Basic Concept of electrical technology Introduction, Nature of Electricity, Unit of charge, free electrons, electric cu rrent, electric potential,

Potential difference, concept of emf and potential d ifference, Resistance, Factors on which resistance depends, Specific resistance or resistivity, conductance, carbon resistance, classification of material on th e basis of conductivity. Electricity, the phenomena caused by a fundamental property of matter called ele ctric charge. The term is commonly used to refer to electric charge itself, to e lectric energy, and to electric power. Electric energy, the most versatile form of energy available, is used for lighting, heating, and cooling. It is also used for communications, for running motors, in various kinds of industrial processe s, and for many other purposes. Terms used in electricity Ampere is the unit used to measure the rate of flow of an electric current. Conductor is a material through which electric current flows easily. Electric charge is a basic feature of certain particles of matter that causes th em to attract or repel other charged particles. Electric circuit is the path that an electric current follows. Electric current is the flow of electric charges. Electric field is the influence a charged body has on the space around it that c auses other charged bodies in that space to experience electric forces. Electrode is a piece of metal or other conductor through which current enters or leaves an electric device. Electromagnetism is a basic force in the universe that involves both electricity and magnetism. Electron is a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge. Insulator is a material that opposes the flow of electric current. Ion is an atom or group of atoms that has either gained or lost electrons, and s o has an electric charge. Kilowatt-hour is the amount of electric energy a 1,000-watt device uses in one h our. Neutron is a subatomic particle that has no electric charge. Ohm is the unit used to measure a material's resistance to the flow of electric current. Proton is a subatomic particle with a positive electric charge. Resistance is a material's opposition to the flow of electric current. Static electricity is electric charge that is not moving. Voltage is a type of "pressure" that drives electric charges through a circuit. Watt is the unit used to measure the rate of energy consumption, including elect ric energy. The Nature of Electricity The Electron Theory Electricity is most easily explained by the electron theory, developed in the ea rly 20th century. The electron theory, in turn, depends on the atomic theory of matter. The center, or nucleus, of an atom contains one or more particles called protons. A proton has a type of electric charge that is said to be positive. Ci rcling the nucleus are one or more electrons, which are much smaller than the pr oton. An electron has a type of charge that is said to be negative. An electrically neutral atom has one electron for each proton. In such an atom, the positive and negative charges exactly balance. An atom may lose or gain one or more electrons, leaving it with a net positive or negative charge. A charged atom is called an ion. Electric Field An electric charge brought near one or more other electric charges will experien ce an electrical force. One of the fundamental laws of electricity is that like charges (either positive or negative) repel each other, and unlike charges attra ct each other. The region in which a charge experiences an electrical force is c alled an electric field.

Electric fields are commonly pictured as consisting of lines, called lines of fo rce. The lines of force indicate the path that a positive electric charge would follow in the field, and normally radiate from or converge on the charged body. Electrically charged bodiesthat is, objects in which there is a net electric char geexert forces on each other at a distance by means of their electric fields. Static and Current Electricity When the atoms that make up an object lose or gain electrons, the object acquire s a net electric charge. An object with a positive charge tends to attract elect rons; one with a negative charge tends to repel them. Static electricity exists when an object has a net electric charge and there is no movement of electrons into or away from the object. Part or all of a static c harge is lost when the charged object touches an uncharged or oppositely charged object. An electric current exists when there is a net flow of electrically charged part icles. Most uses of electricity involve the flow of electrons. Some electric cur rents, such as those that occur in a battery, involve the flow of positive and n egative ions. (By convention, the direction of a current in an electric circuit is considered to be the direction in which positive charge would flow, and is op posite the direction of electron flow.) An electric current has energy that can be converted to heat or light, oras in an electric motorused to perform mechanical work. An electric current in a metal wire consists of the movement of electrons from a negatively charged region to a positively charged one. The currents used in eve ryday electrical devices involve the movement of very large numbers of electrons . For example, every second that a light bulb is on, some billion electrons ente r (and leave) the light bulb filament. Although the individual electrons forming a current move through a wire slowly (typically less than 5.5 inches per hour [ 14 cm/h]), the force of repulsion between the electrons travels at nearly the sp eed of light. There are two basic types of electric currentdirect current (DC) and alternating current (AC). In a direct current, the direction of the flow of electric charge does not change, although the current may increase and decrease. Alternating cur rent, in contrast, regularly reverses direction. The electric current delivered to the home from an electric power company is alt ernating current. Its main advantage is that its voltage (electrical pressure) c an be easily increased or decreased (by devices called transformers). Another ad vantage is that AC machinery is generally simpler to design and build than DC ma chinery. Direct current, however, is needed by electronic devices and for such p rocesses as charging storage batteries and electroplating. An advantage of direc t current is that it can be readily produced by batteries for use in portable de vices. Conductors and Insulators Electric charges can flow much more easily through some materials than others. A material that has very little resistance to the passage of an electric current is called a conductor. In general, metals are very good conductors, because thei r atoms contain one or more loosely bound electrons. These electrons are free to move and form part of an electric current. At room temperature, silver offers t he least resistance to an electric current followed by copper, gold, and aluminu m. A liquid that permits the flow of positive and negative ions is called an ele ctrolyte. An important use of electrolytes is in batteries. Under certain condit ions, some materialscalled superconductorshave no resistance to an electric curren t. Some materials offer a very large resistance to the flow of electric charges. Su ch a material is called an insulator, or dielectric. Some common insulators incl ude glass, rubber, porcelain, paraffin, mica, and dry air. Insulators are import ant in the use of electricity because they will confine an electric current to t he conductor intended to carry it. For example, wires are usually covered with i nsulation to help prevent electric charges flowing in the wire from escaping to surrounding materials. Insulators are also important in a type of electrical dev ice called a capacitor.

A semiconductor is a material whose ability to carry an electric current is betw een that of conductors and that of insulators. Semiconductors such as silicon ar e essential in many kinds of electronic devices. Static Electricity The most familiar way of producing static electricity is by rubbing, or friction . Rubbing together two different kinds materials that are insulators can transfe r electrons from one substance to another. The substance that gains electrons ac quires a negative charge, and the one that loses them acquires a positive charge . For example, rubbing a balloon against dry hair produces an opposite electric charge in the balloon and the hair (which will be drawn to the balloon). Similar ly, shuffling over a carpet in dry weather will produce a sufficient electrostat ic charge on a person's body to give a slight shock when the person touches a co nductor. Objects can also acquire an electric charge through a process called electrostat ic induction. In the illustration Electrostatic Induction, a charged object (the negatively charged rod) is brought near an electrically insulated metal sphere, but not into contact with it. The excess electrons in the rod will repel the el ectrons from the part of the sphere nearest the rod to the part farthest from th e rod. If electrons are allowed to escape from the sphere through an electrical connection to the ground, the sphere will be left with a net positive charge. Current Electricity: is produced by creating a difference in electric potential between two points connected by a conductor. A potential difference exists betwe en two points when one has more electrons than the other. The point with excess electrons is called the negative terminal; the other, the positive terminal. The potential difference between the two terminals creates an electrical pressure c alled electromotive force (emf), or voltage. The two most common ways of creating a voltage to produce current are chemically (using batteries) and by electromagnetic induction (using generators). A voltag e can also be created by heat, light, or mechanical pressure. In the chemical method, Electric, complementary chemical reactions cause one ter minal to gain electrons, making it negative, and cause the other to lose electro ns, making it positive. The electromagnetic induction method for producing an electric current involves the use of a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When a wire is moved through a magnetic field, the electrons in the wire are displaced and move toward one en d of the wire. This action makes one end negative, the other positive. Under certain conditions, heat will cause electrons to flow between two differen t materials. One device for producing this effect is the thermocouple, which is used as a measuring instrument and as a control device. Light falling on certain metals and semiconductors will release electrons to pro duce an electric current. This effect is used in certain kinds of batteries. Some crystals, including quartz crystals cut into certain geometric shapes, will produce a voltage when squeezed and will vibrate when subjected to a voltage. T his phenomenon, called the piezoelectric effect is used in a variety of electric al devices, including microphones, radio transmitters, and electronic watches. Units of Electricity Five common units used in working with electricity and electric circuits are the volt, ampere, watt, ohm, and hertz. The Volt (V) is a unit for measuring both electric potential difference and elec tromotive force. The voltage supplied by most automobile storage batteries is 12 volts. In many countries, including most of those of Europe, electricity is sup plied to homes at 220 or 240 volts. In the United States and Canada, homes are t ypically supplied with electricity at around 120 volts for ordinary use and 240 volts for such appliances as electric ranges and electric water heaters. High-te nsion power lines have voltages of hundreds of thousands of volts. These lines a re used for the transmission of electric energy over long distances. The Ampere (A) is a unit for measuring electric currentthe flow of electric charg es. The ampere (or amp) is a base unit of the SI (metric system) and is defined in terms of the magnetic force produced between two parallel wires carrying an e lectric current. Houses are typically wired to provide a total of 60 or more amp

eres. The amount of electric charge transferred by a current of one ampere in on e second is one coulomb. The Watt (W) Electric powerthat is, the rate at which electric energy is used to perform workis measured in watts. Light bulbs and appliances are usually marked w ith their wattage, indicating the rate at which they consume energy. The normal 120-volt, 15-ampere household circuit can safely handle electrical devices drawi ng a total of 1,800 watts (1.8 kilowatts). The mechanical power an electric moto r can provide is usually given in watts or horsepower. (One horsepower equals 74 6 watts.) Consumption of electricity is measured in terms of the kilowatt-hourthe work done by 1,000 watts in one hour. The relationship of voltage (in volts) to current (in amperes) and resistance (i n ohms) is expressed by Ohm's Law: Voltage = current X resistance The Ohm (W) is a unit for measuring the resistance a material has to the flow of an electric current. The relationship between power (in watts), voltage (in volts), and current (in a mperes) is: Power = voltage X current The Hertz (Hz): is a measure of the rate at which an alternating current reverse s direction. Each two consecutive reversals in an alternating current are called a cycle. Commercially generated alternating current in the United States has a frequency of 60 hertz (cycles per second). In many countries, including European countries, alternating current has a frequency of 50 hertz. Electric charge Electric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. There exist two types of elec tric charges, called positive and negative. Positively-charged substances are re pelled from other positively-charged substances, but attracted to negatively-cha rged substances; negatively-charged substances are repelled from negative and at tracted to positive. The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C), although in electrical engineering it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah), and in chemistry it is common to use the elementary charge (e) as a unit. The symbol Q is often used to denote a charge. The electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic partic les, which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged ma tter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction bet ween a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electroma gnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces Conservation of electric charge The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of c hanges within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave fun ction. The conservation of charge results in the charge-current continuity equat ion. More generally, the net change in charge density within a volume of integr ation is equal to the area integral over the current density through the close d surface , which is in turn equal to the net current : Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equati on, gives the result: The charge transferred between times and is obtained by integrating both sides : where is the net outward current through a closed surface and is the electric charge contained within the volume defined by the surface. FREE ELECTRON THEORY Classical free electron theory of metals This theory was developed by Drude and Lorentz and hence is also known as DrudeLorentz theory. According to this theory, a metal consists of electrons which ar e free to move about in the crystal like molecules of a gas in a container. Mutu

al repulsion between electrons is ignored and hence potential energy is taken as zero. Therefore the total energy of the electron is equal to its kinetic energy . Drift velocity If no electric field is applied on a conductor, the free electrons move in rando m directions. They collide with each other and also with the positive ions. Sinc e the motion is completely random, average velocity in any direction is zero. If a constant electric field is established inside a conductor, the electrons expe rience a force F = -eE due to which they move in the direction opposite to direc tion of the field. These electrons undergo frequent collisions with positive ion s. In each such collision, direction of motion of electrons undergoes random cha nges. As a result, in addition to the random motion, the electrons are subjected to a very slow directional motion. This motion is called drift and the average velocity of this motion is called drift velocity vd. Consider a conductor subjected to an electric field E in the x-direction. The fo rce on the electron due to the electric field = -eE. By Newtons law, -eE = mdvd/dt dvd = -eEdt/m Integrating, Vd = -eEt/m + Constant When t = 0, vd = 0 Therefore Constant = 0 Vd = -eEt/m --------------- (1) Electrical conductivity Consider a wire of length dl and area of cross section A subjected to an electric fi eld E. If n is the concentration of the electrons, the number of electrons flowing through the wire in dt seconds = nAvddt. The quantity of charge flowing in time dt = nAvddt.e Therefore I = dq/dt = neAvd Current density J = I/A = nevd Subsittuting the value of vd from (1), J = nee Et/m = ne2Et/m --------------- (2) By Ohms law, J = s E Therefore s = J/E = ne2t/m -------------- (3) Mobility of a charge carrier is the ratio of the drift mobility to the electric field. = vd/E m2/Volt-Sec Substituting vd from (1), = et/m -------------- (4) Substituting this in equation (3), s = ne ------------- (5) Relaxation time and mean free path When the field E is switched off, due to the collision of the electrons with lat tice ions and lattice defects, their velocity will start to decrease. This proce ss is called relaxation. The relaxation time(t) is the time required for the dri ft velocity to reduce to 1/e of its initial value. The average distance traveled by an electron between two consecutive collisions is called mean free path (l) of the electron. l = vdt -------------- (6) Temperature dependence The free electron theory is based on Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. Therefore Kinetic energy of electron = mvd2 = 3/2 KBT Vd = 3KBT/m Substituting this in equation (6), t = l m/3KBT -------------- (7) Since s = ne2t/m, s is proportional to 1/T Or r is proportional to T. Wiedmann-Franz law The ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of a metal is direc

tly proportional to absolute temperature. K/s is proportional to T Or, K/sT = L, a constant called Lorentz number. L = 3KB2/2e2 Drawbacks of Classical free electron theory 1) According to this theory, r is proportional to T. But experimentally it w as found that r is proportional to T. 2) According to this theory, K/sT = L, a constant (Wiedmann-Franz law) for all temperatures. But this is not true at low temperatures. 3) The theoretically predicted value of specific heat of a metal does not a gree with the experimentally obtained value. 4) This theory fails to explain ferromagnetism, superconductivity, photoele ctric effect, Compton effect and blackbody radiation. Quantum free electron theory Classical free electron theory could not explain many physical properties. In 19 28, Sommerfeld developed a new theory applying quantum mechanical concepts and F ermi-Dirac statistics to the free electrons in the metal. This theory is called quantum free electron theory. Classical free electron theory permits all electrons to gain energy. But quantum free electron theory permits only a fraction of electrons to gain energy. In or der to determine the actual number of electrons in a given energy range(dE), it is necessary to know the number of states(dNs) which have energy in that range. The number of states per unit energy range is called the density of states g(E). Therefore, g(E) = dNs/dE According to Fermi-Dirac statistics, the probability that a particular energy st ate with energy E is occupied by an electron is given by, f(E) = 1 / [1+e(E-EF/KT) ] where EF is called Fermi level. Fermi level is the highest filled energy level a t 0 K. Energy corresponding to Fermi level is known as Fermi energy. Now the act ual number of electrons present in the energy range dE, dN = f(E) g(E)dE Effect of temperature on Fermi-Dirac distribution function Fermi-Dirac distribution function is given by, f(E) = 1 / [1+e(E-EF/KT) ] At T=0K, for EEF, f(E)=0 At T=0K, for E=EF, f(E)=indeterminate At T>0K, for E=EF, f(E)=1/2 All these results are depicted in the figure. Classification of semiconductors on the basis of Fermi level and Fermi energy In intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lie exactly at the centre of the fo rbidden energy gap. In n-type semiconductors Fermi level lie near the conduction band. In p-type semiconductors Fermi level lie near the valence band. Impurity levels In extrinsic semiconductors, addition of impurities introduces new allowed quant um energy states in the forbidden energy band. The quantum state which appears a s a single energy level is known as impurity level. Impurity level is called donor level (Ed) in n-type semiconductors and lie just below the conduction band. Impurity level is called acceptor level (Ea) in p- ty pe semiconductor and lie just above the valence band. Band theory of solids The atoms in the solid are very closely packed. The nucleus of an atom is so hea vy that it considered being at rest and hence the characteristic of an atom are decided by the electrons. The electrons in an isolated atom have different and d iscrete amounts of energy according to their occupations in different shells and sub shells. These energy values are represented by sharp lines in an energy lev

el diagram. During the formation of a solid, energy levels of outer shell electrons got spli t up. As a result, closely packed energy levels are produced. The collection of such a large number of energy levels is called energy band. The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. The band formed by a series of en ergy levels containing the valence electrons is known as valence band. The next higher permitted band in a solid is the conduction band. The electrons occupying this band are known as conduction electrons. Conduction band valence band are separated by a gap known as forbidden energy ga p. No electrons can occupy energy levels in this band. When an electron in the v alence band absorbs enough energy, it jumps across the forbidden energy gap and enters the conduction band, creating a positively charged hole in the valence ba nd. The hole is basically the deficiency of an electron. Classification of solids on the basis of energy bands Insulator Insulators are very poor conductors of electricity with resitivity ranging 103 1 017 m. In this case Eg 6eV. For E.g. carbon. Semiconductor A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie between that of insulators and good conductors. Their forbidden band is small and resistivity ra nges between 10-4to 103m. Ge and Si are examples with forbidden energy gap 0.7eV and 1.1eV respectively. An appreciable number of electrons can be excited across the gap at room temperature. By adding impurities or by thermal excitation, we can increase the electrical conductivity in semiconductors Conductor Here valence band and conduction band overlap and there is no forbidden energy g ap. Resistivity ranges between 10=9 to 10-4 m. Here plenty of electrons are avail able for electrical conduction. The electrons from valence band can freely enter the conduction band. Electric current Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a conductive medium. In el ectric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It c an also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in plasma. The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric charge is the ampere, whi ch is charge flowing through some surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. Electric current is measured using an ammeter A simple electric circuit, where current is represented by the letter i. The rel ationship between the voltage (V), resistance (R), and current (I) is V=IR; this is known as Ohm's Law. Symbol: The conventional symbol for current is When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a DC voltage source s uch as a battery, the source places an electric field across the conductor. The moment contact is made, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to drift toward the positive terminal under the influence of this field. The free electro ns are therefore the charge carrier in a typical solid conductor. For a steady f low of charge through a surface, the current I (in amperes) can be calculated wi th the following equation: I = Q/t Where Q is the electric charge transferred through the surface over a time t. If Q and t are measured in coulombs and seconds respectively, I is in amperes. Mor e generally, electric current can be represented as the rate at which charge flo ws through a given surface as: I = dQ/dt Current density and Ohm's law Current density is a measure of the density of an electric current. It is define d as a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area.

In SI units, the current density is measured in amperes per square metre. where I is current in the conductor, J is the current density, and A is the cros s-sectional area. The dot product of the two vector quantities (A and J) is a sc alar that represents the electric current. Current density (current per unit area) J in a material is proportional to the c onductivity and electric field in the medium: Instead of conductivity, a reciprocal quantity called resistivity , can be used: Conduction in semiconductor devices may occur by a combination of drift and diff usion, which is proportional to diffusion constant and charge density . The cu rrent density is then: With being the elementary charge and the electron density. The carriers move in the direction of decreasing concentration, so for electrons a positive curren t results for a positive density gradient. If the carriers are holes, replace el ectron density by the negative of the hole density . In linear anisotropic materials, , and D are tensors. In linear materials such as metals, and under low frequencies, the current densi ty across the conductor surface is uniform. In such conditions, Ohm's law states that the current is directly proportional to the potential difference between t wo ends (across) of that metal (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device): Where is the current, measured in amperes; is the potential difference, measur ed in volts; and is the resistance, measured in ohms. For alternating currents, especially at higher frequencies, skin effect causes the current to spread unev enly across the conductor cross-section, with higher density near the surface, t hus increasing the apparent resistance. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (V) Capacity of charged body to do work is called electric potential. Unit of electr ic potential is VOLT Electric Potential (V) = work done (W)/ charge(Q) Electric potential due to a point charge The electric potential created by a point charge Q, at a distance r from the cha rge (relative to the potential at infinity), can be shown to be Where 0 is the electric constant (permittivity of free space). This is known as t he Coulomb Potential. The electric potential due to a system of point charges is equal to the sum of t he point charges' individual potentials. This fact simplifies calculations signi ficantly, since addition of potential (scalar) fields is much easier than additi on of the electric (vector) fields. The equation given above for the electric potential (and all the equations used here) are in the forms required by SI units. In some other (less common) systems of units, such as CGS-Gaussian, many of these equations would be altered. The SI unit of electric potential is the volt (in honor of Alessandro Volta), wh ich is why electric potential is also known as voltage POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Difference in potentials of two charged bodies is called Potential difference. Current flows due to potential difference. Potential Difference generated by Source of electrical energy across its termin als tends to produce an electric current in a circuit is called an electromotiv e force (emf). EMF is a short form of electromotive force. All the metals contain a large numbe r of free electrons which move randomly in all the directions, inside the metal piece. The electrical force or pressure that causes the electrons to move in a p articular direction is called as electromotive force. The unit of E.M.F is Volts and EMF is also called as voltage or potential difference. It is denoted by V. Electircal current is defined as movement of electrons or flow of electrons insi

de a conducting material. The unit is Ampera(A).The electron current flows from the negative end of the battery to the positive end. Conventional current is said to be flowing from positive potential to a negative potential. The direction of flow of conventional current is always opposite to that of the electron current. Electromotive Force (emf) vs Potential Difference Electromagnetism is an integral part of physics. There are terms and units which are very closely related to each other and have a very fine line distinguishing the two. Potential difference and emf are two such terms. Electromotive Force (emf) Electromotive force, or emf, is better described as the total voltage in an elec tric circuit generated by the source or battery. Emf is not a physical force. It is basically the energy required to move a unit positive charge from the negati ve terminal of the battery to the positive terminal when the circuit is open. Em f is the underlying voltage that occurs by the fluctuating magnetic field across a wire or circuit. Formally, it was also defined as the force which is required to separate two charges (one positive and one negative) from each other. It is measured in volts. Electromotive force is often denoted by the symbol (epsil on). Mathematically, if we define emf, we get: Where is the emf and ECS is the electrostatic field generated. In simple words, it may be stated as electromotive force is the maximum voltage that can be attained by a specific circuit. Potential Difference Potential difference is the work done per unit charge to move a charge between t he negative and the positive terminal of the battery. When the battery is in use , or the circuit is closed, a small portion of the emf is spent in overcoming th e internal resistance of the battery. This energy per unit charge is called pote ntial difference. If is the emf of the battery used in the circuit and r is the internal resistance of the specific battery and the external resistance of the circuit is R in a circuit of I current then; = Ir + IR Here, Ir is regarded as the potential difference between the terminals of the ba ttery which is also known as the terminal voltage. The emf can be measured using a voltmeter and is represented by the symbol V (volt ). The term potential difference is also used in relation to magnetic and gravitation al fields. Their units are different but the concept is similar. RESISTANCE Resistance: The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defin ed as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric current which flows throu gh it: If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's l aw, I = V/R, can be used to predict the behavior of the material. Although the d efinition above involves DC current and voltage, the same definition holds for t he AC application of resistors. Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its r esistance can be described in terms of its bulk resistivity. The resistivity, an d thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges of temperat ure, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of resistance. It is denoted by R FACTORS ON WHICH RESISTANCE DEPENDS (1) Length of conductor: Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to t he length of conductor . R L.(a) (2) Area of cross section of conductor: Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to area of cross section of conductor. R 1 / A.(b) a) and (b)

Combining

Where r = resistivity of material of conductor RESISTIVITY Resistivity is an electrical property of material .It is defined as the resistan ce of a material or conductor of 1 cubic meter volume. Or It is the resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area. Or Resistivity of a conductor is the resistance of 1 meter long conductor whose are a of cross section is I meter square Unit: r = ohm x m Different materials have different values of resistivity. A very high value of r esistivity indicates high electrical resistance R = p l/A Where p is a quantity, characteristics of the material of the conductor, called the resistivity of the substance. The term specific resistance is sometimes used instead of resistivity. From the equation above: p = RA/l If A and l are given values of unity, it is seen that p is numerically equal to the resistance of a conductor having unit cross section and unit length. If R is in ohms, A in square centimeters, and l in centimeters, then p is in ohm -centimeters. This unit is somewhat more convenient than the mks unit the ohm-me ter. Conductance and Conductivity Since the reciprocal of the resistance, 1/R occurs often in parallel circuits, i t is frequently convenient to designate this concept as the conductance of the r esistor. The symbol used for conductance is G, and the unit is mho. In a paralle l circuit the total conductance is given by G = G1 + G2 + G3. Less often the rec iprocal of resistivity 1/p is used, and this concept is called the conductivity of the material. The symbol for conductivity is o (not exactly the symbol) and t he unit is mho/cm. Change of Resistance with Temperature The electric resistance of all substances is found to change more or less with t he changes of temperature. Three types of changes are observed. The resistance m ay increase with increasing temperature. This is true of all pure metals and mos t alloys. The resistance may decrease with increase of temperature. This is true of a semiconductor like carbon and of glass and many electrolytes. The resistan ce may be independent of temperature. This is approximately true of many special alloys, such as manganin ( Cu 0.84, Ni 0.12, Mn 0.04). Experiments have shown that, for moderate temperature range, the change of resis tance with temperature of metallic conductors can be represented by the equation . Rt = Ro + Ro oo t = Ro( 1 + oo t) -----------------EQ. (1) where Rt is the resistance at temperature t, Ro is the resistance at 0 degree ce lcius, and oo is a quantity characteristic of the substance and known as the tem perature coefficient of resistance. The defining equation for oo is obtained by solving Eq 1, giving, oo = Rt - Ro/ Rot ----------------------------------EQ.(2) The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the change in resistance per unit resistance per degree rise in temperature, based upon the resistance a t 0 degree celcius. Although Eq 1 is only approximate, it can be used over mediu m ranges of temperature for all but very precise work. Since Rt - Ro and Ro have the same units, their units will cancel in the fraction in Eq 2. Hence, the uni t of oo depends only upon the unit of t. For instance, for copper oo = 0.004/C, but only 5/9 x 0.004/F. Carbon Resistors There are many types of resistors, both fixed and variable. The most common type for electronics use is the carbon resistor. They are made in different physical sizes with power dissipation limits commonly from 1 watt down to 1/8 watt. The resistance value and tolerance can be determined from the standard resistor colo

r code. A variation on the color code is used for precision resistors which may have fiv e colored bands. In that case the first three bands indicate the first three dig its of the resistance value and the fourth band indicates the number of zeros. I n the five band code the fifth band is gold for 1% resistors and silver for 2%. There is another scheme for resistors which have the values stamped on them. Sin ce a decimal point is easy to miss, this code uses R instead of a decimal point. For values over 100 W four numbers are used. The tolerance is indicated by a le tter. Resistor Color Code Resistance value: first three bands. 1st band - 1st digit 2nd band - 2nd digit 3rd band number of zeros. 0 Black 5 Green 4th band, Tolerance 1 Brown 6 Blue 5% Gold 2 Red 7 Violet 10% Silver 3 Orange 8 Gray 20% No Colour 4 Yellow 9 white

Sources of Electrical Energy Introduction, Cell, Type of cells, construction of lead-acid battery, characteri stics of lead acid cell, charging of lead acid batteries, application of lead a cid batteries, construction of nickel iron cell, nickel cadmium cell, solar cells , fuel cells, application of lead acid batteries. BATTERIES AND TYPES OF BATTERIES Atoms are considered as a building-block of all material objects. Atoms, in turn , however, are composed of even smaller pieces of matter called particles. Elect rons, protons, and neutrons are the basic types of particles found in atoms. Eac h of these particle types plays a distinct role in the behavior of an atom. Whil e electrical activity involves the motion of electrons, the chemical identity of an atom (which largely determines how conductive the material will be) is deter mined by the number of protons in the nucleus (center).

The protons in an atom's nucleus are extremely difficult to dislodge, and so the chemical identity of any atom is very stable. One of the goals of the ancient a lchemists (to turn lead into gold) was foiled by this sub-atomic stability. All efforts to alter this property of an atom by means of heat. light, or friction w ere met with failure. The electrons of an atom, however, are much more easily di slodged. Electrons can do much more than just move around and between atoms: they can als o serve to link different atoms together. This linking of atoms by electrons is called a chemical bond. A crude (and simplified) representation of such a bond b etween two atoms might look like this: There are several types of chemical bonds, the one shown above being representat ive of a covalent bond, where electrons are shared between atoms. Because chemic al bonds are based on links formed by electrons, these bonds are only as strong as the immobility of the electrons forming them. That is to say, chemical bonds can be created or broken by the same forces that force electrons to move: heat,

light, friction, etc. When atoms are joined by chemical bonds, they form materia ls with unique properties known as molecules. The dual-atom picture shown above is an example of a simple molecule formed by two atoms of the same type. Most mo lecules are unions of different types of atoms. Even molecules formed by atoms o f the same type can have radically different physical properties. Take the eleme nt carbon, for instance: in one form, graphite, carbon atoms link together to fo rm flat "plates" which slide against one another very easily, giving graphite it s natural lubricating properties. In another form, diamond, the same carbon atom s link together in a different configuration, this time in the shapes of interlo cking pyramids, forming a material of exceeding hardness. In yet another form, F ullerene, dozens of carbon atoms form each molecule, which looks something like a soccer ball. Fullerene molecules are very fragile and lightweight. The airy so ot formed by excessively rich combustion of acetylene gas (as in the initial ign ition of an oxy-acetylene welding/cutting torch) is composed of many tiny Fuller ene molecules. When alchemists succeeded in changing the properties of a substan ce by heat, light, friction, or mixture with other substances, they were really observing changes in the types of molecules formed by atoms breaking and forming bonds with other atoms. Chemistry is the modern counterpart to alchemy, and con cerns itself primarily with the properties of these chemical bonds and the react ions associated with them. A type of chemical bond of particular interest to our study of batteries is the so-called ionic bond, and it differs from the covalent bond in that one atom of the molecule possesses an excess of electrons while another atom lacks electrons , the bonds between them being a result of the electrostatic attraction between the two unlike charges. Consequently, ionic bonds, when broken or formed, result in electrons moving from one place to another. This motion of electrons in ioni c bonding can be harnessed to generate an electric current. A device constructed to do just this is called a voltaic cell, or cell for short, usually consisting of two metal electrodes immersed in a chemical mixture (called an electrolyte) designed to facilitate a chemical reaction: The two electrodes are made of different materials, both of which chemically rea ct with the electrolyte in some form of ionic bonding. In the common "lead-acid" cell (the kind commonly used in automobiles), the nega tive electrode is made of lead (Pb) and the positive is made of lead peroxide (P b02), both metallic substances. The electrolyte solution is a dilute sulfuric ac id (H2SO4 + H2O). If the electrodes of the cell are connected to an external cir cuit, such that electrons have a place to flow from one to the other, negatively charged oxygen ions (O) from the positive electrode (PbO2) will ionically bond with positively charged hydrogen ions (H) to form molecules water (H2O). This cr eates a deficiency of electrons in the lead peroxide (PbO2) electrode, giving it a positive electrical charge. The sulfate ions (SO4) left over from the disasso ciation of the hydrogen ions (H) from the sulfuric acid (H2SO4) will join with t he lead (Pb) in each electrode to form lead sulfate (PbSO4): At (+) electrode: PbO2 + H2SO4 --------- PbSO4 + H2O + O At (-) electrode: Pb + H2SO4--------------- PbSO4 + 2H This process of the cell providing electrical energy to supply a load is called discharging, since it is depleting its internal chemical reserves. Theoretically , after all of the sulfuric acid has been exhausted, the result will be two elec trodes of lead sulfate (PbSO4) and an electrolyte solution of pure water (H2O), leaving no more capacity for additional ionic bonding. In this state, the cell i s said to be fully discharged. In a lead-acid cell, the state of charge can be d etermined by an analysis of acid strength. This is easily accomplished with a de vice called a hydrometer, which measures the specific gravity (density) of the e lectrolyte. Sulfuric acid is denser than water, so the greater the charge of a c ell, the greater the acid concentration, and thus a denser electrolyte solution. There is no single chemical reaction representative of all voltaic cells, so any

detailed discussion of chemistry is bound to have limited application. The impo rtant thing to understand is that electrons are motivated to and/or from the cel l's electrodes via ionic reactions between the electrode molecules and the elect rolyte molecules. The reaction is enabled when there is an external path for ele ctric current, and ceases when that path is broken. Being that the motivation fo r electrons to move through a cell is chemical in nature, the amount of voltage (electromotive force) generated by any cell will be specific to the particular c hemical reaction for that cell type. For instance, the lead-acid cell just descr ibed has a nominal voltage of 2.2 volts per cell, based on a fully "charged" cel l (acid concentration strong) in good physical condition. There are other types of cells with different specific voltage outputs. The Edison cell, for example, with a positive electrode made of nickel oxide, a negative electrode made of iro n, and an electrolyte solution of potassium hydroxide (a caustic, not acid, subs tance) generates a nominal voltage of only 1.2 volts, due to the specific differences in chemical reaction with those electrode and electrolyte substances. The chemical reactions of some types of cells can be reversed by forcing electric current backwards through the cell (in the negative electrode and out the positive electrode). This process i s called charging. Any such (rechargeable) cell is called a secondary cell. A ce ll whose chemistry cannot be reversed by a reverse current is called a primary c ell. When a lead-acid cell is charged by an external current source, the chemica l reactions experienced during discharge are reversed: At (+) electrode: PbSO4 + H2O + O------- PbO2 + H2SO4 At (-) electrode: PbSO4 + 2H------------- Pb + H2SO4 Lead-acid cell charge can be assessed with an instrument called a hydrometer, wh ich measures the density of the electrolyte liquid. The denser the electrolyte, the stronger the acid concentration, and the greater charge state of the cell. Battery construction The word battery simply means a group of similar components. In military vocabul ary, a "battery" refers to a cluster of guns. In electricity, a "battery" is a s et of voltaic cells designed to provide greater voltage and/or current than is p ossible with one cell alone. The symbol for a cell is very simple, consisting of one long line and one short line, parallel to each other, with connecting wires & The symbol for a battery is nothing more than a couple of cell symbols stacke d in series.

As was stated before, the voltage produced by any particular kind of cell is det ermined strictly by the chemistry of that cell type. The size of the cell is irr elevant to its voltage. To obtain greater voltage than the output of a single ce ll, multiple cells must be connected in series. The total voltage of a battery i s the sum of all cell voltages. A typical automotive lead-acid battery has six c ells, for a nominal voltage output of 6 x 2.2 or 13.2 volts: The cells in an automotive battery are contained within the same hard rubber hou sing, connected together with thick, lead bars instead of wires. The electrodes and electrolyte solutions for each cell are contained in separate, partitioned s ections of the battery case. In large batteries, the electrodes commonly take th e shape of thin metal grids or plates, and are often referred to as plates inste ad of electrodes. For the sake of convenience, battery symbols are usually limited to four lines, alternating long/short, although the real battery it represents may have many mo re cells than that. On occasion, however, you might come across a symbol for a b attery with unusually high voltage, intentionally drawn with extra lines. The li nes, of course, are representative of the individual cell plates: Symbol for a battery with an unusually high voltage

If the physical size of a cell has no impact on its voltage, then what does it a ffects? The answer is resistance, which in turn affects the maximum amount of cu rrent that a cell can provide. Every voltaic cell contains some amount of intern al resistance due to the electrodes and the electrolyte. The larger a cell is constructed, the greater the electrode contact area with th e electrolyte, and thus the less internal resistance it will have. Although we generally consider a cell or battery in a circuit to be a perfect so urce of voltage (absolutely constant), the current through it dictated solely by the external resistance of the circuit to which it is attached, this is not ent irely true in real life. Since every cell or battery contains some internal resi stance, that resistance must affect the current in any given circuit: The real battery shown above within the dotted lines has an internal resistance of 0.2, which affects its ability to supply current to the load resistance of 1 . The ideal battery on the left has no internal resistance, and so our Ohm's Law c alculations for current (I=E/R) give us a perfect value of 10 amps for current w ith the 1 ohm load and 10 volt supply. The real battery, with its built-in resis tance further impeding the flow of electrons, can only supply 8.333 amps to the same resistance load. The ideal battery, in a short circuit with 0 resistance, would be able to supply an infinite amount of current. The real battery, on the other hand, can only su pply 50 amps (10 volts / 0.2 ) to a short circuit of 0 resistance, due to its int ernal resistance. The chemical reaction inside the cell may still be providing e xactly 10 volts, but voltage is dropped across that internal resistance as elect rons flow through the battery, which reduces the amount of voltage available at the battery terminals to the load. Since we live in an imperfect world, with imperfect batteries, we need to unders tand the implications of factors such as internal resistance. Typically, batteri es are placed in applications where their internal resistance is negligible comp ared to that of the circuit load (where their short-circuit current far exceeds their usual load current), and so the performance is very close to that of an id eal voltage source. If we need to construct a battery with lower resistance than what one cell can p rovide (for greater current capacity), we will have to connect the cells togethe r in parallel:

Essentially, what we have done here is determine the Thevenin equivalent of the five cells in parallel (an equivalent network of one voltage source and one seri es resistance). The equivalent network has the same source voltage but a fractio n of the resistance of any individual cell in the original network. The overall effect of connecting cells in parallel is to decrease the equivalent internal re sistance, just as resistors in parallel diminish in total resistance. The equiva lent internal resistance of this battery of 5 cells is 1/5 that of each individu al cell. The overall voltage stays the same: 2.2 volts. If this battery of cells were powering a circuit, the current through each cell would be 1/5 of the tota l circuit current, due to the equal split of current through equal-resistance pa rallel branches. TYPE of BATTERIES Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages an d disadvantages. Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemica l energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted , energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means. Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reac tions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their origi nal composition. Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were

restored to operation by replacing the components of the battery consumed by the chemical reaction. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion .