Introduction
Despite showing an important association with numerous types of gold deposits, epigenetic breccias remain an enigmatic topic for many geologists. This classification of breccias is genetic and based on the inferred role of magmas, magmatic volatiles and their interaction with groundwaters. It is taken from a classification by Sillitoe (1985) and a modified and expanded classification in Lawless et al (1998). Epigenetic breccia bodies are a not uncommon feature of numerous geological environments (especially magmatic arcs), and may show a spatial and indirect or direct genetic relationship to ore formation. Commonly, breccias are usually just one part of a protracted history of magmatic-hydrothermal activity. Some examples of large gold deposits hosted within large epigenetic breccia bodies are Cripple Creek (alkalic low sulfidation epithermal), Olympic Dam (IOCG), Grasberg (Au-rich porphyry) and numerous high sulfidation epithermal deposits. Before assigning a breccia body to a breccia type within this classification, numerous pieces of evidence need to be observed. These include: dominant breccia texture and composition, particular important textural features (e.g. accretionary lapilli, ragged juvenile clasts, etc), distribution and relationships between breccia facies and the overall geometry of the breccia body. Clearly, the below classification system is not suitable for field use, and considerable field work is required before it is used. In breccia hosted hydrothermal systems, it is important that variations in breccia facies are recognised and their distribution determined. This can help to vector towards prospective zones within the breccia system. Field classification of breccia facies should be based on features such as clast composition (mono/polymictic), degree of rounding, clast:matrix ratio (clast vs matrix supported), matrix composition (hydrothermal infill vs milled rock) and the presence/absence of important clast types (e.g. soft-deformed sediments, accretionary lapilli, juvenile whispy clasts). Sillitoe, R.H., 1985, Ore-related breccias in volcanoplutonic arcs, Economic Geology, v. 80, p. 1467-1514. Lawless, J.V., White, P.J., Bogie, I., Paterson, L.A., Cartwright, A.J., 1998, Appendix 1: Genetic Classification of Breccias, Ore Deposits and MagmaticHydrothermal Processes (Workshop manual), Kingston Morrison consulting, pp. 20.
By Ned Howard with help from Andrew Ford and David Brookes
5
Diagram Energy Code Breccia Category Source
4 5
1
1
Magmatichydrothermal
Magma (directly)
Magmatic volatiles
None
7 1
Phreatic
None
Sheeted contacts, shingle breccia, exfoliated fragments None Explosion crater, breccia apron, Exfoliated fragments, hydrothermal sinter fragments activity No juvenile clasts, wall-rock blocks, base surge deposits, Maar, tuff accretionary lapilli ring, domes Wall-rock blocks, base surge deposits, locally exfoliated fragments, Maar, tuff accretionary lapilli ring, domes Pyroclastic Wall-rock blocks, fall & flow locally exfoliated deposits, fragments domes Intrusive rock matrix None Slickensides, gouge None
Silicification, clay
3
3 Magma Magmatic-phreatic (indirectly) Groundwater Diatreme up to ~3,000 Subrounded to Present rounded (<90%) None
Minor
4
4 Magma Phreatomagmatic (directly) Groundwater Diatreme 1,000 3,000 Subrounded to Present rounded (<90%)
5
5 Magmatic Intrusion Tectonic
6 6 7 7
Subrounded to 500 - 5,000 rounded Present up to ~100 Angular Angular to up to ~50 subrounded Absent Present (<100%)
Tuff matrix, cognate lithics Tuff matrix, pumice, cognate lithics None None
Minor
1. Magmatic Hydrothermal
Also referred to as carapace breccias, these are the product of juvenile hydrothermal fluids exsolved from magmas.
6. Intrusion Breccias
Breccias caused by the emplacement of an intrusive body, but not associated magmatichydrothermal fluids.
Quartz tourmaline breccia with exfoliated fragments, Wheal Remfry clay mine, Cornwall, UK
Schematic Diagram showing end-member Breccia Environments of Formation 2. Phreatic Breccias caused by the expansion of steam and gas
from circulating groundwater, but driven by magmatic heat. Involvement of magmatic volatiles is unimportant. Also referred to as hydrothermal eruption breccias. Breccias caused by the flashing /expansion of groundwater heated by a magma. No direct contact between the magma and the water. Geologically and genetically similar to phreatomagmatic breccias.
Accretionary lapilli, cryptic rounded shapes thought to form from accretion of wet ash onto rock fragments in eruption clouds, or within muddy breccia pipes, Lepanto, Philippines
Accretionary lapilli, Wau gold district, PNG Contact zone between porphyritic andesite (top) and a more mafic later intrusive with brittle fracturing and plucking of wall rock into the later magma.
3. Magmatic Phreatic
Low Sulphidation vein breccia with minor milling to sub-angular fragments, evidence of re-brecciation, Woolgar Australia
Tuff apron of pyroclastic material including surrounding maar volcano, Ukinrek Maar, Alaska USA
Schematic X section showing progressive development of a maar, with intrusion following existing zone of weakness (fault)
Breccias associated with regional and local tectonism, brittle and ductile faulting.
Pronounced brittle fracture of existing quartz vein by fault, with later hydrothermal alteration, Kangaroo Hills Tin field, Qld Australia
7. Tectonic
Schematic X Section of Kerkil low sulphidation breccia system (Kalimantan, Indonesia) showing alteration zonation and breccia distribution
Schematic cross section through typical maar-diatreme showing diatreme breccia pipe capped by maar lake sediments and surrounding tuff apron
Breccias generated by the explosive decompression of magmatic volatiles. These breccias include vent breccias and magmatic diatremes.
Altered rhyolitic autoclastic breccia, with clay alteration of matrix and clast margins, Oga Peninsula, Japan
5. Magmatic
Type 1. Magmatic-Hydrothermal
Also referred to as carapace breccias, these are the product of juvenile hydrothermal fluids exsolved from magmas. Genesis: Fractionation of intrusive magma may lead to the exsolution of an immiscible volatile phase (second boiling), which exceeds lithostatic pressure resulting in varying degrees of hydraulic fracturing. This process may occur multiple times as further magmatic fractionation and exsolution occur. Geometry: Commonly sub- vertical pipe to tabular bodies. Single or multiple bodies and phases. Diameter: 50-300m, locally >1,000m. Breccia Characteristics: Angular to sub-rounded (locally rounded) clasts of country rock intrusions within a matrix of hydrothermal infill with local minor clastic matrix. Infill minerals commonly indicative of high temperature and salinity (e.g. tourmaline, feldspar). Geological Setting and Relationships: Spatially associated with intrusions but extending sub-vertically away. May grade downwards into cupolas of intrusives with or without intrusion breccias or pegmatites. May grade upwards into breccia pipes and then to veins through decreasingly fractured country rocks. May occur at any depth from >5km to ~1-2km depth. Surface Expression: None Associated Ore Deposits: Commonly closely spatially genetically associated with intrusion-related deposits and porphyry Cu-(Au/Mo) deposits (e.g. Kidston breccia-hosted Au, Australia; Los Bronces porphyry Cu-Au, Chile; Ok Tedi porphyry Cu-Au, PNG; Galore Creek porphyry Cu-Mo, Canada). Brecciation is typically preto inter-mineral and may be genetically associated with mineralisation. Mineralisation in breccia-pipe hosted deposits commonly occurs near the margins, while in porphyry systems, mineralisation is more common within the breccia itself.
Altered polymict volcanic breccia with strong qtzser-chl alteration, Hellyer Mine, Tas, Australia
Tectonic breccia, showing fragmentation and imbrication of wallrock clasts into foliation