I.

TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
Two basic types of compressors exist: Dynamic type and Positive displacement
type.
1. Dynamic type Compressors
Dynamic type compressors are machines in which air or gas is compressed by the
dynamic action of rotating vanes or impellers imparting velocity and pressure to the
flowing gas. Two general variations, centrifugal and axial compressors, are available.
1. Centrifugal compressors are machines in which velocity and pressure are given
to the air or gas in a radial direction by one or more impeller-diffuser combinations
(Figure 1-4).
2. Axial compressors are the machines in which velocity and pressure are given to
the air or gas in an axial direction by one or more sets of moving and stationary
rows of blades (Figure 1-5).
2. Positive displacement Type Compressors
Positive-displacement types of Compressors are machines in which successive volumes
of air or gas are confined within a closed space. The pressure is increased as the volume
of the closed space is decreased. Four general types, broken down according to the
constructional method used to carry out compression, are available.
1. Reciprocating compressors are machines in which the compressing element is a
piston following a reciprocating motion in a cylinder.
2. Rotary sliding-vane compressors are machines in which longitudinal vanes slide
radially in a rotor mounted eccentrically in cylinder (Fig. 1.6)
3. Rotary lobe compressors are machines in which two mating lobed impellers
revolve within a cylinder and are prevented from making a contact with each other
by timing gears mounted outside the cylinder (Figure 1.7).
4. Rotary liquid-piston compressors are machines in which water or other liquids
are used, usually in a single rotating element, to displace the air or gas handled.
Although flow limits for centrifugal are dictated somewhat by the specific
conditions involved and design philosophy of different manufacturers, general range of
compressor selection goes as below:
Positive displacement machines below 3000 M / Hr.
1
Axial compressors above 30,000 M / Hr.
Flow regions between 3000 - 12,000 M / Hr. can be considered over-lapping between
positive displacement and centrifugal compressors
Flow regions between 30,000 - 1,20,000 M / Hr. can be considered over-lapping
between centrifugal and axial compressors.
2
Ranges for application of reciprocating, centrifugal, and axial
compressors
3
APPLICATION RANGE
INLET FLOW Acfm
D
I
S
C
H
A
R
G
E

P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E

P
s
i
a
AXIAL
CENTRIFUGAL
RECIPROCATING
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
Comparison of Constant Speed Characteristic of various types of
Compressors.
4
1 0 0 0
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0
1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0 2 0 0
2 0 0 0
3 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
7 0 0 0
8 0 0 0
9 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 2 0 0 0
1 3 0 0 0
1 4 0 0 0
1 5 0 0 0
1 6 0 0 0
Approximate Rated Speed comparison of Axial and Centrifugal
Compressors
II. Centrifugal Compressors
A centrifugal compressor is a dynamic machine. It has a continuous flow of fluid which
receives energy from integral shaft impellers. This energy is transformed into pressure
partly across the impellers and partly in the stator section i.e in the diffusers.
This type of machine is composed on an outer casing which contains a stator
part called a diaphragm bundle and of a rotor formed by a shaft one or more impellers a
balance drum and thrust collar.
The rotor is driven by means of a hub and is held in position axially by a thrust
bearing while rotating on journal bearings. The rotor is fitted with labyrinth seals and if
necessary oil film end seals.
Nuovo Pignones range of Centrifugal Compressors:
5
These centrifugal compressors have different configurations to suit specific services
and pressure ratings.

These are classified as follows
1. Compressors with horizontally split casings
Horizontally split casings consisting of half casings joined along the horizontal center
line are employed for operating pressures below 60bars.
These are indicated by the letter designation MCL and further identified
according to the number of stages.
(i) MCL Compressors
These multistage compressors have one compression stage only.
(ii) 2MCL Compressors
These are multistage compressors which group two compression stages in series in the
same machine with interstage cooling.
(iii) 3MCL Compressors
These are multistage compressors which generally incorporate more than two
compression stages in a single casing. They are used in services where different gas
flows have to be compressed to various pressure levels i.e by injecting and or extracting
gas during compression.
(iv) DMCL Compressors
Two compression stages are arranged in parallel in a single casing. The fact both
stages are identical and the delivery nozzle is positioned in the center of the casing
makes this solution the most balanced possible.
A double flow is created by a common central impeller.
2. Compressors with vertically split casings
Vertically split casings are formed by a cylinder closed by two end covers hence
denomination barrel is used to refer to compressors with these casings. These machines
which are generally multistage are used for high pressure services up to 700 kg/cm
2
.
(i) BCL Compressors
These are barrel type compressors which have a single compression stage.
(ii) 2BCL Compressors
These are barrel type compressors with two compression sages in series in a single
casing.
(iii) DBCL Compressors
6
These compressors incorporate two compression stages in parallel in a single casing.
3. Compressors with bell casings
(i) BCL Compressors with bell casings
Barrel type compressors for high pressures have bell-shaped casings and are closed
with shear rings instead of bolts.
(ii) PCL Compressors
These have bell shaped casings with a single vertical end cover instead of two as in
BCL compressors. They are generally used for natural gas transportation. They
normally have side suction and delivery nozzles positioned opposite each other to
facilitate installation on gas pipelines.
(iii) SRL Compressors
These are also called as integrally geared machines. These compressors are suitable for
relatively low pressure services. They have the feature of having several shafts with
overhung impellers. The impellers are normally open type i.e. shroud less to achieve
high tip speeds with low stress level and high pressure ratios per stage. Each impeller
inlet is coaxial whereas the outlet is tangential. These compressors are generally
employed for air or steam compression, geothermal applications etc.
Industrial applications of Nuovo Pignone Centrifugal Compressors:
Centrifugal compressors have a large number of applications in numerous sectors of
industry and particularly in many processes that call for very wide performance ranges.
1 Refineries
2 Petrochemical plants
3 Natural gas compression
4 Metallurgical plants
Structural characteristics of Nuovo Pignones Centrifugal Compressors:
1. Casing
1.1. Horizontally split casings (MCL, 2MCL, 3MCL, DMCL):
Both half casings are obtained from conventional castings.
The material is chosen depending on operating pressure and
temperature, size gas handled and regulations provided by API
standards.
Generally GD cast iron with 25-30 kg/mm
2
tensile strength and 70
kg/mm
2
compressive strength.
7
1.2. Vertically split casings ( BCL, 2BCL, PCL):
both casings and en covers are obtained from forgings so that material
might be as homogeneous as possible, hence more resistant, taking
account of the high pressures these compressors have to meet
with.ASTM A 105 Gr.II carbon steel is generally used for the barrel,
supports and end covers.
2. Diaphragms
The diaphragms form the flow dynamic path of the gas inside the
compressors stator part. They are divide into four types suction
intermediate, inter stage and discharge diaphragms.
The suction diaphragm conyes the gas to the first impeller inlet. The
intermediate diaphragm performs the double task of forming the diffuser
where kinetic energy is converted to the pressure energy and the return
channel to lead gas to the next impeller inlet. The discharge diaphragm
forms the diffuser of the last impeller, as well as the discharge scroll.
The interstage diaphragm separate the discharge sides of the two stags
in the compressors with back to back impellers. each diaphragm has
labyrinth rings to make the impeller shroud tight and on the spacer rings
to cut out interstage leaks. The material used to manufacture diaphragms
is forged carbon steels ASTM22.
3. Rotor
The rotor of a centrifugal compressor is made up of shaft , impellers,
balancing drum, thrust bearing collar, the coupling hub and some
sleeves and end spacer rings.
3.1. Shaft
the shaft consists of a central section usually with constant diameter, on
which impellers and spacers are mounted and two ends with diameters
suitably tapered to house bearings and seals.
The material used to manufacture for any kind of compressor is steel 40
NiCrMo7.
3.2. Impellers
impellers are shrink fitted on the shaft under the impellers splines are
provided to transmit torque. The impellers are interference fitted not
only because of torque transmission yet to avoid loosening of the mesh
under high speed of rotation owing to the stresses due to centrifugal
forces thus preventing also from building up unbalance since the
impeller would be no more concentric to the shaft.
Impellers may be structurally of closed or open type. The closed
impellers are made up of one hub, a certain number of blades and one
shroud. Blading is generally slanted backwards. The open impellers are
different from the closed impellers as lacking in the shroud. usually this
kind of impeller has tridimensional blades got by milling. Blades can be
radial or slanted backwards according to the characteristic and head we
want to reach.
When manufacturing impellers much care must be taken in
finishing their surfaces and designing them, considering particularly the
thickness, the key slots and rounding off the corners.
8
Materials and heat treatments are chosen taking account of the stress due
to the centrifugal force and the working conditions, such as corrosion,
low temperature etc.
To get a good welding result in blades, they have to be made of
steel with high mechanical characteristics, yet to low carbon content.
3.3. Balancing drum
During normal operation inside the compressor a thrust is generated
against the rotor, which has to be taken up by the thrust bearing.
Such a thrust is mainly due to the pressures acting on the impeller,
therefore a balancing drum is provided for after the last impeller placing
its opposite face under suction pressure and sizing its diameter
adequately, a thrust is generated from suction to discharge side, such as
to balance the thrust coming from the impellers. balancing is not
complete a residual thrust is thus left , capable of being taken up by the
bearing to avoid any axial unstability of the rotor.
3.4. Coupling
The coupling transmits power from driver to the compressor coupling
can direct or through a speed increasing gear, depending on the drive.
Usually toothed couplings are used with force feed or filing lubrication.
The coupling with force feed lubrication are fit to high speed of rotation
and practically they only are used in compressors, the other type of
coupling is sealed generally with lubricating grease to be filled in every
so often, these couplings are used only on driving shafts.
3.5.Thrust bearing collar
The thrust bearing collar is made of C40 carbon steel and is generally
force fitted hydraulically.
3.6. Spacer rings
The spacers are sleeves placed between impellers having double
function, to preserve shaft from corrosive media and to fix the relative
position of one impeller versus another.
3.7.Sleeves under oil seals
Sleeves under oil seals are of carbon steel coated with very hard material
,as colmonoy. These sleeves are applied to protect shaft from corrosion
and any scoring besides they can be easily replaced.
4. Seals
The seals at the two shaft ends, at the points where shaft comes out of
the casing, are applied to avoid or minimize leakage of compressed gas
or air getting into the compressor casing. This seal can be of three types
labyrinth, oil and mechanical seal.
4.1. Labyrinth seals
These are applied to minimize leaks outside. These are made of light
alloy or material resistant to corrosion ,with hardness lower than the
shaft, to avoid damaging it in case of accidental contacts.
The labyrinth seals are made of annealed alluminium alloy.
4.2.Oil seals
9
The oil seals consists of two floating rings babbit lined. The oil seals are
made up of a carbon steel support ring, coated with a thin white metal
layer or copperless white metal if not compatible with the gas handled.
4.3.Mechanical seals
The mechanical seal consists chiefly of a carbon ring, generally
stationary, kept in contact with a steel collar rotating with the
compressor shaft. This contact is granted by the combined action of
elastic elements and the distribution of pressure acting on the ring.
5. Bearings
They are placed outside the compressor casing and can be inspected
without releasing pressure from casing inside.
5.1. Journal bearings
Carbon steel is the base material chosen for bearing manufacture. The
working faces of the pads are coated with white, babbit metal, the metal
application is got by melting and centrifugation.

5.2. Thrust bearings
The thrust bearings assembled on Nuovo Pignone Compressors are
tilting pad type, provided with supports to distribute load equally. The
pads act on the collar hydraulically fitted onto the shaft.
Rotor Dynamics and NP Design criteria
1. Introduction
The greatest effort in the design of centrifugal compressors mainly for high
pressure applications is problems connected with the lateral stability of the
rotor. The stability problem concerns the compressor in all its components
such as rotor, bearings, oil seals, coupling, impellers, diffusers, return
channels.
2. Synchronous Vibrations
Synchronous vibrations are usually attributable to the following causes
a). accidental defects of the rotors
b). design defects that is operating speed too close to resonance or
insufficient damping of the system.
3. Asynchronous vibrations
In the asynchronous vibration field some vibrations frequencies are
multiples of the rotating speed and vibration frequencies lower or higher
than rotating speed but not multiples.
First type are usually caused by local factors such as misalignment,
rubbing between rotating and static parts, excessive stresses in the piping,
foundations etc.
Second type belong vibrations that have been the cause of more serious
problems especially in the field of high pressure compressors. They may be
10
caused by external phenomena or by phenomena intrinsic to the movement
of the rotor itself, which impair stability at its base.
4. Conclusions
The most important causes of either asynchronous or synchronous
vibrations can be very well simulated during calculation so that a good
forecast of the rotor dynamic behavior is available.
11
III. COMPRESSOR SELECTION CRITERIA
Following paragraphs give general understanding of a compressor selection for a set of
specified operating conditions.
1. Compression characteristics of the gas are determined. For single component
gases like N
2
, AIR, O
2
the characteristics are determined from the gas properties
available both for suction and discharge conditions.
The physical constants to be determined are
(a) CP/CV (b) Molecular Wt. (c) Compressibility factors.
For mixtures of gasses like hydrocarbons, the above constants are to be evaluated from
BWR equation of state.
2. Total compression ratio is determined. This is the ratio of final absolute to initial
suction pressure. It must now be decided whether the compressor is to have one, two,
three or more phases of compressions. Experience will indicate quite readily how many
compression phases are needed. The primary consideration is the expected discharge
temperature. A sufficient number of stages, with cooling between them, must be used to
prevent the discharge temperature of any of them from exceeding practical limits, such
as material limitations and oil seals limitations.
3. The overall efficiency of the machine depends on the optimum sizing of the phases
and intercooling and other factors like number of casings, number of stages, sizing of
each stage, impeller configuration and finally on the peripheral speeds.
4. It is customary in the refinery and chemical process industries for the project
engineer to establish the number of stages of compression, and for each suction
pressures, suction temperatures and discharge pressure with due consideration given to
pressure drops and cooling between stages.
DATA REQUIRED FOR SELECTION OF A COMPRESSOR
A) Thermodynamic data (properties, constituents, composition).
B) Suction/discharge conditions (pressure & temperature).
C) Capacity to be handled (kg/hr/nm
3
/hr).
D) Special requirements like inj/extn and other process requirements.
E) Type of gas - material stresses.
F) Type of driver.
Preliminary selection
No. Of phases No of No. Of Characteristics
12
Speed driver casings impellers in of impellers
Rating each phase
If this information is not contained in the enquiry, the manufacturer ordinarily will
estimate appropriate inter-cooler and piping pressure losses and pressures and
temperatures for various stages. He will likewise estimate stage suction pressures and
temperatures most optimum for the particular selection made by them.
A check is made to evaluate the total power requirement for the machine or total train
and with a suitable reserve driver is sized.
Quite often an enquiry will list one or more alternate process requirements such as
varying suction capacities, varying discharge pressures or both, or perhaps operation on
alternate gas stream may be needed. Where the capacities and pressures may not be
identical. In such applications, the requirements are analyzed and the machine is
designed for the most severe conditions giving best efficiency. In practice this rated
capacity is located at or just beyond the peak efficiency point to provide as wide and
stable operating range as possible.
Centrifugal compressor performance map showing relationship of compressor
speed and compression ratio with actual volume.
13
IV. DESIGN FEATURES
Horizontally split casing design (MCL type) (Fig. 4.1)
This design is used for low working pressure below 40 kg/cm2. These casings are in
two halves with horizontal parting plane. Main nozzles and auxiliary connections are
provided in the lower half of casing and the upper half serves as a cover and house the
diaphragms, which may be lifted by removing the bolts on the parting plane giving free
access to the internals of the compressor for inspection and maintenance.
Vertically split casing design (BCL type) (Fig. 4.2)
This design is made of barrel construction closed on the sides by end covers with the
help of studs. This type of construction is suitable for high pressure operations upto 750
Kg/cm
2
. Sealing is provided between the casing and closing flanges with the help of
endless 'O' rings. In case of two compression stages arranged in series in case of 2BCL
Type , the outlet gas from the first phase is cooled in a heat exchanger and the cooled
gas is further compressed in the second stage. In these types of compressors, the
compression stages are arranged back to back.
Another type of compressor is the PCL, which has a cup shaped casing with a single
closing flange in the vertical plane instead of two as with the BCL. It is used
exclusively for the transfer of gas in gas pipeline service and it is for this reason easily
recognized by the two-flanged nozzles projecting from the casing suitable for
connecting directly into the line. The flexibility of being able to be used from one to
three impellers in the same forged casing, together with the robust, simple construction,
render this type of machine easily adaptable and excellent for continuous "heavy duty"
service.
The SR and VC compressors have a single stage and are suitable for low pressures. The
first have normally a cast-iron case, whilst the others are fabricated. The Overhang
impeller can be of the open or closed type. The suction flange is, in general, on the axis
of the machine, whilst the delivery is in the vertical plane at the termination of the
volute. These Compressors are used as blowers or "boosters" in Industry, refineries
and in petrochemical process when large volumes of low
pressure gases are involved.
The DMCL compressors have two stages of compression in parallel in a single casing.
The two stages are identical and their delivery is on the vertical center line. The
solution is most balanced. The last impeller of each stage, i.e., the one nearest the
center-line of the compressor is a double flow type. A machine designed in this way
enables the large quantities of gases to be compressed with impellers of lower
diameters. The other aspects of construction are the same as for the MCL Compressor.
The 2MCL is a type of Compression with compressor stages arranged back to back.
This arrangement is used when intermediate cooling of the compressed gas is required.
14
For specific requirements, it is possible to provide supplementary volutes on in take
and delivery.
The 3MCL compressors have 2 or more stages in line with extraction or injection of
side loads. The number of extractions and injections varies from case to case (the
number 3 before the frame designation is conventional). The weight flow through the
machine is not constant during the compression.
There remains finally the 2BCL compressor, a barrel type machine suitable for high
pressures. This type also has the compression stages arranged in back to back.
The designation that distinguishes BHEL compressors is formed by two groups, one of
letters and one of numbers.
1. The groups of letters define characteristics of the stationary part with particular
reference to the case ( i.e. BCL indicates the compressor is barrel type suitable
for high pressures whilst MCL indicates compressor suitable for relatively low
pressures with horizontal split casings).
2. A letter or a number before this group defines the arrangement of the
compressor stages or alternatively refers to intermediate extraction or injection.
For example: 2BCL 407 designates barrel type compressor with counter opposed
compression stages in series with impellers of 400 mm diameter having seven stages
compression. In addition to the normal BCL suitable for pressures upto 70 kg/cm
2
,
classes BCL/a, b, c, d have been developed for pressures upto 200 kg/cm
2
, 350 kg/cm
2
,
500 kg/cm
2
and 700 kg/cm
2
, respectively.
Compressors are also designed with intermediate extraction or with injection quantity in
which case the flow through the compressor is not the same. However the
constructional features are basically same as those of other types of compressors
indicated above except for the additional nozzles required for the purpose of injection
or extraction.
Design features
The performance of the compressor is assumed on the following criteria.
1. Thermodynamic performance the get required pressure ratio, is achieved with
the minimum power consumption and by optimum sizing of impellers.
2. Trouble free run of the unit.
This is achieved by proper dimensioning of the mechanical parts followed by the study
of flexural and torsional behavior of the rotors and finally by a proper assembly of the
unit.
The important elements of the centrifugal compressors are casings, diaphragms, rotors,
seals, bearings, and couplings.
15
MCL COMPRESSOR
1. CASING UPPER HALF
2. CASING LOWER HALF
3. SUCTION DIAPHRAGM
4. INTERMEDIATE DIAPHRAGM
5. DISCHARGE DIAPHRAGM
6. SEAL ON BALANCING DRUM
7. SEAL IMPELLER
8. END GAS SEAL
9. OIL SEPERATION SEAL
10. THRUST BEARING
11. JOURNAL BEARING
12. SHAFT
13. IMPELLER
14. BALANCING DRUM
15. COUPLING
16. THERMO ELEMENT
BCL COMPRESSOR
A.) CASING BARREL
B) END COVERS
C) SIDE COVERS
D.) SHAFT
E.) DIAPHRAGM
F.) BALANCING DRUM
G.) THRUST BEARING
H.) COUPLING
I.) JOURNAL BEARING
J.) THRUST BEARING PADS
16
17
F
i
g
.
4
-
1

C
E
N
T
R
I
F
U
G
A
L

C
O
M
P
R
E
S
S
O
R

(
T
Y
P
E

M
C
L
)
FIG. 4-2
18
F
i
g

4
-
2
B
C
L

C
O
M
P
R
E
S
S
O
R
V. MATERIALS & MANUFACTURING METHODS OF
COMPONENTS
The materials used for the various applications differ, mainly due to the type of service.
The materials used for the rotor and the other internal parts differs more on account of
the temperature, the corrosive nature of the gas or the stress levels involved.
Casings
The casing of the BCL type is of barrel shape with nozzles and supports welded to it.
The barrel is made out of forging which gives high strength and renders the material
more homogeneous and therefore more suitable for high pressures.
Normally, carbon steel is used for the barrel, nozzles and supports and for the covers.
The material used is ASTM A 266 Gr. II (with carbon content limited to 0.2
-0.25%.), which is sufficient to obtain good mechanical characteristics and at the same
time suitable for welding. Stainless steel overlay is provided on the casing internals for
certain applications like CO
2

The PCL also has a similar forged casing, its end cover is made out of forged steel
ASTM A266. The nozzles however are of cast steel because they have a complicated
shape.
The MCL compressor casing is made from cast iron or steel. For low temperature
operation one of the four grades of the steel ASTM A 352 is used, depending on the
actual operating temperatures. Finally for highly corrosive environments, stainless steel
castings such as ASTM A 351 Gr. CA15 or alternatively Grade CF8 (13% Cr) are
employed.
Diaphragms
The diaphragms constitute the dynamic profile of the stator parts of the compressor.
They are divided into three types viz., suction, intermediate and delivery. Suction
diaphragms guide the gas to the first impeller. Intermediate diaphragms have the
diffusers built in which serve the function of transforming the kinetic energy into
pressure, return channel serves to guide the gas to the next impeller with shock less
entry. Delivery diaphragm forms the diffuser for the last impeller and collecting
chamber and delivery spiral.
Diffuser
Diffusers can be free vortex design or bladed type. Vaneless diffusers are generally
used as they provide a good operating range and compressor characteristics. Vaned
diffusers are employed where a high degree of diffusion is required ,However they
restrict the operating range and are very sensitive to change in volume flows.
Diaphragms are generally cast, on account of their complicated form. Normally,
diaphragms are made out of cast steel, sometimes with additions of Nickel to improve
the impact properties for low temperature applications (1- 1,5% Ni). If the operating
19
temperatures are lower, one of the six grades available in ASTM A 352 is used or
alternatively austenitic stainless steel castings of grades ASTM A 331 Gr.CF8. are
employed.
For the intermediate diaphragms of the 2MCL and 2BCL compressors for low flow
application with narrow channels for all other services and to withstand high p, a
more suitable material such as high tensile carbon steel plate or forging is required
which have higher mechanical strength compared to castings.
End Covers
These components are used for the purpose of closing either sides of the barrel, which
also house the bearings, end gas seals and oils seals. Various oil and gas connections
are made on the end covers. Generally the end covers are made out of solid forgings.
Depending upon the gas medium either carbon steels or stainless steel are selected.
Rotor
The heart of the compressor is the rotor consisting of the shaft, impellers, balancing
drum, shaft sleeves, thrust collar. The shaft is made of heat-treated low alloy steel on
which the impellers are hot shrunk and keyed. Sleeves of special material such as
stainless steel are mounted on the shaft to protect the shaft from the contact of the gas
medium.
Shafts
The material used for the shafts for many services is 40 NiCrMO7 Steel. In reality, this
material has better mechanical characteristics than is generally required for normal
usage by centrifugal compressors. For low temperature applications special grades such
as ASTM A320 of appropriate grade , which give low temperature impact properties,
corresponding to compressor operating conditions are used
Impellers
The impellers are the most stressed components, in fact there is a tendency to exploit
them to a maximum so as to reduce the number of stages. They are made of low alloy
steel which give high mechanical characteristics but with low carbon content to ensure
satisfactory welding. This material has (also good for low temperature) having 2%
chrome 1% molybdenum and 0.13 to 0.17% carbon. Given that the weld and surround
zone are the same, a phenomenon of intergranular corrosion would appear to occur with
higher carbon content. It is for this reason that there is a need to limit the carbon
content. The intergranular corrosion weakens the metallurgical bond between grains,
which leads to the mechanical degeneration of the material.
The presence of carbon in the steel greater than that soluble in the austenitic matrix
determines the potential sensitivity of the material to intergranular corrosion. This is
prominent because carbon is principally responsible for the precipitation of the carbides
and impoverishment in chromium renders the material sensitive to corrosion.
20
When the impellers are to be used in corrosive fluids, steel with higher chromium
content is used such as X12Cr13 (13% of Cr), in particular corrosive conditions
requiring very high strength, steels with still high percentage of chromium as high as 15
- 19% may be required,
Where high degree of corrosion and higher stresses are present, recourse can be made to
steel of 17-4 PH grade, with 17% of Chromium, and 4% of Nickel (precipitation
hardened at lower temperature). The steel with 9% Ni (N9 COGNE) is used for
impellers required to operate at very low temperatures upto -196 C.
Methods of Manufacture
The most common method of manufacture of the impellers is by welding.
1) Internal welding
Impellers are fabricated from solid forged discs. Depending on the size of
impellers, the vanes are formed by either milling process or by welding separate
vanes, which are preformed to required shape. The internal conventional manual
welding is employed to join the hub with vanes and shroud. As the welding is
carried out by manual process, special care is taken in the following areas.
1. To have homogeneity of the properties of both hub and shroud, both the
forgings are drawn from the same melt.
2. The heat treatment of the impellers in an inert atmosphere to control the
scale formation due to the oxidation.
3. Proper sequence of welding and uniformity of the weld fillet deposited.
4. Continuous monitoring of the weld quality during the process of
manufacture by liquid dye penetrant test at various stages.
Spark Erosion
Spark erosion method was used when the conventional welding cannot be
carried out because of narrower passages of the impeller channels. The
procedure allows manufacture of impellers for compressor handling capacities
as low as 100 m
3
/hr. The process essentially consists of forming the shape of
the channel of impellers by removing the material by spark erosion by electro
discharge process. The electrode is made of pure copper machined to the exact
shape of the channel. Impellers with channels as small as 3 mm can be
manufactured with this method.
This method is now obsolete and not used any more for making compressor
Impellers.
External Welding
For handling very low volumetric flows and higher heads, new series of
impellers are developed and the characteristics of such impellers are very low
21
outlet vane angles (15-to 18 degrees) and lower radii of curvature. These
characteristics result in a very long channel passage and the conventional
welding becomes impossible. External welding process has been specially
developed to overcome this manufacturing constraint. Following are the salient
features of this manufacturing process.
Manufacture hub with blind grooves with corresponding vanes on
shroud.
Match the grooves with vanes.
Welding of root of groove by TIG automatic process with pulsed
current. The Material at the bottom of the groove is fused to the vane
located below without filler material.
Subsequent layers of welding by TIG welding with filler wire.
Suitable heat treatment process to achieve desired mechanical
properties.
Finish machining.
Advantages:
1) The external welding process does not have the weld deposit in the
internal gas passages and hence smoother gas passages are obtained.
2) The entire process is automatic and the quality of welding is consistent.
Balancing Drum
Across an impeller stage in a centrifugal compressor, there exists an axial thrust equal
to the difference of thrust between suction and delivery sides of the impeller. This thrust
adds up in a compressor for the total number of impellers provided in a stage and it is
too high to be taken by the thrust bearing all by itself. A balancing drum is fitted on the
shaft both sides of which are subjected to differential pressure. The size selected, such
that, a large amount of the thrust load due to the gas is compensated by the drum, and
the remaining thrust along with the coupling thrust is supported by the thrust bearing.
Spacer Sleeves
Spacer sleeves positioned in between the impellers have two functions:
1. To protect the shaft from corrosive fluids.
2. To establish the relative position of the impellers on the rotor. The
spacer outer profile also guides the gas into the suction of the impeller.
Generally sleeves are made from 13% Cr steels with less carbon content. The Spacers
are mounted under interference to ensure their positioning during running.
Bushes under Oil seals
The bushes positioned on the shaft under oil seals protect the shaft from the wearing
action of high flow of seal oil. These bushes are made by an overlay of hardened
material of 600 BHN. For high-pressure compressors the hard coating is unsuitable
22
because of very high interference required for shrinking on shafts where hardened
bushes are employed.
Bearings
The journal and thrust bearings are of white metal type with force feed lubrication.
These are housed outside the compressor in casing and they can be assembled without
dismantling the complete machine.
a) Lemon type or elliptical types of bearings are generally employed for low speed
and heavily loaded rotors. For high-speed machines, to have better damping
characteristics and minimize oil-whip phenomenon, tilting pad bearings are
used. The selection of the bearing mainly depends on the rotor lateral behavior.
b) Thrust bearings are of double acting tilting pad type with self-equalizing
features. Thrust bearings are lubricated by forced feed lubrication. Oil film
between the collar and shaft supports the rotor.
The fundamental parameter while choosing these bearings is the product of specific
load and peripheral speed. This parameter has to be contained within certain limits
based on method of lubrication and materials of bearing and shaft.
VI. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF A CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSOR
As already mentioned, the centrifugal compressor impeller imparts pressure energy and
delivers a quantity of fluid depending on its size blade geometry and thermodynamic
characteristics of the gas.
In general, the fluid is directed to the inlet flange of compressor with a velocity of about
30m/sec., after an initial expansion (to about 60m/sec.), enters the eye of the first
impeller.
Let the initial conditions of gas at the nozzle inlet are indicated by V
0
, P
0
and T
0
Volume, pressure and temperatures respectively.
23
The conditions of gas at the eye of the impeller are determined on the basis of the
reduction in enthalpy and temperatures during the above-mentioned initial expansion
The following equation gives the reduction in enthalpy

Cp
h
T and
g
C C
H

427 2
2
0
2
1
C
1
= Velocity at inlet eye of 1st impeller
C
0
= Velocity at suction flange
g = 9.81 m/s
2
At this point the fluid enters the first impeller, which transfers a certain quantity of
energy to it, bringing it to the final condition V
1
, P
1
, and T
1
. Volume, pressure,
temperature at inlet.
According to the Eulers theory, the energy given to a unit weight of fluid passing
through the channel between the two vanes of the impeller is equal to the change of its
momentum.
( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
cos
1
Cos C u C u
g
h
u

Velocity Triangles of a Centrifugal Impeller
24

Since in general
1
= 90 (radial inlet) the expression becomes:
u
h
=
2 2 2
1
Cos u C
g
For convenience the coefficient of head may be defined:

2
=
2
2 2
u
Cos c
=
2
2
u
u c
Therefore
u
h
=
2
2 2
1
u
g

Where
2
u =
60
e
nd
The polytropic head that the gas can utilize is only a portion of the effective head,
which is given by:

poly
H
=
eff p
H =
g
u
p
2
2

=
p m
K
K
T R Z

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
1
2
K
K
P
P
Where
R =

848
= Universal gas constant
= molecular weight of the gas
p
= polytropic efficiency
Z
m
= average compressibility of the gas
k =
V
P
C
C
= Where C
P
is Specific heat of constant
pressure
and Cv is a specific heat of constant
volume
1
2
P
P
=

= Pressure ratio P,
T
1
, = Suction Temp ( K)
The polytropic head takes account of the thermodynamic properties of the gas. It can be
seen that the thermodynamic characteristics of the gas gets changed at the outlet as a
function of the inlet conditions.
From the head equation it is observed that with constant volumetric capacity and speed,
the polytropic head increases with molecular weight. For given head, increase in
molecular weight reduces the constant R and hence increases the pressure ratio. It
follows from the equation that denser gases are easier to compress.
25
If instead, when the suction temperature is increased the pressure ratio is reduced, in
order to maintain the head. Conversely, for a given fluid, with the same volumetric
capacity and the same speed (RPM), the pressure ratio increases with reduction in the
suction temperature and vice versa.
On the contrary, change in suction pressure does not affect the pressure ratio as the
product
P
o *
V
o
= R * T
o
remains constant. The variation in the average compressibility of gas
(Z
m
) influences the compression ratio more in particular, as an increase of Z
m
corresponds to a decrease of pressure ratio and vice versa.

If the number of impellers increases, to see how the thermodynamic characteristics of
the gas at suction influences the discharge, consider two stages of compression carried
out with impellers having the same characteristics. In the case of a gas having lower
molecular weight the intake and delivery volumes differ slightly and are:
Q
o
= GV
o
,
Q
m
= GVm
(G= weight capacity, Q
m
= volumetric capacity at the delivery of the first impeller and
therefore to the intake of the second)
In general for a compression of one or more stages the capacity head curve at a given
speed has a shape similar to the one shown below:
The dotted curve is the surge limit, which as previously mentioned coincides with the
points of maximum head. If the gas to be compressed has a high molecular weight a
higher-pressure ratio will be generated and therefore the delivery volume will be
smaller than that at suction, Q
m
< Q
o
.
It will be clear therefore that in the second stage, if the impellers are the same (T
2.

p
being greater) it will be operating close to the surge line.
Frequently, it is necessary to draw the characteristics of a compressor for rotational
speeds different from the design. As the effect of variation in speed on the velocity
triangles is to increase the dimensions without changing the angles and velocity
relationship (similar triangles) it is possible to define the relationship existing between
capacity head, power and rotational speed.
The capacity Q is proportional to the rotational speed, the following relationship may
be written:
1
2
1
2
n
n
Q
Q

26
from the formula of Euler the effective theoretical head is:
g
u C u
H
eff
2 2

and since u
2
and C
2u
are both proportional to "n" it follows"
2
1
2
1
2

,
_

n
n
H
H
From the preceding relationships given the formula;

QH
NPower
It is simple to derive that the power is proportional to the cube of rpm:
3
1
2
1
2

,
_

n
n
N
N
Analysis of the losses
a) Friction losses are proportional to the square of capacity These friction losses
are distributed and localized, and are caused by the movement of the fluid against the
fixed surfaces and also due to to rapid changes of direction and changing in cross
sections,
b) Losses due to the impact of the fluid against the moving blades depend on the
capacity and also on the rotational speeds.
c) Volumetric losses are essentially due to leakage of compressed fluid from the
delivery to the suction of each stage , more generally, from a high pressure zone to a
low pressure zone. These losses are approximately proportional to the cube of the speed
and to the fifth power of the diameter.
To obtain a good efficiency in a subsonic compressor, it is necessary to operate at a
Mach No. lower than 0.8
(MACH NO =
a
V
; V = Velocity of the fluid the ducts a = mean speed of sound)
This is to ensure that the velocity of fluid at any point does not exceed velocity of
sound due to non-uniform distribution of velocity in channels, which would result in the
formation of shock wave with attendant increase in entropy giving rise to severe losses
of efficiency.
VII. DRIVERS FOR COMPRESSOR
A compressor may be driven by means of an electric motor, a steam turbine or a gas
turbine. The choice is always dictated by an economic balance, between initial
installation cost, operating cost for the depreciation period of the plant and
consideration of the forms of energy available.
Steam Turbine
27
For the process in which exothermic chemical reactions takes place (that is, for all the
processes in which there is an availability of steam, such as ammonia synthesis,
ethylene production plants, etc.), the compressor drive is normally by a steam turbine,
in this way the steam produced in the process is utilized . For example, in an ammonia
synthesis plant the steam is used in two networks, the first supplies steam at a pressure
of about 100ATA and 500C to the turbine that drives the compression group, the
second supplies steam at about 35 ATA which is used in the turbine drives to the
refrigeration compressor and to the process air compressor for the second reformer, A
part of the steam from this second system is delivered to the first reformer.
From the point of view of the compression group, steam turbine drivers have three
advantages:-
1) Possibility of direct drive, which avoids the introduction of a gearbox, which is
always a critical item and available only up to a certain power and within
certain gear ratios.
2) Better regulating facilities, the governor of the turbine can be interlocked to a
process signal (intake pressure, intake or delivery capacity) so by simply
varying the turbine rpm, the operating level can be maintained at the desired
point.
3) As a general example, it would be interesting to consider a synthesis plant
(fig.7.1).
In a condition of equilibrium, the plant upstream produces a certain quantity of gas,
which the compressors, rotating at a certain speed, increase from a pressure level P
i
to a level P
f

If the production at the upstream plant of the group is reduced, the pressure on the
suction line tends to reduce because the compressors continue to run at the same
speed, tending to suck a larger quantity of gas than that is available. A pressure
transmitter, set to the desired pressure level, reduces the speed of the group until
P=constant, an adjustment in the opposite way gives an increase in production when
the gas production is increased.
4) Start up Facility
After the turbine has been warmed up, the group can be started gradually and
easily.
28
In conclusion, the turbine is an ideal driver for the centrifugal compressor. The
substantial disadvantage is the high initial cost of investment compared to electric
motor.

Electric Motor
Electric motor drivers present the following advantages:
Low initial investment cost.
The compression train always operates at the same speed which reduces, notably, the
risk of mechanical stability problems, naturally it is easier to determine a stable
condition for a single speed than for a wide operating speed range. Extreme reliability,
the electric motor is one of the oldest and most tried amongst modern machines,
The disadvantages of motor drivers are:
Regulation: - Having to work with fixed speed, the compressor must be designed for a
"rated" operating point, an operating point which, in the case of a variable speed drive,
would require the highest speed.
If the plant is required to operate at point needing lower capacity, two systems can be
used, the first requires the introduction of variable pre-rotation blades able to lower the
29
GAS
PRODUCTION
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
SYNTHETIC
REACTOR
Compressors group
operating curve of the compressor, the second involves partially closing of a globe or
butterfly valve on the intake piping.
VIII. SEALS AND SEALING SYSTEM
The sealing of compressor ends is accomplished by either of the following methods.
Selection of a particular sealing system for a compressor depends basically on the gas
medium and leakage quantity, cost of the gas and nature of the gas like flammability
and environmental hazard etc.
The following sealing systems are generally used in compressors
1. Labyrinth type seals
2. Injection extraction sealing
3. Mechanical seals
4. Dry gas seals
Labyrinth seals
This system is employed for gases like Air, Nitrogen. The amount of gas leaking to
ambient is reduced by selecting adequate number of labyrinth fins. Some of the
developments in a labyrinth type seals are stepped type seals, honeycomb type and
turbine type. These special types are employed for higher differential pressures and
space restrictions in the machine.
Mechanical Seals
In this type of seals the carbon-rings forming part of stator part is kept in continuous
contact with a rotating collar. The contact surfaces are lubricated either by a cool buffer
gas or lubricating oil. These seals are very effective means of providing shaft sealings.
Injection and extraction sealing
For gases like oxygen, raw gas and other explosive, corrosive, media the sealing has to
be perfect and where sealing medium like oil cannot be used, the above sealing system
is selected. The principle of this sealing is that vacuum is created by an ejector at the
shaft ends which sucks the gases and thus prevents any outward leakage of the
contained gas.
There are certain aspects of compressor design, which need careful consideration
during design stage, and subsequent running of the unit. Those include Leakage across
Labyrinth seals, sizing of balancing drum. Thrust bearing sizing, thrust generated by
coupling.
30
A. Leakages:
Worn out / damaged labyrinth seals cause higher leakage of gas and contribute
to loss of energy. The gas leaking out from high-pressure side joins the low-pressure
side and recirculates which cause loss of power with a consequential drop in efficiency.
The quantity of leakage depends on the differential pressure across the seal. The type of
seal is decided depending upon the seriousness of leakage (i.e., type of gas, differential
pressure across seal, to minimize the leakage for optimization etc). The clearances are
specified considering the centrifugal dilatation of the rotating element, type of seal and
material of seal.
Various locations in a compressor, which need a careful consideration to minimize
leakages, are:
1. From discharge of each impeller to its suction side through the impeller eye seal.
2. From high-pressure side of the balancing drum to the low-pressure side.
3. Inward leakages at suction, in case of compressors with sub atmospheric suction
pressure and leakage to atmosphere at high pressure end.
The types of seals generally used are
1. Conventional Lab seal (Fig. 8.4a)
2. Turbine type seal (Fig. 8.4b)
Fig 8-4a Fig 8-4b
B) Balancing drum sizing and thrust bearing sizing.
31
There exists some amount of thrust generated at each impeller because of the
differential pressure prevailing across it. This is schematically explained in figure
shown in Fig. 8.5a.
The cumulative thrust generated across all the impellers is huge and it needs to be
supported by the thrust bearing. The thrust bearing size becomes huge if all the gas
thrust has to act on the bearing. For this purpose a rotating element called "Balancing
Drum" is incorporated on the rotor. The drum is acted upon by a pressure differential,
which pushes the rotor in a direction opposite to that of the gas thrust. The thrust so
generated balances the thrust produced by the impellers. Amount of balancing depends
upon the size of the drum and pressure differential created across it. The pressure
differential across the drum is maintained by an efficient seal placed with optimum
clearances (See fig. 8.5b).
i. Fig 8-5b ii. Fig 8-5a
C. Thrust generated at Coupling:
The gear type couplings, while transmitting the required torque, also transmits
an axial force which is a function of the pitch circle diameter of the coupling,
transmitted power and a factor called friction co-efficient. The axial force so generated
at each coupling gets transmitted to the thrust bearing. The thrust generated at coupling
increases with the friction between mating gear tooth, (i.e., cleanliness of lubrication
oil, condition of gear teeth, alignment of two shafts etc.). The total thrust to be taken
care for the sizing of the thrust bearing is as follows
um Balacingdr coupling gas Total
T T T T +
32


Fig. 8-6
IX. LUBE OIL SYSTEM
33
Lube oil is used to create a rotor lift by forming a hydrodynamic film of oil between the
shaft and bearing, and to cool the bearings.
Twin oil cooler is provided in the lube oil console to cool the return lube and seal oil in
order to maintain a constant temperature, good viscosity. Oil viscosity is a very
important parameter, which along with the geometrical characteristics of the bearings
considerably influences rotor dynamic behaviour and consequently vibrations. A
lubricant may have sufficient damping to allow operation at near critical speeds.
Low viscosity due to high bearing temperatures would make operation unsafe, if the
weight of the rotor is not supported by sufficient lift of oil film , the film could break
and make the shaft and working surfaces come in to contact, thus increasing
temperatures and the risk of the bearing damages.
It should be stressed that the oil flow has to be sufficient to dispose of the heat
generated by the bearings. Hence, there is need for the bearing temperature to be always
kept under control, it is regulated by varying the inlet oil pressure with the pressure
control valve (PCV). Also the drain oil temperature should be kept under control to
ensure a proper exchange of heat between the bearings and oil.
A schematic diagram of a lube oil system is shown in the following figure.
The following are main components:
a) Tank
b) Pumps
c) Coolers
d) Filters
e) Pressure Control Valve
Tank
The tank is always fitted with an electric or steam heater to give the oil, the right
temperature and the right viscosity for start-up. It has a sufficient capacity to ensure a
good retention time (feeding the oil pumps even without the drain oil returning to the
tank) and to prevent foaming.
An inert gas (N
2
) blanketing is provided on the vapour space in the tank to prevent
formation of explosive mixtures of oil vapours and process gas, which may enter the
tank, along with the return oil.
Centrifugal compressors driven by steam turbines have a centrifugal separator, which
takes oil from the bottom of the tank and centrifuges it to separate the water
accumulated in the tank, due to steam leakages joining the drain oil from the steam
turbine.
34
L u b e o i l h e a d e r
t o s e a l o i l
b o o s t e r p u m p s
C O M P R E S S O R
t o t u r b i n e c o n t r o l o i l
F I L T E R S
P . C . V
P U M P S
O I L T A N K
S T E A M H E A T E R
C E N T R I F U G A L S E P E R A T I O N
C O O L E R S
N 2
Fig. 9.1 A Schematic Diagram of Lube Oil System
The separator is normally sized to handle the total quantity oil in the tank in a day. It
may be designed also to separate sludge and dirt, which is called clarifying, centrifuges.
Pumps
The oil is drawn from the tank and sent into the system by a suitably sized pumps
Either positive displacement or centrifugal pumps may be used;
There are always two lube oil pumps provided on every lube oil system, one main
pump and another auxiliary pump. The latter starts automatically when the lube oil
header pressure drops to a set point, which is normally operated by an electric motor.
35
Downstream of the pumps, the discharge (see fig. 9.1) the piping branches to the
turbine control oil system (for compressors with steam turbine drivers) one line leads to
the coolers, filters, lube and seal oil systems and the other leads to the control oil line.
Turbine control oil is not cooled.
Coolers
As already mentioned, oil has to be cooled in order to maintain good viscosity. A
cooling system is therefore provided consisting of two water or air exchangers in
parallel which are
made to operate alternately by three - way valves. By controlling cooling water supply
through a valve, the oil temperature is controlled.
Filters
Clean oil should be kept circulating for optimum lubrication of bearings and seals and
to prevent wear; Two filter units are provided in parallel, one of them is working at a
time with a provision to changeover online with the help of a 3 way valve.
The filters are critical system components, which have to be kept under control with a
differential pressure gauge.
It is necessary to select the pump to obtain required delivery pressure. In centrifugal
pumps case neither a relief valve nor a by-pass valve is required, the delivery pressure
is regulated by varying the speed. It is therefore, understood that centrifugal pumps
would be the most appropriate but centrifugal pumps have lower efficiencies than
positive displacement pumps for low flows.
When there is too much pressure drop due to dirty and clogged filter elements, the filter
elements should be changed to prevent damages to elements and rupture of paper
cartridges.
When there are double filters and double coolers, it is necessary that flow changes over
smoothly in the three-way valves so that it does not interrupt the oil flow causing the
pressure to rise upstream (and therefore the relief valves to open) and a temporary
interruption in flow (resulting in a minimum pressure trip) to machines.
Pressure Control Valve
After the filters, there is a self-actuated pressure control valve (PCV), which keeps the
oil pressure to the bearings constant between 1.5 and 2.5 kg/cm2.
All the Oil inlet lines to the bearings are fitted with adjustable orifices and pressure
gauges for regulating the pressure to the individual bearings.
The oil should be able to easily drain without foaming or evaporating, which would
make lubrication difficult. It is therefore drained by gravity by providing adequate size
drain chambers and oil return lines with a suitable slope and to the main oil tank.
36

INSTRUMENTATION ON THE LUBE OIL SYSTEM
The instrumentation normally installed on a lube oil system comprises the following:
a) Level switch
b) Level gauge
c) Thermometer
d) Auxiliary pump start-up pressure switch
e) Differential pressure gauge or pressure switches on filters
f) Temperature switch for high temperature in the bearing header
g) Pressure switches for low oil pressure to bearings alarm and trip.
X. C ENTRIFUGAL C OMPRESSOR T ESTING
1.. INTRODUCTION
Every centrifugal compressor, after assembly, is subjected to several stringent tests to
assess the mechanical performance. The scope and extent of tests is detailed as per API
standards. A thermodynamic performance test is also conducted whenever specified.
The above tests are recommended to be conducted at manufacturer's works.
These tests are very important and vital, as they reveal manufacturing and design
defects, if any, and help in the rectification and improvement of the performance of a
compressor at manufacturer's works itself. This will avoid unnecessary wastage of time
at the process plant on such rectification efforts and minimises the commissioning time
for these units.
2.. TESTING - TYPES
The compressor testing can be broadly classified into
37
- Mechanical run tests
- Performance tests or partial load tests
Mechanical run tests as per API 617 can further be elaborated as follows.
- Mechanical run test (of individual barrel)
- Tandem test (of all the barrels arranged in a train).
- Combined unit test (All the compressors arranged in train and driven by
its
actual driver, using actual couplings, gear box, Lube oil piping, Base
plate etc.
- Thermodynamic performance tests are, generally conducted as per
ASME
PTC - 10. These are carried out in either close loop or open loop
depending
on the gas used for test.
3. FULL LOAD, FULL SPEED, FULL PRESSURE TEST
Many times full load tests are prescribed for certain critical applications like hydrogen
recycle compressors for Hydro-cracker where the compressors are required to be run
by creating operating conditions close to the site. This is achieved by using a mixture
of helium and Nitrogen.
4. MECHANICAL RUN TEST
Mechanical run test is carried out to verify the overall condition of the unit assembly
and helps in maintaining a high quality of the product. They generally reveal the
manufacturing defects, if any and demonstrate the mechanical performance of the
machine.
Broadly, the following are verified during the shop inspection and testing
- Rotor balance.
- Bearing alignment, clearances and adequacy of lubrication.
- Clearances at interstage labyrinth seals and liquid film shaft seals.
- Freedom from internal rubs.
- Absence of oil leakage and restrictions in the lube and seal oil channels in the
compressor casing.
- Trouble free and smooth running of the unit, at maximum continuous speed for
a period of 4 hours.
- Avoidance of abnormal conditions at over speed or trip speed (110% of M.C.S.)
- Location of first critical speed of the machine, in respect of flexible shaft units.
- Shaft relative vibrations and casing absolute vibrations.
38
- Run outs on the shaft at low speeds.
- Noise level.
- Rotor response to unbalance
5. TESTING PROCEDURE
The compressor can be directly driven by a variable speed steam turbine, or
alternatively by a drive arrangement consisting of an electric motor, hydraulic coupling
and gear box. By varying the oil let into the hydraulic coupling, it is possible to vary the
speed of the secondary shaft from about 500 to 1000 rpm to 3,000 rpm. Further speed
increase is obtained from the step-up gearbox, which in turn is connected to the
compressor through a flexible coupling.
The compressor is tested under vacuum with the help of high capacity vacuum pumps.
This will reduce the friction and windage losses and hence the power consumption and
temperature rise during the test run. The compressor discharge hood temperature will
shoot up, if connected to atmosphere instead of the vacuum line.
During the test run, the bearings are supplied with oil from a centralized lube oil
console, which will pump oil at the required pressure and temperature. The system
consists of twin coolers, high-grade duplex filters and control valves.
The compressor is started from stand still and the speed is increased in 10% increments
till the maximum continuous speed is reached. The compressor is kept at this speed for
4 hours. After this period, the compressor is made to over speed at 110% of M.C.S. for
15 minutes. During the deceleration, the first critical speed is located and vibrations due
to shaft run-outs are recorded.
6. TANDEM MECHANICAL RUN TEST
During this test, shop driver, shop lube oil console and shop pedestals are used. All the
compressors in a train are arranged in a string. The mechanical run test procedure is the same
as above. The train component compatibility is checked during this test.
7. COMBINED UNIT TEST
In this type of test, the actual job turbine or motor is used for the test. Generally, all the
active components, such as couplings, base plate, oil piping are used during the test.
8. STATIC SEALS TEST
After completing the mechanical run test, liquid film (shaft end) seals are assembled in
position. The compressor is pressurized to the operating pressure by an inert gas such as
Nitrogen (see fig. 3). A differential pressure of 0.5 kg/cm
2
is maintained between the seal oil
inlet and the gas from inside (i.e. reference gas). Since the seal oil is at higher pressure, it will
prevent the gas from leakage from the compressor. The shaft is turned slowly and leakage
seal oil across the HP seals is measured. With this, it is possible to judge the fitness of the
seals.
Similar test is performed with dry gas seals and the assembly and performance at standstill
condition is verified.
9. THERMODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE TEST
39
This is carried out to predict the thermodynamic performance of the machine with a
specified gas of known properties and under specified conditions.
A compressor can be tested with a suitable test gas, whose physical and thermodynamic
properties are well known and the results are converted into expected performance of
the compressor for its design or specified gas under its design operating conditions.
`ASME' power test codes and BS standards stipulate various types of tests for different types
of gases.
When a compressor is tested with the specified gas at the specified (Guaranteed)
operating conditions, (whether treated as a perfect or real gas), the test is termed as
class I test. Class II and Class III tests are used when the compressor cannot be tested
on the specified gas at specified operating conditions. In class II tests, the test results
are to be converted to performance data expected on the specified gas under specified
conditions, using the perfect gas laws.
Power test codes specify the limits of compressibility functions X and Y for the test and
specified gases. If these limits are exceeded, class III calculations are made. The
conversion of test results to specified conditions is made using real gas equations in
case of class III tests.
10. PERFORMANCE TEST PROCEDURE
The prescribed test gas is admitted at low parameters and purged for 3 times. After the
gas analysis is satisfactory, the compressor is started at low running after obtaining their
test parameters, such as inlet pressure, temperature, gas flow and speed the discharge
pressure and temperature etc., are recorded.
From the recorded values, the computations of results are made. During the test run,
every effort is made to locate the incipient surge. The performance characteristics, such
as pressure ratio vs. flow, power vs., flow, polytropic head, vs., flow etc. are plotted.
XI. Installation
1. leveling and grouting
The correct installation of centrifugal compressors requires a solid anchor base which
can be obtained by means of reinforced concrete foundations or metallic structures
sufficiently rigid to assure stable alignment with the drive motor.
In some cases the motor/compressor group secured to a support type base plate
is anchored to the structure with jointed supports to make it independent from the
principal structure this method is used for installations on offshore platforms.
2. Alignment
Alignment means the coincidence of the axis of one machine with the extension of the
axis of the other during normal operation. To accomplish this all compressors undergo
a certain vertical displacement due to the expansion of the support feet due to the
difference in temperature between the machine running and the machine at rest.
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XII. WORKING PROJECTS
At present I am working on following projects
1. IOCL BARODA DHDT
2. BPCL KRU RGC
3. IOCL VGO HDT
4. SAIL RSP BLOWER
5. HMEL GGSR DHDT
Status of IOCL BARODA DHDT Compressor :
Manufacturing Documentation Completed
Data Sheets, Performance Curves, Lateral Analysis and Torsional
Analysis reports were approved by customer
Status of BPCL KRU RGC Compressor :
Manufacturing Documentation Completed
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Data Sheets, Performance Curves, Lateral Analysis and Torsional
Analysis reports were submitted to customer for approval

Status of IOCL VGO HDT Compressor :
Manufacturing Documentation of Critical Groups Completed
Performance Curves, Torsional analysis reports were approved by
customer
Data Sheets & Lateral Analysis reports were submitted to customer
for approval
Status of SAIL RSP BLOWER:
Procurement Specifications of Blowers & Price Adders completed
Order was placed on MANTurbo under the BHEL MT Consortium
agreement.
Initial inputs of Blower obtained from MT
Status of HMEL GGSR DHDT:
Indenting of items for the Project completed
Data Sheets & Performance Curves submitted to customer for
approval
Preparation of Study Drawing of the compressor completed

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XII. CONCLUSIONS
On the job training gave me an opportunity to learn the things in a more practical way.
This is very important and useful training module. I got familiarized with various
activities like, preparation of interface information, manufacturing documentation,
study drawing, and indenting various items that are required to execute the project.
With this important input module now I got the confidence to handle the projects
independently.
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