1)

M. Ms.

(2)

5TT*iTf^^^

h?,s

Couplets ^If^m^g'

in

R. S. 8.

....

borrowed by R. R. 8.

in

Rr. by Nag. reads

74,

^r^frf ^^f^?!

Pooim

ed.)

have been

the Book on apparatus^

(3;

(p.

?fi?i

HINDU CHEMISTRY

^3
VT^rf

^nerr^rr ^^TW^TT

tr?

ft

(1)

K. Ms. reads

(2)

K. Ms. has

(8)

M. Ms,

(4)

M. Ms. has

(5)

M; Ms. reads

reads

^H:

114

li

HINDU CHEMISTRY

*?ffT

(1)

M. Ms. has

l2i

M. Ms. reads

(3j

M. Ms. has

HINDU CHEMISTRY

-.10

11

IM

(1)

M. Ms. rea^s

(2)

M. Ms. has

(3)

M. Ms.

(4)

K. Ms. has

=91

tip

reads'

^?ff^ifl

viai^j^

*ii^mj

^,

'-8U.^

which seems

to be incorrect,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

*?

49-57.

V. 35-36.

__
(1)

M. Ms. reads

v2

K. Ms. has

^^^

HINDU CHEMISTRY

12

1
\

vir, 2-3.
I

*TTf%rf

^^rtTlh

II

r^T
srsr:

20-21

ii

11

K.Ms, reads

(1)
('2

^iffiw*r^^i^^*i,,

which

,is

incorrect.

Rr. by Nag. II. 35, 36.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

13

26-27.

11

II

VII.

34.'

IK

VII. 37-38.

(1)

M. Ms. has

(2)

M. Ms. reads

(3)

This

.sloka

is

exactly

the same as

it is

in

Er. by Nag. 1.3.

(4)

Rr. by Nag. 11.31-32.

HINDU CHEMISTRY
&

Mr srimfa
e\

VfL

II

V 11.89-90.

M. Ms. reads
:

(1)
'

^2)'

-'M'^'Ms.

has

T[^

which

is

72-73.

doubtful.

HINDI' CHEMISTRY

.15

vrr. 138-

ix.

(1)
"(2

91

M.
.Of:

and

^Fs. h-,s flf^^fT

Risakalpa
^fl^^^:

seem

and

II. 51-66.

Hei-e

to be; correct.

s.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

16

^tftr ftfH^f^ftqfir^^ftr

IX. 9-20.

TTTT

X. 52-54.

(1)

K. Ms. reads

.grammatically incorrect.

^i^ig^n

f^^:,

which

is

HINDU CHEMISTRY

17

11

X. 55-56.
:

XI. 24.

XI. 83-86.

1%

(1)

M. Ms.' has

(2)

M. Ms. reads

(3)

M. Ms. reads ^fc<*^ which

2

is

preferable.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

18

1
.

XII. 197-198.

xn

XIY

78.

81

?rm

(1)

Of.

^^

Cl

Rr. bv Nag. IV.

(2)

M. Ms. has
cf

cm:

qS^q^T.w ^

3MT ^l^rl^gf^TT

HINDU CHEMISTRY

19

XVII. 70-74.

Extracts from

Rasaratnasamucbcbaya.
= Bena,res

Manuscript.

K.= Ka?mir

Manuscript.

B.

(1)

^i^Tfl:,

a variant

also agrees with B. and K.

in the

Poona

ed.,

which

HINDU CHEMISTRY

win

^:

*r*nff

2-7.

(1)

which

^^i^l^,

also agrees with B.

5

(2)

ed.,

another reading in the Poona ed.,

^Ksis?^

:,

and K.

different reading in the

Poona

which also agrees with B. and K.

(3)

K. reads Kcn^^tt^X

the correct reading.

which

is

probably

HINDU CHEMISTRY

22

8-10.

fff

^^ ncrTrf^TT^

f%HT
89-90

HINDU CHEMISTRY

23

5v

||

^tcf

%
mftr

10.
!2.

24

HINDU CHEMISTRY
^ftffftf rR

*
!

'

55-56.

57-58.

t^T^rf ^^T^irt
TT tr^TT**
Wf TT

Writ

60,61.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

25

II

67-68.

ii

70-71

II

73.

11

77.

(1)

riiqt,

a variant in the Poona ed., which also

agrees with B. and K.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

36

ftf^re

i**mf^cff*ti'pOTTf*r

80

'

81

1
II

89-^90.

96

100.

f%R:
il)

Verses 89-90 as also 133-104 occur both in

Ras&mava and

aiq:

Rr. by N^g.

in the place of

the Poona ed. reads

fl^^m

*i

^faiq:

HINDU CHEMISTRY

27

101-102.

II

103-104.

li

110-111.

127.

<1)

Both the B. and K. Mss. read

The Pnooa

ed. gives

at

variant srtci^imw:

HINDU CHEMISTRY

129

g:

vr^f?r

136.

(1)

The Pooua

ed. reads

^*r^i^^^

We

have adopted the reading of Rasar^ava.

(2)

which
(3

qtrm,

another reading in

also agrees

the

Poona

with B. K. and Rasamava.

The; Poona

ed. reads

ed.,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

29

144.

1
:

it

146.

149

kp.s

(2)

143

r,ud

h?.ve

adopted.

dently borrowed

with

Rasamava, VII.

26-27.

154-1 55.

144 are from Rasarwava.

^^:, another reading

which we

>S

in

the

Poona

ed.

lokas 143-146 are evi-

slight

modifications

from

HINDU CHEMISTRY

30

ftrm *rf%
lic^T

c^CT^^

157-161,

II

163-164.

(1)

which

^t ^qfc,

a variant

also agrees with B.

the

in

and K.

Poona

ed.,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

31

165-166

(1)

fT^^s^ft^^i.

which we have adopted.

variant in

the

167-168.

*\

Poona

ed.,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

32

wg

*trfTf%fvr:
'&

^P

ii

%?f

^^^efo

13-15.

II

-49.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

33

*T

(1)

which

im^iTjrf*!,
also agrees

variant

in

with B. and K.

the Poona

ed.,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

34

6-

VfT^f

fo^T ^3%S^f ?Tlf%W

-7O-

rnr:

TTCT

ii

||80-81

(1)

The Poona

ed. reads

which we have adopted.

q^i^i

and

K. reads

HINDU CHEMISTRY

35

^^^j^^^^^^^^^^

98

"

05-107

,1

109.
I

H2.
I

36

HINDU CHEMISTRY

:*T:

120 121

*.

ir^:

129,

^rr

HINDU CHEMISTRY

37

13 ?'

ii

141

II

wfam:
145 147

HINDU CHEMISTRY

38

;l

149.
|

ftinrr:

(1)

Poona
is

^rf^imf^fiMM:,
ed.,

another reading

which agrees with

grammatically inaccurate.

B.

and

K.,

in

but

the
it

HINDU CHEMISTRY

TTOT

*rr

jrss

39

*rm:

11

13.

wfeftr

'HINDU CHEMISTRY

4o

3TTTf

40.

(1)

which

^Kfl'g ^, Another reading in the -Poonn, ed v

does,

no,fc

agree with B. and K.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

44 45

f^rT^f rf^IT

rf^T

rf *ftercff

(1)

^fc^T

*itfl5i5zii*a%fi^

^^Tt^l

vtiviiuit

K.

ii

in the Pocma'

which we have adopted ami which

B. and

^r^<r:

ed.,

also agrees with

HINDU CHEMISTRY

42

64-69
i|

^tc

70-71.

II

72.

II

73.

74-75.

(1)

we have

fci

=f??i,

adopted.

a variant in the POOD a

ed.,

which

Tf?r

c\

11

(1)

^JW%*mi7^

n,

variant

in the

Poona

ed.,

which we have adopted.

(2)

Poona

33Wq^'
ed.,

r\*f

^^flisf^

another

which we have accepted.

reading

in

the

HINDU CHEMISTRY

44

II

12.

r*

urf

^rF TT^r^Tr:

ij:

ir, -in.

f*5Tt

(1)

ed.,

^119^. a

different

reading in the Poona

which we have retained.

(2)

H!:

qN

^aim:,

which we have adopted.

variant in the Poona ed.,

CHEMISTRY

45

||22.

11

II

rf

<TIT

(1)

which

f^^r,

another reading

also agrees with B.

in

and K.

the

Poona

ed.,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

46

||

(1)

The Poem a

matically inaccurate.

ed. reads

*m, which

is

71 72.
gram-

HINDU CHEMISTRY

47

II

*T?T rTcf

II

I,

75.

70.

78.

84-85.
rj rfcf

88-89.

(1)

The Poona

ed.

reads

grammatically inaccurate.

which

is

HINDU CHEMISTRY

48

f%F ?nf ^t

104-105.

Cf.

(2)

vaiiant

in

agrees with the wi^q^nai,

the
afi

Poona

quoted

in

ed.,

which

the foot note.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

4;

107-110.
II

II

113-115.
i

(1)

ri^sm^, a reading in the Poona

also agrees

with B. and K.

ed.,

which

HINDU CHEMISTRY

vnfcr

134-137.
rfcf *32T*T

148.

rTcT

3W:

5* fiT^^t

^T

f%rf

154

(1)

*fTrqm%, a reading in the Poona

also agrees with B.

and K.

ed.,

which

HINDU CHEMISTRY

^ 441 M <^q

ft

ftnfrj ^?f xj*

rTIT^n

ii

159-160

^firrf WTI.
1

1%

trar

(1)

^T, a variant in the Poona

agrees with B. and K.

11

ed.,

which

also

HINDU CHEMISTRY

TUT* rT55?TSnT

176 179.

^TT TTrTT

II

192-193.

195

II

rrsrr

^f^t

fh^Vi

T^rif

196

201202.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

53

205.

210,

II

gfof ^TT^tw^nr

212.

216

HINDU CHEMISTRY

54

???rm:

11

13-15.

?f

HINDU CHEMISTRY

55

19-22.

^351

g^T^R^^rr:

^^^T

11

ft

ft

ft

&

ft

11

52-61.

(1)

*jflnRii^<iif*T

ed., vvhich
(2)

^,

we have adopted.

B. and K. read

variant

in the

Poona

HINDU CHEMISTRY

56

62.

*JHT

f^^ZTT

TT^fT^PTRf

II

(1)

which
(2)

%^^I^HO
also agrees

T^f q,

have adopted.

a variant in the

Poona ed v

with B.

a variant in the Poona

ed.,

which we

HINDU CHEMISTRY

57

ft

II

WrfT

^WT^^T

II

30

32.

faIN inftm

ir

ffTfrT

(1)

we have

T^ri^, a variant
adopted.

in

the Poo ri a ed. which

HINDU CHEMISTRY

59

25-28.

29

'

Wr

(1) Of.

(2)

We

have adopted the reading

The Poona

K.

which,

ed.,

in

B. and

however, reads *1shi %w^?r,

from the chemical point of view,

is

unten-

able.
(3)

*wf,

also agrees with

B.

variant in the Poona ed., which

HINDU CHEMISTRY

60

39.

Krf H

rf^TT

80

II

"*.

ll

rr*.

Ifrrr:
F

8
11

it

(1)

*fi^ig,

another reading in the Poona

which we have adopted.

ed.,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

62

10

(1)

K. reads

*r*T,

which we have retained.

HINDU CHEMISTRY

63

fag wrsft:

ii

^Jrf

(1)

^trmq~t, a variant in the Poona

also agrees

with B. and K.

ed.,

whick

HINDU CHEMISTRY

64

48-50.

f%

f%
f%

(1)

fif^if^,

another reading in the Poona

which we have accepted.

ed.,

HINDU CHEMISTRY

ft

70-76.

1%
STT

rfT ^TT

(1)

in the

Wr[ and ^ff^$ are two

Poona

ed.,

different

which we have adopted.

5-6.

readings

HINDU CHEMISTRY

66

rf^T

^rTTHTRr^

WrW

|54-"6.

70

71

(1)

we have

sffTOi,

ft

adopter!.

variant in

the Poona

ed..

which

HINDU CHEMISTRY

67

76

7-7.

11

78.

(TOT

^T^^^JT. TTffT:

II

80-84.

85

86.

68

HINDU CHEMISTRY

8S

10

TT

HINDU CHEMISTRY

69

2122

73.

^[ff

II

112-113.

yo

HINDU CHEMISTRY

114-115.

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