FATIGUE DESIGN

Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections

OBJECTIVE Introduction to the design of bolted connections under fatigue loading. PREREQUISITES Lecture 12.1: Basic Introduction to Fatigue Lecture 11.4: Analysis of Connections RELATED LECTURES: Lecture 12.2: Advanced Introduction to Fatigue SUMMARY The basic principles of fatigue resistance of bolts and bolted connections are established. The load transmission is described in shear and tension connections. In each case, the bolts can be non-preloaded or preloaded. The positive effect of the preload of the bolts on the fatigue behaviour in both shear and tension is discussed. Some economical solutions are proposed. NOTATION A Nominal area of a bolt [mm2] Aa Stress area of a bolt [mm2] db Nominal diameter of a bolt [mm] da Diameter of the stress area [mm] dr Shank diameter [mm] dc Core diameter [mm] m Slope of a strength fatigue curve [-] N Number of stress cycles [-]

 Normal stress range [MPa] Shear stress range [MPa] Fb Normal force in a bolt [N] Fp Preload in a bolt [N]

1. INTRODUCTION
All the concepts given in Lectures 12.1 and 12.2 relating to the design of structures against fatigue loading and fatigue assessment procedures are applicable to bolted connections. However, the presence of geometrical discontinuities (holes, changes of section) causes stress concentrations which increase the stresses locally and influence resistance to fatigue. Stress concentrations occur in bolts at the thread roots, thread runout and at the radius under the head. Fatigue failures in bolts in fluctuating tension commonly occur at this last location or in the first thread under the nut. The design of the joint is very important; the fatigue strength finally depends on the real path of the loads through the connection, and the fluctuation in stresses of the fatigue sensitive regions. Two types of load cases on a bolted connection can be discriminated. One where the load is in the axial direction of the bolts and the other where the load transfer is perpendicular to the bolt axis. In this Lecture these two types are referred to as: I Bolted connections loaded in tension II Bolted connections loaded in shear. An example of the first type is a bolted flange connection as shown in Figure 1. An example of the second type is a bolted coverplate connection in a flange of a beam section or a simple strip, see Figure 2. In the latter case the load is transferred by shear either in the bolts (for non preloaded bolts) or at the plate surfaces (for preloaded bolts).

In addition to these two load situations, combinations are possible.

2. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTS LOADED IN TENSION

Before discussing bolted connections loaded in tension and their specific requirements to prevent fatigue failure, the fatigue behaviour of the bolt (or thread) is discussed.

2.1 Location of Failure

The thread in a bolt acts as a notch and therefore a high stress concentration is caused at the root of the thread. At two locations of the thread the stress concentration can be even higher, i.e. at the runout of the thread and where the thread of the nut first engages the thread of the bolt. In addition, the head-shank transition is also a stress concentration. There are, therefore, basically three locations in a bolt with nut axially loaded, where a fatigue crack can initiate in a bolt with nut axially loaded. These locations are: a. head-shank transition b. runout of thread c. thread at nut. In standard bolts the radius at the bolt-head shank transition is large enough to prevent fatigue cracks at this point. Normally, if fatigue cracks occur, they will be located at the first engagement of the threads of the bolt and nut (c in Figure 3). This is due to the load transfer from nut to bolt.

The load transfer at the contacting thread faces of the bolt and nut give rise to extra bending stresses in the threads, as shown in Figure 4.

Moreover the load is not equally distributed between the contacting faces of the thread of the bolt and the nut. In most situations the load transfer is concentrated at the first engagement of the thread faces and can be 2 to 4 times the mean value [1]. However this depends on the thread form, pitch difference, difference in Young's modulus where different materials are used etc. The load transfer distribution can become more uniform, by plastic deformation of the nut.

2.2 Influence of Mean Stress and Material

The fatigue behaviour of the thread of a bolt is more or less comparable to the fatigue behaviour of a weld. In both cases there is a notch where a fatigue crack initiates. For the weld it is the weld toe and for the bolt it is the thread root. Due to the presence of the notch and the resulting high stress concentration factor, the fatigue behaviour is in most cases hardly affected by:

The mean stress level The material quality.

The negligible influence of the mean stress level is caused by the high stress concentration. At the first occurrence of the maximum load level of a cycle, yielding at the notch occurs. The following cycles then cause a stress variation at the notch which has a maximum equal to the yield strength independent of the mean stress level of the load itself. An exception to this is the situation where the bolt thread is made by rolling after the heat treatment of the bolts which results in residual compressive stresses at the thread roots. In that case the fatigue performance is better at low mean load level. The phenomenon that the material has a negligible effect is explained by the fact that as material strength improves the sensitivity to notches increases. This effect is illustrated in Figure 5 [5] where the influence of the ultimate tensile strength on the fatigue strength for different notch cases is given [5].

2.3 The Fatigue Design Curve for Bolts in Tension

Although the notch at a weld (with its undercuts and slag inclusions) is possibly more severe than the machined or rolled notch at the thread root, the concentrated load transfer between bolt thread and nut on top of the inherent stress concentration can cause a relatively poor fatigue performance. Therefore, in the Eurocode 3 classification [4], axially loaded threads and bolts fall in the category equal to the lowest category for weld details, being class 36. The relevant design line for this category is given in Figure 6. The stress range given on the vertical axis should be based on tensile stress area of the bolt.

It is only mentioned here that according to Clause 9.7.3 of Eurocode 3 a modified design curve may be used for threads and bolts. As can be seen from the design curve in Figure 6, the constant amplitude fatigue limit for the bolts is 26MPa. This means that, for a constant amplitude loading, there is no fatigue damage where the stress range is less than 26MPa. For a variable amplitude the fatigue limit is 15MPa.

2.4 Comparison Between Ultimate and Fatigue Load Resistance of a Bolt

The following example illustrates that the fatigue load bearing resistance is very low compared to the static strength of a bolt. For a bolt under static loading the tension resistance Ft.Rd according to Clause 6.5.5 of Eurocode 3 is given by: Ft.Rd = 0,9fub As / Mb

Substituting the appropriate values for a bolt M24 grade 10.9 gives the following result:

Ft.Rb =

= 254 kN

For a constant amplitude fatigue loading at zero mean level containing more than 107 cycles, the allowable maximum force on the bolt will be: Fmax = F/2 = DAs /2 = 0,5 x 26 x 353 = 4,6 kN In other words, a bolt designed to transfer a tension force of 254kN may not be fatigue loaded with a maximum force higher than 4,6kN (under the circumstance of zero mean level and more than 107 cycles). This example illustrates the relatively weak fatigue performance of an axially loaded bolt.

3. FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN TENSION

Although the fatigue performance of the axially loaded bolt itself is poor, that is not necessarily the case for axially loaded connections. For these connections, the fatigue performance depends on the structural detailing and the applied preload in the bolt.

3.1 The Principle of the Effect of Preloading

The effect of preloading, where there is a tensile loading on a bolted connection is illustrated for a flange connection, in Figures 7 and 8. For example, the connection can be a flange connection in a tubular section (chimney or tower). The distribution of the forces is compared for the situation with and without preloading of the bolts. The thickness of the flange is assumed to be large enough to neglect bending flexibility and possible prying forces.

Without Preload Where there is no preload (Figure 7) and thus no contact force Fc on the facing surfaces of the flanges, the external tensile force Ft applied on the connection will be transferred by the force in the bolts Fb. Therefore the variation of the tensile force Ft will result in a

variation of the force in the bolts and at the same time a displacement of the flanges. The connection can be considered as a two spring system as indicated. With Preload In case of preload with a force Fv, this force will initially be in equilibrium with a contact force Fc on the contact area of the flanges, Figure 8. The two flanges now act as one piece as long as the external load Ft is less than the preload Fv. As a result, when the external load is applied the forces in the bolts will change little. Only the elastic deformation (mainly change in thickness) of the two flanges will cause a change in bolt load. The flanges however are relatively stiff due to their much larger area compared with the bolt area. However, the load in the bolts will increase rapidly as soon as the contact surfaces separate due to the external force surpassing the preload force Fv. At that moment the situation is equivalent to the non preload case. As long as the external load Ft is below the preload force Fv the situation can be considered as a three spring system. Two small springs being the bolts and one stiff spring being the two flanges, Figure 8. The diagram at the right-hand side of Figure 8 gives the relation between the different forces. At no external load (Ft = 0) the elongation due to the preload of the bolts is at point A in this diagram. When an external load Ft is applied, the connection will stretch, resulting in an elongation of the bolts and flange thickness thus resulting in an increased Fb and at the same time a reduction of the compressive force Fc in the flanges as indicated. At each stage the following relation yields: Fb = Fc + F t It follows from the diagram that the increase in the external force is compensated for the larger part by a decrease of the contact force Fc and a small increase in the forces in the bolts Fb. The amount of variation of forces in the bolts due to the variation in the external forces is dependent on the stiffness ratio of the flanges and the bolts. Therefore, the more flexible the bolts the less force variation they will undergo. Increasing the length of the bolts by inserting washers or using spring washers will be beneficial because it means that the two springs in the diagram (being the bolts and possible washer etc.) are more flexible. Inserting gaskets between the flanges will make the flange assembly more flexible and would have a detrimental effect. The flanges must be thick to reduce the bending flexibility, otherwise the location of the contact area becomes critical.

3.2 The Effect of the Location of the Contact Area

In the previous section it was shown that preloading the bolts in a tensile loaded connection reduces the force variation in the bolts and therefore can avoid fatigue failure of the bolts. The preload in the bolts must be greater than the external load. However, preload alone is not always a guarantee for a reduced force variation in the bolts. The contact force of the connection, which is developed by tightening of the bolts to its preload, must also be located in a favourable position as well. This is illustrated in Figure 9 by a flange connection, where the thickness of the flange is much smaller than in the previous example and is therefore flexible in bending. In the flange connection of two T-sections the location of the contact forces has been established by introducing loose shims in two different ways. The location of the shims defines the location of the contact forces. In both cases the bolts are tightened to the same preload.

The schematic models of the relevant spring system are also shown in Figure 9. Contact Area at the Centre Where the shims and thus the contact force are in the centre, Figure 9a, there is effectively a very stiff spring in the middle compared to the two flexible springs representing the flexibility of the bolt and the bending flexibility of the flanges (the latter in this case being the most important part of the total flexibility). This case is similar to the situation in the previous section with a much larger difference in the stiffness between the contact area and bolts + flanges due to the bending of the flanges. Contact Area at the End of Flanges Where the contact area is at the end of the flanges, Figure 9b, the springs representing the contact area and the bending flexibility of the total flanges, are very flexible. Therefore the springs, representing the bolts plus a part of the flanges, have a relatively much higher stiffness. As a result the variation of the external force Ft will result in a variation in the bolt forces of nearly equal magnitude. Results of Measurements For the examples above actual measurements of the bolt forces have been carried out [2]. The measured bolt forces in these two situations are given in Figure 10. In each case the bolts were tightened to a preload Fv of 100kN each. In Figure 10 the force in the bolt Fb is plotted by the thick line as a function of the external load Ft. At an Ft of zero, Fb starts at the preload of 100kN. The external force Ft is also given by the dashed line under an angle of 45 . From the equilibrium of the forces it follows that the vertical distance between this line and the thick line of the measured bolt force is equal to the contact force Fc.

In the situation with the contact in the centre, Figure 10a, the forces in the bolts are almost constant until the external force surpasses the preload Fv. This means that the part of the connection including the contact area (the middle spring in the spring model) is extremely stiff compared to the flexibility of the bolts plus bending of the flanges (side springs in the spring model). As a result the variation in the forces in the bolt is negligible as long as the preload is greater than the external load. Fatigue failure in this case is not to be expected. This is in contrast to the situation with the contact forces at the end of the flanges, Figure 10b. In this situation the stiffness of the flanges is negligible compared to the stiffness of the bolts. All external load is now transferred by the bolts. Where the external load is a cyclic loading the load variation must be very small, otherwise fatigue failure of the bolts occurs very soon. In general the most favourable situation with respect to fatigue resistance is obtained when the contact area is as close as possible to the components in which the tensile force is acting.

In Figure 11 some examples of favourable and less favourable situations are given. More examples are given in [2] and [3].

4. FATIGUE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED IN SHEAR

A simplified example of a bolted connection loaded in shear is shown in Figure 2. The load is transferred from one strip to the other by the coverplates. The connection can be assembled by bolts which are not preloaded and by bolts which are preloaded. Both situations have their own way of load transfer and failure mechanism.

4.1 The Principle of Load Transfer

Non Preloaded Bolts In case of non preloaded bolts the forces are transferred by bearing of the plates against the shank of the bolt and consequently shear in the bolt shank as indicated in Figure 2a. This type of joint can not be used where the variable load changes sign since the clearance between the holes and shank allows large displacements to occur repeatedly. The load transfer in this type of joint is very concentrated at the location where the shank bears against the holes as indicated in Figures 2a and 12a.

Preloaded Bolts Where the bolts are preloaded, the forces are transferred by friction of the plate surfaces. The bolts which transfer the load by friction are known as High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (HSFG), Figure 12b. High strength bolts and controlled tightening are necessary to obtain sufficient compressive stresses to enable the load to be transferred by friction. The load transfer by friction takes place over the whole area where compressive stresses are present due to the bolt preloading as indicated in Figures 2b and 12b. Therefore, the load transfer is not as concentrated as with non preloaded bolts. Connections with HSFG bolts can also be used where the variable load changes sign.

4.2 Stress Concentration Around the Holes

Non Preloaded Bolts For non preloaded bolts there will be a stress concentration at the holes as indicated in Figure 12a. The stress concentration results from the fact that there is a hole in a stressed plate. Moreover the load is introduced by the bolt shank in a very concentrated way. Preloaded Bolts In case of preloaded bolts there is no stress concentration at the holes. The stresses may even be lower than the nominal stress as indicated in Figure 12b. This is due to the fact that at the hole a part of the load has already been transferred. Moreover the bolt head and nut will reduce the deformation of the hole.

4.3 Location of Failure

Non Preloaded Bolts Due to the stress concentration at the hole a fatigue crack can occur there (see Figure 12a). Another possibility is the failure of the bolt as a result of the variable shear load in the shank at the shear plane. The threaded part of the bolt should not be in the shear plane because the notch effect of the thread would reduce the fatigue resistance drastically. Preloaded Bolts For preloaded bolts the stresses at the holes are low. Fatigue cracks do not, therefore, occur at the holes. The fatigue crack normally occurs in the gross section of the plates, see Figure 12b.

The contact pressure applied by the preload of the bolt gradually decreases around the hole. The crack initiates where the contact pressure is not high enough to prevent slip between the plate, resulting in crack initiation by fretting.

5. FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES FOR CONNECTIONS LOADED IN SHEAR

5.1 Non Preloaded Bolts
In this case there are two possible failures - the shank of the bolts and the plates. Both should be verified against the relevant design curves. For the bolt shank loaded in shear, the design strength according to Eurocode 3 [4] is given in Figure 13. No thread is allowed in the shear plane.

For the plates, the stresses should be calculated for the net section and the detail category 112, according to the Eurocode 3 classification, should be used [4].

5.2 Preloaded Bolts

In the case of preloaded bolts, the bolts themselves will not fail provided that the preload in the bolts prevents total slip. The plates fall into the same category as in the non preloaded case. However, since failure does not occur in the net section, the gross section of the plate can be used for calculating the fatigue stresses.

6. REMARKS CONCERNING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PRELOAD

The magnitude of the total preload must be large enough to prevent slip (shear connection) or disappearance of the contact forces (connection loaded in tension) at the maximum possible load on the connection. Where the connection is loaded in shear, any slip of the connection due to an extreme load can reduce the friction coefficient by an unknown factor. Thus the preload has to be designed on the basis of the maximum extreme load case. The calculation procedure to prevent this is given in ESDEP Lecture 11.3.2. Another way of preventing the slip due to accidental extreme load cases is to use injection bolts [6]. Where the connection is loaded in tension, an "overload" cancelling the contact forces will result in a force variation in the bolt. This in itself will not cause fatigue failure since the number of cycles is limited. However, after this loading, the preload in the bolt can be reduced due to local yielding and resulting plastic deformation of the bolt or contact areas between bolts and flanges.

7. FATIGUE STRENGTH OF ANCHOR BOLTS

The dimensioning of holding down bolts under static loading and their anchorage into the foundation are described in Lecture 11.3.2. Concerning fatigue strength, anchor bolts do not behave in the same way as normal bolts; some parameters are different: the thread size, the diameter and the method of forming the thread. Test results have shown [7] that the bolt diameter and the thread size do not influence fatigue behaviour; the fatigue lives were almost identical for tested specimens as for normal bolts. On the other hand, the method of forming the thread influences the fatigue strength. Tests were carried out on anchor bolts with rolled threads or with cut threads. The specimens with rolled threads provided the longer fatigue life. This better performance may be due to the compressive residual stresses at the thread root generated by the thread-rolling operation.

When the threads are cut automatically, this operation leaves a transition at their termination. It is a sharp notch adjacent to a region of smooth bar. It has been shown that there is an important stress concentration at the notch which induces fatigue cracks. Consequently rolled threads appear to improve the fatigue performance of the bolt and are recommended for use when available. Note that the fatigue life of a bolt is a function not only of the bolt thread, but also of the nut. As already mentioned for common bolts, the use of a double nut increases fatigue resistance and its influence seems to be larger for anchor bolts. All considerations described in Section 5 concerning the influence of the prying effect are applicable for connections made with holding down bolts. For instance, tests on site have shown that the designs in Figures 14b and d give better fatigue behaviour than the solutions in Figures 14a and c.

8. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

A bolt loaded in tension has a low fatigue performance. In a bolted connection loaded in tension, fatigue of the bolts can be prevented by preloading the bolts and taking care that the contact area is favourably located. In general a favourable position of the contact area with respect to the fatigue of the bolts is obtained when it is located as close as possible to the components in which the tensile force is acting. For a bolted connection fatigue loaded in shear, preloading the bolts leads to the following advantages over the non preloaded case:

The variable load may change sign. The thread of the bolt is allowed in the shear plane. The fatigue strength of the connection is enhanced, since the stresses are based on the gross section instead of the net section.

9. REFERENCES
[1] Frost, N.E., March, K.J., Pook, L.P., Metal fatigue, Oxford University Press 1974, ISBN 0198561148 [2] Bouwman, L.P., Bolted connections dynamically loaded in tension, ASCE, J. of the Structural Division, Vol. 108, No. ST, September 1982. [3] European recommendations for bolted connections in structural steelwork, No. 38, March 1985. [4] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992. [5] Gurney, T.R., Fatigue of welded structures, Cambridge 1968. [6] Bouwman, L.P., Gresnigt, A.M., Dubois, G.A., European Recommendations for Bolted Connections with Injection Bolts, ECCS-TC10 draft. [7] Frank, K.H., Fatigue Strength of Anchor Bolts, ASCE, Journal of the Structural Division, vol. 106, ST 6, June 1980. Previous | Next | Contents

CONNECTION DESIGN: STATIC LOADING

Lecture 11.3.2: Connections with Preloaded Bolts

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE: Introduction to the design of connections using preloaded bolts in shear and/or tension. PREREQUISITES: Lecture 1B.1: Process of Design Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities Lectures 3.2: Erection Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in Buildings RELATED LECTURES: Lectures 11.3: Other lectures on Bolted Connections Lectures 11.4: Analysis of Connections Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections SUMMARY: The basic principles of connection design using high-strength preloaded bolts (HSFG bolts) are established. The load transmission is described for both shear connections and tension connections. The influence of the preload and the tightening of the bolts are considered.

NOTATION
As Stress area [mm2] Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm] do Diameter of a hole [mm]

Fv Shear force [N] Ft Tensile force [N] Fp Preloading force of a bolt [N] Fs Slip resistance of a preloaded bolt [N] Ma Applied torque [Nmm] k Coefficient of friction between mating surfaces [-] Rotation [degrees] Slip factor [-] n Number of friction faces [-] ms Partial safety factors for a slip resistant bolt [-]

1. INTRODUCTION
When a connection is subject to a load reversal or to dynamic loading, a shear connection which acts by shear stress in the bolt and bearing stress in the plates, is not acceptable (Lecture 11.3.1). By pretensioning of the bolts, however, a clamping pressure occurs between the connected parts which enables load to be transferred by frictional resistance. Figure 1 compares the effect of using bearing and preloaded bolts to make-up a doublecover plate butt joint. Until slip occurs the connection which uses preloaded bolts usually termed High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts - is seen to be much stiffer than that which employs bearing bolts. Once slip occurs the HSFG connection progressively becomes a bearing one and, after the hole clearance has been taken up, both types of connection behave in a similar way.

In the case of bolts in axial tension, preloading improves the fatigue resistance by reducing the effective stress range.

2. LOAD TRANSMISSION
2.1 Friction Connections
Preloaded bolts exert a compressive stress on the connected plates. The compression gives rise to high frictional resistance, which enables load to be transferred between the connected parts. When the applied load F in Figure 2 exceeds the frictional resistance which is developed between the plates, the plates will slip relative to each other allowing the bolt to act in bearing.

Bolts which transfer load by friction are known as High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts. Controlled tightening of the bolts allows the frictional action to be quantified for design. The main advantages of HSFG bolted connections are their greater stiffness and their ability to withstand alternating forces. Their behaviour under fatigue loading is also better than that of bearing bolted connections.

Against these advantages are the costs of HSFG bolted connections. The preparation of the friction grip surfaces and the controlled tightening require additional care (training of people). The costs are greater than for bearing connections. As a result, HSFG bolted connections are usually used only where the stiffness of the connection is important, where alternating loading would cause alternating slip, or where fatigue loading is present. Typically HSFG bolts are used in bridges, cranes and crane girders.

2.2 Tension Connections

Figure 3 gives the relation between the elongation of the bolt and the shortening of the plate assembly due to preloading. When an external tension force Fe is applied to the connection, the force in the bolt Ft will increase. At the same time the elongation of the bolt increases, and the shortening of the plate assembly decreases by the same amount. As a result, the force in the plate assembly decreases. In practice, the stiffness of the plate assembly is about 4 times the stiffness of the bolt.

The relation between the various forces can be illustrated by the "force triangle" in Figure 4. In Figure 4(a) contact is limited to the central region of the bolted connection. There is no increase in bolt force until separation occurs. In Figure 4(b), contact is limited to the edges of the bolted connection. Any external tension will increase the bending in the plate increasing both Fc and Fb. Further explanation is provided in Chapter 17 of Reference 1 and in Reference 2.

The percentage of the force which is transmitted by an increase in the force in the bolts and the other part which reduces the clamping forces between the plates depends on the elastic behaviour of the connection (see Figure 3). Since the elastic behaviour is the same, the location of the contact pressure produced by tightening of the bolts is of crucial importance with regard to bolt fatigue (see Figure 4).

3. PRELOAD IN BOLTS
In order to make practical use of the friction effect, high tensile steel bolts (usually grade 10.9) are used so that an adequate clamping force can be obtained with reasonably sized bolts. The stress induced in the bolts by the pretensioning is at, or near, the proof stress. The design preloading force of a bolt is given by: Fp.Cd = 0,7 fub . As where As is the tensile stress area of the bolt (see Lecture 11.3.1) and fub the nominal ultimate stress of the bolt.

4. TIGHTENING BOLTS
Three methods of tightening are available: a. Torque method For this method of tightening a calibrated torque wrench is required which may be hand operated or, for bolts of larger diameters, power operated. The torque applied to the nut (or the head) is used partly to overcome friction between the nut and the surface against which it rotates, and partly - approximately half - to drive the threads up the helix, overcoming the friction between the mating screw surfaces and the resolved component of the axial force. If the geometry of the screw head and the coefficient of friction between the various mating surfaces were known, it would be possible to estimate the tension induced by a given torque. The uncertainties concerning distribution of contact pressures, and the variabilities of coefficients of friction in practice, do not justify the use of anything other than a simple rule such as: Ma = k d Fp (1) where: Ma is the applied torque (Nmm)

d is the bolt diameter (mm) Fp is the preload in the bolt (N) k is the coefficient of friction between mating surfaces In practice k values have been measured for new bolts which vary between 0,12 and 0,20. For the as - delivered condition, slightly oiled the ECCS recommendations [3] give k = 0,18 and, for case of the use of the thread lubricant molybdenum sulphide k = 0,14. It may be concluded from the above that the scatter in the preloads obtained will be large (Figure 5). If the coefficient k appears to be very low, there is a danger that the bolt will break. If k is unexpectedly large, then the desired preload will not be obtained.

Therefore, the torque method is not recommended by the ECCS [3] and Eurocode 3 [4]. If it is applied, then it is recommended that tests are carried out before erection. Special devices are available ("bolt force metre") to measure the bolt force as a function of the torque Ma. b. Turn-of-nut method This method is based on a predetermined rotation of the nut. The tightening can be achieved in two ways as follows:

the bolt is first made "hand tight" and then turned further by a specified amount. The contact surfaces must fit snugly before the bolts are tightened. using a percussion wrench, the bolt is first tightened until the plies of the joint achieve a snug fit (when the percussion wrench goes over to hammering), after which the nut is further turned by the amount:

= 90 + t + d (2) where: is the rotation in degrees t is the total thickness of connected parts in mm d is the bolt diameter in mm. The purpose of this method is to rotate the nut sufficiently to take the bolt well into the plastic state (Figure 6a). The shank tension is then comparatively insensitive to variation in the nut rotation, while a large reserve exists before rupture occurs.

It should be remembered that the ductility of the bolt largely depends on the length of the threaded portion. Care must be taken with short bolts which have only a small amount of thread in the grip (5 threads is a minimum). The danger of overloading (breaking) the bolt in the turn-of-nut method is far less than in the torque method. Where the plates are not flat and parallel as indicated in Figure 6b, this method has the disadvantage that the preload will not be reached if the construction worker does not pay enough attention to closing the gaps. A requirement of the method is that the contact surfaces must fit snugly before the bolts are tightened up. c. Combined method (the best) In this method the torque method and the turn-of-nut method are combined. 1. First tighten all bolts to 75% of the full preload, using the torque method. By applying only 75%, the danger of overloading due to an unexpected low friction between nut and thread is acceptably small. At the same time the clamping force is usually large enough to close any gaps between the plates. 2. Then tighten by a further turn of 90 to 120 (the lower value for small bolt lengths and the larger value for large bolt lengths). This method has the advantage that it is not particularly sensitive to:

variation in the friction between the nut and the thread. variation in the stiffness of the plate assembly (Figures 5 and 6). By applying the 75% torque, one is more sure that the plates fit snugly than with the turn of nut method.

The above is illustrated in Figure 7:

If after preloading to a nominal 0,75 Fp (torque method), the actual preload appears very high, the turn-of-the-nut by p gives no danger for rupture. If the actual preload is low, the turn of nut by p gives a preload that is high enough for either assembly.

In connections with several bolts (Figure 8), it is necessary to tighten the bolts in two stages:

Torque method. First stage: all bolts up to 75% of Ma. Second stage: all bolts to 100% of Ma. Turn-of-nut method. First stage: all bolts "hand tight". Second stage: all bolts a second time "hand tight". Finally the turn-of-the-nuts. Combined method. First stage: all bolts up to 75% of Ma. Second stage: all bolts a second time up to 75% of Ma. Finally the 90 - 120 turn-of-the-nut.

The reason for the above is that after tightening the first bolt up to 75% of Fp or even Fp, the contact surfaces may not fit snugly. The fit depends on the imperfections of the joint (the plates not being flat) and the stiffness of the plates, compared to the preload of the first tightened bolt. If the contact surfaces do not fit snug after the first bolt is tightened, tightening the second bolt will decrease the preload in the first bolt, and so on. By applying the two stage procedure, this effect is reduced to an acceptable level.

5. NUTS AND WASHERS

Failure of threaded fasteners due to over-tightening can occur by bolt shank fracture or by stripping of the threads of the nut and/or bolt. Shank fracture is sudden and therefore easily noticed. Stripping is gradual and therefore difficult to detect. It introduces the danger of partly failed fasteners being left in assemblies. Figure 9 gives the results of tension tests with both failure modes.

It would be desirable therefore to design threaded connections so that their mode of failure would always be by shank fracture. Unfortunately, because of the many variables

which govern stripping strength (nut and bolt material strengths, thread clearances, across-flats dimensions, etc.), nuts would have to be abnormally thick to guarantee this mode in all cases. Nuts with a width across flats according to ISO 898/2 [5] are used for preloaded bolts. Their nominal height is always greater than the classical value 0.5 d; it is often equal to 0,8 d and it can reach 1,0 d. In this respect an important quality requirement arises. The bolt with its nut in a tensile test as indicated in Figure 9 must have a rupture strength of at least the so-called "proof stress". The proof stress for ISO 898/1 [6] bolts, for instance, differs somewhat from the design values for fub. A hardened steel washer is placed under the part that is rotated (the nut or the head). This leads to a more uniform and not too high friction between the rotated part and the underlying plates. When the bolt axis is not normal to the contact surface (difference of more than 3), an appropriate taper washer must be used.

6. HOLES
Clearance values are the same as for non-preloaded bolts (see Lecture 11.3.1.). In normal circumstances, the clearance is 2mm for diameters up to and including 24mm and 3mm for larger diameters. To improve the resistance of the connection, holes with smaller clearance than standard holes may be specified. As a result costs will be greater.

7. SLIP RESISTANCE
HSFG bolts in shear connections transmit the force by friction between the contact faces (Figure 1). The resistance of these connections depends on the preload Fp.Cd, the slip factor and the number of friction faces n. The design slip resistance of a preloaded high strength bolt has a value: Fs,Rd = nFp.Cd / ms (3)

The slip factor depends on the preparation of the surfaces. Some values (1) are: surface not treated surface blasted with shot or grit, with any loose rust removed, no pitting surface blasted with shot or grit and painted with ethyl-zinc silicate coat (thickness 30 - 60 m) surface blasted with shot or grit and hot dip galvanised = = = =

Painting may be necessary to prevent rust in the period before or during erection. Reference standard 8 of Eurocode 3 [4] gives more details. Figure 2 compares the effect of using bearing and HSFG bolts to make up a double cover plate butt joint. Until slip occurs, the connection which uses HSFG bolts is seen to be much stiffer than that which uses bearing bolts. Once slip occurs, the HSFG connection progressively becomes a bearing connection and, after the hole clearance has been taken up, both connections behave in a similar way. The reason for the large decrease of the force transmitted by friction can be explained by:

The decrease of the surface roughness during slip, which gives a decrease in . The fact that the tensile stresses in the plates around the holes increase when bearing becomes effective, reducing the thickness of the plates (Poisson ratio) and hence decreasing the preload (consider the different longitudinal stress patterns in Figure 1). For bolts in standard nominal clearance holes and for bolts in slotted holts (see Lecture 11.3.3) with the axis of the slot perpendicular to the direction of the load transfer, the partial safety factor ms is taken as: ms = 1,25 ms = 1,10

for the ultimate limit state for the serviceability limit state

8. SHEAR AND TENSION RESISTANCE

If a slip resistant connection is subjected to an applied tensile force Ft in addition to the shear force FV tending to produce slip, the slip resistance per bolt is taken as follows: Fs,Rd = n(Fp.Cd - 0,8Ft) / ms If, in a moment connection, the applied tensile force is counter balanced by a contact force on the compression side, no reduction of the slip resistance is required.

9. PROVISIONS FOR FRICTION GRIP CONNECTIONS

Tests carried in several countries have shown that mill scale adhering to the contact surfaces causes a substantial reduction in the coefficient of friction. Measures must therefore be taken to remove it. Depending on the slip factor assumed, the contact surfaces shall be cleaned and roughened by blasting or shot peening with an appropriate material (sand, steel grit, etc.). The material used for blasting should be carefully selected (sand, steel shot, cast iron shot, wire shot, etc.) and the treatment should be carried out, making full use of all that is

known of the process, so as to achieve a favourable slip factor. This treatment shall be followed immediately by the application of an appropriate paint, if it is specified. When flame-cleaning is used, it is particularly important that full use should be made of experience gained with regard to burner action (possible use of two burners), the gasoxygen mixture and the angle of inclination of the flame to the surface of the plate. Parts to be joined with preloaded high strength bolts must be protected against corrosion by suitable measures designed to prevent moisture penetrating to the contact surfaces and the bolt holes. Such a protection (e.g. sealing) may also be necessary as a temporary measure when joint faces are left wholly or partially exposed during erection. All necessary precautions shall be taken, during fabrication and erection, to ensure that the slip factors assumed for the calculation are achieved and maintained. When the joint is assembled the contact surfaces must be free from dust, oil, paint, etc. Spots of oil cannot be removed by flame-cleaning without leaving harmful residues and must be removed by suitable chemical means. If the parts cannot be assembled as soon as the contact surfaces have been treated, it is sufficient to remove any thin films of rust or other loose material by brushing with a soft steel brush. During this process the prepared surface must not be damaged, oiled or greased. If structural components in which the contact surfaces have been prepared for friction grip bolting are stored for very long periods, there is a risk of rusting. Under certain circumstances a lower slip factor must be considered. An effective means of protecting the contact surfaces is to apply self-adhesive or sprayed-on films of plastic. Up to the present, however, no protective coating is known which does not affect the slip factor adversely.

10. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

HSFG bolted connections are very stiff and they have good performance under fatigue loading. There are several methods of tightening; the best one is the combined method. The shear resistance of a connection with HSFG bolts is determined by the compressive forces between the plies, caused by the pretension of the bolts, and the slip factor of the mating surfaces of the plates. The presence of an external tension reduces shear resistance and vice versa. The control of the value of the slip factor between the connected parts is very important.

Lecture 11.3.1: Connections with Non-Preloaded Bolts

OBJECTIVE To present the basic ideas of the design of connections using ordinary (non-preloaded) bolts. PREREQUISITES Lecture 1B.1: Process of Design Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities Lectures 3.2: Erection Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design RELATED LECTURES Lectures 11.3: Other lectures on the Design of Bolted Connections Lectures 11.4: Analysis of Connections Lecture 12.6: Fatigue Behaviour of Bolted Connections SUMMARY This lecture presents the geometrical and mechanical properties of ordinary bolts and describes their behaviour in shear, tension or combined shear and tension. The effects of the position of the bolts in a connection and of their dimensions on the potential failure modes are also discussed. NOTATION A Area of the shank - nominal area [mm2] As Stress area [mm2] d Nominal diameter of the bolt (shank) [mm] do Nominal diameter of the hole [mm]

ds Diameter of the stress area (As) [mm] e1 End distance [mm] e2 Edge distance [mm] F Applied load [N] Fv Shear force [N] Fv,Rd Design shear resistance of a bolt [N] Ft Tensile force [N] Ft,Rd Design tension resistance of a bolt [N] Fb.Rd Design bearing resistance [N] fu Ultimate tensile strength of a steel element [MPa] fu,b Nominal ultimate stress of the bolt material [MPa] fy,b Nominal yield stress of the bolt material [MPa] p1, p2 Pitches [mm] t Plate thickness [mm] Mb Partial safety factor for the bolt [-]

1. INTRODUCTION
The resistance of a bolted connection is normally determined on the basis of the resistance of the individual fasteners and the connected parts. Linear-elastic analysis is most frequently used in the design of the connection. Alternatively non-linear analysis of the connection may be employed, provided that it takes account of the load-deformation characteristics of all the components of the connection. Further information about analysis of connections is given in Lectures 11.4. The present lecture concentrates on the most common type of bolt, the non- preloaded bolt, often called an "ordinary bolt". It is popular because of its low cost both to buy and to install. Connections made with this type of bolt are often referred to as "bearing-type" so as to distinguish them from the slip resistant connections that employ preloaded bolts.

Where a joint loaded in shear is subject to impact or significant vibration, welding or bolts with locking devices, preloaded bolts or other types of bolt which effectively prevent movement should be used. Where slip is not acceptable in a joint subject to reversal of shear load (or for any other reason), preloaded bolts in a slip-resistant connection, fitted bolts, injection bolts or other bolts with the same effect should be used, see Lectures 11.3.2 and 11.3.3. For wind and/or stability bracing, bolts in bearing-type connections may normally be used.

2. PRINCIPLE OF LOAD TRANSMISSION

In structural connections, bolts are used to transfer loads from one plate to another. The following figures give some examples where bolts are used, loaded by: a. Shear force (Figure 1)

The load is transmitted into and out of the bolts by bearing on the connected plates. The forces in the bolts are transmitted by transverse shear. b. Tension force (Figure 2, only M)

In the case of moment loading (M) only, the tension part of the load is transmitted by axial tension in the bolt. c. Combined tension and shear force (Figure 2, M and V)

In the case of combined moment (M) and transverse loading (V), the bolts may be required to transmit a combination of transverse shear and axial tension. In Figure 3, the bolts A transmit transverse shear, while the bolts B transmit a combination of shear and tension or shear and compression.

Bolts that are not preloaded to a predetermined preload, may be called "non-preloaded bolts" or "ordinary bolts". In case of a shear connection (Figure 1), these bolts are also called "bearing type" bolts. The principal action on a bolt in a splice joint of the type shown in Figure 4 is shearing on its cross-sectional plane caused by bearing between opposing plates in the joint. The elastic distribution of these bearing stresses and the stresses produced in the bolt are complex. However, for fully developed plastic conditions, the distribution of shear stress is effectively uniform so that the shear strength is the product of the cross-section area of the bolt in the shear plane and the shear strength of the material.

If threads are excluded from the shear plane, the shank area may be used. Otherwise the stress area of the threaded portion should be used. In modern detailing practice it is common to use the smaller area and not to contrive to exclude the threads from the shear plane.

3. DIMENSIONS OF THE BOLTS

Hexagon headed bolts and nuts are available in a range of sizes up to about 68 mm shank diameter. The bolt sizes are indicated by the designation M followed by a number multiplied by another number, for example, M 20 x 60, where the diameter of the shank is 20 mm and the length of the shank + the threaded part is 60 mm. The M stands for metric. The length of the bolt should be such that, after allowing for tolerances, the threaded shank will protrude not less than one thread beyond the nut after tightening and at least one full thread (in addition to the thread run-out) will remain clear between the nut and the unthreaded part of the shank.

4. BOLT GRADES
Bolts and nuts are available in steels of minimum tensile strengths up to about 1370 MPa. The grade of the bolts is indicated by two numbers. The most common grades are 4.6, 5.6, 6.5, 6.8, 8.8 and 10.9. According to Eurocode 3 (2), the design yield stress fyb and the design ultimate stress fub of the usual bolts are as given in Table 1. Table 1: Mechanical properties of bolts Grade fyb (MPa) fub (MPa) 4.6 240 400 5.6 300 500 6.5 300 600 6.8 480 600 8.8 640 800 10.9 900 1000

The design yield stress fyb can be derived from the grade by multiplying the first number by the second number times 10. The design ultimate stress fub is the first number times 100 (stresses in MPa). Bolts of grade 8.8 are used most frequently.

5. DIAMETER OF THE HOLES

Because of the tolerances in the positioning of holes and the tolerances of the bolt diameter (d) and the hole diameter (db), a clearance is necessary (Figure 4). For bearing-type connections, this clearance may cause slip of the plates when they are loaded.

In the case of alternating loading, this movement may occur at each loading reversal. Normally, such movement is not permitted. Except for fitted bolts or where low-clearance or oversize holes are specified, the nominal clearance in standard holes shall be:

1mm for M12 and M14 bolts 2mm for M16 to M24 bolts 3mm for M27 and larger bolts.

Holes with smaller clearances than standard holes may be specified. Holes with 2mm nominal clearance may also be specified for M12 and M14 bolts, provided that the design meets the following requirements:

for bolts of strength grade 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 or 10.9, the design shear resistance Fv,Rd is taken as 0,85 times the value given in formulae (3) to (5). the design shear resistance Fv,Rd (reduced as above if applicable) is not less than the design bearing resistance Fb,Rd.

Holes will be formed by drilling or punching. Punching holes in steelwork is much faster than drilling but some cracking may appear in the material and therefore, in some cases, holes will not be punched full size but must be punched 2mm diameter less than full size and then reamed. New punching machines which operate at high speeds induce less distortion in the material, and it is expected that more punching will be allowed in the future. If there is no specification, punching is allowed for material up to 25mm in thickness provided that the hole diameter is not less than the thickness of the material. Burrs should be removed from holes before assembly except that, where holes are drilled in one operation through parts clamped together which would not otherwise be separated after drilling, they need to be separated to remove the burrs.

6. NOMINAL AND STRESS SECTIONS OF A BOLT

Bolts in structural steelwork must comply with ISO 898/1 (1). Figure 5 defines the various diameters of such bolts. the area of the shank that is used in design formulae is called the shank area A :

A = d2/4 (1) the area of the threaded part that is used in design formulae is called the stress area As: As = ds2 /4 (2) The stress diameter ds is somewhat larger than the diameter of the core, because of the fact that a rupture plane always includes at least one thread. ds is the mean value between the core diameter (dc) and the flank diameter (df) of the thread; the flank diameter is the mean value between the core diameter and the nominal diameter (d):

df =

ds = The value of As for common bolt diameters is given in Table 2. Table 2: Stress area of bolts Nominal diameter db Nominal area A Stress area As

(mm) 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30

(mm2) 50,3 78,5 113 154 201 254 314 380 452 573 707

(mm2) 36,6 58,0 84,3 115 157 192 245 303 353 459 561

7. SHEAR RESISTANCE
7.1 Normal Joints
Shearing tests on bolts have shown the shear strength to be about 60% of the tensile strength. The effective shear strength of bolts in joints is reduced by secondary bending actions caused by uneven bearing of the plates and by bending of the bolt due to excessive hole clearance. The reduction increases with the length of the bolt for a given diameter. It is particularly significant in lap joints with a single bolt, where the loading tends to straighten out the joint and rotate the bolt as shown in Figure 6, causing both shear and tension in the bolt and local bending stresses under the head and the nut. The reduction in shear resistance of a single fastener may be about 10%. Increasing the length of the joint, i.e. the number of bolts, reduces the bending and hence the loss of shear resistance.

The local bending stresses under the head and the nut in the single bolted connection of Figure 6 may give poor performance in the case of fatigue loading. The design shear resistance of a bolt (Fv.Rd) in normal conditions, per shear plane, is: (a) For the shear plane passing through the threaded portion of the bolt: Fv,Rd = 0,6fubAs/ Mb (3) for strength grades 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8 Fv,Rd = 0,5fubAs/ Mb (4) for strength grades 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9 The coefficient 0,5 is the result of a statistical evaluation based on a very large number of test results. It appears that bolts of these grades are less ductile and that the rupture occurs suddenly. (b) For the shear plane passing through the unthreaded portion of the bolt:

Fv,Rd = 0,6fubA/ Mb (5)

7.2 Long Joints

The distribution of load between the bolts in a joint when the hole clearance has been taken up depends on the length, the relative cross-sectional areas of the joined plates, the bolt pitch and the shear deformation capacity of the bolts and their immediately surrounding plate (fastener flexibility). Figure 7 shows the distribution of loads between the bolts in a long joint. The loads transferred through the outer bolts (1 and 9 in the Figure) are greater than those through bolts towards the centre of the joint. If the total area of the cover plates exceeds that of the centre plate the distribution will not be symmetrical, and bolt 1 will transfer more load than any other.

When the fasteners yield, their flexibility increases causing a more uniform sharing of the load (the broken line in Figure 7). However, for long steelwork joints of normal proportions this behaviour will be insufficient to produce an equal load distribution. This the end-bolts will reach their deformation limit and so fail before the remaining ones have been fully loaded. This will result in progressive failure at an average shear value per bolt below the single-bolt shear resistance. Tests have confirmed that joint length, rather than the number of bolts, is the dominant parameter [3]. Where the distance Lj between the centres of the end fasteners in a joint, measured in the direction of the transfer of force (see Figure 8), is more than 15d, (where d is the nominal diameter of the bolts) the design shear resistance of all the fasteners shall be reduced by multiplying it by a reduction factor Lf, given by:

Lf = 1 but Lf 1,0 and Lf 0,75. This provision does not apply where there is a uniform distribution of force transfer over the length of the joint, e.g. the transfer of shear force from the web of a section to the flange.

8. BEARING RESISTANCE
Yielding due to pressure between the bolt shank and plate material may result in excessive deformation of the plate around the bolt hole and possibly some distortion of the bolt. The area resisting the bearing pressure is assumed to be the product of the plate thickness and the nominal bolt diameter. The distance (e1) of the bolt from the end of the plate must be sufficient to provide adequate resistance to the shearing-out mode of failure shown in Figure 9, which is governed by the area of the shear path.

The presence of threads in the grip does not significantly affect the bearing resistance but will cause some increase of the deformation.

If the shear resistance is greater than the bearing resistance of the plates, one of the failure modes shown in Figure 9 will occur. In this case, the deformation capacity of the connection is very large. The joint has a "ductile" behaviour. In the other case, when the failure is due to the shearing of the bolts, the deformation capacity of the connection is very small and the joint has a "brittle" behaviour. The design bearing resistance of a bolt [4] is given by: Fb.Rd = 2,5fudt/ Mb where is the smallest of: (6)

or 1,0 This reduction coefficient is necessary, because when the end distance is short, the capacity of deformation is small. If the net section of the member is small, net section rupture may govern the failure load of the connection (Figure 9). Equation (6) for the design bearing resistance applies only where the edge distance e2 is not less than 1,5 do and the spacing p2 (Figure 12) measured transverse to the load direction is at least 3,0 do.

If e2 is reduced to 1,2 do and/or p2 is reduced to 2,4 do, then the bearing resistance Fb.Rd should be reduced to 2/3 of the value given by Equation (6). For intermediate values 1,2 do < e2 1,5 do and/or 2,4 do 3 do the value of Fb.Rd may be determined by linear interpolation.

9. TENSION RESISTANCE
Axial tension resistance of a bolt is based on the stress area As and is given by: Ft = fu,b . As

As a result of statistical evaluation based on a very large number of tests, the following formula should be adopted: Ft = 0,9 . fu,b . As The design tension resistance of a bolt is given by: Ft.Rd = 0,9fubAs/ Mb (7)

Generally, when the line of action of the applied force is eccentric to the axis of the bolt, additional tension will be induced in the bolt by prying action. This action is most easily illustrated in terms of the Tee stub, loaded by a tension force 2F shown in Figure 10. In the bending of the flanges of the Tee, the bolts act as a pivot point so that there is a compressive reaction (Q) between the outer edges of the flanges, which is defined as the Prying Force. The tension induced in the bolts, for equilibrium, is thus Fb = F + Q.

The prying ratio, Q/F, depends upon the geometry and stiffness of the connected parts and the bolt stiffness. An estimate of the prying ratio, taking full account of all the parameters, goes beyond the scope of this lecture. It will be treated in Lecture 11.4.

10. BOLTS SUBJECT TO SHEAR AND TENSION

Bolts may be subject to combined shear and tension stresses (Figure 3). Two forces are then acting in the shear plane; Fv (shear) and Ft (tension). The interaction between the two forces has been investigated in tests [5] and from the results it has been found that bolts subject to shear and tensile force must satisfy the following bi-linear relationship.

1,0 Thus the full tensile resistance is available for values of shear up to almost 30% of the shear capacity Fv.Rd as shown in Figure 11. This feature is useful when considering situations such as that shown in Figure 2 (M and V) or for bolts B in Figure 3.

The design resistances Fv,Rd and Ft,Rd for shear and tension through the threaded position are restricted to bolts manufactured in conformity with the ISO Standard [1, 6]. For other items with cut threads, such as holding-down bolts or tie rods fabricated from round steel bars where the threads are cut by the steelwork fabricator and not by a specialist bolt manufacturer, the relevant values should be reduced by multiplying them by a factor of 0,85. Due to the particular form of the head of a countersunk bolt (see Figure 12) the design tension and bearing resistance of such a bolt have to be reduced.

11. SPACING REQUIREMENTS

11.1 Basis

The positioning of holes for bolts should be such as to prevent corrosion and local buckling and to facilitate the installation of the bolts. The positioning of the holes shall also be in conformity with the limits of validity for the rules used to determine the design resistances of the bolts with reference to Eurocode 3 (2).

11.2 Connections of plates

11.2.1 Minimum end distance The end distance e1 from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent end of any part, measured in the direction of load transfer (see Figure 12a), should not be less than 1,2 do, where do is the hole diameter. The end distance should be increased if necessary to provide adequate bearing resistance, see Section 8. 11.2.2 Minimum edge distance The edge distance e2 from the centre of a fastener hole to the adjacent edge of any part, measured at right angles to the direction of load transfer (see Figure 13a), should normally be not less than 1,5 do.

The edge distance may be reduced to not less than 1,2 do provided that the design bearing resistance is reduced accordingly as given in Section 8. 11.3.3 Maximum end and edge distances Where the members are exposed to the weather or other corrosive influences, the maximum end or edge distance should not exceed 40 mm + 4t, where t is the thickness of the thinner outer connected part. In other cases the end or edge distance should not exceed 12t or 150 mm, whichever is the larger. The edge distance should also not exceed the maximum to satisfy local buckling requirements for an outstanding element. This requirement does not apply to fasteners interconnecting the components of back-to-back tension members. The end distance is not affected by this requirement. 11.2.4 Minimum spacing The spacing p1 between centres of fasteners in the direction of load (see Figure 13b) should not be less than 2,2 do. This spacing should be increased if necessary to provide adequate bearing resistance, see Section 8. The spacing p2 between rows of fasteners, measured perpendicular to the direction of load, (see Figure 13b), should normally be not less than 3,0 do. This spacing may be reduced to 2,4 do if the design bearing resistance is reduced accordingly, see Section 8. 11.2.5 Maximum spacing in compression members The spacing p1 of the fasteners in each row and the spacing p2 between rows of fasteners, should not exceed the lesser of 14t or 200 mm. Adjacent rows of fasteners may be symmetrically staggered, see Figure 13b. The centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners should also not exceed the maximum to satisfy local buckling requirements for an internal element. 11.2.6 Maximum spacing in tension members In tension members the centre-to-centre spacing p1,i of fasteners in inner rows may be twice that given in Section 10.2.5 for compression in members, provided that the spacing p1,o in the outer row along each edge does not exceed that given in Section 10.2.5, see Figure 13c. Both of these values may be multiplied by 1,5 in members not exposed to the weather or other corrosive influences.

11.3 Angles Connected by One Leg

In the case of unsymmetrical or unsymmetrically connected members such as angles connected by one leg, the eccentricity of fasteners in end connections and the effects of the spacing and edge determine the design resistance. Angles connected by a single row of bolts in one leg, see Figure 14, may be treated as concentrically loaded and the design ultimate resistance of the net section determined as follows:

with 1 bolt: Nu,Rd = 2,0(e2 - 0,5do)tfu/ M2 with 2 bolts: Nu,Rd = 3Anetfu/ M2 with 3 or more bolts: Nu,Rd = 3Anetfu/ M2 where 2 and 3 are reduction factors dependant on the pitch p1 as given in Table 3. For intermediate values of p1 the value of may be determined by linear interpolation, and Anet is the net section area of the angle. For an unequal-leg angle connected by its smaller leg, Anet should be taken as equal to the net section area of an equivalent equal-leg angle of leg size equal to that of the smaller leg. Table 3 - reduction factors 2 and 3 Pitch p1 2 bolts 2 3 bolts or more 3 2,5 do 0,4 0,5 5,0 do 0,7 0,7

11. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

To design a bolt, it is necessary to always verify which plane is concerned, the shank or the threaded part. The shear resistance of a bolt is less when the ratio between yield strength and ultimate tensile strength is larger. The bearing resistance of the connected plates depends on the distance between bolts and on the distance between a bolt and the edge or the end of the plates. The tension resistance of a bolt decreases when the line of action of the applied force is eccentric. The presence of axial tension reduces the shear resistance and vice versa. When angles are connected by one leg, bending occurs in the profile, and the section must be reduced.