Spring 2012

Quadrupole Sonic Logging While Drilling

Jar Optimization
The Future of Mud Logging
Offshore Decommissioning
Oilfield Review
12-OR-0002
In September 2010, to hasten the removal of idle infra-
structure on the outer Continental Shelf of the Gulf of
Mexico, the US Department of the Interior issued decom-
missioning guidance to operators and pipeline right-of-way
holders. The intent of the notice to lessees (NTL) was to
spur compliance with regulations issued in 2002 by the US
Minerals Management Service regarding requirements for
plugging wells, decommissioning platforms and pipelines
and clearing sites.
The NTL was issued jointly by Interior Secretary
Ken Salazar and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management,
Regulation and Enforcement Director Michael R. Bromwich.
According to the accompanying press release, the notice
was issued to clarify earlier federal mandates that any well
not used during the previous ve years for exploration or
production had to be plugged. Production platforms and
pipelines associated with those wells and not involved with
exploration and production activities also had to be decom-
missioned. The result of the 2010 NTL directive is that
operators must immediately begin the process of plugging
and abandoning nearly 3,500 nonproducing wells and
dismantling and removing about 650 platforms in the
Gulf of Mexico.
There is little argument with the departments intent. In
recent years, hurricanes Ivan, Katrina and Rita have made
clear the potential danger when idle iron, weakened by
years of neglect and decay, is torn loose and pushed about
the gulf during a storm. Likewise, as some unfortunate
offshore operators can attest, it is signicantly less costly
to dismantle and remove stable structures than those that
have been scattered about the ocean oor, oated miles
from their original locations or tilted at precarious angles
by hurricane force winds and seas.
For these reasons, and in keeping with their role of envi-
ronmental stewards anxious to prevent leaks or other
forms of pollution entering the gulf waters from disinte-
grating infrastructure, operators should share the desire of
the US Department of the Interior to rid the gulf of much
of this idle iron. And just as it is in the industrys best
interest to embrace this effort, it is hoped that the admin-
istration will see that it is in the interest of the US to tem-
per enforcement of the mandate with reason.
Regulators should make decommissioning decisions not
according to some arbitrary timetable, but by using a
risk-based approach that will prevent premature removal
of infrastructure. Regulators should consider, for
instance, whether some platforms, pipelines and well-
heads are idle because there is no oil or gas in or near
the reservoirs they once served, or because the remaining
resources cannot be brought to the surface economically
Offshore Idle Iron: Remains of the Past or Infrastructure of the Future
1
using currently available technology. The distinction is
important because, owing to the petroleum industrys
remarkable ability to innovate, resources not seen or
accessible today may very well be both visible and acces-
sible within the next few years.
The industry has long held this position to justify post-
poning plugging operations until within one year after the
lease runs outthe absolute regulatory deadline for
decommissioning. The new mandate seems to cast aside
the industry reasoning, which is a mistake.
It may be particularly instructive for regulators to
consider the example of the now mature practice of
extended-reach drilling. Today, this technique allows
operators to construct wellbores that reach and drain
reserves that are horizontally and vertically miles from
the wellhead. The implication for breathing new life into
old infrastructure is clear; old platforms and pipelines
once used to support a now-depleted eld may be used to
access and service nearby reserves too small to justify
new surface facilities but reachable and protable using
new directional drilling technology. Other examples of
game-changing innovations are 3D seismic, logging and
measuring while drilling, and real-time monitoring and
control of drilling and productionall introduced and
rened within the past two decades.
The intent of the Department of the Interior is valid. But
all parties concerned, including the public, will be best
served if the decision to order the decommissioning of
individual pieces of infrastructure is balanced by consider-
ing whether realistic, imminent technological advances are
in the ofng that might dictate leaving them in place.
Holly Hopkins
Senior Policy Advisor, Upstream and Industry Operations
American Petroleum Institute
Washington, DC
Holly Hopkins is a Senior Policy Advisor, Upstream and Industry Operations for
the American Petroleum Institute (API). Her experience on environmental and
energy issues includes work both inside and outside the US federal government.
She staffs the API Drilling and Production Operations Subcommittee, which
includes oversight of upstream safety, and staffs two of the four joint industry
task forces formed in response to the Gulf of Mexico Macondo incident: the
Offshore Equipment Task Force and the Subsea Well Control and Containment
Task Force. Prior to joining API, she was a policy consultant to the Consumer
Energy Alliance (CEA), providing advice and guidance to CEA members regard-
ing the US government executive branch, specifically the US Department of
the Interior (DOI) and the Minerals Management Service (MMS). From August
2001 to January 2009, Holly worked for the US DOI in several capacities. Most
recently she served as the chief of staff to the MMS. Holly also served as MMS
liaison to the assistant secretary, Land and Minerals Management and as spe-
cial assistant to the deputy secretary. Prior to working for the DOI, she worked
as a policy assistant at National Environmental Strategies, Washington, DC.
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview
Schlumberger
Oilfield Review
1 Offshore Idle Iron: Remains of the Past or Infrastructure of the Future
Editorial contributed by Holly Hopkins, Senior Policy Advisor,
Upstream and Industry Operations, American Petroleum Institute
4 Sonic Logging While Drilling
Shear Answers
Modern sonic tools, which measure acoustic properties of
rocks, provide compressional and shear wave data that
engineers use to compute in situ mechanical properties.
These properties are useful for determining optimal drilling
parameters and identifying rocks with better completion
characteristics. Until recently, acquiring shear wave data
in all formations was not possible while drilling. New LWD
tools and processing techniques enable shear wave data to
be measured in real or nearreal time. This information can
be used to improve drilling efciency and safety. Engineers
can also characterize environments where acoustic measure-
ments are difcult to obtain, such as highly deviated and
horizontal wells. The results are better drilling and comple-
tion decisions for operators.
16 Working Out of a Tight Spot
Stuck pipe costs operators hundreds of millions of dollars per
year as a result of nonproductive time during drilling opera-
tions. For this reason, for decades, drillers have included drill-
ing jars in their toolstring as the rst response to drillpipe that
cannot be moved up or down or be rotated. Today, advances in
the technology of jarring operations have extended their appli-
cation to horizontal and highly deviated wells.
Executive Editor
Lisa Stewart
Senior Editors
Matt Varhaug
Rick von Flatern
Editors
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
Tony Smithson
Contributing Editors
Judy Feder
Ginger Oppenheimer
Rana Rottenberg
Design/Production
Herring Design
Mike Messinger
Illustration
Chris Lockwood
Tom McNeff
Mike Messinger
George Stewart
Printing
RR DonnelleyWetmore Plant
Curtis Weeks
Oilfield Review is published quarterly and
printed in the USA.
Visit www.slb.com/oilfieldreview for
electronic copies of articles in English,
Spanish, Chinese and Russian.
2012 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.
Reproductions without permission are
strictly prohibited.
For a comprehensive dictionary of oilfield
terms, see the Schlumberger Oilfield
Glossary at www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.
About Oilfield Review
Oilfield Review, a Schlumberger journal,
communicates technical advances in
finding and producing hydrocarbons
to employees, clients and other oilfield
professionals. Contributors to articles
include industry professionals and experts
from around the world; those listed with
only geographic location are employees
of Schlumberger or its affiliates.
On the cover:
Mud logging serves a variety of important
functions at the wellsite. By monitoring
an array of drilling sensors and sampling
formation cuttings and mud gas, mud
loggers are able to recognize when the
drill bit has penetrated a productive
formation. As formation and pressure
evaluation specialists, they also track
drilling parameters to help the driller
safely reach total depth. Here, a mud
logger heads to the shale shaker to
collect a sample of formation cuttings.
2
Spring 2012
Volume 24
Number 1
ISSN 0923-1730
51 Contributors
53 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review
55 Defining Perforating:
Detonation for Delivery
This is the fifth in a series of introductory articles describing basic concepts of the E&P industry.
3
24 The Expanding Role of Mud Logging
Among its many important functions, drilling mud transports
formation cuttings and formation uids from the bit to the sur-
face. For decades, analysis of these samples by mud loggers
provided operating companies with some of the earliest indica-
tors of reservoir potential. Today, advances in surface sensor
design and automated monitoring give mud loggers powerful
tools for improving drilling efciency and safety. At the same
time, new mud gas sampling and analysis techniques provide
rst insights into uid composition and reservoir geochemistry,
in advance of wireline sampling runs and well tests.
42 Offshore Permanent Well Abandonment
As deepwater elds become depleted, the offshore industry is
tasked with permanently abandoning thousands of subsea
wells and hundreds of platforms. Government directives are
speeding the pace of decommissioning activity, which has
added to operators burdens. Offshore service providers are
trying to minimize the nancial impact of these costly opera-
tions through innovative technology and methods that
reduce the time required to perform them.
Gretchen M. Gillis
Aramco Services Company
Houston, Texas, USA
Roland Hamp
Woodside Energy Ltd.
Perth, Australia
Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi, India
George King
Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas
Alexander Zazovsky
Chevron
Houston, Texas
Advisory Panel
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4 Oileld Review
Sonic Logging While DrillingShear Answers
Engineers use acoustic data from sonic logging tools to drill more efciently with
greater safety margins and to optimize completions. LWD sonic tools introduced in
the mid-1990s delivered compressional wave data but were unable to provide shear
wave data in all formations. A new LWD acoustic tool measures shear wave data in
formations where this was previously impossible, and engineers are using this
information to drill with greater condence, determine optimal directions for drilling
and identify rocks with better completion characteristics.
Jeff Alford
Matt Blyth
Ed Tollefsen
Houston, Texas, USA
John Crowe
Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd
Luanda, Angola
Julio Loreto
Sugar Land, Texas
Saeed Mohammed
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Vivian Pistre
Sagamihara, Japan
Adrian Rodriguez-Herrera
Bracknell, England
Oileld Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1.
Copyright 2012 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Raj Malpani,
Houston; and Utpal Ganguly, Sugar Land, Texas.
Mangrove, Petrel, SonicScope, Variable Density and
VISAGE are marks of Schlumberger.
The downhole drilling environment creates
inhospitable conditions for logging-while-drilling
(LWD) tools. The drill bit grinds through layers of
rock as the rotating drillstring and BHA continu-
ally slam against the borehole wall, shocking sen-
sitive electronic components. Drilling mud surges
through the drillpipe and exits through the bit,
sweeping the hole clean and returning cuttings to
the surface. Although LWD tools are designed to
endure these environments, LWD sonic tools are
further required to acquire data in a setting inun-
dated with noise and vibration.
Sonic acquisition is challenging while drill-
ing; however, service companies have worked to
develop LWD sonic tools because they provide
information that is not readily available from
other logging devices while drilling. Measure-
ments derived from the propagation of sound
waves through porous media provide helpful
information about geologic and geophysical
Spring 2012 55
properties. Petrophysicists have developed meth-
ods to use real-time acoustic measurements to
determine formation attributes that include pore
pressure and overburden gradients, lithology and
mechanical properties. Petrophysicists also use
sonic data for gas detection, fracture evaluation
and seismic calibration.
The rst LWD sonic tools, introduced in the
mid-1990s, provided compressional wave measure-
ments, along with shear wave data in some forma-
tions. These data were used for computing sonic
porosity, estimating pore pressure and correlating
downhole depth-based data with surface seismic
time-based data. Wireline sonic tools used differ-
ent sources and, because they could process and
transmit data at higher rates, provided answers
that were beyond the capability of their early LWD
counterparts. These capabilities include measure-
ments of high-quality compressional and shear
wave information to estimate geomechanical prop-
erties in soft formations and the ability to deter-
mine the orientation of rock properties in
anisotropic formations. A recently introduced
LWD sonic tool provides real-time compressional
and shear wave data in formations where this was
not possible with earlier tools.
This article reviews the use of sonic data in oil
and gas operations, with special emphasis on
LWD tools. A discussion of quadrupole sonic mea-
surements is included, along with the process of
deriving mechanical properties from sonic data.
Case studies demonstrate how engineers have
been able to extract shear data in soft formations
using quadrupole sonic modes. These data, along
with compressional data, are then used to opti-
mize drilling practices, monitor real-time pore
pressure while drilling, improve completions and
estimate geomechanical formation properties.
Some Sound Basics
Acoustic logging tools measure the time it takes
for an audible pulse of sound to travel from a trans-
mitter, through the mud, along the borehole, back
through the mud and then to an array of receivers
along the body of the tool. This measured time
equals the cumulative time of travel through the
various media that have been traversed.
The velocity of the sound wave measured
across the receiver array is the speed of sound
through the formations directly opposite the
receivers. Petrophysicists refer to this measure-
ment as slownessthe inverse of velocity; it is
expressed as traveltime per unit length. This
measurement is also referred to as a delta t (t)
measurement because it is the interval transit
time for the sound wave to travel through 1 m or
1 ft of formation.
Sound waves propagate through a solid medium
in a variety of modes, such as compressional and
shear waves, and these modes have different veloc-
ities (above). In addition to these, other modes,
including Rayleigh, mud and Stoneley waves, can
be identied in the sonic signal.
1
Many materials have been characterized by
their acoustic slowness (below). For instance, a
compressional sound wave travels through steel
at 187 s/m [57 s/ft]. Compressional waves
travel through zero-porosity sandstone at approx-
imately 182 s/m [55.5 s/ft] and through
limestone at around 155 s/m [47.3 s/ft].
Compressional waves that pass through forma-
tion rocks containing water, oil or gas have longer
traveltimes than through rocks with no porosity.
The change in traveltime is related to the volume
of uid in the rocks pore space, which is a func-
tion of the porosity. Sonic porosity measurements
were a key driver in the initial development of
acoustic logging tools.
Depending on the physical measurement
needed, the acoustic logging tool can be designed
with transmitters, or sources, to generate a par-
ticular type of pressure pulse. The most basic form,
and the type that is common across all forms of
acoustic tools, is the monopole source. Monopole
sources produce a radial pressure eld, analogous
to the wave pattern produced by a pebble dropped
onto the surface of a pond but in three dimensions.
They are used primarily to obtain the compres-
sional slowness of the formation.
>
Acoustic waves. Sonic tools measure the time it takes for an acoustic
pulse of sound to travel from a transmitter to a receiver array. The sound
wave strikes the borehole, travels through the formation and then arrives
back at the tool where the receivers measure the amplitude of the signal
versus time. As the sound wave passes through rock, different types of
waves are generated. The rst two arrivals are the compressional, or
P-waves, followed by shear, or S-waves. These two are the most important
for oileld applications because they are used to compute porosity and
mechanical properties. Rayleigh, mud and Stoneley waves arrive later.
S-wave and
Rayleigh wave arrivals
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Stoneley wave
arrivals
P-wave
arrivals
Time
Mud wave
arrivals
Transmitter
pulse
>
Characteristic values for compressional wave slowness (t
c
) and shear
wave slowness (t
s
).
Steel
Material
Compressional
Slowness Time
t
c
, s/m [s/ft]
Shear
Slowness Time
t
s
, s/m [s/ft]
Sandstone
Limestone
Dolomite
Shale
Freshwater
Brine 620 [189]
715 [218]
200 to 300 [61 to 91]
143 [43.5]
155 [47.3]
182 [55.5]
187 [57]
Not applicable
Not applicable
varies
236 [72]
290 [88.4]
289 [88]
338 [103]
1. Rayleigh waves, named for Lord Rayleigh, who predicted
their existence in 1885, are frequency-dependent
dispersive waves that travel along the surface of the
borehole. Rayleigh waves are used to evaluate velocity
variation with depth. Mud waves are arrivals from the
original sonic pulse that have traveled from the
transmitter through the mud column and are then
detected at the tool receivers. Stoneley waves, named for
Robert Stoneley, are surface waves that are associated
with the solid/uid interface along a borehole wall. They
are used to estimate fracture density and permeability.
6 Oileld Review
As part of the process to measure compres-
sional slowness, a monopole source generates a
compressional wave in the borehole uid sur-
rounding the tool. The wave pattern expands
radially, traveling at the compressional slowness
of the uid, until it encounters the borehole wall,
where some of the energy is reected back and
some is refracted into the formation (below).
Snells law denes the relationship between
the angle of refraction and the ratio of sound
velocities in the uid and the formation.
2
The
energy that is critically refracted travels along
the borehole wall toward the receivers. The
refracted energy propagates through the forma-
tion as a compressional wave and travels faster
than the uid wave because the formation is
stiffer than the uid.
The critically refracted compressional wave
generates a head wave in the borehole that travels
at the formation compressional velocity.
3
Following
Huygens principle, at each point along the bore-
hole wall, the compressional wave acts as a new
source, transmitting waves back into the borehole.
The compressional head wave eventually arrives at
the receiver array, allowing computation of the
compressional velocity of the formation.
When the compressional wave from a mono-
pole source is refracted into the formation, some
compressional energy is converted to shear waves
that refract into the formation. Whereas com-
pressional waves propagate through both the
uid-lled borehole and the porous rock matrix,
shear waves are not supported by uids and prop-
agate through uid-lled porous media by travel-
ing from grain to grain through the rock matrix. If
the shear slowness in the formation is less than
the compressional slowness in the borehole
uida situation known as a fast formation
the refracted wave is critically refracted and gen-
erates a shear head wave in the borehole. This
head wave travels at the shear velocity of the for-
mation and may be detected by the receiver
array. In this way, monopole acoustic tools can
provide shear velocities, but only in the case of
fast formations.
If the shear slowness in the formation is
greater than the compressional slowness in the
borehole uida condition known as a slow for-
mationthe compressional wave will still refract
upon reaching the borehole, but the angle of
refraction is such that critical refraction never
occurs, and no head wave is produced in the bore-
hole. Therefore, no shear head wave is detected
at the receivers, and the shear velocity cannot be
determined. This is a fundamental limitation of
monopole sources for acoustic logging.
The ability to measure shear slowness with a
monopole source thus depends on both borehole
uid and formation properties. Borehole uid
slowness values vary from around 620 s/m
[189 s/ft] for water-base muds to 787 s/m
[240 s/ft] or slower for synthetic oil-base muds.
Slow formations are common at shallow well
depths because of a lack of compaction by over-
burden pressure. For the same reason, slow for-
mations are common in deepwater drilling
environments. Shear data, which are crucial for
determining wellbore strength and stability in
slow formations, cannot be extracted from data
acquired with tools that employ only monopole
sources. In wellbore sections where these data
are often most needed, they are unavailable.
Limitations of monopole sources in measur-
ing shear wave data in slow formations led to the
development of dipole logging technology.
4
Tools
with dipole sources generate a exural wave that
is analogous to shaking the borehole (next page).
Flexural waves are dispersivetheir speed var-
ies with frequencyand at low frequencies, they
travel at the velocity of shear waves. Tools with
dipole sources have the ability to deliver shear
slowness measurements regardless of the mud
slowness; therefore, they are useful for obtaining
slowness measurements in slow formations.
The dipole source is also directional in nature,
and by using directional receiver arrays and two
such sources separated by 90, engineers are
able to derive oriented shear data from around
the wellbore. This cross-dipole measurement pro-
vides information such as maximum and mini-
mum stress azimuths, radial velocity proles with
distance away from the borehole wall and the
orientation of anisotropic shear data.
Wireline acoustic logging tools that combined
a monopole source for compressional and shear
data in fast formations and cross-dipole sources
for oriented shear data in slow formations were
introduced in the 1980s. Service companies con-
tinue to use tools of this type, although current
wireline tools with these sources can deliver a
>
Sonic waves from monopole sources. Monopole sonic tools generate a pulse of energy that strikes
the formation and then travels along the borehole as a compressional head wave. In hard, or fast,
formations (top left), the compressional wave, or P-wave, generates shear waves, or S-waves, that
arrive later in time than P-waves (bottom left). Soft, or slow, formations (top right) sustain shear
waves, but they are refracted into the formation and may not arrive at the receivers (bottom right).
Current tools have multiple receivers, and the sonic signal arrives later as the transmitter-receiver
distance increases. Although the signal amplitude diminishes with distance between transmitter and
receiver, data can be time shifted and stacked to improve coherence and signal-to-noise ratio.
Stoneley waves (green) arrive later in time than the P- and S-waves.
P-wave P-wave S-wave
Fast Formation Slow Formation
Stoneley wave Stoneley wave
Compressional wave
Compressional wave
Shear wave
Fluid wave
Monopole
source
Monopole
source
Fluid wave
Head waves
Wellbore Wellbore
Head wave
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
r
-
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
r
-
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
Traveltime Traveltime
Spring 2012 7
wider range of measurements for petroleum
applications than the earlier tools could.
5
A third acoustic source, which was recently
introduced for oileld applications, generates
quadrupole waves. At very low frequencies, these
waves travel through the formation at a speed
comparable to that of shear waves. As with dipole
shear data, the quadrupole data converge asymp-
totically to the shear wave velocity.
6
Although
somewhat similar to dipole waves, they exhibit a
different propagation pattern, which is more dif-
cult to conceptualize. Another term applied to
themscrew wavespresents an image of how
they travel along the borehole. At present, ser-
vice companies use quadrupole sources in LWD
tools only.
The Rise of LWD Acoustic Tools
Wireline acoustic tools deliver high-quality mea-
surements in a relatively low-noise environment,
but they have shortcomings. The lag between
drilling and logging, along with conveyance meth-
ods needed to deploy wireline tools, presents
complications. Delivering tools to TD in extended-
reach horizontal wells can also be complicated
and time consuming, although a number of con-
veyance techniques have evolved over the years.
7
Furthermore, wireline sonic tools should be cen-
tralized, and tool weight can make this problem-
atic in high-angle and horizontal wellbores. In
addition, shutting down drilling operations while
logging dramatically increases the incremental
cost of the logging operation, particularly in
deepwater drilling operations where rig spread
ratesthe total daily operating costroutinely
reach US$ 1 million.
For many applications, including pore pres-
sure prediction and wellbore stability analysis,
the ability to acquire data during the drilling pro-
cess, and use the data as soon as possible, signi-
cantly increases the value of the data. Wireline
measurements are obtained days or even weeks
after a formation has been drilled, and therefore
may be useful only for problem review or for plan-
ning future wells.
Acoustic data are also affected by borehole
conditions and challengessuch as mud ltrate
invasion and rugositythat may introduce mea-
surement errors, the severity of which tends to
increase with time after an interval has been
drilled. Additionally, in settings involving damaged
2. Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius is credited with
formulating the laws of refraction of waves. Snells law
states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of
incidence, i, and refraction, R, is equivalent to the ratio of
phase velocities, V, in the two media. In this case, the
media are the mud, m, and the formation, . The
relationship can be written as follows:
Critical refraction occurs when the angle of refraction is
greater than or equal to 90, meaning the wave travels
along the borehole wall.
>
Acoustic sources. Three types of acoustic sources are used in well logging: monopole (top), dipole (center) and quadrupole (bottom).
Monopole sources generate sound waves that radiate from the tool and travel through the formation as compressional waves. Dipole
sources generate directional exural waves. Cross-dipole sources emit two exural waves that are oriented 90 apart. Quadrupole sources
generate complex waveforms that are frequency dependent. At very low frequencies, they travel at velocities that approximate the velocity
of shear waves. The blue stars represent the approximate location along the borehole of the wave represented in the cross section.
Monopole mode
Quadrupole mode
Dipole mode
90
Azimuth
Flexural wave 1
Flexural wave 2
Nondeformed
cross section
R
a
d
i
a
l
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
180 270 360
90
Azimuth
R
a
d
i
a
l
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
180 270 360
90
Azimuth
R
a
d
i
a
l
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
180
270
360
Compressional wave
Borehole Cross Section Radial Displacement Radiation Patterns
Flexural wave 1 Flexural wave 2
Quadrupole wave
3. Named for Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens, the
Huygens principle states that every point of a wavefront
may be considered the source of secondary wavelets
that spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the
speed of propagation of the waves.
4. For more on cross-dipole sonic tools: Brie A, Endo T,
Hoyle D, Codazzi D, Esmersoy C, Hsu K, Denoo S,
Mueller MC, Plona T, Shenoy R and Sinha B: New
Directions in Sonic Logging, Oileld Review 10, no. 1
(Spring 1998): 4055.
5. For more on advances in sonic logging: Arroyo Franco JL,
Mercado Ortiz MA, De GS, Renlie L and Williams S:
Sonic Investigations In and Around the Borehole,
Oileld Review 18, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 1433.
6. A dispersion plot of shear slowness from dipole data
versus the frequency of the acoustic wave will converge
asymptotically on the formation shear slowness.
7. For more on logging tool conveyance methods:
Billingham M, El-Toukhy AM, Hashem MK, Hassaan M,
Lorente M, Sheiretov T and Loth M: Conveyance
Down and Out in the Oil Field, Oileld Review 23, no. 2
(Summer 2011): 1831.
sin i
=
.
sin R
V
m
V

8 Oileld Review
or unstable boreholes, wireline tools may not be
able to reach TD, or operators may choose to forgo
logging operations out of concern for tool sticking.
These concerns led, in part, to the development of
LWD acoustic tools.
The LWD sonic tools introduced in the
mid-1990s used monopole sources and measured
formation compressional slowness.
8
These mea-
surements were made available in real time by
sending the acoustic data, along with other LWD
measurements, to the surface using mud pulse
telemetry systems.
Engineers could monitor pore pressure
trends and compute sonic porosity from com-
pressional data, and geophysicists could relate
depth-derived borehole events with time-based
surface seismic events. Using pore pressure
trends measured while drilling, engineers can
avoid hazards such as drilling into overpressured
zones and can optimize drilling mud density. For
advanced processing, such as extracting shear
data in fast formations, full waveforms for each
transmitter ring were available, but were
stored in memory and retrieved when the tools
returned to surface.
Over the years, LWD sonic tools have evolved
through several stages, primarily focusing on
enhancing reliability and consistency of mono-
pole-derived answers and increasing the amount
of data available in real time. One hurdle to the
development of LWD sonic tools was accounting
for the energy from the transmitter that arrived
at the receiver array after passing through the
body of the tool. For integrity during drilling and
because they must be as strong as the rest of the
drillstring, LWD tools are built into steel drill
collars. Sound waves propagate easily through
these collars and their arrival at the receivers
overwhelms the signals from the formation.
Eliminating collar arrivals was a considerable
problem for early generation tools.
Slotted tool housings and materials designed
to attenuate tool arrivals for wireline sonic tools
are not an option for LWD tools, so engineers had
to develop other methods to limit the energy
coupled directly from the collar. Early generation
LWD sonic tools featured heavily grooved collars,
which were successful in limiting the effects of
tool arrivals on the measured data. This design,
however, resulted in a collar that was more exi-
ble than the rest of the BHA, which increased the
tools susceptibility to shock, vibration, tool tilt
between receivers and eccentering.
One of the most crucial shortcomings that
engineers sought to address was the inability to
obtain shear data in all formations, which mono-
pole sources could not do. Engineers rst
attempted to replicate the physics upon which
wireline tools are based. Experimenting with
dipole sources, they discovered that at precisely
the frequency range needed to acquire shear
information in most formations, there was inter-
ference between the dipole collar exure signal
and the formation signal (above left). Therefore,
instead of dipole measurements, Schlumberger
and other service companies adopted a quadru-
pole technique for LWD sonic tools.
9
As with dipole waves, quadrupole waves are
dispersive, meaning their velocity depends on
frequency. At low frequencies, the velocity
approaches an asymptote equal to the shear
velocity of the formation. Processing and an
inversion technique extract shear slowness val-
ues from the measured quadrupole dispersion
data. However, because the low-frequency com-
ponents of the quadrupole signal attenuate
quickly, the quadrupole dispersion prole does
not reach the asymptote of formation shear speed
as clearly as the dispersion data from exural
waves created by dipole sources.
The more dispersive prole of quadrupole
data may result in a wave velocity that falls below
the actual formation shear speed. Quadrupole
data are affected by formation properties, bore-
hole conditions, drilling mud properties, tool
characteristics and the tools presence and posi-
tion in the wellbore. It is crucial that engineers
understand these effects, which can be tool spe-
cic, to extract shear slowness from quadrupole
data. In addition, the processing of quadrupole
data is more complex than the processing of
dipole data.
10
8. Degrange J-M, Hawthorn A, Nakajima H, Fujihara T and
Mochida M: Sonic While Drilling: Multipole Acoustic
Tools for Multiple Answers, paper IADC/SPE 128162,
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, February 24, 2010.
9. For a detailed explanation of quadrupole modeling and
processing: Scheibner D, Yoneshima S, Zhang Z,
Izuhara W, Wada Y, Wu P, Pampuri F and Pelorosso M:
Slow Formation Shear from an LWD Tool: Quadrupole
Inversion with a Gulf of Mexico Example, Transactions
of the SPWLA 51st Annual Logging Symposium, Perth,
Western Australia, Australia, June 1923, 2010, paper T.
>
Dipole sources in wireline and LWD tools. Flexural waves from dipole sources are dispersive. A
wireline tool (left) in the borehole is designed so that the exural signal (blue line) passing through the
body of the tool does not interfere with the formation exural slowness data (red). Slowness data
plotted versus frequency on a dispersion plot will approach the formation shear slowness value at the
asymptote (horizontal dashed line). To withstand the rigors associated with drilling, LWD sonic tools
(right) are built into a stiff drill collar. The exural wave (green) that propagates through an LWD tool
interferes with and distorts the measurement (heavy dashed black line) such that it does not follow
the shear slowness asymptote of the formation exural response (red). For this reason, service
companies have adopted quadrupole sources rather than dipole sources for LWD sonic tools.
Formation shear
slowness
Shear asymptote
Weak interference
Tool flexural
response
Wellbore
Formation flexural
response
Frequency
S
l
o
w
n
e
s
s
S
l
o
w
n
e
s
s
Strong interference
LWD dipole sonic
tool response
Frequency
LWD Dipole Wireline Dipole
Tool Tool
Wellbore
10. Scheibner et al, reference 9.
11. The SonicScope tool can also generate cross-dipole
exural waves but they are not currently used.
12. Bulk density is usually provided by a density porosity
measurement.
13. Named for 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke,
this law states that the strain within an elastic material
is proportional to the applied stress. For anisotropic
media, the law can be expressed as a second-rank
stiffness tensor.
14. Zoback MD: Reservoir Geomechanics. New York City:
Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Spring 2012 9
Wideband multipole transmitter
48 wideband digital receivers
>
SonicScope LWD tool. Built into a stiff drill collar that is about 9 m [30 ft] in length, the SonicScope
tool has a wideband multipole transmitter and can be programmed to acquire data in several modes.
The 48 receivers located on the outside of the tool are 4 in. apart and provide high-resolution data at
high spatial density.
Engineers have performed extensive modeling
and testing to conrm the validity of quadrupole
source technology and of the processing technique
used to extract shear data in slow formations.
Because of these efforts, quadrupole sources are
the common mode used by service companies for
extracting shear data in slow formations using
LWD tools, although the methods of extracting the
answers differ from company to company.
Quadrupole LWD sonic tools offer answers
that were not available from monopole tools.
However, they do not yet fully replace the capa-
bilities of cross-dipole wireline tools because
quadrupole sources are not directional. But this
newly acquired ability to deliver shear data for
fast and slow formations in real time greatly
increases the value of LWD sonic tools.
The Scope of LWD Tool Design
To address the need for a quadrupole LWD tool,
Schlumberger developed the SonicScope multi-
pole sonic while drilling tool. The SonicScope
tool has a wide spectrum of applications because
it can acquire data in several modes. Although
the answers depend on the type of data acquired
and how it is processed, drillers, geophysicists,
geologists, petrophysicists, reservoir engineers
and completion engineers can all use the infor-
mation it provides.
The SonicScope tool acquires monopole and
quadrupole measurements using a powerful broad-
band transmitter that excites the borehole in both
modes over a frequency range from 1 to 20 kHz.
11
There are 48 receiver sensors with 10-cm [4-in.]
spacing mounted on the outside of the tool in pro-
tected grooves positioned 90 apart (above right).
The receivers are arranged in four arrays that pro-
vide 12 axial and 4 azimuthal measurements. Each
array contains 12 digitizers, one for each sensor.
The transmitter-to-receiver spacing is optimized
to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio. The tools
1-GB memory capacity enables the recording of all
modes even with data recording rates of up to once
per second. The current version of the tool has a
4
3
/4-in. diameter; larger tools, with diameters of 6
3
/4,
8
1
/4 and 9 in., are in development.
Generally, the tool is programmed in the eld
to record high-frequency monopole measure-
ments for compressional slowness and shear
slowness in fast formations, low-frequency mono-
pole data for Stoneley waves and quadrupole data
for shear acquisition in slow formations. For the
quadrupole mode, data are acquired in a fre-
quency range down to 2 kHz. From dispersion
analysis, which uses an inversion algorithm to
best t modeled responses, engineers can extract
shear slowness values lower than 2,000 s/m
[600 s/ft]. The SonicScope tool is fully combin-
able with other MWD and LWD tools. When com-
bined with other measurements, such as density
data, the acoustic data offer solutions for applica-
tions that include seismic correlation, pore pres-
sure determination, log interpretation in complex
lithologies and geomechanical rock properties.
Using the Data
In situ geomechanical properties cannot be mea-
sured directly; however, they can be computed
using compressional and shear slowness values
in combination with the bulk density of the
rock.
12
For the case of isotropy, in which mate-
rial properties are the same in every direction,
geomechanics specialists apply Hookes law of
elasticity to derive simple equations that use
log-derived measurements to calculate several
elastic moduli (right).
13
The compressional
modulus, M (also referred to as the P-wave or
longitudinal modulus), is computed from com-
pressional wave data. Similarly, the shear modu-
lus, G, a measure of a materials ability to
withstand shearing, is computed from the shear
wave data. Once these two values are deter-
mined, the bulk modulus, K; Youngs modulus, E;
and Poissons ratio, , can be calculated.
The bulk modulus is the ratio of average nor-
mal stress to volumetric strain and is the extent
to which a material can withstand isotropic
compressive loading before failure. Youngs
modulus relates strain to stress in one direction
and is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
Stiffer rocks have higher Youngs modulus val-
ues and are easier to fracture than rocks with
lower values. Poissons ratio, which is the ratio
of transverse strain to axial strain, is related to
closure stress; rocks with higher Poissons ratio
values are more difcult to fracture and prop
open than those with lower values.
14
Targeting
intervals for hydraulic fracturing that have
higher Youngs modulus values and lower
Poissons ratio values may improve stimulation
performance and well productivity.
>
Hookes law and isotropic elastic moduli. For
the case of isotropic rocks, engineers use three
log-derived measurements to come up with ve
mechanical properties. The compressional
modulus, M, is computed from the compressional
slowness time (t
c
) and bulk density,
b
. The
shear modulus, G, is calculated from the shear
slowness time (t
s
) and bulk density. The a in
both equations is a unit conversion constant. In
turn, these two moduli are used to compute the
bulk modulus, K, Youngs modulus, E, and
Poissons ratio, .
K =
4G
3
M
=
6K + 2G
3K 2G
a
b
M =
. .
. .
.
(t
c
)
2
E

=
9KG
3K + G
a
b
(t
s
)
2
G =
10 Oileld Review
However, the simple equations relating log-
derived measurements to mechanical rock prop-
erties are not valid when elastic anisotropy is
encountered.
15
The general formulation relating
stress to strain as described by Hookes law is
represented by a fourth-order stiffness tensor
that has 81 elastic constants and summations.
Although symmetry reduces the number of con-
stants to 21, deriving the relationships used to
determine mechanical properties in an anisotro-
pic formation is a formidable task that is beyond
the scope of this article.
When acoustic data are available, engineers
use these data to compute pore pressure, derive
elastic properties and correlate downhole data
with surface seismic results. Drilling engineers
use pore pressure to facilitate drilling and
increase safety margins. Using mechanical prop-
erties derived from sonic data, they can optimize
drilling programs and validate their ability to fol-
low a given well prole while maintaining well-
bore stability. Completion engineers use these
same data to design stimulation programs.
Geophysicists rene seismic data acquired at the
surface using information derived from downhole
sonic data.
Real-time data from LWD sonic tools have two
main applications for pore pressure determina-
tion: identifying overpressured formations and
selecting mud density (left). For drilling engi-
neers, overpressured zones present hazards that
can range from mildly annoying to catastrophic.
Optimizing mud weights to maintain borehole
stability and drill safely may result in consider-
able cost savings.
16
During lithication, sediments are com-
pacted by overburden pressure and uids are
expelled. The effects of compaction can be
observed in sonic slowness data as a steady
decrease in the compressional slowness. This is
most obvious in shale intervals. Conversely, when
uids cannot escape, the formation retains uids
and becomes overpressured. Higher uid content
results in higher compressional slowness values.
Drilling through overpressured shale zones
usually does not pose a hazard because these
zones have inherently low permeability; however,
should the bit encounter a porous layer that is
overpressured, the hydrostatic pressure in the
wellbore may be insufcient to contain the pore
pressure. The result may be a rapid inux of res-
ervoir uids, or a kick. In extreme cases, the well
may blow out.
Engineers can also use mechanical properties
computed from acoustic data to construct a 1D
mechanical earth model using programs such as
the single-well geomechanics module in Petrel
seismic-to-simulation software (next page, top).
The models can be adjusted while drilling using
real-time data from LWD sonic tools. Such models
allow drillers to maintain a drilling mud density,
or mud weight, that strikes a balance between
the hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore and any
anticipated increase in reservoir pore pressure.
There is a point, however, at which raising
the mud weight can cause weaker rocks to fail.
Pore pressure prediction programs can deter-
mine the maximum mud density that can be
maintained before the formation breaks down.
When the maximum mud weight threshold is
reached, casing is run to isolate weaker forma-
tions. A mistake of a few meters can result in an
expensive extra casing run or create hazardous
>
Watching for trends. Real-time LWD gamma ray data (Track 1) indicate the
well is penetrating shale in the upper half of this section. As long as the bit
remains in a shale section, there is little potential for encountering
overpressure and taking a kick; however, should the bit enter a permeable
zone, there is a risk of inux of formation uids. The driller would typically
choose to manage overpressure by increasing mud weight, but if the
shallower formations are not strong enough to sustain mud weights
sufcient to control an overpressured condition, casing must be set.
Because changes in lithology or uid can mask changes in the pressure
regime, resistivity (Track 2) may not always indicate overpressured
conditions. The increase in sonic slowness (Track 3) at around X5,000 ft
indicates a potential overpressured condition (red shading). If real-time
shear data are available from the LWD sonic tool, engineers can compute
the strength of shallower formations and determine the thresholds for mud
weight maximum values.
X2,000
LWD Sonic Slowness Phase Shift Resistivity Gamma Ray
Attenuation Resistivity
150 150 0.2 2,000
2,000
0 ohm.m
0.2 ohm.m
gAPI s/ft 50
D
e
p
t
h
,

f
t
X3,000
X4,000
X5,000
X6,000
X7,000
X8,000
Compaction
trend
Spring 2012 11
drilling conditions. Mechanical properties of the
formations must be known in order to determine
the mud density limits.
Once the mechanical properties are com-
puted from compressional and shear slowness
data, geomechanical modeling programs can pro-
vide solutions to drilling and completion ques-
tions. Examples of modeling programs are
VISAGE reservoir geomechanics modeling soft-
ware and Mangrove reservoir-centric stimulation
design software. VISAGE software is a full-scale
reservoir-modeling program that engineers use to
predict behavior during drilling, injection and
production. Using nite-difference methods, the
software calculates detailed 3D and 4D models
that can display patterns of pressure, stress,
strain, porosity and permeability at specic
points or across an entire reservoir (below right).
Fracture stimulations in conventional reservoirs
can be modeled along with expected production.
Mangrove software was developed for use with
unconventional reservoirs.
An example of how geomechanical data are
used in the development of unconventional
resource plays is in identifying targets with
better characteristics for multistage fracture
stimulation. Spacing and location of perforation
clusters are crucial elements in stimulation
design of these reservoirs.
17
A manual approach
of identifying intervals with completion-quality
rock can be tedious. However, current industry
practice of designing stimulation jobs with
evenly spaced perforation clusters regardless of
variations in rock properties can result in sub-
optimal recovery.
Other key challenges in completion design
involve modeling the complex fracture networks
that are frequently observed in unconventional
reservoirs and evaluating their impact on produc-
tion. Accounting for heterogeneity in completion
design can help engineers enhance well produc-
tivity, especially by identifying changes in geome-
chanical propertiespaticularly those that can
be derived from sonic data. The absence of a sin-
gle integrated solution to incorporate rock het-
erogeneity has been an impediment to optimizing
fracture stimulation designs.
15. For information on application of sonic data in
formations with elastic anisotropy: Armstrong P,
Ireson D, Chmela B, Dodds K, Esmersoy C, Miller D,
Hornby B, Sayers C, Schoenberg M, Leaney S and
Lynn H: The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy,
Oileld Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 3647.
16. Brie et al, reference 4.
17. King GE: Thirty Years of Gas Shale Fracturing: What
Have We Learned? paper SPE 133456, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Florence, Italy, September 1922, 2010.
>
Integrating sonic data. By including sonic data in reservoir models, such as this Petrel example,
operators can design wellbore proles that are compatible with the mechanical properties of the
formation. Geoscientists compute mechanical properties from surface seismic data, and the LWD
sonic data are used to update models in near real time. For instance, advanced computations deliver
stress proles that vary in a complex manner around the wellbore projection, and are graphically
displayed along a near-wellbore grid (shown encircling the wellbore). These displays allow engineers
to better understand the borehole geomechanical status and adjust well plans to safely reach a target
(lower green area). The magenta background to the left represents Youngs modulus, an elastic
parameter used to dene the stress state, determined from seismic inversion. These types of
information can be updated with downhole sonic data as the well is drilled. Sonic data can also tie
time-based surface seismic data, such as the cross section displayed on the right, to specic depth
references downhole.
800 600 400 200 0 200 400
Effective stress, psi
>
Drilling through operational windows. After populating 3D and 4D models with mechanical
properties, engineers can perform eld-scale stress simulations to determine magnitude and
orientation of stresses (cyan crosses). Areas to be avoided within the reservoir can be identied,
such as those shown in red in the background. Narrow operational windows, which may correspond
to many factors, including maximum mud weight, regions of high uid loss and mechanical
instability, are displayed in 3D, allowing engineers to choose a well path that maximizes safety and
efciency. Drillers may decide to set casing above or below these zones, or proceed with caution,
aware of the increased risks. An acceptable path can be located between areas with narrow
operating windows (purple). The vertical cross section also provides detailed information about the
effects of a nearby salt dome on the stress eld. The mud weight safe operating margins, computed
from seismic and sonic data, actually increase from top to bottom, which is the opposite of
conditions in most reservoirs. The corresponding color changes go from blue (low safety margin) to
green to yellow to orange (high safety margin).
Narrow operational window Negative operational window
Low
High
M
u
d

w
e
i
g
h
t

s
a
f
e
t
y

m
a
r
g
i
n
12 Oileld Review
To address unconventional hydraulic fracture
design and to help optimize fracture stimula-
tions, Schlumberger engineers developed
Mangrove stimulation modeling software
(above).
18
The software incorporates seismic,
geologic, geomechanical and microseismic data
along with reservoir simulations to model frac-
ture propagation and geometry. The software
includes two different fracture simulators that
are designed for complex hydraulic fracture mod-
eling. They are linked to reservoir models for
optimizing fracture design and production fore-
casting. Reservoir and completion quality are
quantied from these multidomain reservoir data
so that completion engineers can optimize stage
placement and perforation programs.
Operators recognize the benets of using acous-
tic log data for well and completion design.
Acquisition of data in extended-reach horizontal
wellbores has been problematic with wireline tools
because it is difcult to convey them to TD and it is
hard to keep the tools centered in the wellbore.
LWD sonic tools, designed to acquire data in these
types of environments, provide real-time formation
mechanical properties that may improve drilling
decisions and stimulation programs.
Horizontal Application
Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd uses
acoustic data to optimize drilling and comple-
tions in a Lower Congo basin eld offshore
Angola.
19
Shear data are required for computing
mechanical properties, which are then used in
well design to ensure wellbore stability. Engineers
planned to acquire SonicScope data from two
separate 6-in. horizontal boreholes, drilled
sequentially, to conrm that high-quality shear
data could be extracted while drilling. Along with
the SonicScope tool, the LWD logging program
included azimuthal density, neutron porosity and
resistivity tools.
The reservoir consists of unconsolidated thin-
bedded sands. To maximize exposure to the thin
layers, lateral wellbores are drilled with sinusoi-
dal trajectories. Interval A was drilled to a mea-
sured depth of 4,570 ft [1,390 m] and then,
without pulling out of the hole, the sidetrack
Interval B was drilled to 4,240 ft [1,290 m]. The
deviation ranged from 78 to 93 in Interval A
and from 80 to 97 in Interval B.
The primary focus for the study was to com-
pare the compressional and shear measure-
ments obtained using monopole sources with
measurements extracted from quadrupole data.
The engineers programmed the tool to obtain
high-frequency monopole, low-frequency mono-
pole and low-frequency quadrupole waveform
data, which were acquired while running in the
hole and while drilling in open hole. High-
frequency monopole data were also acquired
while in casing. Compressional slowness data
were transmitted to surface in real time, and log-
ging engineers transmitted the information to
geoscientists at the onshore ofce. Data were
also stored in tool memory for further processing
after TD was reached in Interval B and the tools
could be retrieved from the well.
Monopole data provided good compressional
measurements; however, shear slowness data
from the monopole source were frequently miss-
ing from both intervals (next page). Processing of
the quadrupole waveform data yielded continu-
ous shear slowness data of good quality across
the majority of both intervals. The shear slowness
values from the quadrupole data in Interval A
ranged from 132 to 310 s/ft [433 to 1,020 s/m],
and in Interval B the range was 145 to 264 s/ft
[476 to 866 s/m]. With the monopole data, no
shear slowness values greater than 243 s/ft
[797 s/m] were observed. With the quadrupole
source, Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil was able to
quantify shear slownesses in zones that were too
slow for the monopole source.
>
Logging data for fracture design. In unconventional reservoirs, such as gas shales, operators
frequently use geometry (top) rather than geology and geomechanics to determine fracture staging
and perforation cluster locations. LWD acoustic data, such as those from the SonicScope tool, can
identify rocks with low stress, which offer better completion quality (CQ), and petrophysical analysis
can identify intervals with better reservoir quality (RQ). The Mangrove program generates a composite
quality score combining CQ and RQ to rank the rock along the wellbore, recommends preferred
locations for perforation clusters and groups similar rocks in treatment stages (bottom). The stress is
presented beneath the well projection and ranges from low (red) to high (blue). The same number of
perforation clusters are used in both examplescolored ovals represent perforation clusters in each
stagebut in the recommended results they are concentrated in better quality rock (blue, green and
yellow), and poor quality rock (red) is avoided. Operators following this engineering approach for
completion design have seen substantial improvement in production. (Adapted from Cipolla et al,
reference 18.)
Rock quality
Stress
Rock quality
Stress
Geometrically placed perforation clusters
Selectively placed perforation clusters
High Low
Stress
Good CQ and good RQ
Bad CQ and good RQ
Bad CQ and bad RQ
Good CQ and bad RQ
Rock quality
18. Cipolla C, Weng X, Onda H, Nadaraja T, Ganguly U and
Malpani R: New Algorithms and Integrated Workow
for Tight Gas and Shale Completions, paper SPE 146872,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Denver, October 30November 2, 2011.
19. Mohammed S, Crowe J, Belaud D, Yamamoto H,
Degrange J-M, Pistre V and Prabawa H: Latest
Generation Logging While Drilling Sonic Tool: Multipole
Acoustics Measurements in Horizontal Wells from
Offshore West South Africa, Transactions of the
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, Colorado
Springs, Colorado, USA, May 1418, 2011, paper CC.
Spring 2012 13
>
Good quality shear data from the SonicScope LWD tool. Chevron Cabinda engineers use mechanical properties computed from acoustic data for well
design and to optimize drilling practices in a Lower Congo basin eld offshore Angola. In this example, several LWD logs were run in a horizontal well and
provided rate of penetration (ROP), gamma ray and caliper data (Track 1) along with resistivity (Track 2) and porosity data (Track 4). The SonicScope tool
was included in the suite to evaluate its ability to provide shear data in soft formations. Extracting shear slowness from monopole data is difcult in the
unconsolidated formations that are typical of the eld. Track 5 presents the coherence projections for the monopole compressional data (black curve on
left) and monopole shear data (black curve on right). In several places across the logged interval, such as the gap in the middle of this interval, the
monopole shear data are incomplete. Quadrupole shear data acquired with the SonicScope tool are continuous (Track 5, red curve). The coherence
(Track 6) of the quadrupole data provides high condence in the measurement quality. There is also a difference between the two shear slownesses
measured by the different methods. This difference is associated with acoustic anisotropy in this horizontal well. Where monopole shear data are available,
V
p
/V
s
ratios from the two datasets are shown (Track 3, green and dashed magenta lines). Monopole Poissons ratio (Track 3, purple) is compared with
quadrupole Poissons ratio (Track 3, dashed red) and these data also exhibit some differences across the interval. A Variable Density log (Track 7) is used to
check the quality of the received sonic data. (Adapted from Mohammed et al, reference 19.)
Washout
Measured
depth, ft
XX,000
XX,100
2-MHz
Resistivity
Data
Bit Size
Caliper
Gamma Ray
10-in.
Phase Shift
22-in.
Phase Shift
24-in.
Attenuation
Monopole
t
c
Quadrupole t
s
Quadrupole Inversion Quality
Waveform
Variable Density Log
Quadrupole t
s
Monopole t
s
Density Correction
Neutron Porosity
Bulk Density
PEF
Monopole
Poissons Ratio
0.2 240 340 40
1 1
40
1.95 2.95
0
20
45 15 %
s/ft s/ft
340 1 4 40 s/ft
g/cm
3
g/cm
3
0 0.5
200
5 10 in.
5
0
200 0 ft/h
gAPI 150
10 in.
ohm.m
0.2 200 ohm.m
0.2 200 ohm.m
0.2 200 ohm.m
34-in.
Phase Shift
ROP
Quadrupole
Poissons Ratio
0 0.5
0 5
0 5
Quadrupole
V
p
/V
s
Ratio
Monopole
V
p
/V
s
Ratio
Monopole t
c
Monopole Projection
Quadrupole Projection
340 40 s/ft
340
40 440
40 s/ft
s/ft
40 440 0 5,000 s s/ft
14 Oileld Review
The absence of shear data in softer forma-
tions would have made it impossible to compute
mechanical properties in these zones. Because
measurements with the quadrupole source deliv-
ered shear slowness in slow formations inter-
sected by both intervals, engineers are able to
incorporate mechanical property data in future
well designs.
In addition to compressional and shear slow-
ness, the SonicScope tool provided cement bond
logging (CBL) information in the 7-in. casing
(above). From high-frequency monopole data, log
analysts identied the top of cement (TOC) and
estimated the cement quality. A Variable Density
log, similar to wireline CBL logs, was also generated.
The interpretation based on the LWD sonic data is
only qualitative, but is often sufcient to verify that
the pipe is adequately cemented in place.
The Lower Congo basin reservoir described in
this case study consisted of unconsolidated
sands, which can pose drilling challenges. The
ability to extract usable-quality acoustic shear
data from LWD sonic quadrupole measurements
in these unconsolidated sands enabled engineers
to derive geomechanical properties for planning
future extended-reach horizontal wells. These
data were used for several purposes, including
developing safer drilling programs, optimizing
drilling, managing mud properties and under-
standing limiting factors for future wells.
Sweet Spots in Real Time
In addition to improving well design and optimiz-
ing drilling with increased safety, sonic data help
engineers make and validate real-time well
placement decisions. Recently, engineers used
data from the SonicScope tool to identify sweet
spots in a horizontal well.
20
Two drilling runs were
made in the well, one of more than 1,500 ft
[460 m] and a second of 886 ft [270 m].
21
The
LWD assembly did not include density or porosity
data. Identication of sweet spots was based
solely on changes in the ratio of compressional
and shear velocities (V
p
/V
s
).
For this reservoir, a correlation had been
observed between drilling rate of penetration
(ROP) and production; zones with higher ROPs
exhibited better hydrocarbon production.
Drilling rates can, however, be inuenced by fac-
tors that are unrelated to reservoir quality, such
as bit type and condition. On the other hand,
stable V
p
/V
s
ratios had also been associated with
better quality rock, and they reect reservoir
properties. Log analysts identied seven sepa-
rate zones within the drilled interval based on
V
p
/V
s
ratios. Zone 1 represents the interval con-
taining the landing point. Zone 2 is the interval
over which angle was built to penetrate the reser-
voir. Changes in formation lithology and variable
formation properties were identied from
V
p
/V
s
ratios in zones 4 and 6. Zones 3, 5 and 7 have
steady V
p
/V
s
ratios and correspond to 10%
increases in ROP compared with the average
ROP for the drilled section (next page).
From sonic data, engineers conrmed that
three intervals offered the best quality rock for
completion. The driller was also able to guide the
well back to better quality intervals after inadver-
tently exiting the preferred zones. The results of
this study demonstrate the value of real-time
sonic data to quantify rock quality.
Sound Future
Engineers recognize the importance of using
mechanical property data in optimizing drilling
programs and designing effective stimulation
jobs. Identifying and responding to seemingly
small variations in properties can mean the dif-
ference between disastrous results and a well
drilled with few complications. Small variations
in mechanical properties can be exploited to
improve commercial viability of drilling pros-
pects where fracture stimulation is indicated.
>
Cement bond logging with an LWD sonic tool. Data from the SonicScope
tool can be presented in a format similar to that of wireline cement bond logs
(CBLs) to evaluate cement behind casing. The measurements are qualitative
rather than quantitative. The Variable Density log is a presentation of the
acoustic waveform at a receiver, in which the amplitude is presented in
shades of a gray scale. Because cement bonded to the outside of the casing
attenuates the signals that would normally be present, the Variable Density
log is a useful indicator of the presence of cement behind pipe. In this
interval, the depth of end of casing is shown (red line). The absence of
waveform arrivals in the casing window (dashed yellow line to dashed blue
line) indicates good bonding of the cement behind the pipe. The patterns to
the right of expected casing arrivals come from the formation, which signify
bonding of cement to the formation. (Adapted from Mohammed et al,
reference 19.)
0 5 10 in. 3,000
Casing Arrival Window Stop
Casing shoe
Casing
Bit Size
s
0 3,000
Casing Arrival Window Start
Variable Density Log
s
0 3,000
High-Frequency Monopole Waveforms
s
20. Sweet spots refer to target locations or areas within a
play or a reservoir that represent the best production or
potential production. Geoscientists and engineers
attempt to map sweet spots to allow wellbores to be
placed in the most productive zones of the reservoir.
21. Degrange et al, reference 8.
Spring 2012 15
New LWD sonic tools and techniques allow access
to these data in real time.
Integration of acoustic data in drilling, com-
pletion and evaluation workows is a key to the
future of LWD sonic operations. Service compa-
nies have demonstrated conclusively that these
data can be extracted and that the information is
relevant to drilling and completion operations.
Presenting the data in a form that decision mak-
ers can use to visualize the downhole environ-
ment is crucial.
The area around the bit is noisy and wracked
by sound and vibrations while drilling. However,
engineers have designed LWD acoustic tools that
overcome these conditions and answer funda-
mental questions about the rocks being pene-
trated by the bit. These tools are saying
something important about the reservoir and
the rocks, and geoscientists are listening. TS
>
Sweet spot drilling. ROP has been identied by the operator of this well as a sign of good completion-quality rock. However, ROP is inuenced
by factors other than reservoir quality. The ROP data (green curve) are not conclusive and have considerable variability. Stable V
p
/V
s
ratios are
also an indicator of completion quality and can be computed from sonic compressional data (top, blue and red curves) and shear data (purple and
green curves) acquired in real time or recovered from downhole memory. Engineers identied seven different zones (yellow and green shading)
across the interval based on LWD V
p
/V
s
data (red curve). Poissons ratio (blue curve) is an indicator of rock stiffness. The cross section (bottom)
shows the location of each zone of the wellbore relative to the sweet spot (between light blue lines). Zone 1 is the heel of the horizontal section
where the well was kicked off, and Zone 2 is where angle was being built to enter the reservoir. Zones 4 and 6 were drilled out of zone for short
intervals. Zones 3, 5 and 7 have stable V
p
/V
s
ratios around 1.625, were drilled in zone and were identied as good targets for fracture stimulation.
(Adapted from Degrange et al, reference 8.)
0.500
0.375
0.250
0.125
1.500
1.625
1.750
1.875
2.000
P
o
i
s
s
o
n

s

r
a
t
i
o
0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,500 2,000
0
20
40
60
80
100
R
O
P
,

f
t
/
h
V
p
/
V
s
r
a
t
i
o
40

t
c
,

t
s
,

s
/
f
t
60
80
100
120
140
t
c
recorded mode t
c
real time t
s
recorded mode t
s
real time
T
r
u
e

v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
e
p
t
h
,

f
t
Horizontal departure, ft
Zones 1 and 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 Zone 7
Zones 1 and 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 Zone 7
Original well plan
Revised trajectory
16 Oileld Review
Working Out of a Tight Spot
For more than 80 years, jars have been widely accepted in the drilling industry as
inexpensive contingencies to save rig time and to protect the drillstring and wellbore
from damage in the event of stuck pipe. Advances in technology and increased under-
standing of the dynamics of successful jarring operations have extended the applica-
tion of jars to horizontal and highly deviated wells. Challenges to optimal use of jars
remain, however, and both the art and the science of jarring continue to evolve.
Bob Costo
Larry W. Cunningham
Glenn Joseph Martin
Jos Mercado
Brian Mohon
Liangjun Xie
Houston, Texas, USA
Oileld Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1.
Copyright 2012 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Eric
Wilshusen, Houston.
Accelerator AP, AP Impact, Hydra-Jar AP and Jar-Pact are
marks of Schlumberger.
Drilling jars serve a single purpose: to free stuck
pipe. Jarring is the process of dynamically trans-
ferring strain energy stored in the drillstring to a
devicea jarthat concentrates kinetic energy
at the point where the pipe is stuck. Most opera-
tors include jars in their drilling BHAs as precau-
tion against the likely occurrence of stuck pipe. It
is estimated that drillstrings become stuck an
average of once for every three wells drilled, cost-
ing operators hundreds of millions of dollars per
year.
1
Approximately 50% of stuck pipe incidents
occur during tripping, 20% while reaming and
working pipe and 10% while drilling ahead.
2
Jarring is the last line of defense against down-
time, expensive shing operations, sidetracking
or well abandonment. Although E&P companies
go to great lengths to avoid costs that result from
stuck pipe, drilling teams are generally unfamil-
iar with the mechanics and dynamics of jars
and untrained in optimizing jarring operations.
1. Shivers RM III and Domangue RJ: Operational Decision
Making for Stuck-Pipe Incidents in the Gulf of Mexico:
A Risk Economics Approach, SPE Drilling & Completion 8,
no. 2 (June 1993): 125130.
2. Bradley WB, Jarman D, Plott RS, Wood RD, Schoeld TR,
Auick RA and Cocking D: A Task Force Approach to
Reducing Stuck Pipe Costs, paper SPE/IADC 21999,
presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, March 1114, 1991.
3. Bowes C and Procter R: 1997 Drillers Stuck Pipe
Handbook. Houston: Schlumberger (1997): 13.
4. Clausen J, Rebellon J, Blanc J and Barton S: Novel
Drilling Technology Delivers a Step Change in Challenging
Deepwater Operations, paper SPE 142501, presented at
the SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference,
Manama, Bahrain, September 2528, 2011.
Spring 2012 17 17
Consequently, operators dont always realize the
full value of their contingency plan, and millions
of dollars remain at risk.
Service companies are partnering with opera-
tors to dramatically reduce operational risk,
downtime and cost by educating rig personnel and
by encouraging the proper and timely use of jar
placement analysis programs that have become
the preventive component of jar contingency
plans. Having a broader understanding of geology,
wellbore and BHA geometry and the implications
of jar placement will enable drilling engineers to
design BHAs that optimize penetration rates and
wellbore placement while providing maximum
protection against potential downhole events that
undermine drilling performance.
This article reviews causes of stuck pipe and
the types of jars available and discusses jarring
forces and the importance of planning and
analyzing jar placement in the drillstring. Case
histories from Canada, Oman and the US demon-
strate the benets of successful jarring
operations.
Stuck Pipe Basics
When the static force necessary to move a drill-
string exceeds the rigs capabilities or the tensile
strength of the drillpipe, the drillstring becomes
stuck. The pipe can no longer be moved up or
down or be rotated. Pipe can become stuck while
drilling, making a connection, logging or testing
or during any operation in which equipment is in
the hole. There are two primary types of pipe
sticking: mechanical and differential.
Mechanical sticking is usually encountered
while the drillstring is being moved and is caused
by a physical obstruction or restriction. Three
mechanisms are responsible for stuck pipe: pack-
off, bridging and wellbore geometry interference
(above). Packoff occurs when an unconsolidated
formation, formation cuttings or debris in the
wellbore settle around the BHA and ll the annu-
lus between the drillstring and the wellbore. It
typically takes place after the mud pumps have
been off for an extended period during opera-
tions such as pulling out of hole. Bridging results
when medium to large pieces of formation,
cement or junk fall into the wellbore and block
the annulus.
Wellbore geometry interference may arise
when the shape or size of the well and that of the
BHA are incompatible. Often the interference is
caused by keyseat sticking when the hole deviates
from true vertical. A keyseat is an indentation or
groove cut into the formation in which larger
diameter components of the drillstring, such as
collar connections and the BHA, can become
wedged. Other causes of interference include
undergauge hole, stiff drilling assembly, mobile
formations, ledges, doglegs and casing failures.
Differential sticking occurs when the pipe is
stationary or moving very slowly. It is caused by
drilling uid overbalancewhen hydrostatic
pressure in the mud column is greater than the
pore pressure in the permeable formation
which pushes the pipe into the wellbore wall.
3
Aggravating conditions include high overbalance
pressures, thick ltercake, high-density drilling
uids and muds with high solids content.
When engineers have an understanding of the
potential mechanisms and causes of stuck pipe,
they may be able to optimize placement of jars
early enough in the design process to maximize
jarring effectiveness. Operators that have this
knowledge may also better select the appropriate
jarring forces and durations for the hole condi-
tions once a drillstring becomes stuck.
How Jars Work
Although drilling jars have been in use since the
19th century, modern jars did not emerge until
the 1930s. In 1931, engineers designed a jar that
consisted of a telescoping mandrel held in place
by a mechanical latch-type device. Numerous
improvements since that time have enabled jars
to handle the demands created by increasingly
complex wells.
4
>
Stuck pipe mechanisms. Pipe may become stuck in the hole, unable to be moved up or down or rotated, for a variety of reasons. Packoff (left) may occur
when an unconsolidated formationloosely packed with little or no bonding between particles, pebbles or bouldersfalls into the wellbore. Packoff can
also occur when formation cuttings or debris settle around the BHA. Keyseating (center) may happen when the drillpipe rotates against a single point on
the borehole wall where it wears a groove, or keyseat (inset), into the wall. When the drillstring is pulled out of the hole, the tool joints or sections of the
BHA of larger diameter than the drillstring are unable to move through the keyseat. In this case, the drillstring may be moved down or rotated but cannot be
pulled upward and thus is stuck in the hole. Differential sticking (right) may result when a force created by the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling uid in the
wellbore is greater than the pore pressure of a permeable formation. This overbalance presses the drillstring against the wellbore and is often initiated
when the drillstring is stationary or moving very slowly and comes in contact with a permeable formation or a thick mud ltercake.
Packoff Keyseating Differential Sticking
18 Oileld Review
Today, a jar consists of a mandrel that slides
within a sleeve and an internal detent mecha-
nism that briey delays the movement of the
mandrel before releasing it.
5
The mandrel is
often referred to as a hammer and the sleeve as
an anvil. This nomenclature helps explain how
energy is released from the drillstring and trans-
ferred to the stuck pipe (below).
6
Jars operate on the principle of stored poten-
tial energy. The potential energy available to the
jar comes from overpull or set-down values
applied at surface.
7
Jars can strike, or re,
upward, downward or both. The jar is run in the
drillstring either in tension or in compression. If
run in tension, the mandrel is completely
extended. If run in compression, it is completely
closed. In either position, mandrel movement is
prevented until jarring becomes necessary and
drillers apply additional tension or compression
to the drillstring.
8
To re a jar upward, the driller slowly applies
overpull to the top of the string while the BHA
remains stationary. The detent in the jar restricts
the movement of the mandrel for a brief time,
causing the drillpipe to physically stretch and
store strain energy (above). This phase, often
called the loading phase, typically lasts only a few
seconds but when the rig crew uses hydraulic
jars, which have long delay times, the loading
phase can last for several minutes.
9
The next phase, sometimes referred to as the
preimpact phase, begins when the detent
releases and concludes with jar impact. This
phase typically lasts from 50 to 200 ms. The man-
drel accelerates, and the energy stored in the
stretched drillstring is suddenly released, setting
into motion the drillpipe mass and the collar or
heavyweight drillpipe (HWDP) mass directly
above the jar. These masses gain momentum dur-
ing free travel.
When the motion stops, an impact load, com-
parable to a hammer striking an anvil, is
imparted. The time interval of this impact phase
is typically 10 to 50 ms. The impact generates a
shock wave that travels up and down the drill-
string. This process provides a sudden release of
energy at the stuck point.
The postimpact phase lasts for a matter of
seconds until the drillstring has returned to a
state of complete rest. During the next phase,
resetting, the drillstring is lowered until string
weight imposes a compressive force on the jar,
which resets it for the next jarring cycle.
When jarring downward, instead of overpull
applied to the drillpipe, the weight of the tool-
string is released, delivering a compressive force
at the sticking point in an effort to release the
stuck tool by driving it downward. The jarring
process is repeatedin some cases hundreds of
timesuntil the stuck pipe is freed or, if jarring
has not been successful, the operator decides to
pursue a different course of action.
Two quantities that are generated by jarring
combine to overcome the sticking force and
move stuck pipe: impact and impulse. The rst
quantity, impact, is the peak force caused by the
collision of the hammer with the anvil. The sec-
ond quantity, impulse, is the change in momen-
tum during the impact phase measured by the
area under the load versus time curve (next
page, top right). Both impact and impulse are
inuenced primarily by the number of drill
5. A detent is a device that positions and holds one
mechanical part in relation to another so that the device
can be released when a force is applied to one of the
parts. An example of a detent in a common object is the
release mechanism in umbrellas.
6. Kalsi MS, Wang JK and Chandra U: Transient Dynamic
Analysis of the Drillstring Under Jarring Operations by
the FEM, SPE Drilling Engineering 2, no. 1 (March 1987):
4755.
7. Overpull is the amount of pull on the moving pipe that is
in excess of its weight in air or uid. Set-down weight,
also referred to as slack-off or released drillstring
weight, is the weight of the drillstring and BHA available
at the stuck point or at bottomhole if the pipe is free.
8. Schmid JT Jr: Designing BHAs for Better Drilling Jar
Performance, World Oil 195, no. 5 (October 1982):
100104.
9. Aarrestad TV and Kyllingstad A

: Loads on Drillpipe
During Jarring Operations, SPE Drilling & Completion 9,
no. 4 (December 1994): 271275.
10. Newman KR and Procter R: Analysis of Hook Load
Forces During Jarring, paper SPE/IADC 118435,
presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and
Exhibition, Amsterdam, March 1719, 2009.
>
Jarring assembly. A typical jarring assembly
consists of a mandrel, or hammer, that slides
within a sleeve, or anvil, and a detent mechanism.
The detent restricts the movement of the mandrel
briey before releasing it. The time delay enables
the drillpipe to store potential energy. The
sudden release of the detent mechanism causes
the mandrel to accelerate rapidly for a distance
of 25 to 50 cm [10 to 20 in.] before it slams against
the sleeve, releasing the stored energy and
imparting an impact force at the stuck point.
Upward motion of the mandrel causes the
hammer to slam into the anvil, producing an
upward force on the drillstring. Downward
mandrel motion produces the opposite effect.
Drillpipe
Overpull force
Collar
Anvil
Detent mechanism
Bit
Hammer
Stuck point
Jar
>
Acquiring strain energy. The energy available to the jar comes from the
overpull force applied at surface to stretch the drillpipe. The type and length
of drillpipe affect the amount it can stretch and the energy it can store. This
graph for 5-in., 19.5-lbm/ft drillpipe compares two stretch lengths attainable
for different applied overpull as a function of the length of free drillpipe above
the stuck point. For a given stretch, the overpull force, and thus the energy
available for jarring, decreases with increasing length of free drillpipe.
O
v
e
r
p
u
l
l

f
o
r
c
e
,

l
b
f

1
,
0
0
0
250
200
150
100
50
0
7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000
Length of free drillpipe, ft
2,000 1,000 0
16-in. stretch
9-in. stretch
Spring 2012 19
collars above the jar; fewer drill collars result in
a higher impact force, but more drill collars
deliver a greater impulse. In successful jarring
operations, a compromise is achieved through
proper jar placement and regulating the number
of drill collars to maximize how the impact and
impulse forces work together to free the pipe.
The magnitude of the impact delivered by the
jars is limited by the overpull or slack-off weight
available. A properly designed jarring assembly
usually exerts more force when jarring upward
than downward because the driller can pull on
the drillpipe with a force of up to 90% of the yield
strength of the pipe. However, the available
slack-off weight, and resulting compressive force,
is much less than the total toolstring weight
because of buckling limitations of the drillstring
above the jar, drill collar length conguration and
the relative position of the drill collars and the
jar.
10
Jarring is most effective when it is per-
formed in the opposite direction to that which
the drillpipe was traveling when the pipe became
stuck; that is, jarring upward is most effective if
sticking occurred while running the drillstring
into the hole, and jarring downward is most effec-
tive if sticking occurred while running out.
Two resistance forces can affect jarring. A
high differential pressure between the inside and
the outside of the jar, acting on the total sealed
cross-sectional area at the mandrel, may create a
force sufcient to open the jar and lift the drill-
string. This is called jar pump open force, or jar
extension force. When jarring upward, the opera-
tor must add the pump open force to the surface
overpull to obtain actual tension at the jar. When
jarring downward while circulating, drillers must
slack off more weight at the surface to overcome
the pump open force acting in the opposite
direction.
Pump open force can sometimes aid in
upward jarring. In cases of severe differential
toolstring sticking or drag, overpull cannot re a
mechanical jar or induce a large enough blow
from a hydraulic jar. A jar may sometimes be red
by increasing the mud pump rate, which
increases pump force, or by a combination of
increasing mud pressure and applying tension to
the drillstring. Drag on drillpipe increases over-
pull requirements. In vertical wells, drag can be
negligible, but drag in directional wells often
increases the overpull required to re the jar by
as much as 10%.
Types of Jars
Jars are classified by function and by actuation
method. Drilling and fishing jars have similar
designs and deliver approximately the same
impact, but are constructed differently and
have different functions. Drilling jars are the
length of standard drillpipe, are durable
enough to withstand drilling stresses and are
run as components of the BHA. They may be
fired and reset several times during a single
jarring operation. Fishing jars are shorter than
standard drillpipe, cannot withstand drilling
forces and are run only after the pipe above the
stuck point has been disconnected and
retrieved from the hole. They are typically
designed to jar upward only.
Mechanical and hydraulic jars function simi-
larly, but differ in their detent mechanisms.
Mechanical jars are actuated using a series of
springs, locks and rollers with release mecha-
nisms. The mechanical jar res upward at a pre-
set tensile force and downward at a preset
compressional force; these normally exceed the
tensile or compressional forces reached while
drilling. Firing is dependent on load only, not on
length of time. During drilling, the mechanical
jar is either cocked or extended to its fully open
or fully compressed position (below). Although
>
Impact and impulse. When jars are activated, the aim is to create an impact
force to overcome the force causing the pipe to stick. The impulse, with units
of force x time, is momentum, and must be sufcient to move the pipe. Both
impact and impulse are inuenced primarily by the number of drill collars
above the jar and by jar placement.
F
o
r
c
e
Time
Impulse = usable units
of force time
Impact
>
Mechanical jar. When a mechanical jar detent mechanism is cocked (left),
the tubular springs hold the trip sleeve against the mandrel, which prevents
the jar from ring. By maintaining an applied tensile or compressional force
that is less than the set tubular spring force, the jar may be run in and out of
the hole without fear of tripping the jar. When applied tension is greater than
the preset tubular spring force, the trip sleeve is forced upward or downward,
allowing the mandrel to slide free (right) and the jar to be red.
Mandrel
Down adjusting
sleeve
Detent Mechanism Cocked Detent Mechanism Tripped
Up adjusting
sleeve
Tubular
spring free
Trip sleeve
Friction sleeve
and outer housing
Tubular
spring free
Tubular spring
loaded to trip
load up
20 Oileld Review
mechanical jars are still preferred for some niche
applications, including high-temperature wells,
many engineers favor hydraulic jar technology for
most applications.
Hydraulic jars were introduced in the 1940s
to increase the impact loads, which are limited
by latching mechanisms of mechanical jars.
Hydraulic jars were designed, therefore, not to
trip at a preselected threshold. Instead, they
operate using a piston pulling through a restric-
tion in a hydraulic uid reservoir in the detent
mechanism. When tension or compression is
applied to the tool in the set position, the uid
from the high-pressure side of the reservoir is
compressed and passes into the low-pressure
side through an orice between the reservoirs.
The orice causes a uid ow restriction, result-
ing in a time delay that enables potential energy
to be stored in the drillpipe. Varying the metering
rate of the uid through the orice affects the
magnitude of impact at the stuck point.
The metering stroke is the overall distance
traveled by the hydraulic jar and the uid.
11
When
the stroke reaches a certain distance, the piston
moves from the restrictive area into a larger area,
allowing the compressed uid to ow freely
around the piston. The jar res, and pressure
between the two sides equalizes. The timing and
force with which the jar res determine the mag-
nitude of the applied tension or compression.
12
The driller inuences overpull on the jar, which
in turn inuences the ow rate of the uid
through the orice and the speed and force at
which the jar res. The magnitude of the impact
is proportional to overpull. Greater overpull pro-
duces quicker jar ring and a more forceful
impact. Any applied force can re the jar, and
drillers can vary the nal force delivered to the
stuck point.
Expanding the Limits of Hydraulic Jars
The progress of oil and gas exploration and
development into deeper waters, more hostile
downhole environments and complex wellbore
geometries has generated demand for tools,
including jars, able to perform reliably, ef-
ciently and safely under higher downhole
stresses. Jar manufacturers have responded with
tools that can perform reliably in a variety of
drilling environments: on land or offshore and in
vertical, horizontal or deviated and ultradeep or
high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells.
Hydraulic jars provide signicant performance
and operational benets over mechanical jars but
have some limitations. Friction generated by
resistance to ow through the restriction during
the metering stroke raises the temperature in the
jar. When jars overheat, operators must cease jar-
ring until the hydraulic uid cools. To minimize
the effects of the heat buildup, Houston Engineers
developed the Hydra-Jar AP double-acting
hydraulic drilling jar (above). The tool includes a
unique temperature compensation design and
high-temperature seals.
Jars may be run either in compression or in
tension, providing the exibility for optimized
placement in the drillstring. Additionally,
because the tool works without applied torque,
the drillstring is not rotated during jarring, thus
directional drilling tool orientation is not
changed. To ensure that the Hydra-Jar AP drilling
jar performs effectively and reliably in specic
applications, engineers developed Jar-Pact BHA
impact placement software. This software models
the placement of the AP Impact advance perfor-
mance system. Using data from the operators
well planincluding borehole and BHA parame-
tersthe software recommends the optimal
placement for the tools to avoid locating them in
or near the drillstring neutral point or transition
zone.
13
The software also ensures that the ratio of
the hole and tool diameters is within recom-
mended guidelines.
Although operators strive to jar pipe free
quickly with as few rings as possible, experi-
ences in a well in western Canada illustrate the
strength and repeatability of advanced hydrau lic
drilling jars. Apache Canada included a
Hydra-Jar AP tool in the drillstring in a borehole
as a precautionary measure while drilling in the
dolomite-carbonate Keg River Formation in
Alberta, Canada. During drilling, the string
became packed off by calcium carbonate buildup
after several lost circulation pills were pumped to
stop uid loss.
14
A combination of backreaming
and impacts from the Hydra-Jar AP tool helped
free the stuck pipe. The jar red more than
200 times over a seven-hour period, with no loss
of impact force. The pipe was freed, and drilling
continued to TD without a shing job, minimizing
lost time and rig expense.
Jar Acceleration Tools
For a jar to impart peak impact at any given load,
the mandrel must still be accelerating when it
hits the sleeve. If terminal velocity is reached
prior to impact, the jar impact will be limited.
Because drill collars have been replaced by
lighter HWDP in many BHAs, it is often the case
that working weight is no longer sufcient to gen-
erate enough jar impact or impulse levels. Adding
a jar accelerator to the BHA signicantly ampli-
es jar impact and impulse and reects shock-
waves downward toward the stuck point (next
page, left). It also takes stress off the drillstring
and surface equipment and protects the topdrive
from wear.
The Schlumberger Accelerator AP impact
tool is an example of a jar accelerator tool. It is a
compact, high-load rate spring tool that is placed
directly above the jar and the mass of HWDP.
>
Double-acting hydraulic Hydra-Jar AP tool. The drive cylinder consists of a section that allows for
free axial extension and retraction of the jar mandrel while allowing torque to be transmitted through
the tool. The upper uid cylinder and balance piston maintain a pressure balance with that of the
borehole. The upper detent cylinder includes a restriction called the detent. When overpull tension
is applied, the detent piston is pulled toward the detent, metering the hydraulic uid through the
detent piston and allowing stretch to accumulate in the drillstring. The detent piston moves through
the cylinder at a slow rate until it clears the detent, tripping the jar and ring upward. The lower
detent mandrel and cylinder perform the same functions as their upper counterparts, but allow for
downward jarring.
Fluid
cylinder
Drive cylinder Lower detent
cylinder
Upper
detent
cylinder
Detent Balance piston
Upper detent
mandrel
Detent
piston Lubricant
Lower detent
mandrel
Neutralizer
cylinder
Connector
sub
Neutralizer
piston
Hydraulic
fluid
Spring 2012 21
11. Adelung D, Askew W, Bernardini J, Campbell AT Jr,
Chafn M, Hensley R, Kirton B, Reese R and Sparling D:
Jars, Jarring and Jar Placement, Oileld Review 3,
no. 4 (October 1991): 5261.
12. Adelung et al, reference 11.
When a load is applied to a jar accelerator tool
impact system, the load compresses the uid, gas
or spring inside the accelerator tool, thereby
storing potential energy in the tool. The jar and
accelerator are coordinated so that when the jar
releases for impact, the stored potential energy
in the accelerator is also released. The potential
energy stored in and released from the accelera-
tor tool accelerates the working mass above the
jar much more efciently than does energy
stored in the drillstring because it eliminates the
wellbore friction and drag generated over hun-
dreds of meters of drillpipe. Using the accelera-
tor tool can effectively double the impact force of
a jar (below).
>
Stopping vibrations. When a jar is red, it
induces an initial wave of vibrations downward
and upward along the drillstring. The downward
wave is reected upward from the stuck point.
In addition to increasing jar efcacy, an
accelerator effectively prevents the initial
waves and reected waves from reaching the
drill oor by acting as a hydraulic disconnect
within the drillstring.
Reflection point
Jar-induced initial
vibration wave
Reflected vibration
Stuck point
Jar
Accelerator
Reflection point
13. A transition zone is the area of the drillstring between
the neutral point and the state of either tension or
compression. The location of the transition zone varies
throughout the drilling process.
14. Cook J, Growcock F, Guo Q, Hodder M and van Oort E:
Stabilizing the Wellbore to Prevent Lost Circulation,
Oileld Review 23, no. 4 (Winter 2011/2012): 2635.
>
Amplifying jar impact. The accelerator tool consists of an outer barrel and
an inner mandrel connected by a piston chamber lled with silicon uid (top
left). When a force is applied to the accelerator tool (top right), the silicon
liquid is compressed by the moving piston, storing the energy of the applied
tension and providing extra stretch to the drillstring. When the force is
released, the silicon liquid expands, and, like a spring, moves the piston back
to its original position. This movement amplies the nal impact and impulse
released (bottom) by a jar as a result of adding the energy stored in the
accelerator to the energy stored in the pipe.
Inner mandrel
Accelerator with
Force Applied
Accelerator with
No Force Applied
Outer barrel
Piston chamber
filled with
silicon fluid
Silicon fluid
compressed by
inner mandrel
being pulled up
Piston
I
m
p
a
c
t

f
o
r
c
e
,

l
b
f

1
,
0
0
0
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
140 160 120 100 80 60
Applied force, lbf 1,000
40 20 0
Hydra-Jar AP
drilling jar alone
Hydra-Jar AP drilling jar
with accelerator tool
22 Oileld Review
In contrast to the experience of Apache
Canada, engineers at Arbaj Energy Services
found quick jarring success through use of an
accelerator tool. In a well in Oman, the drillstring
became packed off and stuck when it was picked
up 16 m [53 ft] to perform a ow check after
drilling a long vertical section from 957 m
[3,140 ft] to TD at 3,590 m [11,800 ft]. Circulation,
rotation and upward and downward movement
were lost. After initial attempts to free the
BHA, the operator replaced a failed drilling jar
and intensier with a Hydra-Jar AP and
Accelerator AP impact tool and performed a
Jar-Pact placement analysis to optimize impact
and impulse values at the stuck point.
Based on the results of the Jar-Pact analysis,
the BHA above the stuck point was backed off
one drill collar above the top stabilizer at a depth
of 3,536 m [11,601 ft], and the pipe was pulled
out of hole. The Hydra-Jar AP and Accelerator AP
tools were deployed as a shing assembly, which
was run into the hole and engaged around the
stuck BHA. Although the initial plan called for
jarring downward for eight hours and then
upward for another eight hours, the stuck BHA
began to move after only one hour of downward
jarring. Within six hours, a 14-m [46-ft] pocket
had been created, enabling the operator to
regain circulation and rotation of the BHA. The
successful jarring operation saved Arbaj Energy
Services more than US$ 1.3 million by avoiding a
costly sidetrack.
Although jar accelerators are recommended
for use in all types of holes, they are particularly
benecial in high-angle and horizontal wells,
plastic salt sections, areas with a high probabil-
ity of differential sticking, wells with a high
degree of string drag and in downward jarring
applications. Experiences in one West Texas,
USA, well serve to highlight the benets of fore-
thought. Engineers had deployed a Hydra-Jar AP
double-acting hydraulic drilling jar and an
Accelerator AP tool in the toolstring to reduce
potential topdrive damage resulting from jarring
operations and to increase the likelihood of suc-
cessfully freeing pipe that they thought might
become stuck while drilling an 8
1
/2-in. hole
through the Akota Shale section. Heaving shale
caused the BHA to become stuck while a connec-
tion was being made, and the rig was unable to
circulate. Jarring began immediately. The energy
stored in the accelerator tool added to the energy
already stored in the drillstring to provide up to
twice the impact at the stuck point than would
have been available without an accelerator.
However, because the accelerator is a telescop-
ing component, it absorbed the refractory force
that otherwise would have been sent up the drill-
string to the surface equipment. With the jar and
accelerator combination, the drillstring was
freed in 45 min, with no damage to the topdrive.
Drilling was able to proceed, and the operator
averted a potential sidetrack operation.
Jar Placement Guidelines
Jar design and jar placement are the largest
determining factors in the success or failure of a
jarring operation. Yet, since their introduction,
methods of jar deployment have depended more
on driller experience and common practice than
on engineering analysispartly because indus-
try professionals have insufcient understanding
of the design and dynamics of jars. Because jars
appear solid, like drill collars, users often assume
they are as strong as drill collars. However, unlike
drill collars, the internal workings of jars are
complex, with numerous connections and
inherent weakpoints. Additionally, the threads
on the internal connections of jars are not as
strong as the API threads used to connect joints
of drillpipe.
Jarring success rates vary, but Schlumberger
engineers have determined that 65% of failures
are related to improper jar placement. The differ-
ence between proper and improper jar place-
ment can translate to savings or losses of
hundreds of millions of dollars per year for
todays operators. Yet the intricacies of jar place-
ment are typically misunderstood and often
overlooked, and published recommendations on
jar placement, based on proven successes, are
difcult to nd.
15
Directional drilling companies and their cli-
ents often begin planning a directional well
months in advance with attention to BHA designs
that will propel the well from its starting point to
TD. However, the jar is often placed in the BHA as
an afterthought by engineers more concerned
with placing the jar so it does not impede drilling
than maximizing the impact and impulse that are
critical to successful jarring. If engineers run a
jar placement analysis, they often do so immedi-
ately prior to tripping, which greatly reduces
chances a jar will be optimally placed.
The role of engineering analysis in determin-
ing proper jar placement is increasing, as is the
need for running analysis earlier in the well plan-
ning process. Because the dynamic response of a
drillstring to the various forces associated with
jarring is complex, there is growing industry
demand for jar placement software programs
that are sophisticated in their functionality yet
easy to use. Simple formulae may aid in the place-
ment and use of jars; however, more-complex
questions cannot be answered with simple engi-
neering tools. These questions are best resolved
through nite element analysis, which is integral
to modern jar placement and analysis software
programs. These programs can help the driller
investigate and evaluate the effectiveness of the
jarring operation at various jar locations in the
BHA (next page).
In the absence of jar placement software, cer-
tain guidelines have been developed for jar place-
ment. The rst step is to consider several basic
questions:
\hat nechanisn is ncst likely tc result in the
drillstring becoming stuck?
Is the drillin |ar tc he run in tensicn cr
compression?
\here is the neutral pcint in relaticn tc the
drilling jar when drilling?
Ecw dces punp pressure allect the |arrin
action?
Are the BEA desin and the drillin parane-
ters within the specications of the drilling jar
and accelerator tool design constraints?
Is the wellhcre interval cl ccncern vertical,
deviated or horizontal?
Are the drillin ccnditicns dcwnhcle hcstile
For example, are temperatures or pressures
extremely high? Does the mud have high solids
content? Is hydrogen sulde [H
2
S] present or
suspected?
In addition to these basic questions, four fun-
damental guidelines help optimize jar place-
ment. The rst is to place a minimum of 10% to
20% of the expected jar overpull as hammer
weight above the jar, which ensures that an ade-
quate weight will produce optimal impacts. This
hammer weight range has been found to provide
the ideal mass while maintaining adequate
velocity for delivering optimal impacts to the
stuck point.
The second guideline is never place the jar
too close to the neutral point. Many drillpipe fail-
ures occur around the neutral point because
lateral vibrations tend to be more severe in this
area. Additionally, placing the drilling jar too
15. Bouaziz S, Cummings J, Rebellon J, Barton S and
Yankow A: Advancements in Downhole Drilling Tool
Placement for Highly Deviated Wells and ERD
Applications, paper SPE 144030, presented at the
SPE North American Unconventional Gas Conference
and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, USA,
June 1416, 2011.
16. Askew WE: Computerized Drilling Jar Placement,
paper IADC/SPE 14746, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, February 1012, 1986.
Spring 2012 23
close to the neutral point will result in the jar
continuously cycling between compression and
tension, which can accelerate fatigue damage
and decrease operational life; it may also cause
the drilling jar to re unexpectedly. Maintaining
20% of weight on bit (WOB) between the drilling
jar and neutral point will ensure that the jar is
outside the neutral point transition zone. Jar
placement should be reconsidered when changes
are made to WOB or the BHA.
The third and fourth guidelines are never to
place stabilizers or other BHA componentsif
they have an outer diameter larger than that of
the jarabove the drilling jar, and always to
keep any stabilizer at least 28 m [92 ft] away from
the drilling jar. A jar should never be used as a
crossover between drill collars and HWDP or two
different sizes of collars. High bending stresses
that occur in these locations can increase the
risk of tool damage.
Next Steps
The proliferation of highly deviated wells and
extended-reach drilling associated with deepwa-
ter operations and the discovery and development
of shale plays have brought about new and
increased drilling challenges, including the pos-
sibility of pipe becoming stuck in two different
sections of the wellbore. The art and experience
that an oileld shing hand brings to shing oper-
ations have a value that can never be overesti-
mated. However, given the demands, risk and cost
of todays drilling operations, experience may not
be enough. Experience tends to be based on sur-
face measurements, which may not reect what is
happening downhole.
16
Conventional knowledge
and assumptions about jar placement may not
apply to these new drilling environments.
While placing a jar in the BHA can act as a
precaution against wellbore damage, lost time
and costs associated with stuck pipe, the place-
ment of the jar must be carefully considered and
analyzed for its benets to be fully realized. As
drillers learn more about the intricacies of jar-
ring, and as jar providers and drilling companies
collaborate sooner and more strategically in the
well planning process, jarring success rates will
rise, and damage and costs associated with stuck
pipe events will decline. JF
>
Jar placement. High-angle and long-reach wells challenge conventional wisdom and assumptions
about jar placement that are the legacy of many years of vertical drilling. For example, in horizontal
wells, a single jar can be placed in either the upper curve (top left) or lateral section (top right).
Placing a single jar in the upper curve protects the lower BHA and reduces the threat of not getting
enough weight or overpull to operate the jar. However, jarring in the lateral section is relatively
ineffective and impacts at the stuck point are almost always less than needed. Placing the jar in the
horizontal section poses a greater risk of not being able to overcome the hole drag to re the jar. More
recently, operators are commonly placing jars in both the curve and the lateral (bottom left). Dual jar
placement protects both the curve and the lateral while delivering stronger impacts at the stuck point.
Adding an accelerator tool above each jar (bottom right) doubles the impacts of both jars by
minimizing velocity losses caused by drag and increasing the efciency of the lower jar. When running
the dual jar option, it is important to maintain sufcient spacing between the two jars to avoid
damaging the lower jar with impacts generated by the upper jar.
Drillpipe
Jar
Drillpipe
Heavyweight drillpipe
Horizontal Hole Placement, Single Jar in Top Curve
Drillpipe
Drillpipe
Heavyweight drillpipe
Horizontal Hole Placement, Single Jar in Lateral
Jar
Transition area,
potential stuck point
Horizontal Hole Placement, Dual Jar
Jar
Jar
Drillpipe
Accelerator
Drillpipe
Transition area,
potential stuck point
Horizontal Hole Placement, Dual Jar and
Dual Accelerator
Jar
Jar Accelerator
24 Oileld Review
The Expanding Role of Mud Logging
For decades, samples and measurements obtained at the surface have provided mud
loggers with insights into conditions at the bit face. Information captured through
mud logging gave operators early indications of reservoir potential and even warned
of impending formation pressure problems. New sampling and analysis techniques,
along with advances in surface sensor design and monitoring, are bringing the
science of mud logging into the 21st century.
Peter Ablard
Chris Bell
Chevron North Sea Limited
Aberdeen, Scotland
David Cook
Ivan Fornasier
Jean-Pierre Poyet
Sachin Sharma
Roissy-en-France, France
Kevin Fielding
Laura Lawton
Hess Services UK Limited
London, England
George Haines
Houston, Texas, USA
Mark A. Herkommer
Conroe, Texas
Kevin McCarthy
BP Exploration
Houston, Texas
Maja Radakovic
Sinopec-Addax
Geneva, Switzerland
Lawrence Umar
Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Oileld Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1.
Copyright 2012 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Justin
Ashar, Kamel Benseddik, Regis Gallard, Willie Stoker
and Craig Williamson, Houston; John Christie, Paris; Gen
Herga and Denise Jackson, Gatwick, England; Mark Jayne,
Francois Le buhan, Remi Lepoutre, Jacques Lessi, Audrey
Malmin, Keith Ross and Philippe Verdenal, Roissy-en-
France, France; Nikhil Patel, Singapore; and Irwan Roze,
Conroe, Texas.
FLAIR, MDT, PreVue, RFT, StethoScope and Thema are
marks of Schlumberger.
The mud logging unit has long been a common
wellsite xture. First introduced commercially in
1939, these mobile laboratories carried little
more than a coffee pot, a microscope for examin-
ing formation cuttings and a hotwire sensor for
detecting the amount of hydrocarbon gas encoun-
tered while drilling. The mud loggers job was to
record the depth and describe the lithology of
formations that the drill bit encountered, then
determine whether those formations contained
any oil or gas.
Outside the logging unit, the mud loggers
domain ranged from the shale shaker to the drill
oor. The shale shaker yielded formation cuttings
and gasboth liberated by the drill bitwhich
were transported to the surface in the drilling
uid. Periodic visits to the shaker permitted the
mud logger to collect cuttings for microscopic
examination, while a suction line between the
shaker and the logging unit carried gas from the
gas trap to the logging units hotwire gas detec-
tion system. Visits to the drill oor allowed
important exchanges of information between the
mud logger and driller. Using basic surface mea-
surements, the mud logger was able to produce a
concise account of drilling activity.
For decades, gas measurements, lithology and
rate of penetration (ROP) provided the earliest
indications of reservoir potential. Before the
advent of measurements while drilling (MWD)
and logging while drilling (LWD), mud loggers
were able to obtain valuable formation data from
wells in which drilling conditions, formation
characteristics or well trajectory conspired
against deployment of wireline logging tools. In
such wells, analysis of mud gas and cuttings often
provided the rst, and perhaps only, indication
that a formation might be productive. Today,
although LWD technology is able to give the rst
glimpses of near-bit conditions in real time,
adverse wellbore conditions sometimes preclude
the use of downhole logging tools. In such cases,
the mud log continues to inform operators of the
producibility of their wells. At a minimum, the
mud log gives the operator an early indication of
zones that merit special attention, additional log-
ging services or production tests.
The mud log serves a variety of functions. As a
correlation tool, the mud logs ROP and total gas
curves exhibit a remarkable correspondence to
gamma ray and resistivity curves, respectively.
1
Throughout the drilling process, mud logs pro-
vide real-time correlations with logs from neigh-
boring wells and help the operator track the bits
position in relation to target formations. Because
the mud log is based on physical samples, it pro-
vides direct, positive identication of lithology
and hydrocarbon content. This information can
be helpful when formation characteristics make
wireline or LWD log interpretation complicated
or ambiguous. It can also ll gaps where other
such measurements have not been obtained.
Thus, when integrated with wireline or LWD mea-
surements, cores and well test data, the mud log
provides independent evidence for a more com-
prehensive understanding of reservoir conditions
and geology.
1. Like electric logs, most mud logs conform to format
standards set forth by the Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts (SPWLA). For mud log standards
promulgated by SPWLA: Mercer RF and McAdams JB:
Standards for Hydrocarbon Well Logging, Transactions
of the SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium,
Corpus Christi, Texas, USA, July 69, 1982, paper LL.
Spring 2012 25 25
The scope of the basic mud logging service
has broadened over time, as additional sensors
brought more data into the logging unit
expanding in diversity from gas chromatographs
to weight-on-bit and mud pit level indicators. The
mud logging service now typically tracks ROP,
lithology, visual hydrocarbon indicators, total
combustible gas in mud and individual hydrocar-
bon compounds in the gas, along with numerous
drilling parameters. As a hub for monitoring drill-
ing operations and rig sensors, the mud logging
unit has become a source of crucial information
for the company representative, the driller and
the geologist.
The mud loggers role takes on added impor-
tance when there is a drilling break, or signi-
cant increase in ROP. Then the mud logger alerts
the company representative and requests that
drilling be stopped until mud and cuttings from
the bit face can be circulated to the surface. If
mud analysis indicates the presence of hydrocar-
bonscalled a showthe mud logger informs
the geologist, who may elect to core or test the
interval. Geochemists and biostratigraphers also
rely on mud loggers to collect representative
samples needed to make correlations and develop
geologic models.
From a drilling standpoint, the mud loggers
most important task is gas monitoring. Mud gas
trends that develop while drilling are integral to
evaluation of mud balance and identication of
potentially overpressured formations. By care-
fully tracking gas and drilling parameters, the
mud logger can recognize impending deviations
from normal trends and give advance warning so
the driller and company representative can miti-
gate the problem by adjusting the density of the
drilling uid or shutting in the well. Thus, the
success of a well and the safety of the drilling
operation may hinge on how quickly a mud logger
can synthesize and interpret myriad pieces
of data.
Sand trap
Reserve pit
Mud pumps
Suction
pit
Mud
mixing
pit
Mud
logging
cabin
Settling pit
Drill floor
26 Oileld Review
Mud logging capabilities have evolved over
the years. By the mid-1950s, gas samples were
being analyzed by wellsite gas chromatography.
In the 1960s, mud logging companies began offer-
ing geopressure detection services.
2
Automated
event recorders, made possible through use of
robust microelectronic components, were incor-
porated into mud logging processes during the
1970s. During the following decade, mud logging
units entered the computer age. Computers took
the burden of printing the log away from the mud
logger, who used to laboriously compile the data
and then draw the log by hand. In addition, com-
puters allowed mud loggers to organize and
track data from multiple sources without sen-
sory overload.
Advances in computing and networking tech-
nology, surface sensor design and sample analysis
are bringing the mud logging unit into the 21st
century. Today, even more sensors lead into the
logging unit, each acquiring data at a frequency of
several times per second. To handle this increase
in data volume, a context-aware processing sys-
tembased on computer-generated trend lines
and a library of established modelsmakes the
data easier for the mud logger and other end users
to comprehend. Digital images of samples viewed
under the microscope can be rapidly transmitted
from the wellsite to the client ofce. And new
approaches to gas sampling and analysis have
been developed to extract geochemical properties
at the wellsite.
This article describes how a basic mud log is
assembled, reviews sampling and analysis tech-
niques used in formation evaluation and dis-
cusses basic methods for monitoring pressure. An
overview of recent sensor technology maps the
evolutionary path from basic formation evalua-
tion to advanced analysis of mud gases for geolo-
gists and well integrity services for drillers.
Mechanics of Mud Logging
In the oil eld, drilling uid is integral to every drill-
ing project. Be it water-base, oil-base or gas-base,
drilling uid is vital to the process of making hole:
It streans under pressure thrcuh |et nczzles
on the drill bit to clean the bit and carry heat
away from the bit face.
It transpcrts drill cuttins lrcn the hit lace tc
the surface, thus playing an essential role in
the hole cleaning process.
It cllsets hcttcnhcle pressure tc help naintain
wellbore stability and prevent the inux of for-
mation uids that could cause blowouts.
Over time, numerous variations on the basic
mixture of clay- and freshwater-base drilling u-
ids have been developed (and sometimes dis-
carded). Well-known variations are based on
saltwater, mineral oil, diesel oil, polymers, nitro-
gen, mist and foam. Each type has specic prop-
erties that deliver superior performance in
certain drilling environments. And each requires
special accommodations when it comes to mud
logging: Some require custom sampling tech-
niques; others require special sample rinsing pro-
cedures. This section focuses on the simplest of
environments, in which freshwater-base drilling
muds are used.
The practice of mud logging relies heavily on
the mud circulation system, which carries forma-
tion cuttings and uids to the surface. High-
pressure mud pumps draw drilling uid from
surface tanks and direct it downhole through the
drillpipe (left). The mud exits the drillstring
through nozzles at the face of the bit. Pump pres-
sure forces the mud upward through the annular
space between the drillpipe and casing, to exit at
the surface through a owline above the blowout
preventer. The mud then passes over a vibrating
mesh screen at the shale shaker, where forma-
tion cuttings are separated from the liquid mud.
The mud falls through the screens to the mud pits
before being pumped back into the well.
As a bit drills through the subsurface, the rock it
grinds upalong with any water, oil or gas contained
thereinis carried to the surface by the drilling
mud. What arrives at the surface and when it arrives
>
Mud circulation system. Drilling mud, drawn from the suction pit and pumped through surface pipe,
is sent downhole through the center of the drillpipe. It enters the open borehole through nozzles (not
shown) on the bit. The mud cools and lubricates the bit, then carries away formation cuttings and
uids as it moves upward in the annular space between the pipe and borehole wall. At the surface, the
mud, formation uids and cuttings are diverted through a side outlet in the bell nipple and through an
inclined owline to the shale shaker. A mud agitator, or gas trap, is positioned at the shakers header
box to liberate gas from the mud. A suction line at the top of the agitator siphons gas off from the mud
and sends it to the mud logging unit for analysis. The mud ows over the shaker, where screens
separate the cuttings from the mud, which is returned to the shaker pit.
Traveling block
Standpipe
Flowline
Suction line
Rotary table
Mud logging unit
Shale shaker
Gas trap
Blowout preventer
Bell nipple
Kelly
Drill floor
Suction
pit
Shaker
pit
Mud
pump
Drillpipe
Casing
Bit
Reserve
pit
Spring 2012 27
are fundamental to the science of mud logging. The
type of material and the timing of its arrival are inu-
enced to varying degrees by drilling practices, lithol-
ogy and pressure.
The mud logger requires samples of formation
cuttings to ascertain the subsurface geology at a
given depth. Therefore, cuttings must be large
enough to trap on the shaker or desilter screens.
On average, rock cuttings are roughly the size of
coffee grounds (right). Their size is controlled
largely by how consolidated the rock is, along
with grain size and cementation of the rock. In
shale, pressure can affect the size of cuttings,
and large elongated cavings of spalling shale that
pop off the borehole wall are a strong indicator of
overpressure. Bit type plays a signicant role as
well. Roller cone bits with chisel teeth produce a
coarser grade of cuttings than do those with car-
bide buttons. Polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC) bits in soft formations typically use large
cutters that produce large cuttings (below right).
Harder formations call for smaller PDC cutters,
which produce smaller cuttings.
The volume of cuttings that ow across the
shaker is a function of bit size and ROP.
3
Bit size
controls the cross-sectional area of the hole. ROP
controls the thickness of the interval drilled over
a given period. These factors are, in turn, affected
by pump rate, weight on bit (WOB), rotary speed,
uid viscosity and mud density, commonly
referred to as mud weight (MW).
To characterize the lithology of a particular
interval in a well, the mud logger must account
for the transport velocity of the cuttings to cor-
rectly determine the amount of time it takes the
cuttings to travel from the bit face to the shale
shaker. This lag time increases with depth, taking
just a few minutes while drilling the upper sec-
tion of a well, but extending to several hours in
deeper sections. An accurate determination of
lag time is crucial for precisely correlating cut-
tings and uid samples to the formations and
depths from which they originate.
One method for determining lag is to calcu-
late the amount of time required to displace the
total annular volume of drilling uid. This method
calls for the mud logger to factor in the length
and diameter of the open hole, the capacity and
displacement of the tubularsriser, casing and
drillpipein addition to mud pump output, with
separate calculations performed at each change
in hole or pipe diameter. However, the calculated
result tends to be optimistic, underestimating
hole volume because it does not account for
rugosity or washouts, which affect mud volume
and velocity of ow.
A more reliable method for determining lag
time may be obtained through use of a tracer that
is pumped downhole and detected upon its return
to the surface. Various tracer substances have
been tested, ranging from oats, corn or rice to
paint, calcium carbide nuggets or injected gas
some types are precluded out of concern for their
effects on downhole equipment; others are used
only in certain regions.
4
In most cases, the tracer
is simply wrapped in tissue paper, then inserted
into the drillpipe when a connection is made on
the drill oor. The paper disaggregates on its trip
through the drillpipe and the tracer passes
through the nozzles in the bit. The mud logger
starts a timer when the pumps are turned on, and
the time it takes the tracer to circulate downhole
and back to the surface is calculated so that the
mud logger can anticipate its arrival. The timer is
turned off when the tracer reaches the shale
shaker. Knowing the pump rate and the inside
diameter of the drillpipe, the mud logger can cal-
culate the uid volume contained within the pipe
to TD; then, knowing the pump displacement, the
number of strokes to pump the tracer downhole
can be calculated. The mud logger can convert
this to the time it takes the tracer to travel from
the surface to the bit. Subtracting this time from
the total measured time allows computation of
the lag time from the drill bit to the surface.
2. Geopressure is synonymous with formation pressure. In
common oileld parlance, the term refers to an anomalous
uid pressure condition that is above or below the normal
hydrostatic pressure condition for a given depth. Normal
pressure, overpressure or underpressure is either equal
to, above or below hydrostatic pressure, respectively.
For more on this topic: Barriol Y, Glaser KS, Pop J,
Bartman B, Corbiell R, Eriksen KO, Laastad H, Laidlaw J,
Manin Y, Morrison K, Sayers CM, Terrazas Romero M and
Volokitin Y: The Pressures of Drilling and Production,
Oileld Review 17, no. 3 (Autumn 2005): 2241.
3. Whittaker A: Mud Logging Handbook. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall, 1991.
4. Calcium carbide [CaC
2
] reacts with water in the drilling
uid [CaC
2
+2H
2
OC
2
H
2
+Ca(OH)
2
]. The acetylene [C
2
H
2
]
produced in this reaction is a gas not normally found in
sediments. The acetylene will, in turn, be picked up at the
gas trap, and its arrival will be noted automatically by the
gas detector and gas chromatograph inside the mud
logging unit.
>
Cuttings sample. Having been cleaned and dried, these shale cuttings will be examined under
a microscope.
>
Cuttings from a PDC bit. Claystone in a mud
loggers sieve shows tool marks, evidence of
shearing action by a PDC bit.
8 in.
Cutting with
tool marks
28 Oileld Review
Lag can also be measured in mud pump
strokes. Sensors placed on the mud pumps detect
piston movement and transmit a signal to the
pump stroke counter display in the mud logging
unit. The counters are set to zero when the tracer
is inserted into the drillpipe and are read when
the tracer arrives at the surface. A pump stroke
counter will add increments only when the pump
is running; its rate thus reects the true pumping
rate, despite interruptions for connections or
pump maintenance. The number of pump strokes
needed to pump the tracer downhole to the bit is
subtracted from the total count to determine the
number of pump strokes required to circulate the
mud and cuttings from the drill bit to the surface.
Lag is usually measured on a daily basis and at
each casing point. The calculated lag is useful in
determining the impact of formation washouts
between measured lag intervals. For example, a
carbide tracer is placed into the drillpipe during a
connection. After 1,800 pump strokes, the gas
detectors record an acetylene peak. Given that the
calculated lag was 1,710 pump strokes, this 6% dif-
ference in lag time can be attributed to borehole
5. ECD is the effective density exerted at a given depth by
circulating uid against the formation. The ECD is
calculated as:
ECD = d + P/(0.052D), where d is the mud weight in
pounds per gallon (lbm/galUS); P is the pressure drop in
psi in the annulus between depth, D, and surface; D is the
true vertical depth in ft and 0.052 is the conversion factor
from psi/ft to lbm/galUS.
6. In this case, swabbing refers to a slight reduction in
annular pressure caused by pipe movement during a
connection. The amount of gas produced into the
borehole as a result of swabbing depends on mud
rheology, pipe velocity during movement and pipe and
annulus diameter.
>
Excerpt from a basic mud log. A mud log typically displays ROP, depth, cuttings lithology, gas measurements and cuttings descriptions. It may also contain notes
on mud rheology or drilling parameters. This log documents fairly routine drilling, with casing set in a shaly interval at 7,580 ft. After drilling out of casing and
running a leakoff test (LOT), ROP was about 25 to 30 ft/h [7.6 to 9 m/h]. A trip for a new bit at 7,650 ft resulted in 1,548 units of trip gas (TG). During drilling at
near-balanced conditions, small increases in connection gas (CG) were observed following each connection, prompting the driller to raise the mud weight. An
increase in ROP at 7,890 ft signied a drilling break, which was accompanied by increasing sand content and a gas show, which reached a peak of 920 units of
gas (FG). Gas detector results are expressed in parts per million (ppm) of equivalent methane in air on a volume basis, where 10,000 ppm is equal to 1% methane,
or 50 units. The wellsite gas chromatograph typically tracks methane [CH
4
]denoted as C
1
as well as the following constituents: ethane [C
2
H
6
] or C
2
, propane
[C
3
H
8
] or C
3
propane [C
3
H
8
] or C
3
and the normal isopolymers of butane [C
4
H
10
] or nC
4
and iC
4
and pentane [C
5
H
12
] or nC
5
and iC
5
.
F
l
u
o
r
e
s
c
e
n
c
e
1
0
1
0
0
1
k
1
0
k
1
0
0
k
1
,
0
0
0
k
Trip for new bit
6.3 bbl gain
TG: 1,548 U
CG: 35 U
Clay
CG: 39 U
CG: 45 U
FG: 427 U
FG: 920 U
WOB 38 to 53 klb
RPM 78 to 84
Flow 650 gpm
7,500
100 50
ft/h Depth, Cuttings, Total Gas, units
Chromatograph, ppm
Mud Weight,
ppg
In: 10.8
Out: 10.8
Sandstone: Clr-lt gy-frst, m-f gr,
sbelg-elg, sbang-sbrnd, m srt, tr Glau,
calc mtx, p-m cmt, qtzc i/p, m ind,
fri-m hd, p-fr intgran por, no fluor.
Sandstone: Clr-lt gy-frst, m-f gr,
sbelg-elg, sbang-sbrnd, m srt, tr Glau,
calc mtx, p-m cmt, qtzc i/p, m ind,
fri-m hd, p-fr intgran por, no fluor.
Sand: Clr-frst, trnsp-trnsl, m-c gr,
occ f, sbelg-sbsph, ang-sbang, m srt,
tr Glauc, uncons-p cmt, p ind, lse, n por,
Qtz, no fluor.
Sand: Clr-frst, trnsp-trnsl, m-c gr,
occ f, sbelg-sbsph, ang-sbang, m srt,
tr Glauc, uncons-p cmt, p ind, lse,
Qtz, no fluor.
9
7
/8-in. casing set at 7,580 ft MD/
6,691 ft TVD. LOT = 14.8 ppg.
Clay: Lt brn-tan, arg, calc, plas,
sft, sol, slty, rthy, grty.
Clay: Lt brn-tan, arg, calc, plas,
sft, sol, stky i/p, rthy, grty.
Clay: Lt brn-tan, arg, calc, plas,
sft, sol, stky i/p, rthy, grty.
Shale: Lt gy-lt brn, grnsh gy, arg, calc,
frm-hd, occ sft, p-m cpt, sbblky-blky,
splty-ppy i/p, rthy, grty.
Shale: Lt gy-lt brn, grnsh gy, arg, calc,
frm-hd, occ sft, p-m cpt, sbblky-blky,
splty-ppy i/p, rthy, grty.
Increase
MW to 11.3
Increase
MW to 11.5
Increase
MW to 11.7
Increase
MW to 12.0
Lithological Description
and Notes
C
1
% ft
ROP
0
0 125 250 375 500
0.5k 1k 1.5k 2k 2.5k
7,600
7,700
7,800
7,900
8,000
nC
4
iC
4
nC
5
iC
5
C
2
C
3
Shale Sandstone Sand Limestone Dolomite Anhydrite Coal
Formation gas FG CG TG Connection gas Trip gas Oil and gas Oil Gas Bit change, trip Shoe
Spring 2012 29
enlargement. By multiplying pump displacement
by the difference in pump strokes, it is possible to
determine the total volume of borehole washouts.
This volume is also used in extrapolating lag calcu-
lations beyond the measured lag point.
In some cases, another type of gas may help
mud loggers keep track of lag. Connection gas is
typically detected when drilling at near-balanced
conditions in which pressure exerted by the mud is
held close to formation pressure. When a connec-
tion is made on the drill oor, the mud pumps are
stopped and the pipe is picked up to bring the bit off
bottom. With pumps off, the effective mud weight is
reduced from equivalent circulating density (ECD)
to static mud weight, and the hole is swabbed some-
what as the pipe is picked up.
5
These conditions can
create a reduction in bottomhole hydrostatic pres-
sure sufcient for small amounts of gas to be pro-
duced by the formation.
6
When present, this
connection gas is detected at one lag interval after
a pipe connection. Each occurrence of connection
gas reects the amount of lag for the depth of the
bit when the connection took place.
Basic Formation Evaluation
In its most basic form, the mud log is a record of
the drill rate, cuttings lithology, total combusti-
ble gas and individual hydrocarbon compounds
brought to the surface during drilling operations.
The mud log provides a condensed record of sub-
surface geology, the hydrocarbons encountered
and notable activities while drilling the well (pre-
vious page).
The ROP curve records how much time the bit
takes to penetrate each meter or foot, as deter-
mined by a sensor on the drawworks. The ROP
curve can be plotted as a step chart or a continu-
ous line, increasing from right to left. When dis-
played in this manner, the ROP curve responds to
changes in rock type or porosity in much the
same manner as a spontaneous potential or
gamma ray curve, making for easy correlation
between these curves.
A variety of factors affect ROP, including rock
type, porosity, WOB, MW and rotary speed (rpm)
as well as bit type, diameter and condition.
Because drilling practices affect ROP as much as
geology does, the mud logger makes note of cer-
tain drilling parameters next to the ROP curve,
especially when they change.
The ROP curve is interpreted in the same
manner as a gamma ray log. Typically, a shale
baseline is established through a thick interval
of generally slow, consistent drilling the shale
inference can be veried through analysis of
formation cuttings. Deviations from this ROP
baseline may indicate a change in lithology or
other downhole variables. For example, a drill-
ing break may signify a change from shale to
sand or an increase in bottomhole pressure
caused by crossing a fault. A sudden decrease in
ROP, sometimes called a reverse drilling break,
may indicate a transition to rock of greater den-
sity, or it may signal a problem with the bit.
These indicators must be weighed against other
measurements to ascertain their true cause.
The lithology column is based on analysis of
lagged samples of cuttings. Samples are generally
collected at regular intervalsfor example, every
3 m [10 ft] or every 10 m [30 ft]and prior to trip-
ping out of the hole. They are also collected when
ROP or gas curves exhibit signicant deviations
from established trends, indicating changes in for-
mation characteristics. The lithology column dis-
plays an estimate of gross lithology as a percentage
of cuttings, reported in 10% increments.
The cuttings sample is rinsed and dried, then
examined under a binocular microscope. The
sample is then described in terms of lithology,
color, grain size, shape, sorting, porosity, texture
and other characteristics relevant to the particu-
lar rock type (below).
>
Microscopic examination. Rinsed and dried samples are examined under a microscope (left ) to provide lithological descriptions (right ) for the mud log.
The inset photograph shows a typical sample with a mix of rock types, dominated by gray claystone with a lesser fraction of clear to off-white sand. In
some logging units, a camera is attached to the microscope. This allows the mud logger to thoroughly document potentially productive zones, uncommon
minerals, distinctive marker beds or even metal shavings (indicative of casing or bit wear) found in the sample.
Cuttings Sample Description
1. Rock name
2. Color
3. Hardness, fissility
4. Elements or grains
6. Accessories, fossils
7. Visual porosity estimation
8. Hydrocarbon indications
5. Cement and matrix
Clastics
a. grain size
b. roundness
c. sphericity
d. sorting
Carbonates
a. grain nature
b. grain size
Clastics
a. abundance
b. nature
a. visual (stains and bleeding)
b. direct fluorescence (extent, intensity and color)
c. cut fluorescence (rate, intensity and color)
Carbonates
a. abundance
b. crystallinity
Camera
30 Oileld Review
The presence of hydrocarbons may not be
obviouseven under a microscopeso each
sample is subjected to a variety of simple tests to
screen for hydrocarbons. First, the sample is
examined under an ultraviolet (UV) light.
Fluorescence is an extremely sensitive test for
the presence of hydrocarbons in mud, drill cut-
tings and cores. Sample uorescence is evalu-
ated in terms of color (ranging from brown to
green, gold, blue, yellow or white), intensity and
distribution. Fluorescence color can indicate oil
gravity, with dark colors suggestive of lowAPI
gravity, heavy oils, while light colors indicate
highAPI gravity, light oils.
Because uorescence may be attributed to a
number of causes, the cuttings that uoresce are
separated from the main sample for further
examination. Various mud additives, oil in the
rock and certain types of mineralssuch as
pyrite and calcitemay cause a sample to uo-
resce. The mud logger must compare mud addi-
tives against rock cuttings to recognize the
effects of additives. Mineral uorescence may
closely resemble oil uorescence, but the differ-
ence can be conrmed by application of a sol-
vent. Mineral uorescence will remain
undisturbed, whereas hydrocarbon uorescence
will appear to ow and diffuse into the solvent as
the oil dissolves. This diffusion is known as cut
uorescence, or more commonly just cut. Under
UV light, hydrocarbons may be seen to stream
from the rock pores into the surrounding solvent,
turning the solvent cloudy. If no streaming cut is
observed, the sample is left until the solvent has
evaporated and then examined once more under
UV light. A uorescent ring around the sample
indicates that hydrocarbons have been liberated
by the solvent (above). The mud logger will note
whether the cut is immediate or delayed, to pro-
vide a qualitative inference of permeability.
Odor is another good indicator of hydrocar-
bons. If the drilling mud is ruled out as the source
of an oily odor, then the presence of hydrocar-
bons should be investigated. However, the lack of
an odor is not diagnostic of an absence of hydro-
carbons, especially in gas zones.
Some rock grains may be stained through
exposure to oil. The color of the stain can range
from dark brown for lowAPI gravity oils, to col-
orless for highAPI gravity oils and condensate.
The amount of staining or bleedingthe slow
discharge of oilin oil-bearing cuttings or cores
is a qualitative measure of permeability.
Reaction to acid can be a sensitive indicator
of oil in carbonate rock samples, as long as oil-
base uids or hydrocarbons were not added to
the mud system. To test for oil, the mud logger
applies dilute hydrochloric acid to fragments of
rock in a spot plate (left). The presence of oil is
indicated by the formation of large bubbles as the
acid reacts with carbonate in the matrix to free
the oil contained within the rocks pores. In some
cases, the oil will display an iridescent rainbow
on the bubbles surface.
>
Fluorescence under UV light. Mineral uorescence (light colors, left ), often seen in rock samples, is not an indicator of pay. Streaming cut (center ),
however, is produced by an oil-bearing sample placed in solvent. Two faint streams of oil can be seen at the 5 oclock and 11 oclock positions on the
sample. As this milky cut streams oil into the solvent, it gives the clear solvent a light blue hue. After the solvent is allowed to dry, any oil residue will
produce a uorescent ring on the sample glass (right ), which is useful for detecting oil in low-permeability samples that do not readily produce streaming
cut. (Photograph courtesy of G. Haines.)
>
Reaction of carbonate rock to acid. Dilute
hydrochloric acid dissolves carbonate rock,
liberating any oil contained within. As it dissipates,
the oil turns the clear acid brown. The three
larger bubbles are a result of greater surface
tension caused by the presence of oil.
Bubbles
Bubble
Spring 2012 31
Wettability can be qualitatively assessed.
Failure of a sample to take on water, or the ten-
dency of cuttings to oat in water, may indicate
that oil is present and that the sample is oil wet.
7
However, samples from air-drilled wells may not
wet as a result of small particle sizes and surface
tension effects.
A positive result from any of these screening
tests is considered an oil show, which warrants
immediate notication of the company repre-
sentative and geologist. The mud logger also
watches for gas shows by monitoring the gas
detection equipment.
The gas detection system offers near-instan-
taneous readings, limited only by the lag time
from the bit to the surface. Suction lines trans-
port a constant stream of air and gas from the gas
trap, located at the shale shaker, to the logging
unit. There, sensitive gas detection instruments
process samples extracted from the drilling mud.
The primary tool is a ame ionization detector
(FID), which can sense hydrocarbon gas concen-
trations as low as 5 to 20 ppm. FID results are
expressed in parts per million (ppm) of equiva-
lent methane in air on a volume basis, where
10,000 ppm is equal to 1% methane, or 50 units.
The FID measurements are used to plot the
total gas curve on the mud log. Background
gasa more or less constant, minimum level of
gasestablishes a baseline on the total gas
plot. The level of background gas may be any
value from a few ppm to several percent,
depending on formation and circulating condi-
tions. A gas show is any signicant increase in
detected gas, usually also correlated with a zone
of increased porosity or permeability.
The mud logger consults the gas chromato-
graph for more detailed analysis during oil or gas
shows. Operating on an automated cycle, the
chromatograph separates the gas stream into dif-
ferent fractions according to molecular weight.
Cycle timethe amount of time it takes to cycle
a gas sample through the chromatograph col-
umnmay range from less than a minute to sev-
eral minutes, depending on the type of gas
separation column used in the chromatograph.
Commonly detected components fall within the
alkane group: methane [C
1
], ethane [C
2
], pro-
pane [C
3
], butane [C
4
] and pentane [C
5
]. The
measurement of these light hydrocarbons helps
geologists characterize reservoir uid composi-
tion while drilling. Because each reservoir uid is
composed of different hydrocarbon species with
differing molecular weights, the relative propor-
tions of light hydrocarbons change from one uid
type to another. The quantity of the gas recovered
and the ratios of the various gases are useful in
identifying zones of producible oil or gas.
8
Basic Pressure Monitoring
Drilling crews around the world have had to con-
tend with abnormally high formation pressures.
High pressures are encountered in formations in
which an impermeable layer, sealing fault, diapir
or other barrier restricts natural uid ow and
pressure equilibration. In these overpressured
formations, uids trapped in the pores bear part
of the weight of the overlying rock. Overpressure
commonly occurs when low permeability pre-
vents pore uid from escaping as rapidly as
required for compaction of pore space under the
weight of newly deposited overburden sediments.
Excess pressure builds as the weight of overbur-
den squeezes the trapped uid in a process
referred to as undercompaction or compaction
disequilibrium. This undercompaction typically
occurs where there is a transition from a sand-
prone to a shale-prone environment.
9
Detection of overpressured formations is crit-
ical to the drilling process; by providing this ser-
vice, mud logging plays an important role in well
control. Drillers are extremely keen to recognize
impending threats to well control, but the sim-
plicity of rig oor instrumentation sometimes
makes it difcult to identify subtle changes in
pressure parameters. An unnoticed failure of a
sensor or display on the drill oor, a distraction at
the wrong time or an unexpected change in drill-
ing routine may prevent a driller from recogniz-
ing the onset of a dangerous situation. Using
surface indicators, mud loggers may be able to
identify hazardous operating conditions.
Mud logging crews provide another set of eyes
to monitor drilling systems while correlating mul-
tiple drilling parameters. Through examination
of cuttings and diligent monitoring of ROP, gas,
mud weight, bulk shale density and mud pit vol-
ume, mud loggers can frequently detect a transi-
tion from normal to potentially dangerous
pressure conditions.
As the bit approaches an overpressured for-
mation, distinct changes in compaction and
porosity may be observed. Formation pressure
may approach that of the bottomhole pressure
(BHP). When this pressure difference decreases,
ROP increases as normally overbalanced bottom-
hole conditions start to become underbalanced.
10
Consequently, ROP is a key parameter in the
detection of overpressured formations.
Shale porosity has long been considered a
reliable indicator of abnormal formation pres-
sure. Because the weight of overburden causes
shale to become more compact with depth, ROP
normally decreases with depth. If the drilling
rate increases in shale, the driller and mud log-
ger might reasonably suspect that porosity is
increasing and that the bit may be entering an
overpressured zone.
However, numerous factors inuence ROP;
weight on bit, mud weight, rotary speed, bit size
and bit condition also affect drilling rate.
11
To
account for these mechanical variables, the mud
logger computes a drillability exponent, or
d-exponent (above). Some mud loggers use a
corrected d-exponent (dcs), which factors in
7. Wettability is the preference of a solid surface to be in
contact with one liquid rather than another.
Intermolecular interactions between the solid surface
and the liquid control wetting behavior.
For more on wettability: Abdallah W, Buckley JS,
Carnegie A, Edwards J, Herold B, Fordham E, Graue A,
Habashy T, Seleznev N, Signer C, Hussain H, Montaron B
and Ziauddin M: Fundamentals of Wettability,
Oileld Review 19, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 4461.
8. For more on chromatography and gas ratio analysis:
Haworth JH, Sellens M and Whittaker A: Interpretation
of Hydrocarbon Shows Using Light (C
1
C
5
) Hydrocarbon
Gases from Mud-Log Data, AAPG Bulletin 69, no. 8
(August 1985): 13051310.
9. Bowers GL: Detecting High Overpressure, The Leading
Edge 21, no. 2 (February 2002): 174177.
10. Dickey PA: Pressure Detection: Part 3. Wellsite
Methods, in Morton-Thompson D and Woods AM (eds):
Development Geology Reference Manual. Tulsa: The
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG
Methods in Exploration Series no. 10 (1992): 7982.
11. Jorden JR and Shirley OJ: Application of Drilling
Performance Data to Overpressure Detection, Journal
of Petroleum Technology 18, no. 11 (November 1966):
13871394.
>
Formula for d-exponent. The d-exponent
normalizes the variables that can inuence the
drilling rate, making the resulting plot more
sensitive to pore pressure. (Adapted from Jorden
and Shirley, reference 11). The d-exponent varies
inversely with the rate of penetration. Variations
on the original equation have been developed
since its publication in 1966; these variations
account for changes in mud weight or bit wear.
(Rehm and McClendon, reference 12.)
where: d
R
N
W
D
= drillability exponent
= penetration rate, ft/h
= rotary speed, rpm
= weight on bit, lbm
= bit diameter, in.
d =
log
R
60N
12W
10
6
D
log
32 Oileld Review
changes in mud weight or bit wear.
12
After calcu-
lating the d-exponent to normalize the ROP, the
mud logger can view drillability as a function of
rock strength and the density of the drilling uid.
As compaction and rock strength increase
with depth, the d-exponent increases when drill-
ing through a uniform lithology with no changes
in mud overbalance or bit performance. A plot of
the d-exponent with depth should roughly mirror
the ROP, showing an inverse relation to the drill
rate (above). A drilling break would plot as a
reversal in the slope of the d-exponent.
The arrival of gas in the mud is another indi-
cation of compaction disequilibrium. If formation
pressure exceeds the pressure applied by the col-
umn of mud, formation uids will begin to ow
into the wellbore. A rapid inux of uids is called
a kick, and marks the beginning of serious well
control problems. If formation uidespecially
gasows into the wellbore unabated, the
effects will soon cascade. The inux will lower
the overall mud column weight, reducing the
effective pressure against the owing formation,
thereby permitting the formation to ow at a
greater rate, leading to a blowout.
Mud loggers must try to interpret overpres-
sure clues from a number of parameters. An
increase in the temperature of the mud returns
may result from faster drilling and increased cav-
ings in undercompacted shales. Gas levels may
rise as a result of methane dissolved in the pore
water of some overpressured shales. Gas escap-
ing from the cuttings is detected at the mud log-
ging unit as an increase in total gas. This indicator
may be misleading, however, because increases
in total gas may result from oil- or gas-bearing
formations or organic-rich shales. The increase
in porosity that is characteristic of undercom-
pacted shales causes lower shale density than is
found in normally compacted shales. The mud
logger uses a density measuring device in the log-
ging unit to determine the density of shale cut-
tings at regular intervals.
13
An increase in return ow, coupled with rising
levels in the mud tanks, indicates a reux of drill-
ing uids, with greater volumes of mud owing
out of the hole than were pumped into it. Pit level
and ow rate sensors monitored at the drill oor
and logging unit will trigger an alarm when they
detect a mud level change, prompting the drilling
crew to shut off the mud pumps, check for ow
and prepare to close the blowout preventer.
At the opposite end of the spectrum is a
decrease in mud levels, which indicates that the
mud pumps are sending more uid downhole
than is being circulated back to the surface. This
lost circulation may indicate that the formation
has fractured and can have serious repercussions,
depending on the rate of uid loss.
14
If the mud
level drops too far, the decrease in the hydrostatic
pressure downhole may allow formation uids to
enter the wellbore, causing a kick similar to drill-
ing into an overpressured zone.
A kick may also be indicated by an increase
or decrease in drillstring weight. A small infu-
sion of formation uid can reduce the buoyancy
of the uid in the annulus; a sensitive weight
sensor may indicate this change as an increase
in drillstring weight. Given a substantial kick,
however, formation uid may enter the borehole
with enough force to push the drillpipe upward,
causing a marked decrease in indicated drill-
string weight.
The ability to warn drilling crews of impend-
ing trouble is heavily dependent on the mud log-
gers capacity for monitoring changes in drilling
parameters. This capability could never have
been realized without the extra layer of hyper-
vigilance derived from numerous sensors
installed at critical points around the rig.
Moving into the 21st Century
Early mud loggers grew attuned to the sounds of
the drilling rig and could often tell what was hap-
pening simply by the clang of the drillers tongs,
the revving of the drawworks engine and the
squeal of the drillers brake. Any variation in the
normal routine and rhythms of the rig was cause
for investigation. Today, robust, highly sophisti-
cated sensors acquire data at several times per
second while a context-aware processing system
helps the mud logger piece it all together.
Through the years, an impressive array of sen-
sors has been developed or adapted for use by
advanced mud logging companies. One such com-
pany, Geoservices, a Schlumberger company, is
an industry leader in mud logging technology.
15
Over its 53-year history, Geoservices has devel-
oped or acquired a wide variety of sensors to mea-
sure and record critical drilling performance and
circulation system parameters. Most sensors are
intrinsically safe for operating in hazardous con-
ditions and must be robustly constructed to
ensure reliable operation in harsh drilling envi-
ronments and climates. Sensor signals are con-
verted from analog to digital as close to the
12. Rehm B and McClendon R: Measurement of Formation
Pressure from Drilling Data, paper SPE 3601,
presented at the SPE Annual Meeting, New Orleans,
October 36, 1971.
Lyons WC (ed): Standard Handbook of Petroleum &
Natural Gas Engineering, vol 2. Houston: Gulf
Professional Publishing (1996): 1045.
13. Dickey, reference 10.
14. For more on mud loss prevention and remediation:
Cook J, Growcock F, Guo Q, Hodder M and van Oort E:
Stabilizing the Wellbore to Prevent Lost Circulation,
Oileld Review 23, no. 4 (Winter 2011/2012): 2635.
15. Geoservices was acquired by Schlumberger in 2010.
>
Effects of overpressure on drilling rate and d-exponent. Through a normally
pressured shale interval, ROP (red line) generally decreases with depth. The
d-exponent (blue line) tends to increase with depth, following a normal
compaction trend. Deviations from these trends may be related to
undercompaction and may signal that the bit is encroaching on an
overpressured zone.
d-exponent Formation
pressure
gradient
Transition zone
Normally
pressured zone
Overpressured
zone
Rate of
penetration
D
e
p
t
h
Increasing drilling rate, d-exponent and formation pressure gradient
Spring 2012 33
sensor as possible to prevent problems associ-
ated with analog signal transmission and a multi-
tude of cables running across the rig oor.
Pressure sensors measure a variety of crucial
parameters. These sensors can be tted to key
pieces of rig equipment to obtain measurements
such as weight on hook, WOB, rotary torque,
standpipe pressure, casing pressure and cement
unit pressure.
By measuring small movements of the draw-
works drum, the drawworks sensor helps the mud
logger track the movement of the drillstring and
the position of the bit while drilling or tripping
(right). This sensor is tted onto the main shaft
of the drawworks. Drawworks sensor outputs
help the mud logger determine drilling rate, hook
position and bit position.
Noncontact proximity sensors monitor pump
strokes and rotary speed. Pump strokes are used
to calculate mud ow rates, which are essential
for optimization of drilling hydraulics, estimation
of lag time and various kick control functions.
Monitoring of rotary speed (rpm) is necessary for
assessing drilling performance and calculating
the d-exponent. The proximity sensor emits an
electromagnetic (EM) eld and uses EM induc-
tion to detect the passage of a metal activator.
Variations in rotary torque often provide the
rst indications of problems with downhole drill-
ing equipment. For a given rotary speed, a grad-
ual increase in torque might signal that the drill
bit is worn and should be replaced. Mud loggers
can also use torque variations to identify forma-
tion changes while drilling. A rotary torque sen-
sor uses a transducer, which is clamped around
the cable feeding the electric motor that powers
the rotary table or topdrive. The electric current
drawn by the motor is proportional to the rotary
torque applied to the drillstring.
Detection of changes in mud pit level is key to
the safety of the drilling process. The ultrasonic
pit level sensor is positioned over the mud pits
and measures uid level. This sensor emits an
ultrasonic wave that reects off the surface of the
liquid (right). This sensor is light, compact, accu-
rate and highly reliable, requiring no moving or
immersed parts. Precise measurement of the
time it takes for the ultrasonic signal to return to
the sensor gives the distance between the sensor
and the level of liquid in the pit. On oating rigs,
multiple sensors may be installed in each pit to
account for variations in mud level caused by
ocean wave motion.
Density sensors provide rapid, accurate mea-
surements of drilling uid density; they can
detect slight changes in mud weight, enabling
the mud logger to alert the drilling crew to an
inux of lower-density formation uids into the
well. The density sensors are also used to monitor
the addition of weighting material or uid to the
mud system. Mud density is measured by two
pressure sensors immersed at different depths in
the mud pit and calculated from the pressure dif-
ferential and depth between the sensors.
Three types of ow sensors are available for
continuous monitoring of drilling uid ow:
1he nud cw paddle neasures the heiht cl
the mud in the mud return owline. When con-
nected to the logging system computer, the sen-
sor provides a continuous chart of relative
height. The mud logger can set alarms for ow
height above and below preselected limits.
1he electrcnanetic cwneter is a vclunetric
owmeter that operates on the principle of
magnetic induction. It can be installed on the
standpipe to measure ow into the well and on
the return owline to measure ow out of the
wellbore. Each sensor unit replaces a short
section of the pipe on which it is mounted.
Each sensor consists of a pair of circular
electrodes ush with the inside of the pipe.
When the sensor is energized, a magnetic eld
is established at right angles to the pipe axis,
creating a potential difference between the
two electrodes that is proportional to the uid
ow rate. The electromagnetic owmeter
operates in water-base muds or in muds in
which the continuous phase is conductive.
Connection to the logging system computer
enables real-time monitoring and permanent
recording of the ow parameters as well as
automated calculation of differential ow,
which is essential for reliable detection of
small-volume kicks or losses.
>
Pit level sensor. This device (inset) emits a series of ultrasonic pulses to
detect changes in uid level in the mud pit.
Mud pit
>
Drawworks sensor. This sensor consists of a disk
that rotates in harmony with movements of the
cable drum. Movements of the disk are detected
by proximity sensors, which send pulses to the
main processor in the logging unit.
34 Oileld Review
1he Ccriclis cwneter accurately neasures
nass cw, tenperature and density cl a circu-
latin uid, as cr slurry at lcw tc ncderate
pressures. 1he senscr, typically installed cn a
hypass channel added tc the return cwline,
uses the Ccriclis ellect tc neasure cw
(ahcve). Iluid enters the senscr and passes
thrcuh a pair cl cw tuhes, which are lree tc
vihrate and twist under the inuence cl the
uid cw. Ilcw is neasured hy quantilyin the
ancunt cl twist in the cw tuhes, which is prc-
pcrticnal tc the nass cw rate cl the uid. 1he
density cl the uid is chtained hy neasurin
the rescnant lrequency cl vihraticn cl the cw
tuhes. 1he neasured values are autcnatically
ccnpensated lcr tenperature chanes.
1he tenperature cl the circulatin drillin
uid can prcvide clues tc chanin dcwnhcle
ccnditicns. 1enperature senscrs are usually
placed in the sucticn nud pit (desinated as
tenperature in") and in the shale shaker header
hcx tc chtain cwline tenperature (desinated
as tenperature cut"). Ircn the dillerence hetween
cut" and in" values, the tenperature radient can
he calculated tc help lcin crews lccate transiticn
zcnes and cther eclcic hcundaries.
1he resistivity senscr neasures drillin uid
electrical resistivity, which reects the salinity cl
the uid. 1he senscrs are installed in the sucticn
pit and shale shaker header hcx. Hud salinity
nay chane when drillin thrcuh hedded salts
cr salt dcnes, when passin thrcuh lault zcnes,
and when drillin zcnes cl transiticn tc ahncrnal
pressures where lcrnaticn water cws intc the
nud cclunn. 1his systen enahles accurate and
linear neasurenent cl ccnductivity lrcn 0 tc
300 nS.
1cday's nud lcin units ncnitcr a wide
rane cl surlace senscrs used tc ascertain dcwn-
hcle ccnditicns cr evaluate ri perlcrnance.
1hese senscrs enahle the nud lcer tc reccnize
chanin ccnditicns that cculd enhance cr |ecp-
ardize a prcspect.
Advanced Services
Xew senscr technclcy is pavin the way lcr
inprcvin drillin perlcrnance and increasin
the value cl the data extracted lrcn the nud.
0ecservices nud lcin technclcy is lccused
cn twc nain areas. lcrnaticn evaluaticn and
drillin suppcrt.
Icrnaticn evaluaticn services can ncw c
heycnd analyses cl rcck cuttins and uids tc
identily lithclcy and pctential pay zcnes. 1c sup-
ply advanced nud as sanplin and chrcnatc-
raphy, 0ecservices has develcped the ILAIR uid
lcin and analysis service lcr wellsite ecchen-
ical evaluaticn. 0rillin suppcrt services prcvide
a level cl analysis cl surlace dataheycnd that cl
hasic pressure ncnitcrin servicestc enhance
salety and cptinize drillin cperaticns. 1he
Pre\ue realtine ecpressure service is desined
tc help reduce the risks cl kicks, nud lcsses and
cther well ccntrcl prchlens. And 1hena drillin
cperaticns suppcrt and analysis service prcvides
>
Coriolis owmeter. Coriolis meters are installed in the owline. When there is no ow, current through
the pickoffs (top left ), generates sine waves on both inlet and outlet sides of the meter (bottom left and
top right ) that are in phase with each other. Fluid moving through the tubes causes them to twist in
opposing directions (bottom right ) and also causes the sine waves to go out of phase by a factor t,
which can be converted to mass ow rate.
Flow inlet
Flow outlet
Sine wave
Magnet
Inlet pickoff
Outlet pickoff
Flow
Inlet side
Outlet side
t
Top view
Outlet side
No flow
Inlet side
Outlet side
In phase
Out of phase
Inlet pickoff
Outlet pickoff
Inlet side
No flow
No flow
Spring 2012 35
up-to-date analysis of drilling mechanics, hole
condition and rig performance.
FLAIR advanced mud gas loggingDuring
the past 10 years, advances in mud logging tech-
nology have signicantly improved the quality
and utility of wellsite formation evaluation data.
Today, high-resolution gas chromatography and
mass spectrometry provide data and interpreta-
tive capabilities that enable quantitative evalua-
tions of key formation parameters. FLAIR uid
logging and analysis in real time gives early infor-
mation pertaining to formation uid composi-
tion. Integration of FLAIR data with data
obtained by other formation evaluation tech-
niques enables more-accurate assessments of
hydrocarbons in the formation.
The FLAIR system analyzes hydrocarbons
extracted from the drilling mud under constant
thermodynamic conditions. These hydrocarbons
are continuously analyzed to obtain a quantitative
evaluation of the light gases C
1
through C
5
, while
also providing qualitative information on heavier
components C
6
through C
8
, including methylcyclo-
hexane and the light aromatics benzene and tolu-
ene.
16
Other nonhydrocarbon components, such as
helium, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulde can also be monitored.
Specialized mud gas extraction equipment is
a key component of the FLAIR system. The FLEX
uid extractor continuously samples mud from
the owline as the mud returns from the well.
The FLEX extractor heats mud samples to a con-
stant temperature under constant pressure and
volume conditions. This method provides a
steady air-to-mud ratio inside the extraction
chamber, creating an extremely efcient and
repeatable process. The capability to heat the
sample can be particularly important in deepwa-
ter environments, where mud return tempera-
tures may range from 10C to 15C [50F to
59F]. At low temperatures, there is not enough
inherent energy in the system to efciently liber-
ate the heavier gas components from the mud.
Traditional mud gas extractors that do not heat
the sample may yield inaccurate data because
more of the gas is left in the mud during the
extraction process.
With the FLEX extraction process, the
FLAIR mud gas logging system operates under
constant thermodynamic conditions, enabling
calibration of the extraction efciency for the
C
1
to C
5
components. The heavier hydrocarbons,
C
6
to C
8
, are not as easily extracted, but their
presence can be detected qualitatively. The cali-
bration is coupled with a correction that
accounts for any gas that might have been recy-
cled through the mud system. This is achieved
by placing a second FLEX unit in the pump suc-
tion line, the point at which the mud is pumped
back into the well (above). In this manner, the
fraction of hydrocarbons recycled with the mud
and pumped back into the well can be quantita-
tively measured. Correction for recycled gas is
possible because the extraction conditions are
the same for both FLEX units.
Extracted hydrocarbons are fed to an
advanced gas chromatographmass spectrome-
ter (GCMS) analyzer, which detects and analyzes
gases at the parts-per-million (or micrograms-
per-gram) level. The mass spectrometer enables
the FLAIR analyzer to detect and differentiate
between coeluting peaks created by the various
ion currents that characterize components
extracted from the mud. This leads to a very short
analysis time85 s for analysis up to C
8
, includ-
ing differentiation of several isomers.
Comparisons between pressure-volume-tem-
perature (PVT) analysis of actual downhole uids
with results obtained through FLAIR analysis of C
1
to C
5
components show a close match. This capa-
bility was demonstrated during a collaboration
between Shell and Geoservices, in which PVT and
FLAIR data from Gulf of Mexico wells were found
to be comparable, whereas a traditional mud gas
logging system consistently underestimated the
concentrations of the C
2+
gas species.
17
Among other capabilities, the FLAIR service
can help geoscientists differentiate between dif-
ferent uid types. As a bit penetrates a reservoir,
an increase in gas density measured at the sur-
face may indicate a transition from gas cap to
oil leg. This increased density is caused by a
proportional increase in heavier gases (C
3+
)
compared with the lighter C
1
and C
2
components.
Measurements of heavy components and their
relative proportions to the light fraction are used
to calculate the hydrocarbon balance (Bh) and
wetness (Wh) ratios, which help geoscientists
discriminate between oil and gas.
18
The FLAIR service was run on an offshore UK
appraisal well drilled for Hess Corporation and
partners Chevron, DONG Energy and OMV. Two of
the operators key objectives for the well were to
conrm the volume of hydrocarbons in place
within the main reservoir and to investigate the
presence of hydrocarbons in certain formations
above and below this reservoir. After the pilot
hole was successfully drilled, a sidetrack was
drilled and the well was landed horizontally in
the main reservoir target interval, designated as
16. Light hydrocarbons such as C
1
to C
5
are easily removed
by the mud gas extraction process, so their concentrations
can be assessed quantitatively. The heavier C
6
to C
8
hydrocarbons are more difcult to remove from the
uid by this process. Their presence can be detected
but not easily quantied, so a qualitative measurement
is provided.
17. McKinney D, Flannery M, Elshahawi H, Stankiewicz A,
Clarke E, Breviere J and Sharma S: Advanced Mud Gas
Logging in Combination with Wireline Formation Testing
and Geochemical Fingerprinting for an Improved
Understanding of Reservoir Architecture, paper
SPE 109861, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Anaheim, California, USA,
November 1114, 2007.
18. Bh = [(C
1
+ C
2
) / (C
3
+ iC
4
+ nC
4
+ C
5
)].
Wh = [(C
2
+ C
3
+ C
4
+ C
5
) / (C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
+ C
4
+ C
5
)] 100.
For more on these ratios and their interpretation:
Haworth et al, reference 8.
>
Arrangement of FLEX extraction units. Using specialized gas extraction units placed in the discharge
and suction lines, the FLAIR analysis system compares the two gas streams to correct for any recycled
gas that the mud systems degassing units failed to remove.
Bit
Mud pit
Shale
shakers
Mud
pump
Hose
Kelly
Swivel
Cuttings
Drillstring
FLEX out
Fluid coming from the well
Analyzer
Results
Fluids data interpretation
Facies determination
Fluid composition
Gas chromatograph
Mass spectrometer
Fluid pumped back into the well
FLEX in
36 Oileld Review
the S3 horizon. The sidetrack well raised a num-
ber of questions pertaining to vertical connectiv-
ity, uid variability, presence of altered and
unaltered uids and geosteering uncertainties
within the horizontal section.
Hess investigated potential hydrocarbon
zones where gas peaks were recorded above
background level. FLAIR analysis of gases from
these zones helped the operator divide them into
distinctive uid facies. These facies were dened
by graphing gas ratios on star diagramsmulti-
variate plots in polar coordinatesto depict
chemical composition and highlight their differ-
ences (above). Based on these analyses, the
operator identied several distinct uid facies
from different horizons within the well.
The FLAIR service also helped the operator
evaluate a formations potential for producing oil
or gas. The ratio of heavy to light fractions was
used to calculate the hydrocarbon balance and
wetness ratios. Another potential indicator was
the appearance of methylcyclohexane [C
7
H
14
], a
member of the naphthenic family that usually is
present in the liquid phase (next page).
In addition, the operator sought to distin-
guish between biodegraded and nonbiodegraded
uids in the reservoir. Biodegradation can affect
both the quality of hydrocarbons and their pro-
ducibility.
19
Among other effects, biodegradation
can raise oil viscosity, decrease API gravity and
increase asphaltene, sulfur and metals content.
In addition, biogenic gas may override oil in a res-
ervoir, moving updip to disrupt existing reservoir
uid gradients. This inux modies the gas/oil
ratio, creating compositional variations. Gradient
disruptions from charging and recharging may
indicate the presence of compartments.
In a study conducted prior to spudding the
well, Hess evaluated PVT analyses obtained
from offset wells to assess the effects of bio-
degradation in the reservoir. These analyses
helped to identify markers that could prove
useful in recognizing alterations resulting
from biodegradation. The study indicated that
specific ratios of heptane [nC
7
], methylcyclo-
hexane [C
7
H
14
] and toluene [C
7
H
8
] were com-
mon to the wells in which biodegradation was
observed. The C
2
/C
3
ratio was found to be
another useful indicator of early-stage biodeg-
radation because C
3
is one of the first compo-
nents that bacteria attack and remove; in a
later stage they remove the C
2
.
FLAIR analysis provided quantitative compo-
sition only in the C
1
to C
5
range and provided
qualitative evaluations of the heavier hydrocar-
bons. In the Hess well, these results showed low
values of the nC
7
/C
7
H
14
ratio, which is in line with
biodegradation effects observed in reservoir u-
ids from offset wells. When extremely low values
of toluene were detectedclose to the sensitiv-
ity of the analyzera change in the analysis rou-
tine was called for. The C
7
H
8
/nC
7
ratio was
replaced by a C
2
/C
3
ratio, providing a clear dif-
ferentiation between biodegraded and unaltered
uids (left).
19. For more on biodegradation in the reservoir: Creek J,
Cribbs M, Dong C, Mullins OC, Elshahawi H, Hegeman P,
OKeefe M, Peters K and Zuo JY: Downhole Fluids
Laboratory, Oileld Review 21, no. 4 (Winter 2009/2010):
3854.
>
Fluid facies characterization. Variations in uid composition produce
distinctive star plots that can be classied as different uid facies. This star
diagram highlights different levels of heterogeneity. The lightest uid was
encountered in the 3a facies, whereas heaviest uids were found in facies
3e and 3f.
C
1
/C
2
C
1
/C
3
C
1
/C
4
s
C
2
/C
4
s
C
3
/C
4
s
iC
4
/nC
4
90%
92%
95% to 96%
92% to 93%
90% to 91%
88% to 89%
86% to 87%
85% to 86%
2a:
2b:
3a:
3b:
3c:
3d:
3e:
3f:
Fluid facies, % C
1
>
Recognizing uid differences. Hess scientists identied two distinct uid
families, based on the level of uid alteration. The hydrocarbon ratio analysis
conrmed the uid in an upper reservoir was biodegraded, whereas the uid
in a deeper reservoir in the well was unaltered.
2.500
1.875
1.250
0.625
0
1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0
C
2
/
C
3
nC
7
/C
7
H
14
Biodegraded fluid, pilot hole
Biodegraded fluid, sidetrack well
Nonbiodegraded fluid, sidetrack well
Upper reservoir
Deeper reservoir
Spring 2012 37
>
Fluid facies log. Precise hydrocarbon measurements are obtained through FLAIR gas analyses and are used to distinguish between uids produced from
different reservoir intervals. The resulting uid facies are numbered sequentially, with a letter indicating subfacies (Track 3 and legend). Measurements of
the C
1
to C
7
components (Tracks 4 to 8) are used to calculate hydrocarbon balance (Bh) and wetness (Wh) ratios (Track 10). In this well, methylcyclohexane
[C
7
H
14
] was also useful in determining the presence of a liquid phase (Track 9). The R2 and R3 formations (Track 2) are characterized by uid facies 2, while
the other formations contain uids from facies 3. The targeted S3 reservoir was fairly homogeneous, its uids being relatively light in the C
1
to C
5
range, but
with a proportionally higher abundance of C
7
H
14
, which suggested the presence of a liquid phase. The coal seams S1 and T1 were consistently
characterized by high gas levels, with the gas ranging between 95% and 96% C
1
but without methylcyclohexane.
C
1
ppm 0 10k L
i
t
h
o
l
o
g
y
F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
F
l
u
i
d

F
a
c
i
e
s
Gamma Ray
2a
2b
2a
2b
3a
3b
3c
3a
3b
3d
3e
3e
3f
3a
3b
gAPI 50 150
nC
5
ppm 0 100
iC
5
ppm 0 100
nC
4
ppm 0 150
iC
4
ppm 0 150
C
3
ppm 0 500
C
2
ppm 0 500
C
7
H
14
ppm 0 250
C
7
H
8
ppm 0 50
Bh
0 100
Wh
0 100
nC
7
ppm 0 100
nC
6
ppm 0 100
Vertical Depth
ft X,100 X,700
Lithology
2a: 90% 2b: 92% 3a: 95% to 96% 3b: 92% to 93%
Fluid facies, % C
1
3c: 90% to 91% 3d: 88% to 89% 3e: 86% to 87% 3f: 85% to 86%
Oil
Oil
Oil
Coa Coa Coal g l g ll as
Coall gas
Coall gas
R2
R3
S1
S3
S2
T1
T1
Clay Coal Sand
38 Oileld Review
The FLAIR services also proved useful as an
aid to geosteering. While the horizontal sec-
tion was being drilled, a decrease in resistivity
was observed within the reservoir zone
(above). This drop might have signaled an
impending roof or base exit from the targeted
section, or it might have indicated that the bit
was entering the water leg of the reservoir.
However, fluid facies analysis performed in
real time showed that the fluid remained
unchanged, indicating that the wellbore had
not exited the oil zone. The resistivity decrease
was attributed to increasing irreducible water
saturation within the oil zone.
PreVue real-time geopressure serviceThe
PreVue services provide prespud pressure predic-
tion along with wellsite monitoring of pore pres-
sure and wellbore stability. Far in advance of rig
mobilization, pressure specialists collect data
from nearby offset wells and seismic surveys.
They analyze well logs, pressure tests and mud
reports to create a vertical stress model of each
wellbore, then correlate velocity and log response
to wellbore pressure anomalies.
After creating a 3D seismic interval velocity
model from local and regional seismic data, the
pressure specialists calibrate the model using
acoustic logs and checkshot surveys from offset
wells.
20
Next, they conduct a velocity volume analy-
sis, computing normal compaction trends (NCTs)
and creating pore pressure and wellbore stability
models. Leakoff test data from offset wells provide
control points for modeling the fracture gradient.
These models help the PreVue pressure engineers
identify potential zones of abnormal pressure,
determine kick tolerances, develop mud weight
windows and project where casing points should
be set (next page).
Once drilling commences, PreVue wellsite
pressure engineers closely monitor ROP and gas
readings as well as LWD and MWD logs; they
update pressure plots, revise trend lines and watch
for variations from the predrill model. Using this
information, they can apprise the wellsite com-
pany representative of impending problems.
As drilling proceeds, LWD provides important
data for interpreting changes in pressure
regimes. The sonic velocity, density and resistiv-
ity logs are especially useful for pore pressure
and fracture gradient interpretation. Although a
number of factorssuch as washouts, formation
uid type and anisotropycan inuence log
response, in general, these tools respond to
changes in rock porosity.
When PreVue engineers observe a porosity
increase as depth increases, they immediately
notify the driller and company representative.
Quick detection of inux and changing gas con-
tent is a critical task for the PreVue engineer.
A typical response would be to increase mud
weight until the inux is under control. However,
this strategy is not without risk, such as uninten-
tional fracturing of the formation that can result
in sudden mud loss. Increasing the mud weight
may create new fractures or open existing frac-
tures and force mud into the formation. In per-
meable formations, this can lead to uid loss.
Apart from the cost of losing expensive drilling
uid, signicant mud loss from the annulus can
lead to lower hydrostatic pressure and result in a
difcult well control situation.
20. Following normal compaction trends, seismic interval
velocities increase with depth. Decreases in velocity
with depth may be used to identify potential zones of
abnormal formation pressure.
21. Umar L, Azian I, Azree N, Ali ARM, Waguih A, Rojas F,
Fey S, Subroto B, Dow B and Garcia G: Demonstrating
the Value of Integrating FPWD Measurements with
Managed Pressure Drilling to Safely Drill Narrow
Mud Weight Windows in HP/HT Environment, paper
SPE/IADC 156888, presented at the SPE/IADC
Managed Pressure Drilling and Underbalanced
Operations Conference and Exhibition, Milan, Italy,
March 2021, 2012.
>
LWD log. During drilling through the reservoir section, FLAIR gas analysis (Track 3) helped to ease concerns about
a decrease in resistivity. FLAIR analysis conrmed that the well had not exited the reservoir zone.
Lithology
Formation
G
a
m
m
a

R
a
y
g
A
P
I

5
0
1
5
0
S
2
S
3
C
1
p
p
m
0
1
5
k
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

S
h
a
l
l
o
w
2
0
0
0
.
2
2
0
0
0
.
2
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

D
e
e
p
o
h
m
.
m
o
h
m
.
m
T
1
T
1
Resistivity decrease
Ismail Z, Azian Bt A Aziz I, Umar L, Azree B Nordin N,
Nesan TP, Rodriguez FR, Zapata FG, Garcia G, Waguih A,
Subroto B and Dow B: Automated Managed Pressure
Drilling Allows Identication of New Reserves in a
HPHT Exploration Well in SB Field, Offshore Malaysia,
Paper IADC/SPE 151518, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference and Exhibition, San Diego, California,
March 68, 2012.
22. For more on look-ahead VSP methods: Borland W,
Codazzi D, Hsu K, Rasmus J, Einchcomb C, Hashem M,
Hewett V, Jackson M, Meehan R and Tweedy M:
Real-Time Answers to Well Drilling and Design
Questions, Oileld Review 9, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 215.
Breton P, Crepin S, Perrin J-C, Esmersoy C, Hawthorn A,
Meehan R, Underhill W, Frignet B, Haldorsen J,
Harrold T and Raikes S: Well-Positioned Seismic
Measurements, Oileld Review 14, no. 1
(Spring 2002): 3245.
Arroyo JL, Breton P, Dijkerman H, Dingwall S, Guerra R,
Hope R, Hornby B, Williams M, Jimenez RR, Lastennet T,
Tulett J, Leaney S, Lim TK, Menkiti H, Puech J-C,
Tcherkashnev S, Ter Burg T and Verliac M: Superior
Seismic Data from the Borehole, Oileld Review 15,
no. 1 (Spring 2003): 223.
Blackburn J, Daniels H, Dingwall S, Hampden-Smith G,
Leaney S, Le Calvez J, Nutt L, Menkiti H, Sanchez A
and Schinelli M: Borehole Seismic Surveys: Beyond
the Vertical Prole, Oileld Review 19, no. 3
(Autumn 2007): 2035.
Spring 2012 39
Turning on mud pumps raises the pressure of
the mud, and this phenomenon can be regarded
as a virtual increase in the mud density.
Management of this gap between the effective
static density (pumps off) and effective circulat-
ing density (pumps on) and its relationship to the
formation pressure and rock strength is a key to
successful drilling. The objective of the PreVue
service is to balance the mud densityboth
static and circulatingbetween the formation
pressure and the rock strength.
In 2011, Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd drilled the
high-pressure, high-temperature SBD-2 well, in
the Malay basin offshore Malaysia. Based on pre-
vious experience in the area, drillers expected
that they would have to contend with a narrow
mud weight window constrained by pore pressure
and fracture pressure.
21
An earlier offset well, the
SBD-1, experienced pressure problems accompa-
nied by heavy mud losses, which prevented the
well from reaching its objective.
Using logs from the SBD-1 well, Petronas
geologists were able to identify the onset of
abnormal pore pressure. Before spudding the
SBD-2 well, Petronas wanted to determine the
depth of the transition from a lower pressure gra-
dient to a higher pressure gradient. PreVue pres-
sure specialists analyzed seismic data to
ascertain the top and base of this pressure ramp.
A 3D seismic volume of the area was analyzed and
the velocity data from offset wells were extracted
and compared with wireline and LWD data. These
data were used to compute overburden gradients
and normal compaction trends in offset wells,
which were then integrated into a velocity model
across the prospect location. Velocity values from
the prospect location and other sites were ana-
lyzed to determine the depth at onset of abnor-
mal pressure and the magnitude of pressure. The
difference between pore pressure and kick toler-
ance left the driller with an extremely narrow
equivalent mud weight window of just 1 to
1.5 lbm/galUS [0.12 to 0.18 g/cm
3
].
During subsequent planning sessions, the
operator elected to obtain borehole vertical seis-
mic prole (VSP) data after each casing run. This
intermediate VSP data from the wellbore could be
obtained in the relatively safe environment of the
SBD-2 cased hole. Moreover, it would allow the
project team to make time-depth conversions in
their original model, which relied on surface seis-
mic data. The VSP data would also allow the opera-
tor to identify any changes in the model and could
be used as a tool for gauging the pore pressure
prole ahead of the bit. This valuable look-ahead
information would guide the drilling teams strat-
egy for drilling the well to its target.
22
Drilling progress toward the pore pressure
ramp was tracked by integrating LWD resistivity
logs and d-exponent plots, along with emphasis
on gas measurements and trends. Prior to drilling
into the pressure transition zone, the operator
ran a zero-offset VSP to update previous esti-
mates of pore pressure. Based on this VSP data,
high- and low-pressure cases were developed
with the same normal compaction trend line
used to generate pore pressure curves from seis-
mic velocity. Both cases indicated that the range
for increase in pore pressure gradient was around
1 lbm/galUS. This gave the drilling team a clearer
picture of what lay ahead and reinforced con-
dence in the computed model.
The interval between intermediate casing
and TD in the SBD-2 well was drilled in two
sections. The rst of these was drilled using a
10-in. bit and a 12-in. underreamer. After
9
5
/8-in. casing was set, the second section was
>
Predrill analysis of an offset well log. Overpressured zones or intervals of inhibited compaction are
characterized by increased porosity, which can be identied through log responses from nearby offset
wells. Pore pressure indicators (red dots, Track 1) are based on average shale resistivity (black) and
help to establish a normal pore compaction trend line (green). Deviations from the normal compaction
trend may indicate abnormal pressure. PreVue pore pressure studies evaluate seismic data and logs,
leakoff tests and mud reports from offset wells to predict the onset of abnormal pressure, its
magnitude and the range of mud weights that can be used to control it. In this example, deviations
from the normal compaction trend start at about 8,800 ft. The equivalent mud weight curves (Track 2)
display a corresponding pressure behavior. Kick tolerance (light blue) is dictated by the weakest
formation exposed in open hole. The fracture gradient (dark blue), pore pressure (green), overburden
gradient (red) and normal hydrostatic gradient (black) have been calculated to establish an allowable
mud weight window (hatched) bounded by the kick tolerance and pore pressure curves.
Resistivity
ohm.m 0.2 20
1,000
Depth,
ft
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
Casing
Leakoff
test
Leakoff
test
Leakoff
test
Casing
Casing
Casing
11,000
12,000
Pore Pressure Indicator
ohm.m 0.2 20
Normal Compaction Trend
ohm.m 0.2 20
Normal Hydrostatic Gradient
ppg 0 23
Overburden Gradient
ppg 0 23
Pore Pressure
ppg 0 23
Fracture Gradient
ppg 0 23
Kick Tolerance
ppg 0 23
40 Oileld Review
drilled to TD using an 8-in. bit and a 9-in. under-
reamer. The underreamers increased the annular
volume, which reduced circulating pressures in the
annulus and lowered the ECD, thus counteracting
the effects of the heavy muds. Throughout this inter-
val, the mud weight was maintained close to the
estimated pore pressure prole and ECDs were
maintained close to the fracture gradient. Any pres-
sure increase in which downhole ECD exceeded
kick tolerance resulted in seepage losses and thus
gave the drilling team a reliable indicator for main-
taining downhole pressures.
PreVue engineers also used gas measure-
ments to obtain accurate indications of mud bal-
ance. As the well neared TD, gas peaks were
observed following pump stoppages. PreVue engi-
neers analyzed these gas increases and found
that, instead of a troublesome inux resulting
from low mud weight, these gas peaks were
caused by well breathing.
Well breathing may be observed in some wells
following brief stoppages of the mud pump. When
mud weight approaches the equivalent of the
fracture gradient, small fractures can develop in
weak formations or along the interface between
rock layers. While mud pumps are turned on, the
fractures may open, allowing drilling uid to
enter. Light gases diffuse from the formation into
the drilling uid. When the pumps are turned off
briey, such as during a pipe connection, the
fractures slowly close, forcing the mud with
gas to ow back into the hole. When the drilling
uid circulates to the surface, it registers as an
increase in total gas. However, on the chromato-
graph, it is characterized by an increase in C
1
and
C
2
gases, with little change in C
3
, C
4
and C
5
gases.
To maintain mud weight within the narrow
pressure window, managed pressure drilling
(MPD) techniques were used for early kick detec-
tion, maintaining constant bottomhole pressure
control and conducting dynamic ow checks and
dynamic formation integrity tests (FITs).
23
When
engineers compared the VSP look-ahead pore
pressure curves with actual pressure readings
from an MDT modular formation dynamics tester
and StethoScope formation pressure-while-drill-
ing tool, they found that the readings closely
matched each other (left). After TD was reached,
the wellbore was displaced with kill mud and the
well was completed successfully.
Thema drilling operations support and anal-
ysis serviceThe Thema service processes real-
time, high-frequency data streams from a number
of sensors around the rig to provide up-to-date
analysis of hole condition, drilling efciency, well
pressure balance and rig performance. This infor-
mation is displayed on customizable screens
installed at the logging unit and the company rep-
resentatives workspace; it can also be accessed
remotely from the operators ofces.
In hole condition mode, Thema engineers
analyze wellbore stability and hole cleaning ef-
ciency in real time. The drillstring weight is
recorded while it is static, rotating or reciprocat-
ing. This program can also process input from
cuttings owmeters. Data are presented in depth
or time, enabling the user to rapidly establish a
sequence and correlation between events. These
>
Final composite log. Look-ahead estimates of pore pressure from VSP analyses are conrmed by
actual pressure readings from MDT and StethoScope tools. Mud weight was kept as low as possible
to keep the ECD from exceeding the fracture strength of the rock. In spite of this effort, some mud
losses were experienced. The plots show that mud pressures (red) were maintained close to the
estimated pore pressures.
Depth,
m
Overburden Gradient Average
ppg 8 23
Interval Velocity Fracture Gradient, High-Pressure Case
ppg 8 23
Fracture Gradient from Deep Resistivity
ppg 8 23
Interval Velocity Fracture Gradient, Low-Pressure Case
ppg 8 23
Equivalent Circulating Density
ppg 8 23
Mud Weight In
ppg 8 23
Interval Velocity Pore Pressure Gradient, High-Pressure Case
ppg 8 23
Pore Pressure Gradient from Deep Resistivity
ppg 8 23
Interval Velocity Pore Pressure Gradient, Low-Pressure Case
ppg 8 23
Normal Hydrostatic Gradient
ppg 8 23
X,100
X,200
X,300
X,400
X,500
X,600
X,700
X,800
X,900
Y,000
Y,100
Y,200
Y,300
Y,400
Y,700
Y,500
Y,600
FIT
LOT
LOT
LOT
FIT
Dynamic FIT
Dynamic FIT
Mud losses
Mud losses
Mud losses
Mud gain
1.9 bbl
Mud gain
5 bbl
13
3
/8-in. shoe
11
3
/4-in. liner
9
5
/8-in. shoe
Casing depth Kick or flow MDT or StethoScope pressures Leakoff test Lost circulation zones
Spring 2012 41
data are analyzed to derive industry-standard val-
ues for torque, ECD, pickup, slack-off and free-
rotating weights.
The drilling efciency mode evaluates vari-
ous drilling parameters to assess bit behavior
and wear. Surface sensors monitor the fre-
quency and magnitude of axial vibration caused
by bit bouncing and stick-slip torsional vibra-
tions. These inputs are used to anticipate poten-
tial problems such as bit balling, drillstring
vibration and bit wear to optimize drilling
parameters. The drilling efciency mode may
help improve ROP and increase the life of down-
hole and surface equipment.
The Thema service helped one operator in the
Middle East enhance core recovery in a forma-
tion susceptible to breakage. Breaks in core
cause two main problems. First, the operator has
difculty in recovering representative samples of
the formation. Second, broken core causes gaps
in the core recovery footage count, which can
severely degrade the quality of interpretation of
any core that is eventually recovered.
Analysis of drilling sensor data from the rst
coring run revealed the core was being sub-
jected to severe torsional vibrations inside the
core barrel, resulting in a poor-quality core with
many breaks and fractures. During a subsequent
coring operation, the Thema service was used to
manage drilling parameters and minimize drill-
string vibration. The operator obtained a clean,
unbroken core, thus validating the Thema anal-
ysis and recommendations.
To monitor rig performance, the Thema
service automatically tracks and displays a
specific combination of parameters, such as
connection time or net drilling time per stand.
The duration of each activity is logged,
enabling assessment of the rig performance
during various operations such as drilling, slid-
ing, tripping and circulating. The wellsite data
specialists work with Thema engineers at the
operators office to provide timely updates to
rig site and office project members.
The Thema service was recently called on to
determine the cause of poor drilling rates in
wells off the coast of Brazil. During a three-year
drilling campaign, the operator utilized
Geoservices mud logging and Thema services on
several wells drilled from semisubmersible rigs in
the Campos basin. While most of these wells were
drilled and completed on schedule, a few were
taking longer than expected to reach TD, owing
to dramatic decreases in ROP.
In contrast to neighboring wells with ROPs
averaging 40 m/h [130 ft/h], some wells attained
only 16 m/h [52 ft/h]a 60% reduction. An eval-
uation of drilling performance indicated that
ROP was hampered by vibration. However, the
driller was unable to identify the exact cause of
the problem.
On one well, the Thema service was used to
record responses of various drilling perfor-
mance sensors located around the rig. The
Thema system acquires data at up to 50 Hz,
enabling rapid correlation of sensor responses
to various drilling parameters. Among the
inputs were data from sensors to detect motion
on the riser tensioner, heave compensator and
topdrive block.
Analysis of sensor data helped Geoservices
personnel track the problem to its root cause:
Drilling energy was being dissipated through
shock and torsional resistance as a result of
heave motion (above). As is typical of semisub-
mersibles, the rig used heave compensators to
reduce vertical drillstring movement caused by
the rise and fall of ocean waves.
By ne-tuning the damping motion of the
heave compensator, the drilling contractor was
able to mitigate the problem and boost ROP
while reducing stress on the drillstring. The ROP
increased from 16 m/h to 45 m/h [148 ft/h]
exceeding the 40-m/h average of neighboring
wells by more than 10%. These results prompted
the operator to implement the same monitoring
and mitigation practices on the ve rigs the com-
pany employed in the area. In light of these
results, the operator plans to use the Thema ser-
vice in future wells.
The scope of services offered by mud logging
companies continues to expand as new sensors
and analytical tools are developed. In response,
the mud logger has taken on an important role in
providing the operator and drilling crew with
information that is crucial to the success of the
well and to the safety of the rig. In addition to
formation evaluation experts, the mud logging
unit must now accommodate specialists who are
responsible for drilling efciency and well safety.
By linking a wide array of surface sensors to rapid
analytical capabilities and operational expertise,
the mud logging unit is fast becoming the nerve
center of the drilling rig. MV
>
Heave versus compensation. Using Thema service data, Geoservices personnel tracked a drillstring vibration problem on a well in the Campos basin off
the coast of Brazil. A comparison between the magnitude of heave and compensation (left ) showed deciency in heave damping, which was subsequently
corrected (right).
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
00:02 00:06 00:10 00:14 00:18
Time, min:s
01:00 01:04 01:08 01:12
H
e
i
g
h
t
,
m
Compensator Heave
23. For more on managed pressure drilling: Elliott D,
Montilva J, Francis P, Reitsma D, Shelton J and Roes V:
Managed Pressure Drilling Erases the Lines,
Oileld Review 23, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 1423.
42 Oileld Review
Offshore Permanent Well Abandonment
Worldwide, government and regulatory ofcials are informing the offshore oil and gas
industry that unproductive wells must be immediately sealed to permanently remove
these potential environmental threats. Service companies are developing tools and
methods to limit the economic impact of fullling these obligations.
Lucas W. Abshire
Broussard, Louisiana, USA
Praful Desai
Houston, Texas, USA
Dan Mueller
ConocoPhillips
Houston, Texas
William B. Paulsen
ATP Oil & Gas Corporation
Houston, Texas
Robert D. B. Robertson
Torodd Solheim
Stavanger, Norway
Oileld Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1.
Copyright 2012 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Hani Ibrahim
and Eric Wilshusen, Houston.
2M, Hydra-Stroke and Shortcut are marks of Schlumberger.
1. Smith I, Olstad E and Segura R: Heightened Regulations
Create Demand for Well Abandonment Services,
Offshore 71, no. 10 (October 2011): 7073.
2. King GE: Plug and AbandonmentProducing Well,
George E. King Engineering, Inc. (March 14, 2009),
http://gekengineering.com/Downloads/Free_Downloads/
Plug-and_Abandonment_Basics.pdf (accessed March
14, 2012).
Spring 2012 43 43
Subsea elds are reaching the end of their pro-
ductive lives in the North Sea and the Gulf of
Mexico, where the offshore oil and gas industry
rst moved into waters deep enough to require
oating drilling and production units. As a conse-
quence, and spurred by environmental concerns
and ofcial regulatory agencies, operators are
poised to plug and abandon (P&A) a substantial
number of wells in both those regions in the next
few years.
This proliferation of present and future
P&A needs is turning what has been a niche
market into a multibillion dollar industry for
offshore service companies. In the UK sector of
the North Sea alone, it is estimated that more
than 500 structures with about 3,000 wells
are slated for permanent abandonment in the
near future. By some estimates, as many as
12,000 wells are no longer producing in the
Gulf of Mexico, qualifying them all as P&A can-
didates.
1
In the Norwegian sector of the North
Sea, more than 350 platforms and more than
3,700 wells eventually must be permanently
abandoned. Additionally there are more than
200 structures slated for decommissioning off-
shore the Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, Spain
and Germany.
The basics of P&A operations vary little,
whether the well is on land or offshore. Operators
remove the completion hardware, set plugs and
squeeze cement into the annuli at specied
depths across producing and water-bearing zones
to act as permanent barriers to pressure from
above and below in addition to protecting the for-
mation against which the cement is set (above
right). Operators remove the wellhead last.
Today, regulators are increasingly demanding
that operators remove sections of casing so that a
cement plug may be set that is continuous across
the entire borehole in a conguration often
referred to as rock to rock.
Similarly, both onshore and offshore, the
decision to P&A a well is invariably based on eco-
nomics. Once the production rate has fallen
below the economic limitthat point at which
production levels deliver income that is less than
or equal to operating expensesit becomes pru-
dent to abandon the well. In some instances,
although considerable reserves may remain, the
cost to repair a well problem is more than the
projected income from potential production from
a reworked well. On the other hand, in some off-
shore wells, engineers are able to permanently
plug an offshore completion below a certain
depth, remove one or more intermediate casing
strings and set a whipstock. The operator is then
able to reenter the original mother bore and drill
a sidetrack well off the whipstock to an untapped
section of the reservoir.
The steps required of operators to qualify
their offshore wells as permanently abandoned
vary widely with regulatory jurisdiction. For
example, an offshore platform well in Norway is
far more costly to abandon than one in the
Middle East because meeting the standard of
permanency set by regulators of the former
requires more expensive operations than do
those of the latter.
As a consequence of the high cost of offshore
operations, prudent operators consider the cost
of permanently abandoning a well and its sup-
porting infrastructure during the eld planning
stages. Abandoning subsea wells can cost millions
of dollars per well, particularly when the task
must be performed from a deepwater drilling ves-
sel. Operators planning to permanently abandon
a well are therefore driven by the sometimes com-
peting interests of safety and economics.
This article discusses the nal steps of aban-
donment operations unique to offshore wells and
describes the tools being developed to meet the
needs of permanency while providing cost ef-
ciencies. Because ofcial governing bodies of the
North Sea and Gulf of Mexico recently have made
decommissioning a priority and because the two
represent the largest mature offshore arenas in
the world, this article focuses on operations in
those areas. Similarly, legislators governing oper-
ations in the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico are
themselves more experienced in this work than
are their counterparts elsewhere around the
world. Consequently, these ofcial bodies are
likely to both drive and incorporate new technol-
ogy in future regulations that are realistic in
terms of the operators bottom lines while ensur-
ing that taxpayers not be burdened with repair
costs for wells that, decades later, turn out not to
be truly permanently abandoned.
Attacking the High Cost of P&A
The inability to recover 100% of all the oil and gas
trapped in formation rocks is due in part to eco-
nomics and in part to constraints imposed by
technology and geology. In all cases, some hydro-
carbon will be left behind because the cost to
bring it to surface is higher than the price it will
bring at market; other pockets of oil and gas
remaining in the reservoir will never be recov-
ered because even technologies such as water
injection, which are used to force hydrocarbons
to the wellbore after natural drives are depleted,
eventually become ineffective or uneconomic.
When operators abandon a well, they are
obliged to leave it in a condition that protects
both the downhole and surface environment in
perpetuity. In all parts of the world, sometimes
numerous regulatory bodies of overlapping
responsibilities dene procedures and qualica-
tions of a permanent well abandonment. In the
Gulf of Mexico, for example, depending on dis-
tance from shore and water depth, operators may
have to meet requirements set by agencies from
both federal and state jurisdictions.
Despite disparities between regulators around
the world, the intent of all P&A operations is to
achieve the following:
isclate and prctect all lresh and near lreshwa-
ter zones
isclate and prctect all luture ccnnercial zcnes
prevent leaks in perpetuity lrcn cr intc the
well
rencve surlace equipnent and cut pipe tc a
mandated level below the surface.
2
>
Basic plug. A requirement for a permanent well
barrier is that it must include all annuli, extending
to the full cross section of the well and seal both
vertically and horizontally. In this illustration, the
cement plug is sealing vertically inside the casing
and sealing both horizontally and vertically in the
casing-formation annulus above the casing shoe.
Annulus
Formation
Cement
plug
Casing shoe
44 Oileld Review
P&A operations offer permanent solutions to
wells that are no longer protable or that have
developed problems that cannot be economically
repaired. However, offshore, it is a common prac-
tice for operators to permanently abandon the
zones within a well before completing and pro-
ducing others. Additionally, offshore develop-
ment plans often call for lower sections of
depleted wells to be permanently abandoned to
free a slot in subsea templates and platforms
through which another well may be drilled to an
untapped section of the reservoir. This practice is
termed slot recovery.
To permanently abandon a well, operators
must leave behind a wellbore that is congured
according to local regulations for plug type,
length and depth (left). Operators remain
responsible for an abandoned well long after the
wellbore has been cemented and the surface
equipment removed. In the event a seal fails and
well uids leak to the surface or crossow is
detected, the operator is liable for the problem.
To meet P&A obligations, the oil and gas
industry has developed methods and materials
designed to provide long-term zonal isolation
even when downhole conditions change over
time.
3
In efforts aimed at reducing the expense of
offshore abandonment operations, operators and
regulators continue to change the way traditional
P&As are performed, and service companies
strive to stay abreast of these changes and to
develop tools and techniques to facilitate them.
Minimizing these costs, without sacricing the
integrity of the abandoned well, is critical to
operators who must make these signicant
investments with no hope of nancial return.
Depending on water depth, offshore well
abandonment can be staged from a xed plat-
form such as jackup rig, from a large oating
platform such as a semisubmersible drilling rig
or from a support vessel with dynamic position-
ing. In UK waters, abandonment from a xed
platform is the least expensiveabout US$ 1 to 2
million per well. By contrast, abandonment oper-
ations using a semisubmersible or dynamically
positioned oating drilling unit typically cost
operators US$ 5 to 6 million per well, and the
cost of support vesselbased abandonments falls
between those two extremes (next page, left).
4
In Norway, the cost of permanent well abandon-
ment is signicantly higher to meet both the
operators self-imposed standards and regula-
tors requirements.
>
US P&A regulations guide. Depending on a wells location, depth, condition and other parameters,
operators are obliged to perform and document specic steps that are outlined by the regulating body
for the area. This table shows samples of the procedures to be performed so that a well in the Gulf of
Mexico is deemed permanently plugged. The procedure called for depends primarily on the well
conguration prior to plugging and is set by the US Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement.
[Adapted from the Electronic Code of Federal Regulations: Permanent Well Plugging Requirements,
http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=06d320a6f4723641d7d1b83be409c10d&rgn=div
8&view=text&node=30:2.0.1.2.2.17.93.11&idno=30 (accessed March 28, 2012).]
Set cement plug(s) from at least 100 ft [30 m] below the bottom to 100 ft above
the top of oil, gas and freshwater zones to isolate fluids in the strata.
Zones in open hole
Situation Procedure
Open hole below casing
Perforated zone that is
currently open and not previously
squeezed or isolated
Casing stub with the stub end
within the casing
Casing stub with the stub end
below the casing
Annular space that
communicates with open hole and
extends to the mudline
Subsea well with unsealed
annulus
Well with casing
Fluid left in the hole
Permafrost areas
Perform one of the following:
<Set, by the displacement method, a cement plug at least 100 ft above
and below the deepest casing shoe.
<Set a cement retainer with effective backpressure control 50 ft [15 m] to
100 ft above the casing shoe, and a cement plug that extends at least 100 ft
below the casing shoe and at least 50 ft above the retainer.
< Set a bridge plug 50 to 100 ft above the shoe with 50 ft of cement
on top of the bridge plug for expected or known lost circulation conditions.
Perform one of the following:
<Set a cement plug at least 100 ft above and below the stub end.
<Set a cement retainer or bridge plug at least 50 to 100 ft above the stub
end with at least 50 ft of cement on top of the retainer or bridge plug.
<Set a cement plug at least 200 ft long with the bottom of the plug no
more than 100 ft above the stub end.
Set a plug as specified in the openhole sections, above, as applicable.
Set a cement plug at least 200 ft long in the annular space; for a well
completed above the ocean surface, pressure test each casing
annulus to verify isolation.
Use a cutter to sever the casing; set a stub plug as specified in
casing stub sections, above.
Set a cement surface plug at least 150 ft [45 m] long in the smallest casing that
extends to the mudline with the top of the plug no more than 150 ft below
the mudline.
Maintain fluid in the intervals between the plugs that is dense enough to exert a
hydrostatic pressure that is greater than the formation pressures in the intervals.
Leave, in the hole, fluid that has a freezing point below the temperature
of the permafrost and a treatment to inhibit corrosion and use cement plugs
designed to set before freezing and that have a low heat of hydration.
Perform one of the following:
<Use a method to squeeze cement to all perforations.
< Set, by the displacement method, a cement plug at least 100 ft
above to 100 ft below the perforated interval, or down to a casing plug,
whichever is less.
<If the perforated zones are isolated from the hole below, use any
of the five plugging methods specified below instead of the two specified in
this section, immediately above.


Set a cement retainer with effective backpressure control 50 to 100 ft
above the top of the perforated interval and a cement plug that extends at
least 100 ft below the bottom of the perforated interval with at least 50 ft
of cement above the retainer.

Set a bridge plug 50 to 100 ft above the top of the perforated interval
with at least 50 ft of cement on top of the bridge plug.

Set, by the displacement method, a cement plug at least 200 ft [60 m] in length,
with the bottom of the plug no more than 100 ft above the perforated interval.

Set a through-tubing basket plug no more than 100 ft above the

perforated interval with at least 50 ft of cement on top of the basket plug.

Set a tubing plug no more than 100 ft above the perforated interval
topped with a sufficient volume of cement so that it extends at least 100 ft
above the uppermost packer in the wellbore with at least 300 ft [90 m] of
cement in the casing annulus immediately above the packer.
Spring 2012 45
As the upstream oil and gas industry moved
into deeper water, it sought ways to temper
steeply rising capital and operating expendi-
tures. In deep water, where numerous satellite
jackets are impractical, one approach is to com-
plete subsea wells with wellheads that are on the
seabed and connected to a eld platform via
owlines strung along the seaoor. Subsea well-
head valves and instruments are monitored and
manipulated through bundled hydraulic and
electric lines called umbilicals (above right).
3. For more on P&A procedures: Barclay I, Pellenbarg J,
Tettero F, Pfeiffer J, Slater H, Staal T, Stiles D, Tilling G
and Whitney C: The Beginning of the End: A Review of
Abandonment and Decommissioning Practices,
Oileld Review 13, no. 4 (Winter 2001/2002): 2841.
For more on long-term zonal isolation: Bellabarba M,
Bulte-Loyer H, Froelich B, Le Roy-Delage S, van Kuijk R,
Zeroug S, Guillot D, Moroni N, Pastor S and Zanchi A:
>
Subsea lubricator. In the 1970s, Schlumberger
introduced a subsea intervention lubricator that
could be landed on a subsea tree and connected
via a rigid riser to a dynamically positioned
vessel. This allowed operators to perform light
slickline, wireline or coiled tubing well
interventions without deploying a costly offshore
oating drilling unit. The capability to cost
effectively reenter subsea wells greatly reduced
well maintenance costs and allowed engineers
to perform necessary work more frequently, thus
extending well life.
CSO Seawell
Rigid riser
Subsea
intervention
lubricator
Subsea tree
>
Subsea completions. To minimize demands on surface support facilities in
deep water, operators place subsea wellheads (yellow) on the ocean oor.
Bundled owlines and umbilicals (green) carry production and electric and
hydraulic control and monitoring signals between wellheads; uids and
signals travel to the production facility at the surface via risers (red). This
system allows engineers to deploy smaller and fewer high-end deepwater
support vessels for service in large areal elds.
Ensuring Zonal Isolation Beyond the Life of the Well,
Oileld Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 1831.
4. Liversidge D, Taoutaou S and Agarwal S: Permanent
Plug and Abandonment Solution for the North Sea,
paper SPE 100771, presented at the SPE Asia Pacic Oil
and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Adelaide, South
Australia, Australia, September 1113, 2006.
46 Oileld Review
Most subsea wells are completed with three
or more casing strings of progressively smaller
diameters and are usually bonded to each other
by a cement sheath in the annulus. Typically, dur-
ing the abandonment process, three or more
drillpipe trips are required to remove each casing
string. The rst trip is made to retrieve the casing
and hanger seals from the wellhead. The casing is
then cut during a second trip, and a third trip is
required to pull the casing and casing hanger
from the well. Following recovery of these inter-
mediate strings, the conductor casing is cut and
the wellhead retrieved.
Rig time for these operations is considerable;
in deep water, each trip commonly takes 8 to
10 hours.
5
To reduce time and thus cost of cutting
and pulling strings of intermediate casing from a
subsea well, SERVCO has developed the Shortcut
deepwater plug and abandonment system (left).
It is designed to latch and retrieve the seal
assembly and then sever a single string of casing,
engage it for removal and retrieve the wellhead
seal assembly in a single operation.
The Shortcut system is run in the hole on
drillpipe and has a mechanical spear shing tool
that can be engaged near the point at which the
cut is being made. Once the casing is cut, the
shing tool can be released and moved to the top
of the severed casing string and reset. The recov-
ered casing is hung in the rotary table while the
spear is released and the workstring is racked
back out of the way, which allows the casing to be
handled safely and efciently as it is being
removed from the wellbore. A retrieval tool may
be included in the system to enable removal of
the wellhead seal assembly. A key component of
the system is the SERVCO hydraulic cutting tool,
whose knives can extend the maximum sweep
diameter created by the often eccentric congu-
ration of cemented pipe (next page, top).
To cut and pull a string of casing, engineers
first engage the wellhead seal assembly with
the retrieval tool and strip the seal assembly
up into the riser. The casing cutter is then posi-
tioned at the appropriate depth and the spear
is engaged and used to place the string in ten-
sion. Pumps are turned on and drillstring rpm
rates are slowly increased to turn the mud
motor rotor, which rotates the cutter.
The driller monitors the differential pressure
across the positive displacement motor; when
data indicate a uid pressure drop, the cut is
complete. The driller then slacks off and manipu-
lates the drillpipe to disengage the spear, which
is pulled to just below the wellhead where it is
>
Cut and pull. The Shortcut deepwater P&A system uses a hydraulic cutter
to sever the casing and a spear to latch it. The collets of the Shortcut spear
are extended to engage the casing near the cut point until the cut is
complete. The spear is then released and pulled to the top of the casing
section where it is reengaged. This ability to change the position of the
spear allows it and the drillstring it is run on to be racked out of the way
while the casing is being pulled. The cutter arms are rotated by uid
pumped through the mud motor. The bumper sub attachment allows the rig
operator to jar the casing if necessary.
Hydra-Stroke
bumper sub
Mud motor
Hydraulic pipe cutter
Bumper sub
Shortcut spear
Cutter arms
Collets
Spring 2012 47
reengaged. The casing is then pulled from the
well, and the seal assembly and retrieval tool are
laid out on the surface. The driller continues to
pull out of the hole until the casing hanger is
landed on the rotary and the spear can be disen-
gaged and racked back in the derrick so that cas-
ing lay down may proceed.
A similar tool, the SERVCO 2M cut-and-pull
system, is also a single-trip system primarily used
to cut and retrieve 20- and 30-in. casings and sub-
sea wellheads. This tool is able to pull the casing
alone or the casing and wellhead together, and
because it is designed to latch the wellhead and
casing in noncritical areas and thus avoid seal
bores in casing hangers, the recovered parts need
not be machined before reuse.
Because the cutting assembly may be run on a
single stand of 8-in. drill collars, the 2M system
reduces workstring handling time and eliminates
the need for a marine swivel typically required
for these operations (below right). The cut-and-
pull system consists of a standard or rotating
spear, hydraulic pipe cutter and nonrotating sta-
bilizers placed above and below the pipe cutter.
Slot Recovery
Most P&A operations are an unavoidable cost of
doing business and offer no return on the capital
invested in them. However, slot recovery opera-
tions are a different story because such opera-
tions provide access to untapped reserves that
will extend the life of the eld. Not only does this
operation result in more revenue from produc-
tion, but as the eld ages it helps extend the life
of the platform and other infrastructure that rep-
resent very large preproduction capital expendi-
tures. Because slot recovery is performed in
maturing elds, operators tend to be concerned
with cost cutting when accessing these second-
ary targets. One key to controlling the costs of
these new wells is reining in the P&A portion of
slot recovery costs by reducing the number of
trips required to cut and retrieve the multiple
casing strings that prevent installation of a
new well.
5. Going WS and Haughton D: Using Multi-Function Fishing
Tool Strings to Improve Efciency and Economics of
Deepwater Plug and Abandonment Operations, paper
SPE/IADC 67747, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, February 27March 1, 2001.
>
Eccentric casing. Cutting two strings of casing can be complicated when
the distance from center to casing wall is extended by eccentricity. In this
case, a 7-in. casing is inside a 9
5
/8-in. casing string. When the two are
perfectly centered (left), the largest diameter the cutting knife must reach is
10.62 in. In extreme cases, the 7-in. casing is tightly pressed against the inner
wall of the 9
5
/8-in. casing (right), thus the knife must sweep a 13.68-in. diameter.
3.06 in. 1.53 in. 3.78 in. 5.31 in.
10.62-in. sweep necessary
Worst Case
13.68-in. sweep necessary
3.78 in. 6.84 in.
Best Case
>
Rigless well abandonment package. The SERVCO power swivel stand consists of hydraulic jacks
with 445-kN [100,000-lbf] pulling capacity power swivel, control panel, power tongs and a mast with
which to swing the tongs in and out of position. The stand is positioned over the well; once a string of
casing is pulled to the surface by a spear shing tool, it is connected to the power swivel head. The
hydraulic jacks lift it out of the well to the next connection; the power tongs break the connection. The
stand allows the crew to rack back the spear and drillstring. This system replaces the alternative
method using a spear and drillstring to retrieve each stand of casing.
Ultrahigh-torque
power tongs
Power
swivel head
Control
panel
Power
swivel stand
48 Oileld Review
Typically, in addition to the conductor, or sur-
face, casing string, offshore wells include inter-
mediate and production casing strings,
production tubing and a production packer
(above). The section of the well below the packer
is referred to as the lower completion. Slot recov-
ery consists of plugging and abandoning the
lower completionwhich often includes working
through collapsed tubingand sidetracking
from a kickoff point some distance above this
new plug, which must be across all annuli and
sealed against the formation. A simplied version
of the procedure requires the following:
installin a pressure harrierusually cne cr
more cement plugsin the production tubing
below the packer
rencvin prcducticn tuhin ahcve the packer
installin a seccnd harrier ahcve the lcwer
completion inside the production casing
cuttin and pullin and, il necessary, nillin
the production casing to below the kickoff
point
sidetrackin the well thrcuh internediate
casing.
Conventional systems for this work involve
multiple trips to run cutting and shing tools and
retrieve casing sections. Usually, the well has
been in place for many years, so cutting and pull-
ing the casing may be difcult because of a rm
cement bond, barite settling from drilling uid in
the annulus or a combination of the two.
6
Pulling
units may be unable to overcome the strong bonds
created by cement or barite. As a result, the cut-
ting and pulling operation may require several
trips and cuts for each string before an interval is
found that is free of binding cement or barite.
To address this possible eventuality, a team of
engineers reviewed the conventional tools used
for these jobs. They found that the standard kit
could make only a limited number of cuts down-
hole. Based on these ndings, the team designed
a pipe cutting tool with three sets of tungsten-
carbide cutters, which can be activated indi-
vidually and remotely. This capability allows
operators at least three attempts to cut the cas-
ing without having to pull out of the hole for fresh
knives. An indicator in the tool conrms to
observers on the surface that the cut is com-
pleted. A hydraulic spear and packer assembly
being developed for future inclusion in the BHA
will allow engineers to pull and circulate uid
behind the production casing.
7
The product of this design effort is the multi-
cycle pipe cutter (MCPC) system (next page, top).
It incorporates an indexing piston assembly that
moves in response to applied drilling uid pres-
sure and is used to engage and guide the tools
axial and rotational movements. A combination of
an indexing mechanism and ow uctuations
allows the engineer to selectively activate one of
three sets of cutters and the hydraulic spear and
packer assembly. Those cutters not engaged are
securely collapsed within the body of the tool.
A pressure drop indicator at the top end of
the tool consists of a stationary stinger within the
piston bore. Initially the stinger remains in the
piston bore, creating a ow restriction and a
higher activation pressure. When the cut is com-
plete, the piston moves downward, resulting in
removal of the ow restriction and a drop in pres-
sure of 1.4 to 2.1 MPa (200 to 300 psi) that is dis-
played at the surface.
Developers used proprietary tungsten carbide
inserts positioned on the cutters to provide the
optimal cutting angle. They also designed the tool
for an operational sequencecomplete the cut
and activate the spear to grip and pull the casing
segmentthat was repeatable in a single down-
hole trip. To do this, engineers developed a
hydraulic spear compatible with the MCPC tool
that is activated at a higher ow rate than that
required to activate the MCPC. This ensures that
only the spear is activated and the correct cut-
pull sequence will take place.
The tool was eld tested on a slot recovery
operation on the Norway Continental Shelf.
Rather than test the viability of the single trip
method, the operator chose to cut and pull 9
5
/8-in.
casing in two trips. Initial cuts were made at
861 m [2,825 ft] and 983 m [3,225 ft] using a stan-
dard SERVCO pipe cutter. The rst section, from
wellhead to 861 m, was pulled successfully with
an overpull of 320,000 lbf [1,420 kN]. The second
section from 861 m to 983 m was pulled success-
fully with 700,000 lbf [3,110 kN] overpull using a
downhole pulling tool.
The operators next objective, based on the
previous two cuts, was to validate the selective
cutting capabilities of the MCPC with six cuts in
a single run at 1,602; 1,509; 1,409; 1,300; 1,068
and 1,031 m [5,256; 4,951; 4,623; 4,265; 3,504 and
3,383 ft] using the MCPC tool.
All cuts were completed, requiring from 10 to
14 min each. The pressure drop displayed on the
rig oor pressure gauge clearly indicated at every
cut that the tool had functioned as intended and
that the casing was cut. Based on inspections of
the tool at the surface, it was clear that all three
sets of cutters had been deployed.
The casing from 983 m to the cut at 1,031 m
was then pulled free and removed from the well-
bore with an overpull of 940,000 lbf [4,180 kN]
using a standard spear and a hydraulic jacking
unit. The casing section from 1,031 m to 1,068 m
was again pulled free using the same spear and a
downhole jacking unit, but this time saw an over-
pull of 640,000 lbf [2,850 kN]. Again, this section
was pulled to surface and the spear assembly was
run once more to retrieve the 1,068- to 1,300-m
section. It was conrmed, however, after pulling a
maximum of 1,052,000 lbf [4,680 kN] that the cas-
ing section was too long to allow retrieval in one
>
Offshore completion. Lower completions that
must be pulled from the hole as part of slot recovery
procedures typically consist of packers to isolate
production zones and the tubing-casing annulus,
landing nipples for deploying slickline intervention
tools and perforated production tubing.
Intermediate casing
Production casing
Packer
Landing nipple
Perforations
Wireline entry
guide
Perforated
production tubing
Spring 2012 49
piece and had to be subsequently cut at 1,104 m
[3,622 ft] and 1,202 m [3,944 ft]. These two cuts
were performed with a standard pipe cutter.
The three resulting sections of casing were
pulled free using the standard spear and downhole
jacking unit with an overpull of 820,000; 930,000 and
440,000 lbf [3,650; 4,180 and 1,960 kN], respectively.
When attempting to pull the 1,300- to 1,409-m
section of casing, engineers discovered that the
casing would not pull free with a maximum of
1,052,000 lbf overpull.
The team then decided to make six more cuts
to shorten the remaining pieces of casing to be
removed. These cuts were performed with the
MCPC in one run at 1,570; 1,545; 1,472; 1,436; 1,372
and 1,335 m [5,151; 5,069; 4,829; 4,711; 4,501 and
4,380 ft]. As with the rst six cuts, the MCPC tool
performed as intended, and cutting times were
between 6 and 14 min each. In all, engineers esti-
mated using the MCPC method delivered to the
operator a savings of about 1.5 days and
US$ 200,000 over conventional methods.
The remaining pieces have not yet been
retrieved from the wellbore because the cus-
tomer decided to temporarily suspend operations
on this well for various reasons not related to the
MCPC operations. The operator will return to the
well and continue pulling the remaining sections
in the near future.
Perforate, Wash and Cement
A crucial requirement of a permanent abandon-
ment procedure is placement of a cement plug
across the wellbore and in the annuli of the lower
casing sections remaining in the well once upper
sections have been pulled. In the majority of these
cases, the procedure is to mill a window through
all casing strings through which cement may be
pumped into the annuli and against the exposed
formation (right). This procedure also removes
any cement, settled mud or other debris from
between the casing and the formation that could
prevent the required multidirectional sealing.
A potential drawback to this practice arises
from the fact that a highly viscous drilling uid
must be used during the milling operation to lift
the metal cuttings, commonly known as swarf, to
the surface. Swarf-laden uids have a density that
is usually considerably greater than the formation
can withstand before fractures are induced. The
resulting equivalent circulating density (ECD) is
more than sufcient to cause lost circulation
6. Hekelaar S, Gibson K and Desai P: Increasing Reliability
of Cutting/Pulling Casing in a Single Trip, paper
SPE 145494, presented at the Offshore Europe Oil
and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Aberdeen,
September 68, 2011.
7. Hekelaar et al, reference 6.
>
Multicycle pipe cutter (MCPC). Through changes in pump pressure, operators are able to position
activating cams so that they act to extend one set of knife blades on the MCPC while the others remain
retracted. Varying mud pulse signals cause the cycle indexing mechanism to engage a hydraulically
activated, mechanically actuated casing spear (not shown) while simultaneously retracting all blades.
When the cut is complete, a piston moves downward to a piston stop (not shown), creating a larger
ow area through the pressure drop indicator. The resulting pressure drop is displayed at the surface,
serving as conrmation that the cut is complete.
Pressure drop indicator
Activating cams
Knife blades
Indexing mechanism
>
Milled windows. Casing strings of lower completions that are poorly
cemented but cemented in a manner that renders them irretrievable (left),
must be milled. One trip is required to mill the production casing (middle) and
then separate trips are required for any intermediate casings (right) until all
annuli and the formation are exposed. This allows the operator to cement each
annulus according to permanent P&A requirements before drilling the sidetrack.
Intermediate
casing
Cement
Production
casing
Production casing
window
Intermediate casing
and production
casing window
50 Oileld Review
problems in the exposed zones.
8
Additionally, sur-
face equipment may be easily damaged when
metal-laden uid passes through it.
As a consequence, these operations are time
consuming and can be difcult to perform safely
and effectively. Additionally, it is difcult to test
the effective plug seals through the two methods
typically deployed in section milled casing: leav-
ing the top of the cement inside the casing above
the milled window and leaving the top of the
cement in the open hole.
To test the former, the plug is tagged, weight
tested and then pressure tested. These tests
assess the quality of cement inside the casing
and make no determination of quality of cement
in the casing annulus or in the open hole. In the
latter test, the plug can be tagged to verify posi-
tion, but in most cases, it is impossible to pres-
sure test it.
One response to these challenges has been
the introduction of a system known as perforate,
wash and cement (PWC). This technique removes
debris from the annulus through perforations,
which eliminates milling debris and a high ECD
to remove swarf.
The PWC method uses a tool made of pipe-
conveyed perforating guns attached below a wash
tool, which is below a cement stinger. The PWC
tool is run to plug-setting depth where the guns
are red and automatically dropped. Fluid is then
circulated and conditioned to match wellbore
pore pressure conditions. A ball is dropped, which
seals off the bottom of the wash tool and opens a
sliding sleeve to direct circulation between the
wash cups. Washing is done across the perforated
interval from top to bottom. Circulating uid
cleans the annular space through the perforations
between the wash cups and the annular space
above the top wash cup.
When the tool reaches the bottom perfora-
tion, the washing continues while the tool is
moved upward. The wash tool is then run back to
the bottom of the perforations and a cement
spacer is pumped between the wash tool cups
and into the annular space as the tool is pulled
upward. A ball is dropped and landed, discon-
necting the wash tool from the cement stinger.
The wash tool is then pushed to below the perfo-
rations. The wash tool cups are designed to main-
tain contact with the casing inner wall and are
then used as a base for cementing operations.
The cement stinger is pulled above the top perfo-
ration and the casing cleaned a nal time through
the workstring before the interval is cemented
through the stinger. The cement is then squeezed
into the perforations.
The workstring can then be used to wash
downward to the top of the cement for tagging
and pressure testing. If the plug needs to be
tested, the operator can drill out the cement
plug, pressure test the annulus and then set a
plug inside the casing, which can be tagged and
tested according to regulators requirements.
By August 2011, operator ConocoPhillips had
completed 20 PWC plug installations in the
North Sea. Through experience and operational
improvements using the PWC method, the opera-
tor progressively whittled down time required to
set a permanent plug to 2.6 days. By comparison,
in the course of six conventional operations, the
operator required an average of 10.5 days to set a
permanent downhole plug (left). As a result, the
company calculated a savings of 124 rig days over
the course of the 20 PWC wells.
9
A New Timeline
Because of increasing concerns over the many
wells no longer in production but not yet perma-
nently sealed, regulators in the mature offshore
areas of the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea are
pressing for action. This promises to immediately
create enormous demand for abandonment ser-
vices in those markets. The overall cost of decom-
missioning on the UK Continental Shelf is
estimated at about US$ 48.6 billion by 2050, with
US$ 7.2 billion expected to be spent in the next ve
years. Well plugging will account for more than
US$ 2.6 billion spent by 2016.
10
North Sea operators
have indicated these are modest estimates and
that they expect to pay tens of millions of dollars in
P&A costs per well plus the cost of decommission-
ing surface facilities and other infrastructure.
Because there is no prot to be gained from
abandoning a well, operators look to service com-
panies to limit the economic downside of these
obligatory operations. And because the tangibles,
such as cement and reamers, are relatively inex-
pensive and nearly xed in amount and quality,
the service industry challenge is to develop
advantages by improving the intangiblesthe
methods that save time and money during perma-
nent abandonment exercises.
The number of wells ready for these nal pro-
cedures may rise with time because while opera-
tors work to permanently abandon their backlog
of idle wells, many wells being drilled today will
have a shorter productive life than wells drilled
in the past. Earlier offshore wells captured hydro-
carbons from large accessible reservoirs, while
many of the remaining reservoirs are substan-
tially smaller and will have shorter life spans that
will make them abandonment candidates after
fewer years of production than their predeces-
sors. Additionally, regulators have made it clear
that the time between the end of a wells life and
its permanent sealing will now be shorter than in
the past. Given these new parameters, it behooves
operators to plan for a wells nal days even as
they spud it. RvF
>
Time saved during perforate, wash and cement (PWC). With continual
operational improvements, engineers reduced the average plug-setting time
from 10.5 days to 2.6 days for a single run PWC plug. Over the history of 20
jobs, engineers estimated a savings of 124 rig days. (Adapted from Ferg et
al, reference 9.)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
T
i
m
e

s
a
v
e
d
,

d
Section milling
10.5
6.0
4.3
2.6
Three-trip PWC Two-trip PWC Single-trip PWC
8. For more on lost circulation: Cook J, Growcock F, Guo Q,
Hodder M and van Oort E: Stabilizing the Wellbore to
Prevent Lost Circulation, Oileld Review 23, no. 4
(Winter 2011/2012): 2635.
9. Ferg TE, Lund H-J, Mueller D, Myhre M, Larsen A,
Andersen P, Lende G, Hudson C, Prestegaard C and
Field D: Novel Approach to More Effective Plug and
Abandonment Cementing Techniques, paper
SPE 148640, presented at the SPE Arctic and Extreme
Environments Conference and Exhibition, Moscow,
October 1820, 2011.
10. Chesshyre M: Braced for the North Sea Bow Wave,
Offshore Engineer 36, no. 11 (November 2011): 3337.
Contributors
Spring 2012 51
Peter Ablard is an Appraisal Geologist for the West of
Shetland Exploration and Appraisal group for Chevron
North Sea Limited. He holds a BSc degree in geology
from The University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and an
MSc degree in integrated petroleum geoscience from
the University of Aberdeen. Since graduating, Peter
has worked for Chevron, based in Aberdeen, in the
areas of development, appraisal and exploration.
Lucas W. Abshire is a Business Development Manager
for Schlumberger in Broussard, Louisiana, USA. He is
responsible for North America shing, well abandon-
ment and pipe recovery product lines. Lucas previously
worked as a eld engineer for three years before
obtaining his current position. He received his BS
degree in civil engineering from the University of
Louisiana, Lafayette, USA. He is a registered profes-
sional engineer in the state of Louisiana.
Jeff Alford, based in Houston, is the North America
Land Acoustic Domain Champion for PathFinder, a
Schlumberger company. In addition to supporting
operations at the eld and client level, he is involved
in developing geophysical and geomechanical
solutions for drilling, formation evaluation and
completion problems with a focus on unconventional
resources. Since joining Schlumberger in 1981, he has
participated in the development and testing of the
sonicVISION*, SonicScope*, Ultrasonic Imager, Dipole
Sonic Imager, Sonic Scanner* and Isolation Scanner*
tools. He currently serves on the SPWLA board of
directors as Vice President Information Technology.
Chris Bell, who has worked with Chevron for more
than 30 years, is currently an Operations Geologist in
the Chevron North Sea Limited Onshore Europe team
in Aberdeen. For most of his career, he has been
involved in wellsite geology and geological and geo-
physical operations, well planning and geosteering. He
is focused on the development and deployment of new
technology and strategies to enhance reservoir charac-
terization and optimally placed wells. Chris began his
career in the early 1970s as a cartographer; he worked
for Marathon Oil Corporation starting in 1978 and
joined Chevron in 1981. Chris obtained a BSc degree
(Hons) in geology and an MSc degree in sedimentation
and stratigraphy at Birkbeck University of London.
Matt Blyth, who has been the LWD Acoustics Domain
Champion for Schlumberger North America Offshore
operations since 2009, is based in Houston. His primary
role is in technical sales and operations support for
LWD acoustics operations in the Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic
and Eastern Canada and Alaska. Before joining
Schlumberger in 1997, he worked as a civil engineer for
water supply infrastructure projects in the UK. Since
joining Schlumberger, he has had a variety of roles in
Canada and the US before becoming an instructor at the
Drilling & Measurements (D&M) Sugar Land Learning
Center in Texas, USA. Matt received bachelors and mas-
ters degrees in engineering from the University of
Cambridge, England.
David Cook is the Vice President Operations for Mud
Logging for Geoservices, a Schlumberger company, in
Roissy-en-France, France. Prior to his current position,
he was the Geoservices vice president of sales and
marketing. David began his career as a mud logger on
an offshore drilling rig in South Korea in 1989. He has
more than 23 years of experience in mud logging as a
eld engineer, pore pressure specialist, and for the last
15 years, in various line management positions in Asia,
Latin America and the Middle East. He holds a BSc
degree (Hons) in geology from the University of
Portsmouth, Hampshire, England.
Bob Costo, who began working for Schlumberger in
2005, is an Engineering Manager in charge of develop-
ment of BHA, surface equipment and tubular products.
Currently based in Houston, he spent 10 years with
Hughes Christensen prior to joining Schlumberger.
Bob earned a BS degree in mechanical engineering
from The University of Texas at Austin.
John Crowe, who works in Luanda, Angola, is the
Formation Evaluation Team Leader for Chevron
Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd and is responsible for
formation evaluation support for both shelf and deep-
water operations. He began his career in 1980 with
Chevron Overseas Petroleum Inc in San Francisco,
California, USA, and has more than 19 years of experi-
ence with Chevron in Nigeria, Kuwait, Spain and Angola.
He worked as a research scientist for 11 years at
Chevron Oil Field Research Company and Chevron
Petroleum Technology Company in La Habra, California,
where he specialized in basin modeling, wireline and
LWD resistivity tool modeling and in numerous wireline,
LWD and horizontal well logging applications. John
holds a BS degree in mining geophysics from Columbia
University, New York City, and a PhD degree in marine
geophysics from the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, and Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution, both in Massachusetts, USA.
Larry W. Cunningham, Schlumberger Senior Vice
President of Impact Tools, has 38 years of experience
in BHA tools. He is based in Houston. He was previously
employed by Dailey Petroleum Services Corporation,
National Oilwell Varco and Smith International. From
2003 to 2008, he was the president of Sup-R-Jar LLC.
Larry earned a BA degree in history from Southwest
Texas State University, San Marcos.
Praful Desai is a Senior Engineer for the Schlumberger
Drilling Tools & Remedial segment in Houston, where
he works on special projects. Praful began his career
with Smith International Inc in California in 1979 and
has more than 30 years of experience with Smith in
drilling, shing, remedial, wellbore departure and well
abandonment tools and services. He received his BS
degree in mechanical engineering from Trine
University, Angola, Indiana, USA, and an MS degree in
mechanical engineering from California State
University, Los Angeles.
Kevin Fielding is a Senior Staff Geologist with Hess
Services UK Limited. He works in the Hess London
Ofce for the Global New Business Development team;
previously he worked for Hess predevelopment, devel-
opment and production teams in northwest Europe.
During his 20-year career in the upstream oil and gas
industry, he has worked in a variety of technical and
managerial roles. Kevin obtained a rst class BSc (Hons)
degree in geology from the University of Shefeld,
South Yorkshire, England, and a PhD degree in geo-
chemistry from The University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
Ivan Fornasier is Manager of the Schlumberger
Geoservices Expertise Center (GEC) for Formation
Evaluation, in Roissy-en-France, France. He started his
career in 1995 as a mud logger for Geoservices, then
became a data engineer before specializing in FLAIR*
technology. In 2009, he moved to the Geoservices main
ofce to serve as a uid specialist, and moved to his
current position a year later. Ivan holds a bachelors
degree in geology from the University of Naples
Federico II, Italy.
George Haines has worked in various capacities for
Geoservices since 1981. After attending the University
of Pittsburgh at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, USA, he
worked as a mud logger and data engineer in the
Rocky Mountain region of the US and then took assign-
ments in Central and South America, Europe and
North and West Africa. He has served as a mud logging
trainer, a technical writer and a recruiter. Based in
Houston, George is currently the Health, Safety and
Environment Manager for Geoservices North America.
Mark A. Herkommer manages the PreVue* service
line for Schlumberger in Conroe, Texas, and is actively
involved in all pressure-related phases of well planning
and drilling. Prior to joining Schlumberger, he was the
owner and president of Petrospec Technologies, which
specializes in solutions to pore pressure, fracture gra-
dient and wellbore stability challenges in offshore
operating environments. Mark is a licensed profes-
sional geoscientist in Texas. He obtained a BS degree
in geology from Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti,
USA, and an MS degree in applied mathematics from
The University of Texas at Dallas. He has authored
more than 70 publications related to the geosciences
and mathematics.
Laura Lawton is a Senior Geologist at Hess Services
UK Limited in London. She has worked at Hess for ve
years on a range of exploration, appraisal and produc-
tion projects in Europe and North Africa. Laura earned
an MSc degree in petroleum geoscience from Imperial
College, London, and an MSc degree in natural sci-
ences from the University of Cambridge, England.
Julio Loreto is the D&M Data Quality Manager and
Acoustics Technology Product Champion for
Schlumberger. Based in Sugar Land, Texas, his primary
responsibilities are the assessment of current and
future market needs for development of new technolo-
gies in LWD acoustics. He joined Schlumberger in 1997
as an MWD and LWD engineer and has worked in West
Africa and the Gulf of Mexico. From 2005 to 2011, he
was D&M operations manager in Venezuela, Alaska and
Mexico. Julio holds a BS degree in electronics engineer-
ing from Universidad Simn Bolvar, Caracas.
Glenn Joseph Martin is a Global Business Manager
with Schlumberger in Houston. Glenn has 35 years of
experience with impact tools. He began working with
Smith in 1998 as a business development manager.
52 Oileld Review
Kevin McCarthy is a Petroleum Systems Analyst/
Geochemist with BP Exploration in Houston. From
2008 through 2011, he served as a geochemist with
Schlumberger in Houston and at the Heavy Oil Regional
Technology Center in Calgary. He was a research assis-
tant at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts,
where he analyzed aqueous and soil samples in support
of the US National Aeronautics and Space
Administration Phoenix Mars Mission; he was also a
hydrologist consulting on water management issues in
Sarasota County, Florida, USA. Working with Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institute in Massachusetts, he
researched deep sea hydrothermal vents as a scientist
diver in the manned submersible Alvin. Kevin has a
masters degree in geochemistry with a special focus on
hydrogeology from the University of South Florida in
Tampa, and a bachelors degree in geology from Salem
State College in Massachusetts.
Jos Mercado, a Schlumberger Global Product
Engineer in Houston, provides technical advice and
assistance to sales and operations of all Smith Services
products and services. He began his career with Smith
International in 1998 as a QHSE regional manager in
South America. He earned a BS degree in civil engi-
neering technology from Wentworth Institute of
Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, and an MS degree
in structural steel design from Universidad Central de
Venezuela, Caracas.
Saeed Mohammed is the LWD Acoustics Domain
Champion for Schlumberger D&M and is based in
Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia. He began his career in the oil
industry in 1993 as a seismologist in the Borehole
Geophysics Division of Seismograph Service Limited.
In 2001, he joined Schlumberger; for the majority of his
career, he has focused on borehole acoustics measure-
ments and is currently involved in eld testing LWD
sonic tools. Saeed has a degree in applied geology from
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria,
and an MS degree in petroleum geology from University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Brian Mohon is a Schlumberger BHA Tool Design
Engineer in Houston. His responsibilities include new
product development and technical support for various
downhole tools, including drilling jars. He received his
BS degree in mechanical engineering from Texas Tech
University, Lubbock.
Dan Mueller is a Cementing Specialist for the
ConocoPhillips Global Wells Drilling Engineering
Group in Houston. He has 33 years of experience in
cementing operations, technical sales, research and
applied technology. He was past chair of an API sub-
committee (SC-10) on well cements and currently
serves as chair of both the editorial group of the ISO
technical committee on well cements and the API
SC-10 publications committee. He authored the ISO
standards Testing of Deepwater Well Cement
Formulations and Methods for Determining the
Static Gel Strength of Cement Formulations. He was a
2000/2001 SPE Distinguished Lecturer, has published
more than 30 technical papers and has been awarded
10 US patents. Dan holds a BS degree from the
University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA.
William B. Paulsen began his career in 1977 with the
Red Adair Company in Houston. He then worked as a
drilling, completions, workover and production opera-
tions supervisor at Corpus Christi Oil & Gas Company.
In 1997, he began as a petroleum consultant for BP
Exploration, where he was responsible for eld supervi-
sion of remedial well operations in the BP Cusiana and
Cupiagua development project in Colombia. He cur-
rently works for ATP Oil & Gas Corporation in Houston,
as a Production Superintendent. William manages the
decommissioning of pipelines, wellbores and platforms
and is responsible for through-tubing recompletions and
workovers on shelf properties; he is involved in deepwa-
ter riserless well interventions planning.
Vivian Pistre, based in Sagamihara, Japan, is
Geophysics, Acoustics and Geomechanics D&M
Domain Head for Schlumberger, a position he has held
since 2010. He began his career with Schlumberger in
1982 and has worked as a eld engineer, operations
manager and log analyst in a number of locations,
including Africa, Latin America and Europe. Since
1996, he has been involved in the development of wire-
line and LWD sonic tools, primarily at the
Schlumberger Kabushiki Kaisha Center in Japan.
Vivian earned a BS degree in engineering and an MSc
degree in computer science and articial intelligence
from cole Nationale Suprieure dlectronique,
dlectrotechnique, dInformatique, dHydraulique et
des Tlcommunications, Toulouse, France.
Jean-Pierre Poyet is Vice President of Technology for
Geoservices in Roissy-en-France, France. Throughout
his oileld career, he has experience in engineering,
research, marketing and operations with Schlumberger
Wireline and Testing. For the past decade, he has worked
for Geoservices in mud logging, slickline and multi-
phase ow production activities. When Geoservices
was acquired by Schlumberger, Jean-Pierre served as
Geoservices deputy general manager. He received an
engineering degree from cole Centrale de Lyon,
France, and a PhD degree in astrophysics from
Columbia University, New York City.
Maja Radakovic is a Drilling Performance Engineer
for Sinopec-Addax in Geneva, Switzerland. Prior to her
current position, she worked in Roissy-en-France for
Schlumberger as a Geoservices product champion for
drilling support products related to mud logging. She
spent three years at the GEC in Roissy-en-France to
assist with development, growth and sales of the
Thema* service and was also in charge of Brazil opera-
tions. She joined Geoservices in 2006, starting as a
mud logger and data engineer, and worked primarily in
the UK sector of the North Sea. Maja obtained her
masters degree in geotechnics from the Faculty of
Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Serbia.
Robert D. B. Robertson joined Smith International in
2007 as an operations manager. Based in Stavanger, he
has been a Schlumgerger Global Product Engineering
Advisor since 2011. Robert is responsible for product
development, reliability and technical follow up of the
shing and remedial product line with an emphasis on
global plug and abandon technology.
Adrian Rodriguez-Herrera is a Schlumberger Reservoir
Geomechanics and Development Engineer, based at the
Reservoir Geomechanics Center of Excellence,
Bracknell, England. Since 2009, he has worked in the
design and development of geomechanical workows
involving 3D numerical modeling. He supports oil and
gas eld management projects aimed at the efcient
integration of seismic, structural and log data for geo-
mechanical applications. Adrian began working for
Schlumberger in 2008 at the Schlumberger Heavy Oil
Center of Excellence, Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela, where
he focused on reservoir engineering and simulation. He
has a BS degree in petroleum engineering from the
Universidad de Oriente, Maturn, Venezuela.
Sachin Sharma joined Geoservices in 1997 as a mud
logging geologist and pore pressure engineer, working
mainly in Southeast Asia. In 2003, he became a FLAIR
eld engineer when the service was launched and two
years later established the GEC in the UK. He later
worked as a GEC manager in Roissy-en-France, where
he now works as a Schlumberger Product Champion for
Formation Evaluation, Surface Data Logging Services.
Sachin attained his masters degree in geology from the
University of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Torodd Solheim, based in Stavanger, is a Schlumberger
Senior Product Line Manager, Fishing and Remedial for
Europe and Africa. He was previously operations sup-
port manager for Europe and CIS. He began his career
with The Red Baron Ltd as shing supervisor, and his
experience includes all aspects of shing, plug and
abandonment and wellbore departure operations world-
wide, including supervising abandonment operations in
North Sea elds. Torodd earned a bachelors degree in
education from the University of Stavanger.
Ed Tollefsen is Business Development Manager for
PathFinder in Houston where he supports LWD and
MWD technology development, use and education.
Prior to his current position, he served as business
development manager for Schlumberger D&M in North
America. His career with Schlumberger began in 1990
as a eld engineer with wireline evaluation services,
formation testing and seismic acquisition. He served as
a staff engineer and eld service manager for Gulf
Coast Special Services, Belle Chase, Louisiana, USA,
where his primary responsibility was design changes to
offshore units. While there, Ed also served as wireline
US land seismic and special services operations man-
ager. He received a BS degree in computer engineering
from the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA.
Lawrence Umar started his oileld career in 1991
with Sarawak Shell Berhad. In 2000, he joined Lundin
Petroleum before moving to Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd
the next year. He started as a wellsite drilling engineer
and progressed to project drilling engineer, senior
drilling supervisor, operations engineer and eventually
Drilling Superintendent, a position he has held for the
last 13 years. As a drilling superintendent, he has man-
aged drilling operations on jackup rigs, semisubmers-
ibles, drillships, tender barges, semisub tenders and
land rigs. He has been involved in drilling various well
types, including horizontal, multilateral, splitter,
extended-reach drilling, carbonate gas, slimhole mono-
bore and HPHT wells using technologies such as
expandable tubulars, casing drilling, twin and triple
wellheads and managed pressure drilling. He is based
in Kuala Lumpur.
Liangjun Xie is a Schlumberger Senior Application
Developer in Houston. Since 2008, when he joined
Smith International, he has developed soft string and
stiffness string mechanical models for torque and
drag, established the hydraulic model for swab and
surge and developed the vibration model for jar place-
ment. Previously, Liangjun was an R&D engineer with
Jiangnan Shipyard Company Ltd in Shanghai for three
years. He has a BS degree in naval architecture from
Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan,
China, a masters degree in electrical engineering and
a doctoral degree in systems engineering from
Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.
An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
Spring 2012
The Quest: Energy, Security,
and the Remaking of the
Modern World
Daniel Yergin
The Penguin Press, a division of
Penguin Group Inc.
375 Hudson Street
New York, New York 10014 USA
2011. 816 pages. US$ 37.95
ISBN 978-1-594-20283-4
Daniel Yergin continues the story of
global energy as the engine of geopoliti-
cal and economic change in this book, a
follow-up to his 1991 book The Prize:
The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and
Power, for which he won a Pulitzer
Prize. From China to the Caspian Sea,
from the Mideast to Capitol Hill, Yergin
explores the decisions and choices that
are shaping our energy-dependent
future. He also describes the history of
nuclear energy, coal, electricity and
natural gas and investigates biofuels
and wind and solar energy, explaining
why these are crucial to the worlds
energy future.
Contents:
Introduction
Part One-The New World of Oil:
Russia Returns, The Caspian Derby,
Across the Caspian, Supermajors,
The Petro-State, Aggregate
Disruption, War in Iraq, The
Demand Shock, Chinas Rise, China
in the Fast Lane
Part Two-Securing the Supply: Is
the World Running Out of Oil?,
Unconventional, The Security of
Energy, Shifting Sands in the
Persian Gulf, Gas on Water, The
Natural Gas Revolution
Part Three-The Electric Age:
Alternating Currents, The Nuclear
Cycle, Breaking the Bargain, Fuel
Choice
Part Four-Climate and Carbon:
Glacial Change, The Age of
Discovery, The Road to Rio, Making
a Market, On the Global Agenda, In
Search of Consensus
Part Five-New Energies: Rebirth
of Renewables, Science Experiment,
Alchemy of Shining Light, Mystery
of Wind, The Fifth FuelEfciency,
Closing the Conservation Gap
Part Six-Road to the Future:
Carbohydrate Man, Internal Fire, The
Great Electric Car Experiment
Conclusion: 'A Great Revolution
Credits, Notes, Bibliography, Index
Mr. Yergin is back with a sequel to
The Prize . . . and, if anything, its an
even better book. It is searching,
impartial and alarmingly up to
date. . . . The Quest will be necessary
reading for C.E.O.s, conservationists,
lawmakers, generals, spies, tech
geeks, thriller writers . . . and many
others. But it wont be easy reading.
This is a very large and not overly
elegant book. . . . The Quest is ency-
clopedic in its ambitions; it resists
easy synopsis. What sucks you onward
are its strong set pieces, some of the
best of which are about what
Mr. Yergin calls the new world of oil.
Garner D: 'Visions of an Age When Oil Isn`t
King, The New York Times, (September 20, 2011),
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/21/books/
the-quest-by-daniel-yergin-review.html (accessed
September 28, 2011).
The House of Wisdom: How
Arabic Science Saved Ancient
Knowledge and Gave Us the
Renaissance
Jim al-Khalili
The Penguin Press, a division of
Penguin Group Inc.
375 Hudson Street
New York, New York 10014 USA
2011. 336 pages. US$ 29.95
ISBN: 978-1-594-20279-7
The author describes the scientic
innovationsin medicine, mathemat-
ics, optics, astronomy and chemistry
of the Islamic world from the ninth
through the fourteenth centuries and
reveals how they underpinned and
enabled the European Renaissance.
These discoveries, principles and
evidence-based approaches were, the
author posits, obscured by later Western
versions of the same principles. The
author also explores why and how the
Arab world entered its own dark ages
after centuries of enlightenment.
Contents:
A Dream of Aristotle
The Rise of Islam
Translation
The Lonely Alchemist
The House of Wisdom
Big Science
Numbers
Algebra
The Philosopher
The Medic
The Physicist
The Prince and the Pauper
Andalusia
The Maragha Revolution
Decline and Renaissance
Science and Islam Today
Notes, Glossary of Scientists, Index
British-Iraqi physicist
Al-Khalili . . . retraces this vital
contribution of Islamic scientic
thought. His enthusiasm, interjection
of personal anecdotes, and conversa-
tional style will make the story
accessible for nonspecialists.
. . . . The book is marred by the
authors repeated admonitions to
acknowledge the value and worth of
the Islamic tradition, by comparisons
of the greatness of this or that
Islamic gure with one from the Latin
West, and, ironically, by assessments
of the work of Islamic gures based,
not in their historical and intellectual
context, but in their closeness to or
presaging of modern ideas.
Bantz D: Choice 49, no. 2 (October 2011): 326.
. . . . modern historians of science
agree that more attention should be
given to the Arab contribution to the
preservation and expansion of knowl-
edge at this critical period, and the
author has done so in considerable
detail and with rising passion. . . . By
recounting Arabic sciences luminous
past, al-Khalili says he hopes to instill
a sense of pride that will propel the
importance of scientic enquiry back
to where it belongs: at the very heart
of what denes a civilized and
enlightened society.
Wilford JN: 'The Muslim Art of Science,
The New York Times, (May 20, 2011), http://
www.nytimes.com/2011/05/22/books/review/
book-review-the-house-of-wisdom-by-jim-al-
khalili.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all (accessed
October 17, 2011).
Coming in Oileld Review
Going to Extremes. High-pressure,
high-temperature (HPHT) wells pres-
ent challenges for conventional
sampling and pressure equipment.
Whereas engineers can repackage
sensors or protect sensitive down-
hole electronics for short durations
with asks, some tools used for
evaluating wells must be completely
reengineered if they are to survive
the rigors of HPHT conditions. This
article describes three reengineered
tools used for evaluating wells and a
mud system that can withstand
extreme operating temperatures.
Seismic Methods for Mapping
Fractures. Over the last decade,
oil and gas companies have had
increased success placing wells
within productive zonessweet
spotsof fractured reservoirs.
Advances in seismic techniques
have been especially useful in help-
ing geoscientists identify and char-
acterize these zones. This article
describes detailed case studies of
successes using seismic methods to
help operating companies make
decisions about well placement in
fractured reservoirs.
Drilling Automation. For the past
10 to 20 years, many newly built rigs
have included automated drill oor
hardware such as iron roughnecks
and pipe-handling equipment to
increase safety and operational con-
sistency. Drilling automation seeks to
optimize the drilling process as a
whole. This article looks at how the
industry is linking the rig to auto-
mated downhole systems in efforts to
lower reservoir access costs and out-
perform manual operations.
Microbes. Microbes and humans
have existed as both enemy and ally
for millions of years. That dual
nature also exists in the oil eld.
Microbes can plug formations and
cause corrosion and reservoir sour-
ing, but they can also enhance oil
recovery. New, analytical methods
are giving scientists insights into
this unseen world. As a result, new
applications are emerging that will
help producers more effectively con-
trol and harness microbial behavior.
NEW BOOKS
53
Oileld Review 54
The Diffusion Handbook:
Applied Solutions for Engineers
R. K. Michael Thambynayagam
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
1221 Avenue of the Americas,
45th Floor
New York, New York 10020 USA
2011. 2,048 pages. US$ 199.00
ISNB: 978-0-07-175184-1
In this book, Thambynayagam, a
Schlumberger Technical Director and
Senior Advisor, provides solutions to
boundary-value problems associated
with Dirichlet, Neumann and Robin
boundary conditions as well as solutions
to variations on these problems. The
Diffusion Handbook is the recipient of
the 2011 R. R. Hawkins Award, the top
prize from the American Association of
Publishers for Professional and
Scholarly Excellence, as well as the
PROSE Award for Excellence in
Physical Sciences & Mathematics and
the PROSE Award for Excellence in the
Engineering & Technology category.
Contents:
Preliminaries
Integral Transforms and Their
Inversion Formulae
Infnite and Semi-Infnite Continua.
p(x, t) Is a Function of x and t Only.
Bounded Continuum. p(x, t) Is a
Function of x and t Only.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite
(Quadrant) Continua. p(x, y, t) Is a
Function of x, y and t Only.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite Lamella.
p(x, y, t) Is a Function of x, y and t
Only.
Rectangle. p(x, y, t) Is a Function of
x, y and t Only.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite (Octant)
Continua. p(x, y, z, t) Is a Function
of x, y, z and t Only.
Quadrant Layer: Infnite and Semi-
Infnite Continua. p(x, y, z, t) Is a
Function of x, y, z and t Only.
Octant Layer: Infnite and Semi-
Infnite Continua. p(x, y, z, t) Is a
Function of x, y, z and t Only.
Cuboid. p(x, y, z, t) Is a Function of
x, y, z and t Only.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite Cylindrical
Continua. p(r, t) Is a Function of r
and t Only.
Bounded Cylindrical Continua.
p(r, t) Is a Function of r and t Only.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite
Cylindrical Continua. p(r, , t) Is a
Function of r, and t Only.
Bounded Cylindrical Continuum.
p(r, , t) Is Cyclic Around the
Cylinder with a Period of 2.
p(r, , t) Is a Function of r, and t.
Wedge-Shaped Infnite and Semi-
Infnite Continua. The Range of the
Variable is a Portion of the Circle;
That Is, 0 < < , Where < 2
and the Initial and Boundary
Conditions are Functions of r, and t.
Wedge-Shaped Bounded
Continuum. The Range of is a
Portion of the Circle; That Is,
0 , Where < 2. p(r, , t)
Is a Function of r, and t.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite
Cylindrical Continua. The
Continuum Is Also Either Infnite or
Semi-Infnite in z. p(r, z, t) Is a
Function of r, z and t.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite
Cylindrical Continua Bounded by
the Planes z = 0 and z = d. p(r, z, t)
Is a Function of r, z and t.
Bounded Cylindrical Continuum.
The Independent Variable z Is Either
Infnite or Semi-Infnite. p(r, z, t) Is
a Function of r, z and t.
Bounded Cylindrical Continuum.
The Continuum Is Also Bounded by
the Planes z = 0 and z = d. p(r, z, t)
Is a Function of r, z and t.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite
Cylindrical Continua. p(r, , z, t) Is
Cyclic Around the Cylinder with a
Period 2. p(r, , z, t) Is a Function
of r, , z and t.
Infnite and Semi-Infnite
Cylindrical Continua Bounded by
the Planes z = 0 and z = d.
p(r, , z, t) Is Cyclic Around the
Cylinder with a Period 2. p(r, , z, t)
Is a Function of r, , z and t.
Bounded Cylindrical Continuum.
The Independent Variable z Is Either
Infnite or Semi-Infnite. p(r, , z, t)
Is Cyclic Around the Cylinder with
a Period 2. p(r, , z, t) Is a
Function of r, , z and t.
The Continuum Is Also Bounded by
the Planes z = 0 and z = d. p(r, , z, t)
Is Cyclic Around the Cylinder with
a Period 2. p(r, , z, t) Is a
Function of r, , z and t.
Appendices, Author Comments.
This reference book is a compen-
dium of analytical solutions of the
diffusion equation in three dimensions
for a variety of geometries and
boundary conditions. . . . The table of
contents is . . . unique in that each
solution is listed by showing a sketch
of each geometry being solved and the
associated boundary conditions. . . .
This massive book is mainly lled
with mathematical solutions. . . .
Engineers or scientists who work with
solutions to the diffusion equation and
would like an extensive reference
book for analytical solutions rather
than relying on numerical techniques
would nd this book to be an incred-
ible resource with nothing else
comparable.
Shea JJ: 'Book Reviews, IEEE Electrical
Insulation Magazine 28, no. 2
(March/April 2012): 63.
The Philosophical Breakfast
Club: Four Remarkable
Friends3Who Transformed
Science and Changed the World
Laura J. Snyder
Broadway Books, an imprint of
Crown Publishing, a division of
Random House
1745 Broadway
New York, New York 10019 USA
2011. 448 pages. US$ 27.00
ISBN: 978-0-7679-3048-2
A four-in-one biography of William
Whewell, Charles Babbage, John
Herschel and Richard Jones, this book
looks at how the lives of these 19th-
century scientists intertwined. Author
Laura Snyder describes their personal
lives, accomplishments and inuences
on science and economics.
Contents:
Prologue: Inventing the Scientist
Waterworks
Philosophical Breakfasts
Experimental Lives
Mechanical Toys
Dismal Science
The Great Battle
Mapping the World
A Divine Programmer
Sciences of Shadow and Light
Angels and Fairies
New Worlds
Nature Decoded
Endings
Epilogue: A New Horizon
Notes, Bibliography, Illustration
Credits, Index
Philosopher and science historian
Snyder . . . has written an impressive
biography of four Victorian poly-
maths. . . . The collaborations of these
remarkable men in economics, sci-
ence, mathematics, and social policy,
particularly their development of
institutional reform . . . virtually
created the profession of science
with its institutions, curricula, norms,
and methods. . . . The mens entangled
lives and work make engaging and
informative reading. Highly
recommended.
Skiff PD: Choice 49, no. 1
(September 2011): 136-137.
Laura J. Snyders The
Philosophical Breakfast Club
describes how . . . Babbage, Herschel,
Whewell and Jones set out to modern-
ize the way science in England was
taught, organized and conductedto
elevate science from an avocation into
a specialized profession. Ms. Snyder,
a scholar of Victorian science and
culture at St. Johns University in
New York, shows a full command of
the scientic, social and cultural
dimensions of the age.
Hirshfeld A: 'An Engine of Perpetual Revolution,
The Wall Street Journal, (February 26, 2011),
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240527487
04546704576150763073274594.html (accessed
September 16, 2011).
>
Shaped charge detonation. A shaped charge (top left) consists of a small
primer igniter, an outer casing, explosive material and a conical liner. The
detonator cord connects individual shaped charges (upper right) and, when
detonated, begins a chain reaction in which the liner focuses the energy of
the explosives into a jet (middle left). This generates a tremendous high-
velocity pressure wave. The jet tip travels at 7,000 m/s [22,965 ft/s] and
exerts as much as 103 GPa [15 10
6
psi], creating perforation tunnels that
penetrate the casing, cement and the formation (bottom right).
Perforating gun
Reservoir
Detonator cord
Casing
Cement
Shaped charge
Before detonation
After detonation
Detonator cord
Perforating gun
Liner
Explosive
Detonation front
Jet tip
Jet tail
Primer igniter
Jet tip
Spring 2012 55
DEFINING PERFORATING
Detonation for Delivery
Oileld Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1.
Copyright 2012 Schlumberger.
Tony Smithson
Editor
Perforatingthe act of blasting holes through steel casing, cement and
formation rockhappens in an instant, and yet, the long-term viability and
protability of most oil and gas assets depend on it. Perforating guns carry
explosive shaped charges downhole, where they are detonated to create
tunnels that act as conduits through which reservoir uids ow from the
formation, into the wellbore and up to the surface.
In the 1920s, E&P companies began the practice of cementing metal
pipe in the wellbore. The cement supported the casing and isolated produc-
ing intervals from other zones. Although effective, the practice created a
dilemma for operators: how to reach the hydrocarbons on the outside of the
pipe. Bullet guns were originally used to mechanically punch through the
pipe and cement, but their penetration and effectiveness were limited.
Shaped charge technology, based on military antitank weaponry, was intro-
duced to the oil eld in 1948. It revolutionized well completions.
A shaped charge has an outer shell that houses a primer igniter and
explosive material, which are held in place by a conical liner (below). The
igniter acts as the link between the detonator cord and the explosives in
the shaped charge. The liner does more than hold the explosives in place;
its conical shape creates a high-pressure jet of energy, which penetrates
the casing, cement and formation.
Perforating involves the use of high-order explosives, which must be han-
dled with great care. Most explosives used for perforating are referred to as
secondary explosives, meaning another source must initiate their detonation.
Ablasting cap detonator usually begins the chain reaction; the detonator may
be electrically or mechanically initiated. Conventional blasting caps are elec-
trically initiated when a current passes through a lament, which ignites a
match that sets off a lead azide primary explosive charge (above). Mechanically
initiated blasting caps are also referred to as percussion detonators. The
blasting cap is connected to the detonator cord, which creates the shockwave
that sets off the shaped charges in the perforating gun, all of which culmi-
nates in the creation of perforation tunnels.
Electrical detonators have proved to be quite reliable, but a number
of safety practices have been developed to prohibit the unintentional
detonation of the caps. Such practices include grounding electrical sys-
tems and shutting off power during the arming of guns. Today, radio trans-
missions pose one of the greatest dangers to conventional blasting caps
because these transmissions may induce current in the detonator wires.
When perforating with conventional blasting caps, wellsite personnel
must shut down radio transmitters, which include cell phones.
Because todays wellsites rely on continuous communication via radio,
shutting down all transmissions is problematic. To address this drawback to
using conventional detonators, engineers designed a detonator that con-
tains no primary explosives and has a power threshold of 3 megawatts to
initiate detonation; a conventional blasting cap detonator has a power
threshold around 1 watt. When operators use this new detonator, radio
transmissions can continue safely during the arming of guns because stray
voltage or induced current cannot initiate detonation.
>
Electrical detonator. There are many varieties of detonators; some are
electrically initiated, others are set off by pressure or mechanical shock and
do not require electrical power. Engineers set off electrical detonators such
as the one shown by applying current to the leg wires. This heats a lament
wire, causes a pellet to ignite and begins a chain reaction as lead azide and
RDX in the primer and booster sections set off the detonator cord. Lead
azide is a type of primary explosive; RDX is a type of secondary explosive.
The safety resistors attached to the leg wires serve two functions: They
inhibit the ow of induced current in the wire and provide a known value of
resistance, which can be checked with a safety meter to conrm that there
is continuity through the lament in the ignition pellet.
Leg
wires
Rubber
plug
Two 27-ohm
safety resistors
Filament
Booster section
RDX RDX Lead
azide
Lead azide
primer
Match
ignition
pellet
Detonator
cord
Oileld Review 56
DEFINING PERFORATING
Perforating guns come in a variety of sizes and congurations. The two
primary categories of gun systems are through-tubing guns and hollow-
carrier, or casing, guns (below). Hollow-carrier guns are larger than
through-tubing guns and facilitate bigger charges, more phasing options
and higher shot density. Phase is the angle between individual charges,
expressed in degrees, and shot density is the number of holes per unit of
length. Completion hardware in place and reservoir properties usually dic-
tate the type of gun system used. However, operators may install a particular
type of completion to accommodate a perforating system that is suitable for
a specic reservoir.
In wells that contain tubing, operators use small-diameter through-tub-
ing guns. These systems consist of either expendable gun systems that leave
debris in the wellbore after detonation or retrievable gun systems with a
mounting strip that can be recovered after detonation. Through-tubing guns
can be used in underbalanced conditions, in which hydrostatic borehole
pressure is lower than formation pressure. After detonation, formation u-
ids ow into the well, ushing debris from the newly formed perforation
tunnels. The well can be immediately ow tested or put on production. With
through-tubing guns, operators can add perforations to producing intervals,
or open new zones without the expense of removing the tubing. If the guns
are to be retrieved after perforating, the well is usually perforated in an
overbalanced condition, in which the borehole pressure is higher than for-
mation pressure. If the well is perforated underbalanced with casing guns,
the operator must kill the well to retrieve the guns.
Perforating guns are conveyed in the well using a variety of methods.
Tubing-conveyed perforating (TCP) guns are attached to tubing and run in
the well using a drilling or workover rig. TCP guns offer benets such as
leaving the tubing in place after perforating underbalanced, along with the
improved performance and exibility provided by using hollow-carrier guns.
Because wells can be perforated underbalanced, ow to surface may be ini-
tiated immediately. Long intervals and widely separated zones can be simul-
taneously perforated using this method; other techniques require multiple
trips into the well. One drawback to the use of TCP guns is that a drilling or
workover rig is required to run the guns into and out of the well. If the guns
are to be retrieved, the well must be killed.
Wireline-conveyed perforating has several advantages. For instance,
operators have exibility in choosing a gun system, and operations can be
performed with or without a rig on location. Because the wireline cable
provides communication between the downhole gun and the surface, wire-
line perforating offers acurate depth correlation. Through-tubing perforat-
ing almost always relies on wireline for conveyance. Limitations of wireline
perforating include gun length and weight and wellbore geometry. Slickline
perforating, which is becoming increasingly popular, offers a cost-effective
and efcient alternative to conventional wireline perforating and TCP guns.
However, slickline units do not provide power from the surface to set off
blasting caps, and slickline perforating does not offer the same level of
depth-correlation accuracy as wireline perforating.
Although operators consider many factors when designing a perforating
program, the reservoir generally dictates which system will be used. For
instance, formations that are prone to producing sand perform better with
high shot density and large holes (above). Operators often perforate with
large-diameter TCP guns that produce many holes per linear foot. Depth of
penetration for these types of formations does not affect well performance.
Formations damaged during drilling and completion, however, perform bet-
ter with deep penetrations that extend beyond the damaged zone. Deeper
penetration, however, comes with the disadvantage of smaller diameter per-
foration holes. Underbalanced perforating in wells with formation damage
may also improve well performance.
The act of perforating may be over in an instant, but engineers and scien-
tists realize its importance for the long-term viability of a well. They continue
to develop perforating techniques based on improvements in equipment
design and deployment systems. Engineers are also using advanced modeling
and testing of existing perforating systems to improve results. The ultimate
objective is to allow oil and gas to ow from the formation to the surface in a
safe and secure manner.
>
Casing and through-tubing guns. Perforating guns come in a variety of
shapes and sizes. Casing guns (top) house large shaped charges and offer
exible phasing (orientation) and shot density options. Through-tubing guns
(bottom) are designed to pass through tight restrictions while maximizing
shaped charge size. For the retrievable through-tubing gun shown, only a metal
strip where the shaped charges are attached remains after gun detonation.
Perforating Guns
Shaped charge
Shaped charge
Detonator
Detonator
Detonator cord
Detonator cord
Metal mounting strip
Gun housing
>
High shot density casing gun after perforating.
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