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Training in Counseling Psychology : An Introduction to the Major Contribution

Charles R. Ridley and Debra Mollen The Counseling Psychologist 2011 39: 793 originally published online 29 December 2010 DOI: 10.1177/0011000010377664 The online version of this article can be found at: http://tcp.sagepub.com/content/39/6/793

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Major Contribution

Training in Counseling Psychology: An Introduction to the Major Contribution

The Counseling Psychologist 39(6) 793-799 The Author(s) 2011 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0011000010377664 http://tcp.sagepub.com

Charles R. Ridley1 and Debra Mollen2

Abstract This Major Contribution, consisting of four articles, critically evaluates the status of training in counseling psychology, especially at the entry level, and offers a model for moving the field forward. In this first article, we provide a rationale for the contribution, laying the foundation for the subsequent three articles. Specifically, we ask the questions, Do training programs in counseling psychology produce the desired results? and Is the prevailing paradigm of training effective in developing counselor competence? Then we report on the research showing a disappointing relationship among training, experience, and expertise. We conclude by inviting the profession to engage in honest self-reflection about the status and future direction of training in counseling psychology. Keywords training, counseling competence, critique of microskills Do training programs in counseling psychology and other mental health professions produce the desired results? This question, rooted in the public interest, ought to concern every counseling educator, counselor-trainee, counseling
1 2

Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA Texas Womans University, Denton, TX, USA

Corresponding Author: Charles R. Ridley, Department of Educational Psychology, College of Education and Human Development, Texas A & M University, 4225 TAMU, College Station, TX 77845-4225, USA Email: cridley@tamu.edu

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psychology training program, and regulatory/credentialing agency. The answer to this question has vast practical, ethical, and legal implications. For instance, consider ideas of beneficencethat psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they workand nonmaleficencethat psychologists take care to do no harm. These aspirational ideas constitute the first general principle of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (American Psychological Association, 2002). Obviously, psychologists demonstration of beneficence and nonmaleficence should emanate from a platform of sound training. The answer to the aforementioned question, therefore, hinges on a more fundamental question: Is the prevailing paradigm of training effective in developing counselor competence? Both of these critical questions beg for an informed, evidence-based answer. Inasmuch as counseling psychology espouses the scientist-practitioner model of training, the specialtys inability to answer in the affirmative is a serious ethical problem. In the interest of the public and the viability of the specialty, we attempt to answer the above questions by setting forth four related articles, forming a Major Contribution. The purpose of the contribution is to critically evaluate the status of training in counseling psychology. In particular, we posit that microskills trainingthe prevailing paradigm of entry trainingis narrow in scope. As a solution to this narrowness, we propose for consideration a multilevel model of counseling competence. In this first article, we lay the foundation for the Major Contribution. In the second article, along with our colleague Shannon Kelly, we reexamine microskills training (Ridley, Kelly, & Mollen, 2011 [this issue]). Although acknowledging the positive features of the microskills approach, we discuss its limitations for developing competent counselors. In the third article, our research team proposes a model of counseling competence (Ridley, Mollen, & Kelly, 2011a [this issue]). In the fourth article, we provide commentary on the implications and application of our model (Ridley, Mollen, & Kelly, 2011b [this issue]). We begin in this article by answering our initial question.

Do Training Programs in Counseling Psychology Produce the Desired Results?

Despite its relative youth, counseling psychology has witnessed remarkable advancements along its developmental path. In the past 40 years alone, the field has dramatically improved its research methods, established an accreditation system, and heralded multiculturalism as the fourth force in psychology (Heppner, Casas, Carter, & Stone, 2000; Pedersen, 1991). As with most journeys, however, advancements are accompanied by obstacles and setbacks.

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The maturation of counseling psychology is no exception. As the specialty continues to evolve, new challenges and questions are raised. One of the most pressing issues facing the profession pertains to the adequacy of training (Bein et al., 2000; Binder, 2004; Boswell & Castonguay, 2007), especially for beginning counselor-trainees. Inadequate training is a source of anxiety and uncertainty not only for beginning counselors but also for the field as a whole (Gross, 2005; Yager & Beck, 1981). Questions about competence have been elevated to the forefront of the conversation about professional training (Kaslow et al., 2004; Rodolfa et al., 2005), whereas the inability of the profession to show clear links between training and treatment outcomes has created a troublesome atmosphere (Stein & Lambert, 1995). Concerns about training can surface early in the experience of many counseling psychology students. During the first months of many programs, trainees typically take a required course in counseling theories, which introduces them to a potpourri of theoretical orientations such as psychoanalytic, personcentered, cognitive-behavioral, and behavioral. They concurrently or subsequently take an intervention course that exposes them to microskills, which become fundamental to their training as counselors. When they attempt to reconcile information about microskills with their knowledge of theories, however, uncertainty, discouragement, and frustration can set in (Warnath, 1979; Warnath & Shelton, 1976). Students struggle to grasp how theory translates into practice and how practice emanates from theory. Often neither relationship is clear. We argue that the problem extends beyond individual students, faculty members, and training programs. It is a problem of the guild of professional psychology, in which each of these entities is a stakeholder.

Relationship of Training, Experience, and Expertise

The relationship of training, experience, and expertise also is disappointing. Students with formal training have exhibited client relationship skills comparable to those with only informal training (ODonovan, Bain, & Dyck, 2005). Advanced students therapeutic response styles are similar to those of novices (Tracey, Hays, Malone, & Herman, 1988). Postdoctoral students show no greater ability than less experienced trainees to establish client bond (Mallinckrodt & Nelson, 1991). Students with more training in these studies show greater flexibility and immediacy and less verbosity in their responses to clients, as well as a stronger ability to establish therapeutic goals; agree on tasks; and understand treatment, assessment, and evaluation. Nevertheless, the few differences in response styles do not necessarily yield therapeutic

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effectiveness (Tracey et al., 1988). Furthermore, the overall similarities in relationship skills suggested that training does not guarantee superior posttraining ability (ODonovan et al., 2005, p. 108). The relationship between experience and expertise in counseling also is negligible (Goodyear, 1997; Truax & Carkhuff, 1967). Even in the current wake of the dominant microskills approach, studies have revealed disappointing training outcomes, including limited and inconsistent differences between novice and advanced counselor performance, as well as insufficient attention to the complex thought processes essential to effective treatment (Baker & Daniels, 1989; Goodyear, 1997; Mallinckrodt & Nelson, 1991; Tracey et al., 1988). To explain the negligible difference between advanced and beginning students performance on the dimension of client bond, Mallinckrodt and Nelson (1991) pointed to the microskills approachs emphasis on reflective listening, empathy, and other basic skills, often at the expense of other tenets of therapy. They suggested, Perhaps teaching students, even earlier in their training than is common practice, to articulate a personal theory of counseling that guides case conceptualization, guides selection of treatment goals, and directs the tasks of counseling may help to significantly improve trainees therapeutic alliances. (p. 137) This idea also was advocated by Baker and Daniels (1989), who conducted a meta-analysis of 81 studies on counselor training. Although they found ample support for using microskills programs to teach simple, discrete skills, they noted difficulties in establishing valid methods for evaluating more complex abilities. The authors concluded that it is time to focus on the effects of teaching higher-order skills in more complex combinations (p. 219). Some readers may suggest that the similar clinical performance of advanced and beginning students is natural because both groups are still early in their careers. However, experience also fails to predict expertise in counseling (Goodyear, 1997; Lichtenberg, 1997). Despite showing some advantage in establishing agreement on treatment goals and tasks, experienced counselors are no more effective than beginners in promoting positive treatment outcomes, which should be the central aim of all therapeutic interactions (Strupp & Hadley, 1979). Experience also does not predict counselors adherence to ethical guidelines, which are inextricably intertwined with multicultural counseling competence (Goh, 2005; Jennings, Sovereign, Bottorff, Mussell, & Vye, 2005).

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Like other researchers (Baker & Daniels, 1989; Mallinckrodt & Nelson, 1991), Goodyear (1997) concluded that cognitive complexity was likely the missing link, stating, Expertise is not directly linked to actual professional performance. How the person solves problems is defining expertise rather than what she or he actually does (p. 262). The what in the case of counselors refers to the skills the field has spent much of its energy developing: the specific counselor behaviors thought to be the building blocks of counseling and therapy. The how pertains to their cognitive and affective approaches to treatment, including how they conceptualize cases, determine their approach with particular clients, and develop and sustain motivation over time.

Conclusion
To ensure the viability of counseling psychology and contribute to the evolution of our profession, we need to critically evaluate our methods of training and practices as psychologists. In consideration of the research that casts serious doubt on the effectiveness of the microskills-only approach, it is incumbent upon trainers and gatekeepers to develop new models to improve on the current existing approach to training. Toward that end, in this Major Contribution, we offer both a critique of the microskills-only approach and a new method for training that incorporates the most recent findings on professional competence, cognitive complexity, and affective processes. Our intention is to contribute to an ongoing discourse in counseling psychology. We hope this discourse leads to the creation of more comprehensive training that benefits our students, colleagues, and the clients we serve. Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

References
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Bein, E., Anderson, T., Strupp, H. H., Henry, W. P., Schact, T. E., Binder, J. L., et al. (2000). The effects of training in time-limited dynamic psychotherapy: Changes in therapeutic outcome. Psychotherapy Research, 10, 119-132. Binder, J. L. (2004). Key competencies in brief dynamic psychotherapy: Clinical practice beyond the manual. New York, NY: Guilford. Boswell, J. F., & Castonguay, L. G. (2007). Guest editors introduction. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, and Training, 44, 363. Goh, M. (2005). Cultural competence and master therapists: An inextricable relationship. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 27, 71-81. Goodyear, R. K. (1997). Psychological expertise and the role of individual differences: An exploration of issues. Educational Psychology Review, 9, 251-265. Gross, S. M. (2005). Student perspectives on clinical and counseling psychology practica. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 299-306. Heppner, P. P., Casas, J. M., Carter, J., & Stone, G. L. (2000). The maturation of counseling psychology: Multifaceted perspectives, 19781998. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (3rd ed., pp. 3-49). New York, NY: Wiley. Jennings, L., Sovereign, A., Bottorff, N., Mussell, M. P., & Vye, C. (2005). Nine ethical values of master therapists. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 27, 32-47. Kaslow, N. J., Borden, K. A., Collins, F. L., Forrest, L., Illfelder-Kaye, J., Nelson, P. D., et al. (2004). Competencies conference: Future directions in education and credentialing in professional psychology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 60, 699-712. Lichtenberg, J. W. (1997). Expertise in counseling psychology: A concept in search of support. Educational Psychology Review, 9, 221-238. Mallinckrodt, B., & Nelson, M. L. (1991). Counselor training level and the formation of the psychotherapeutic working alliance. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 133-138. ODonovan, A., Bain, J. D., & Dyck, M. J. (2005). Does clinical psychology education enhance the clinical competence of practitioners? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 104-111. Pedersen, P. (1991). Counseling international students. The Counseling Psychologist, 19, 10-58. Ridley, C. R., Kelly, S., & Mollen, D. (2011). Microskills training: Evolution, reexamination, and call for reform. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 800-824. Ridley, C. R., Mollen, D., & Kelly, S. (2011a). Beyond microskills: Toward a model of counseling competence. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 825-864. Ridley, C. R., Mollen, D., & Kelly, S. (2011b). Counseling competence: Implications and applications of a model. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 865-886.

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Rodolfa, E., Bent, R., Elena, E., Nelson, P., Rehm, L., & Ritchie, P. (2005). A cube model for competency development: Implications for psychology educators and regulators. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(4), 347-354. Stein, D. M., & Lambert, M. J. (1995). Graduate training in psychotherapy: Are therapy outcomes enhanced? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 182-196. Strupp, H. H., & Hadley, S. W. (1979). Specific versus nonspecific factors in psychotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 1125-1136. Tracey, T. J., Hays, K. A., Malone, J., & Herman, B. (1988). Changes in counselor response as a function of experience. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 119-126. Truax, C. B., & Carkhuff, R. R. (1967). Toward effective counseling and psychotherapy: Training and practice. Chicago, IL: Aldine. Warnath, C. F. (1979). Counselor burnout: Existential crisis or a problem for the profession? Personnel and Guidance Journal, 57, 325-328. Warnath, C. F., & Shelton, J. (1976). The ultimate disappointment: The burned-out counselor. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 55, 172-175. Yager, G., & Beck, T. F. (1981, April). Beginning practicum experiences: Anxiety and its consequences. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, St. Louis, MO.

Bios
Charles R. Ridley is a professor in the counseling psychology program at Texas A&M University. He also is Director of the Integrated Research, Education, and Training Core in the Center for the Study of Health Disparities at that institution. He earned his doctorate from the University of Minnesota. He is a fellow of Divisions 17 and 45 of the American Psychological Association. His research interests include multicultural counseling, assessment, and training; counseling competence; therapeutic change; and disparities in health and mental health delivery systems. Debra Mollen, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Counseling Psychology graduate program at Texas Womans University. She is also an Affiliate Faculty Member in Womens Studies and Director of the Counseling Psychology Masters program. Her research interests include childfree women, womens sexuality, multiculturalism, and training and pedagogical issues.

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