Department
TABLE OF CONTENT
NACA Training Manual Series No. 2 SHRIMP CULTURE: POND DESIGN, OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT P. Kungvankij and T.E. Chua Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and
B.J. Pudadera, Jr. G. Corre E. Borlongan Alava L.B. Tiro, Jr. I.O. Potestas G. A. Taleon J. N. Paw
Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA) Regional Lead Centre in the Philippines (RLCP) June 1986 The designation employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/UNDP nor SEAFDEC AQD. concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimination of its frontiers or boundaries.
NOTICE OF COPYRIGHT
The copyright in this publication is vested in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This publication may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by any method or process, without written permission from the copyright holder. Application for such permission with a statement of the purpose and extent of the repro duction desired, should be made through and addressed to the Coordinator, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA), UNDP, P.O. Box 618, Bangkok, Thailand
FOREWORD
This publication is one of a series published specifically to commemorate the WORLD FOOD DAY 1986 by the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA), a regional project of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). It is the Asian component of the global network of aquaculture centres established and coordinated through the FAO/UNDP inter-regional project, Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme (ADCP). FAO has been observing World Food Day on 16 October for the past five consecutive years, in an effort to increase public awareness of the problems of hunger and malnutrition. The impact of this celebration is globally felt, and 16 October has become an important date in the national calendar of activities of almost all Member Countries of FAO. It provides an excellent opportunity for making better known what FAO is, what it has done since its foundation, and the challenges it faces in helping to resolve the problems of hunger. The theme adopted for this year's celebration is FISHERMEN and FISHING COMMUNITIES, including aquaculture, and NACA is participating in the celebration through a series of publications and video productions on fish farming systems and technologies developed in Asia. The role of aquaculture in the improvement of nutrition and socio-economic conditions of the fish farming communities in the rural and coastal regions cannot be over emphasized. In fact, rediscovery of aquaculture in Asia may provide hope for the rural poor, particularly as an option to the displaced fishermen and fishing communities of the region, for whom the culture of finish, shellfish and other aquatic organisms ranks among those occupations which have the greater potential of contributing to diets and higher income with the least disruption of their traditional lifestyle. However, transfer of technological innovations to them for adoption appears to be one of the most important constraints in changing their traditional methods of farming. As such bringing together the art and science of such innovations in the form of a publication or a video for the benefit of the fishermen, fishing community, fish farmers and extension workers, is one of the major NACA activities. It is therefore, befitting to bring out this publication as the World Food Day 1986 Commemorative Issue. This provides the package of practices of the farming system based on synthesis of the practical work done by the authors and blended with the observations made by others in this field. On behalf of NACA, I would like to thank the national staff and the project staff in bringing out this material.
Hyperlinks to non-FAO Internet sites do not imply any official endorsement of or responsibility for the opinions, ideas, data or products presented at these locations, or guarantee the validity of the information provided. The sole purpose of links to non-FAO sites is to indicate further information available on related topics. This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software. FAO declines all responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present document and its original printed version.
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Introduction 2. Pond Culture 2.1 Traditional or extensive shrimp farming 2.2 Improved traditional or semi-intensive farming 2.3 Intensive farming
3. Site Selection for Shrimp Culture 3.1 Water quality 3.2 Tidal fluctuations 3.3 Soil 3.4 Topography 3.5 Vegetation 3.6 Source of seed 3.7 Accessibility 3.8 Other factors 4. Species Culture 4.1 Penaeus japonicus and P. orientalis 4.2 P. monodon 4.3 P. indicus and P. merguiensis 4.4 Metapenaeus ensis 5. Pond Design and Construction 5.1 Size and shape of culture ponds 5.2 Dike 5.3 Supply and drainage canal 5.4 Water control gate (sluice type) 6. Pond Preparation 6.1 Soil sampling 6.2 Leaching 6.3 Pond drying 6.4 Tilling 6.5 Control of undesirable species 6.6 Liming 6.7 Fertilization 7. Seed Supply 7.1 Supply of post-larvae from wild stock 7.2 Seed from Hatchery 7.3 Transportation of fry 8. Culture Techniques 8.1 Nursing of fry 8.2 Stocking of fry 8.3 Routine pond management 9. Water Quality Management 9.1 Salinity 9.2 pH 9.3 Dissolved oxygen (DO) 9.4 Nitrogen compound 9.5 Temperature 9.6 Hydrogen sulphide (H2 S) 10. Feeds and Feeding 10.1 Feeding behavior 10.2 Natural food in the pond
10.3 Supplemental feeding 10.4 Feeding method 10.5 Feeding rate and frequency 11. Manipulation of Stocking in Extensive and Semi-intensive Farming 12. Harvesting and Preservation 13. References
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Typical extensive pond in Thailand Figure 2. Typical semi-intensive pond Figure 3. Amakusa-type shrimp farm in Japan Figure 4. Intensive pond Figure 5. Shigueno type intensive culture tank Figure 6. Lay-out of earthen pond with peripheral canal Figure 7. Cross section of dike Figure 8. Sample design of parimeter dike Figure 9. Typical slope of dike Figure 10. A typical wooden gate Figure 11. A reinforced concrete gate Figure 12. Section of gate showing grooves for slabs and screens Figure 13. Scooping of fry in twigs Figure 14. Collection of fry in fry lure Figure 15. Scoop net Figure 16. Push net or scissor net Figure 17. Fry traps Figure 18. Transportation of fry through live tanks Figure 19. Fry transportation of fry in polyethelene bags Figure 20. Nursery pond Figure 21. Nursery cage Figure 22. Feeding tray Figure 23. Selective harvesting net
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Lime requirement table Table 2. Comparison of organic and inorganic fertilizers
Table 3. Stocking density of shrimp in different culture operations Table 4. Methods of measuring the physico-chemical Table 5. Nutrient composition of natural food organisms
1. Introduction
Marine shrimp farming is a century-old practice in many Asian countries. Until a decade ago, this commodity was generally considered a secondary crop in traditional fish farming practices. Shrimp fry trapped in salt beds, coastal paddy fields or brackishwater fishponds are allowed to grow to marketable size and harvested as secondary crop. However, in recent years when higher income are derived from the harvest of shrimp than the principal crop, many farmers have converted their rice fields, salt beds and fishponds into shrimp farms. In the traditional farming system, the ponds are stocked with fry either collected from the wild or concentrated through tidal water entering the ponds. Shrimp production is inconsistent and varies from year to year due to the dependence on seasonal supply of fry from the wild. Pond yield is also low (100 300 kg/ha/ year) because of inefficient control of predators and competitors, full dependence on natural food and inadequate pond depth. Some improvements of the traditional farming methods have been made in the past years. Stocking density of shrimp ponds can be increased through concentration of fry by pumping more tidal water into the pond. Pond depth is increased to minimize fluctuations of environmental parameters. As a result, pond yield has correspondingly increased. However, expansion of the shrimp farming industry is still restricted due to the inconsistency in fry supply. The success in the mass production of hatchery-bred shrimp fry in the 1970's has accelerated shrimp farming development in the region. With improved pond culture techniques, yield from traditional shrimp ponds has been raised to 500800 kg/ha/year without supplementary feeding. Pond yield can be further increased to 510 tons through supplementary feeding and intensive pond management. The long gestation period in the development of shrimp farming practice may be due to inadequate technical and financial inputs to effectively demonstrate its commercial viability. Shrimp farming has now developed into an important export-oriented food industry especially in South Asian countries. The perception of an unlimited market demand, high export price, generation of employment and increase in foreign exchange earnings may have encouraged many countries in the region rich in aquatic resources to place high emphasis on the development of the shrimp culture industry.
Fig. 1. A typical shrimp pond layout in Thailand for extensive farming. In Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia, shrimp fry are allowed to enter the ponds through the pond gate which are open during rising tide. The gates are then closed as tide recedes. Trapped fry are allowed to grow inside the pond for two months before being harvested. In contrast, shrimp farmers in the Philippines do not rely on natural tidally introduced shrimp seeds but rather they stock their ponds (usually in polyculture with milkfish) with fry collection from the wild. The average stocking density ranges between 2,000 and 5,000 fry per hectare. In both farming approaches, production per unit area is very low.
typical rate of stocking fry for semi-intensive culture operation varies from 20,000 to 50,000 fry per hectare. Supplementary feed, either formulated or fresh, is given daily in addition to the existing natural food produced through the application of fertilizers. This operation also requires the use of a water pump to facilitate water exchange. While this approach would substantially increase yield per cropping, the use of supplemental feeds entails additional cost which generally accounts for the biggest share in operational expenditure. The culture operation of the Amakusa type shrimp pen in Japan (Fig. 3) can be classified under this method of culture. The pen is an artificial enclosure constructed within shallow bays and intertidal zones for holding and raising shrimps. A rectangular or square vertical wall made of concrete is constructed to a height of 1 meter for holding water during low tide. A wooden frame with nylon netting is set on top of the concrete wall to prevent escape of shrimp and facilitate water exchange during high tide. This culture method takes advantage of the large body of water that is constantly being renewed through tidal fluctuations and by water current. The dimensions of the enclosure range from 2,000 m2 to 10,000 m 2 with depth of 1.01.5 meters. Stocking rate ranges between 2030 fry per m2 . Average production is about 300 400 g/m 2 or about 34 tons/ha/year.
Fig. 4. Pond layout for intensive shrimp farming (earthen pond with Concrete dikes).
B: Aeration bubbling tube CROSS SECTION OF CIRCULAR TANK C: Sand bed D: Cylindrical screen E: Spray pipe F: Gate value of supplying pipe G: Drain pipe
3.3 Soil
The types and texture of the soil of the area should be analyzed before settling on a site for shrimp farming. Soil samples must be taken at random location, preferably up to a depth of 0.5 meter and subjected to physical and chemical tests to determine the acidity, amount of organic load, level of fertility and physical composition. The soil at the proposed site should have enough clay contest. This is to ensure that the ponds constructed will hold water. Good quality dikes are usually built from sandy clay or sandy loam materials which harden and easily compacted. The dikes will not crack in dry weather. Clay-loam or silty-clay loam at pond bottom promotes growth of natural food organisms. Diking materials made of undecomposed plant matter and alluvial sediments should be avoided. Most ponds developed along the coastal areas with dense mangrove vegetation often have acid-sulphate
problem during the first few years of operation. This is due to the accumulation of pyrites (iron sulfide) in coastal soil. Breakdown of pyrites is minimal in submerged soil. During pond construction, the subsoils are dug for dikes and the pond bottom levelled, the pyrites become oxidized producing sulphuric acid which acidifies the soil. The pH of water becomes extremely low and hence affecting water quality and correspondingly reduced natural productivity. Alleviating acid sulphate conditions in ponds requires the use of lime and removal of acid by leaching and flushing.
3.4 Topography
It is essential to have a detail topography of the selected site for pond design and farm layout. Coastal sites where the slopes run gently towards the sea are easier for pond development requiring less financial inputs since excavation is minimal. Filling and draining of water likewise is easily facilitated by gravity. In areas where the above conditions are not available, the use of mechanical pumps may be resorted. Associated with topography related constraints are the availability of sufficient quantity of soil for dike construction obtained from excavation of ponds or from above ground bunds. It may prove uneconomical if the site to be developed would require diking material to be transported from outside the chosen area.
3.5 Vegetation
The type of vegetation in the area can be, to some extend, indicative of physical elevation and soil type. Dominance of the mangrove plants Avicennia spp. is an indication of good and productive soil. Outgrowths of Rhizophora spp. which are usually characterized by dense prop root systems usually signifies soil types that are coarse and acidic. It is of primary importance to consider density of shrubs at the site. These have to be cleared first before any land development can take place. Clearing operation can add up to the capital outlay.
3.7 Accessibility
Accessibility is an important consideration in site selection. Overhead cost and delay in the transport of materials and products can be minimized.
4. Species Selection
The shrimp species cultured in Asian countries belong to two genera (Penaeus and Metapenaeus) of the family Penaeidae. Among the dozen species cultured, Penaeus monodon, P. japonicus, P. merguiensis, P. indicus, P. orientalis and Metapenaeus ensis are the more important ones.
The rearing pond must have a minimum depth of 1.0 meter. Most traditional brackishwater ponds for shrimp farming are relatively shallow. To satisfy depth requirement, a ditch is constructed along the dike or a central canal between two opposite sides of the pond. The average depth is 1.0 1.2 meters (Fig. 6) and depth of the platform is 3060 cm. Such pond design with peripheral ditches and central platform affords several benefits: a. The ditch provide better living conditions during hot weather. b. The shallow, centrally located platform serves as growing area for the natural food organisms. c. The ditch also serves as harvesting canal. Pond bottom should be as even as possible; free from projecting rocks and tree stumps. The bottom must have a gradual slope from the inlet gate towards the drainage gate. The suggested ratio of the slope is 1:500.
5.2 Dikes
Dikes do not only serve as boundaries to indicate pond size and shape but also function to hold water within the pond as well as protecting other farm facilities from flood. Diking materials must preferably be tested for load bearing capabilities and compactibility. In some cases where the quality of the soil is inferior for diking, other materials, viz: concrete or clay must be used as core materials to be placed at the pond bottom (Fig. 7). Design and construction of embankment must be based on sound engineering principles and economic feasibility. A typical design of perimeter dikes facing the sea or a river is shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 6. Layout of earthen pond with peripheral canal. 5.2.1 Height of dike Coastal soil used as diking material usually shrinks initially. As such, the height of perimeter dike should have a free board of 0.60.7 meter above the desired water depth. Free board allowance is determined from the occurence and frequency of flood levels over a period from 515 years at the farm site. To compute for the height of dike, the following formula could be used:
Where
H Hw G FB % = = = = = height of designed dike highest high water level from past record ground level over mean sea level height of free board percent shrinkage
To give a concrete example, let us assume that a proposed shrimp farm has a ground elevation of 1.0 meter above mean sea level and normal high tide of 2 meters. Previous records indicate that the highest tide occuring every 10 years is 2.8 meters. The rate of soil shrinkage after the embankment have been consolidated is 20% and the estimated free board allowed is 0.60 meter. Height of dike is then calculated from the formula:
H 5.2.2 Slope
3 meters
The slope of perimeter dike is maintained at an average ratio of 2:1 to 3:1. Very often, external slopes are made at a ratio of 2.5:1 to 3:1. Dikes with steep slopes are always subjected to erosion and require higher maintenance cost (Fig. 9). Slope of a dike also highly depends on soil quality. For good clay soil, the recommended slopes are: 1:2 when dike height is above 4.26 m and exposed to wave action; 1:1 when dike is less than 4.26 and the tidal range is greater than 2 meters; 2:1 when the tidal range is 1.0 m or less and the dike height is less than 1.0 meter. The crown of the dike between ponds should be 15 meters. It would be advantageous if fast growing grass species are planted on the dikes to control soil erosion.
Fig. 7. Cross section of dike A. The dike constructed with entirely impervious material B. The dike with trench or core
of the canal systems takes advantage of the natural waterways within the proposed site. Dimensions of supply and drainage canals are calculated by using the following equation: Q = AV Where:
Q A V = = = volume of water discharge cross-sectional area of the canal velocity of water flow
Example 2 Assume that the pond is 50 ha with an average depth of 1.0 meter and that 10 hours is required to drain the water completely; then volume of water discharge/second
= 16.94 m 2 The width of the canal can then be calculated from the equation: A = R (b + 2R) Slope of the canal is 1:2, R = 1.25 Substituting 16.9 = 1.25 (b + 2 1.25)
= 11.02 m Therefore, for a pond farm covering 50 hectares, width of the canal at the bedline should be 11.0 meters.
A more detailed discussion on this topic is adequately covered by the works of Katch (1980) and dela Cruz (1983) (See Section 13).
6. Pond Preparation
In any earthen pond culture system, the bottom soil play a major role in pond yield. High organic matter content in neutral soil often promotes higher primary productivity and hence higher fish yield. Natural food organisms are one of the most important food sources in ponds. It is rich in protein, vitamins, minerals and other essential growth elements that simple supplementary feed cannot complete. Fish yield in pond can also be affected by the presence of predators, deteriorating water quality and improper pond management. Hence, pond preparation is a first step towards ensuring a better pond production. Shrimp culture operation in Asia can be grouped into three major categories: a. Those that depend entirely on natural food (extensive culture); b. Those that depend on both natural food and supplementary feeds (improved extensive and semiintensive culture; c. Those that depend entirely on artificial diet (intensive culture). Irrespective of the culture operation used, it is always advisable to prepare the ponds in sustaining high natural productivity throughout the culture period.
Fig. 12. Section of gate showing grooves for slabs and screen In most soil laboratories, it usually takes one to two weeks before the result can be given. Thus for routine soil pH determination, the shrimp farmer can take upon himself to do the analysis using a pH meter. To prepare for the analysis, the air-dried soil sample must be pulverized using a wooden mallet or mortar and pestle. It is then passed through a 2-mm mesh sieve and stored in a properly labelled bag or glass jar. The sample is ready for pH determination (see Section 6.6.3).
6.2 Leaching
When the pond soil is found to be acidic, it is normally leached. This is done by flushing and washing the pond bottom with water to leach away undesirable metallic compounds like aluminum, iron and excess sulfur ions.
few weeks of culture because the juveniles have the habit of clinging on vertical surfaces. Aside from that, substrates also serve other purposes: (i) provide additional surface area for some benthic food organisms, (ii) provide shelter against direct sunlight, and (iii) reduce mortality of shrimp juveniles from predators.
6.4 Tilling
Tilling or ploughing of bottom soil improves soil quality by exposing subsoil to the atmosphere thereby speeding up the oxidation process and the release of nutrients that are locked in the soil.
(e) Reptiles Water snakes predate directly on shrimp larvae and adults and are therefore extremely harmful when present in sufficient numbers. (f) Birds There are a number of wading birds which cause serious problems in shrimp farms such as the kingfisher and grey heron. The grey heron can swallow a whole prey of 1520 cm in size. These birds are especially harmful when the shrimps concentrate in the surface or other shallow areas providing opportunity for these aerial predators. (8) Mammals The lower mammals such as otter often destroy their preys more than predates. The animal usually causes serious damages in a shrimp farm by killing shrimps as they enter the pond. 6.5.2 Methods in controlling undesirable species in shrimp pond There are two usual methods used in controlling undesirable species in shrimp ponds - physical and chemical methods. a. Physical method - The most effective method in this category is drying the ponds. Other methods include installation of appropriate screens in the oulet/inlet gates to prevent entrance of undesirable species, proper maintenance of dikes and water gates to prevent leakage and to eradicate boring organisms like crabs ans snakes and setting up traps and bird-scaring devices like strings of colored cloth streching across the surface of the pond to scare predatory birds. During the culture period, selective harvesting or the use of cast net can be resorted to minimize the impact of undesirable species. b. Chemical method - Eradication of undesirable species is very effective, less cumbersome, efficient and fast when using chemicals. This is because chemicals act as contact or systemic poison. There are several types of chemicals used and collectively are known as pesticides. The use of organic pesticides such as Aquatin, Brestan, Endrin, etc., is not recommended in shrimp farming because these have residual effects which destroy the fertility of the ponds as well as being non-selective or broad-spectrum compounds in terms of biocidal activity. In selecting pesticides, plant-extracted compounds are recommended because these are biodegradable and in most cases contribute to the fertility of the fertility of the pond soil. The commonly used pesticides are: i. Rotenone - This chemical which is extracted from grounded Derris sp. roots has been used as piscicide for centuries in South America. It is a selective poison affecting readily the finfishes but not the shrimps at certain concentrations. Commercial rotenone is in powder form containing 45% rotenone. Effective dosage for commercial rotenone is 2 g/m 3 for common predators and 8 g/m 3 for eel. Crude rotenone can be extracted from Derris plant by cutting the root into small pieces, crushed and soaked overnight in water. The crushed roots are squeezed to obtain as much extract as possible. The extract is then added to the pond at the rate of 4 g of dry root/m3 of water. Fresh derris root is more effective than the dry one. ii. Saponin - It is extracted from tea seed cake which is a residue from oil processing of Camellia sp. seed. It contains 1015% saponin. Saponin is widely used to eradicate finfishes without toxic effect on crustaceans especially shrimps. The effectiveness of saponin decreases with decreasing salinity. The recommended levels of application are 12 and 20 g/m 3 for salinities above and below 15 ppt, respectively. Saponin is used in shrimp farms in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan even during the rearing period because of its piscicide activity. iii. Calcium carbide - It is applied into the crab hole and enough water is poured in the hole to activate the calcium carbide which kills the crab.
iv. Tobacco dust - Nicotine is the potent principle in tobacco dust and is non-selective type of poison. Since this is toxic even to shrimp, it is generally applied during pond preparation activities. The pond should be flushed well before stocking. A dosage of 200 kg/ha is used to kill undesirable species especially snails which will take about six months before the population re-establishes. v. Ammonium sulphate - This chemical compound which is also a fertilizer (21-0-0) is effective in eradicating undesirable species when used in combination with lime. The toxicant is ammonia which is released from the reaction of ammonium sulphate with lime. This chemical is applied together with lime during pond preparation at the undrainable portions of the pond at a dosage of 1 part of ammonium sulphate to 5 parts of lime. Lime must preferably be applied first to raise the pH since the rapid release of ammonia from ammonium sulphate is dependent on high pH (above 8.0).
6.6 Liming
Liming is the application of calcium and magnesium compounds to the soil for the purpose of reducing soil acidity. It is usually applied during or after the pond drying stage. 6.6.1 Action of liming The favorable actions of liming are: (a) kills most microorganisms especially parasites due to its caustic reaction, (b) raised pH of acidic water to neutral or slightly alkaline value, (c) increases the alkaline reserve in water and mud which prevents extreme changes in pH, (d) neutralizes the harmful action of certain substances like sulfides and acids, (e) promotes biological productivity since it enhances the breakdown of organic substances by bacteria creating a more favorable oxygen and carbon reserves, (f) precipitates suspended or soluble organic materials, decreases biological oxygen demand (BOD), increases light penetration, enhances nitrification due to the requirement of calcium by nitrifying organisms, and (g) indirectly improves fine-textured bottom soil in the presence of organic matter. Excessive liming, however, can be damaging because it decreases phosphorus availability through precipitation of insoluble calcium or magnesium phosphate. 6.6.2 Liming substances The chemicals used for liming of soils are the oxides, hydroxides and silicates of calcium or magnesium since these are the ones capable of reducing acidity. Typical liming substances are the following: (a) Calcium oxide, CaO This is the only compound to which the term lime may be correctly applied. Calcium oxide is variously known as unslated lime, burnt lime and quicklime. It is manufactured by roasting calcitic limestone in a furnace. Calcium oxide is caustic and hygroscopic and is sold commercially in powder and granular forms. (b) Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide is known as flaked lime, hydrated lime or builder's lime. It is prepared by hydrating calcium oxide. It sold commercially in powder or granular forms. (c) Calcium, CaCo 3 and mixed calcium-magnesium carbonate, [CaMg (CO 3)2] The carbonates occur widely in nature. Among the common forms that can be utilized as liming substances are calcitic limestone which is a pure calcium carbonate and dolomitic limestone which is a calcium-magnesium carbonate with varying proportions of calcium and magnesium. Commercial calcium carbonate is known as agricultural lime. The carbonates are the least reactive of the three liming substances. 6.6.3 Determination of lime requirement There are several methods used for the determination of lime requirement in ponds. One of these is the Boyd's method which is relatively easy to perform. The procedure is as follows:
Weight 20 g of the seived soil sample in 100 ml glass beaker and add 20 ml of distilled water. Stir intermittently for one hour. Measure the pH of the above solution with a pH meter previously standardized and record the reading. Add 20 ml of p-nitrophenol buffer to the above solution and stir intermittently for 20 minutes. Prior to reading its pH, set the pH meter to pH 8.0 with 1:1 mixture of the p-nitrophenol buffer and distilled water. Read the pH of the soil sample (buffer/distilled water mixture) while stirring vigorously. Use the values of the soil sample pH in distilled water and soil sample in buffered solution to obtain the liming rate from Table 1. If the pH of the soil in the buffered solution is below 7, repeat the analysis with 10 g of soil sample and double the liming rate from Table 1. Table 1. Lime requirement in kg/ha of calcium carbonate (neutralizing value of 100) to increase total hardness and total alkalinity of pond water above 20 mg/L
Mud pH in brffered solution Mud pH in water 7.9 7.8 7.7 7.6 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.1 7.0
(kg/ha of calcium carbonate required) 5.7 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.7
Source: Boyd 1979
121 168 269 386 454 521 588 672 874 896 941
242 336 538 773 907 1 042 1 176 1 344 1 747 1 792 1 882
363 504 806 1 159 1 361 1 562 1 764 2 016 2 621 2 688 2 822
484 672 1 075 1 546 1 814 2 083 2 353 2 688 3 494 3 584 3 763
605 840 1 344 1 932 2 268 2 064 2 940 3 360 4 368 4 480 4 704
726 1 008 1 613 2 318 2 722 3 125 3 528 4 032 5 242 5 376 5 645
847 1 176 1 881 2 705 3 175 3 646 4 116 4 704 6 115 6 272 6 586
968 1 344 2 150 3 091 3 629 4 166 4 704 5 376 6 989 7 186 7 526
1 089 1 512 2 419 3 478 4 082 4 687 5 292 6 048 7 974 8 064 8 467
1 210 1 680 2 688 3 864 4 536 5 208 5 880 6 720 8 736 8 960 9 408
To prepare a p-nitrophenol buffer of pH 8.0. Dilute 20 g para-nitrophenol, 15 g boric acid, 75 g potassium hydroxide in one liter of distilled water. Make sure that the chemicals used are all reagent grade. Check the pH using a standardized pH meter and adjust to the right pH by adding 7.5% potassium hydroxide (7.5 g/100 ml distilled water) or 1.5% boric acid (1.5 g/100 ml distilled water). Use medicine droppers to dispense the solutions. Refrigerate the buffer while not in use. It will last indefinitely. Care must be exercised in the use of p-nitrophenol as it is toxic and reportedly carcinogenic. Potassium hydroxide is very caustic and should be handled with care. As a rule, never handle the chemicals with bare hands and flush with plenty of water should contact occur. Generally, the liming material used in ponds is calcium oxide. It is therefore necessary to convert the liming rate to calcium oxide value by multiplying the above rate with 0.56. 6.6.4 Methods of liming Liming can be done in three different ways:
by broadcast over dried pond which includes the dike walls. by mixing with water and spraying over the pond, and by liming the water flowing into the pond. In general, any one of these methods may be employed. Certain cases, however, demand the application of a particular method. In using the first two methods, lime should be spread as uniformly as possible over the complete surface of the pond or pond water. Liming the pond water is usually carried out with the use of flat boat. The third method is uncommonly practicec although it saves the labor in spreading.
6.7 Fertilization
One usual way of increasing carrying capacity of a shrimp pond is to improve its natural fertility through the addition of organic or inorganic fertilizers. Pond fertilization is an important and necessary step in extensive and semi-intensive methods of farming operations. (a) Organic fertilizers The most common fertilizers are animal manures, rice bran, compost and sewage. Application of organic fertilizers especially in newly developed ponds is advisable because it serves as soil conditioner. The advantages and disadvantages of organic fertilizers are listed in Table 2. The rate of application for shrimp ponds ranges from 500 to 2,000 kg/ha. (b) Inorganic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers are synthetic fertilizers that generally contain concentrated amount of at least one of the major plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These major nutrients are expressed on a percentage by weight basis. Nitrogen is expressed at %N and phosphorus as % Phosphorus oxide (P2O5). Commercially available inorganic fertilizers are usually sold with such trade names as 1620-0 (16%N-20%P 2O5 -0%K2 O), 14-14-14 (14%N-14% P 2O5 -14%K 2O), 45-0-0 (urea). The rate of application ranges from 25 to 100 kg/ha during pond preparation.
7. Seed Supply
Shrimp fry are generally collected from the wild. However, substantial number can be supplied through shrimp hatcheries.
Concentration of N and P
High. For 1846-0 fertilizer, it Low. Average N ranges from contains 18% N and 46% P or 35 0.5% to 1.1% while P ranges from times more than the organic 0.1% to 0.4%. fertilizer.
Variable. N and P concentrations depend on diet composition given Composition of nutrients as N and to the producing animal. Nutrients P concentration diminishes through prolong storage or exposure to the elements. Substrate for micro-benthos attachment Processing, storage and transport including application Does provide.
Consistent.
High cost in terms of money, labor Low cost in terms of money, facilities and general labor, facilities and minimal unpleasantness is greater than general unpleasantness. inorganic fertilizers. Mortality of stock commonly due to breakdown by microbial organisms leading to high BOD and low dissolved oxygen in the water. Present. Enhances algal production.
Rare.
Growth factors
Absent.
Most expensive. Requires large amount to attain high N and P level. Can be used directly such as rice bran and chicken manure especialy for species low in the food chain.
Lest expensive since N and P are in concentrated amount. Application requires only smaller dose as compared to organic fertilizers. Cannot be consumed by aquatic animals.
7.1.2 Collection of wild fry Many methods are employed in collecting shrimp fry. In the Philippines and Indonesia, shrimp fry are usually collected together with milkfish fry. However, due to increasing demand and high cost of fry, a number of efficient gears have been developed. The various fry collecting devices currently being used include: a. Twig - Small bunches of twigs are suspended close to or placed on the bottom of shallow lagoons, esturies and protected coasts. The shrimp fry are collected during low tide by placing a scoop net under each bunch of twighs as it is lifted up (Fig. 13). b. Fry lure - Lure lines are made of saltwater grass. These are usually set along the banks of beaches and rivers (Fig. 14). Each line is 20 meters long and supported on both ends. Shrimp is collected as it is lifted up to the surface. c. Scoop nets - In areas where there are abundance of aquatic weeds, a scoop net can be used to collect shrimp fry which usually cling to weeds (Fig. 15) d. Push or scissor nets - The nets are with or without cod end. These are used along the beach, lagoons, bays, near shore and in estuaries which can be operated by hand or boat (Fig. 16). e. Fry traps - This stationary gear consists of a wing and a collecting chamber. The cod-end of the collecting chamber is kept afloat by bamboo raft and the wing is fixed with bamboo poles against the incoming water (Fig. 17).
8. Grow-out
The success of shrimp farming is measured by its rate of return on investment which mainly depends upon the yield, capital investment, market price and the production cost. This in turn is affected by a number of factors the most important of which are farm operation and management.
Fig. 19. Fry transportation in polyethylene bags Nursing of fry can be done either in concrete tank, nursery pond or in net cages installed in deeper ponds or in rivers. 8.1.1 Concrete tank The tanks are first filled with filtered sea water. The water is aerated. Pure culture of diatoms is then added to maintain water quality and for reducing water transparency. Suggested stocking density is about 5000 fry/m 3 of water for P. monodon, 10,000/m 3 for P. indicus and P. merguiensis. It is advisable to use artificial substrates such as polyethelene netting to increase surface area in the nursery tank since postlarvae habitually cling to wall surfaces and tank bottom. The fry are fed with finely chopped mussel or cockle meat. Newly stocked fry are often provided with Artemia nauplii to minimize cannibalism. Young and adult Artemia may also be used to supplement the diet. 50% of the water is changed daily. Flow-through system is used to ensure good water quality for growth and survival. 8.1.2 Nursery pond The size of nursery pond ranges from 500 to 2,000 m 2 with water depth of 4070 cm. Each nursery pond has at least one gate installed with a fine screen (1 mm mesh size) to prevent undesirable organisms from entering the pond as well as to prevent the escape of stocks (Fig. 20). Stocking density in nursery pond is about 50150 fry/m 3 depending on the size of the fry.
The nursery pond should be adequately prepared prior to stocking. The pond is completely drained of water and dried until bottom soil cracks. Derris root at 4 g/m 3 will be applied when the pond cannot be completely drained. Lime at 500 to 2,000 kg/ha, chicken manure at 500 to 2,000 kg and inorganic fertilizer (1620-0) at 25 to 100 kg/ha are then applied.
Fig. 20. Nursery pond About 30% of the water is changed daily. If the pond is not heavily stocked i.e., less than 5/m 2 , water exchange during rising tide may be sufficient. Chopped mussel or cockled meat are fed to the larvae at the rate of 20% total biomass. The nursing period is 3045 days or when the larvae reached 0.21.0 g body weight. 8.1.3 Nursery cages Synthetic net cages (0.51.0 mm mesh size) installed within bamboo or wooden frames are kept afloat by bamboo raft or synthetic floats. The cages can be used to nurse shrimp larvae. Nursery cages are mostly employed in calm water such as river, lagoon or fishpond. The cage (3 m3 ) is usually stocked at 1000 2000 fry/m 3 of water. The feeding scheme is similar to that being used in earthen pond nursery (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21. Nursery cage 8.2.3 Stocking rate The decision on how many shrimp fry a pond should be stocked depends on the carrying capacity of the pond as well as the required harvesting size. The latter is a decision based on economic returns. The basic principle is that pond capacity should be optimized to produce the best economic returns. Optimal stocking density can be determined based on field experiments. Example optimal stocking density for Penaeus monodon culture using extensive method of culture operation.
Stocking density (ind.m 2 ) 1 2 4 Production (kg/ha) 305 405 560 Harvesting size (g) 35 30 15 Growth rate (g/day) 0.29 0.25 0.116 Yield (kg/ha/day) 2.9 5.0 4.6
It is apparent that stocking density at 2/m 2 gives maximum yield as well as best economic returns considering the preferred harvesting size (3035 g) for export as well as domestic markets. However, in intensive method of culture operation which depends entirely on artificial feeds and intensive water management, a higher stocking density can be achieved within the limit of pond carrying capacity. The general formula for calculating stocking density is as follows: STOCKING - EXPECTED YIELD (G) (NUMBER) INDIVIDUAL GROWTH RATE EXPECTED MORTALITY
Example. If a shrimp farm for P. monodon has a target yield of 1200 kg/ha/crop, expected average body weight is 30 g, and expected survival rate of about 70%, the stocking density is calculated as follows:
The normal stocking density used in difference culture operation systems in shown in Table 3. Table 3. Stocking density of shrimp in different culture
Extensive Species P. monodon P. indicus P. merguiensis P. japonicus 1050 30100 80100 100300 100500 3002,500 Semi-Intensive Intensive
wandering types. It is therefore difficult to obtain a representative sample. However, since these are hardy species, a cast net has proven to be an excellent sampling gear. Usually ten casts is sufficient to get a representative sample of one hectare pond. The dimension of a cast net should be measured to determine the area covered in order to calculate the total stock in the pond. The following formula is used to determine the pond stock:
where X = stock in pond Sampling in early hours of the morning or at night is preferable as the shrimps are more active during these periods and are more evenly distributed that during hot sunny day. For large pond, 1520 casts may be necessary to obtain a more accurate average.
9.1 Salinity
Younger shrimps appear to tolerate a wider fluctuation of salinity than the adults. The post-larvae of many Penaeid species can tolerate wide salinity fluctuation which has little effect on their survival or growth. In pond condition, P. monodon can tolerate wide range of salinity from as low as 5 ppt to a high of 40 ppt. Many Metapenaeus also tolerate high salinity. P. merguiensis and P. indicus prefer brackish water while P. semisulcatus and P. japonicus require more saline condition for growth (2732 ppt). Due to high evaporation rate in some countries, salt concentration in ponds gradually increases during the summer months. Salinity may increase to beyond 40 ppt and thus retard growth. This should be taken into consideration when brackishwater species are used since salinity may increase above their limit of tolerance. In such cases, the species cultured should be changed during the summer months to conform with increasing salinity or the water should be changed frequently either by pumps or through tidal exchange. Table 4. Methods of Measuring the Physico-chemical Parameters of Ponds.
Parameters Method of Measurement Winkler titration method 1. Dissolved oxygen Polarographic method Remarks A traditional procedure which is generally conducted in the laboratory. This involves the use of a portable DO meter for field use. It is reliable and accurate. It is important to calibrate using the data obtained form Winkler Method. from time to time. This uses portable pH meters which are standardized using standard buffer solutions. It is gives accurate results especially with glass electrodes. This makes use of comparators such as Lovibond. The samples after addition of indicators are compared with colored solutions of known pH. It does not give accurate values but sufficient enough for fast baseline monitoring in the field. Widely used method for water sampels but tedious. It is less cumbersome than nessler. Fast and accurate. It can be used using a specific-ion meter or a spectrophotometer. Quite cumbersome but relable.
Electrometric method
2. pH Colorimetric method
pH papers Nesslerization methods 3. Total Ammonia Nitrogen Phenate method Cadmium reduction method
4. Nitrate
9.2 pH
The pH of the pond water is indicative of its fertility or potential productivity. Water with pH ranging from 7.5 to 9.0 are generally regarded as suitable for shrimp production. The growth of shrimps is retarded if pH falls below 5.0. Water with low pH can be corrected by adding lime to neutralize the acidity. Water of excessive alkalinity (pH values > 9.5) may also be harmful to shrimp growth and survival. In ponds which are excessively rich in phytoplankton, the pH of pond water usually exceeds 9.5 during late afternoon. However, at daybreak, the pH is usually lower. Excessive plankton growth can be corrected by water exchange.
bloom when most of them died. The pH of the water is low because of high concentration of carbon dioxide. Studies have shown that exposure to ammonia concentration of 0.45 mg NH3 -N/1liter would reduce shrimp growth by 50%.
9.5 Temperature
Water temperature plays a very important role in regulating the activities of the cultured animal. The rate of chemical and biological reactions is said to double every 10C increase in temperature. This means that aquatic organisms will use twice as much dissolved oxygen and chemical reactions will progress twice as fast at 30C than 20C. It follows therefore that dissolved oxygen requirement of aquatic species is higher in warmer than in cooler water. Many Penaeid species are tropical or subtropical species. The optimum temperature is about 2530C and hence many of the species such as P. indicus, P. monodon and P. merguiensis can be cultured throughout the year while P. japonicus and P. orientalis are limited to the summer growing seasons only.
growth of these plants since the shrimps feed on the benthic organisms as well as the decaying parts of the plants.
* in Filipino
Various automatic feeders designed primarily for fish were tried in shrimp ponds adopting intensive farming operation. Automatic feeders dispense a given amount of feed at certain interval during a 24hour period. A timing device, usually electrically activated, is an essential component of such feeders. These can be set to deliver feed in small quantities several times daily allowing the culturists to feed without being physically present. Extensive comparisons between the efficiency of hand feeding in contrast to automatic feeder have not been made in developing countries. Although it cannot be stated with certainly that one method is more feed-efficient than the other, the savings in labor realized by utilizing automatic feeders is significant, assuming that each feeder does not have to be filled daily. Offsetting this advantage is the high cost of the feeding devices, a number of which may be needed in large ponds.
increases with increasing biomass, the relative food requirements per unit weight of animal decreases with increasing shrimp size. Hence, a sliding feed ration of 10% of the estimated shrimp biomass and 4% for the fourth month has been adopted. The common feeding frequency adopted is 25 times a day. Most culturists feed their stock every morning and afternoon only. However, experiments have shown that apportioning daily feed ration several times a day improve feed conversion efficiency as it reduces feed wastage, ensures feed quality and more even distribution to the stock. If the stocks are to be fed 5 times a day, two should be given in daytime and 3 at night as the shrimps are more active when dark.
13. REFERENCES
Boyd, C.E. 1976. Lime requirement and application in fishponds. FAO aquaculture conference. FIR:AO/Conf 176. E13. 3 p. Cook, M.L. 1976. Problems of shrimp culture in the South China Sea region. South China Sea Fishery Development Programme. De la Cruz, C.R. 1983. Fishpond engineering: a technical manual for small and medium scale coastal fish farms in Southeast Asia. SCC Manual No. 5. 180 p. FAO/UNDP SCSP. 1978. Manual on pond culture of penaeid shrimp. Asian National Coordinating Agency of the Philippines. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Manila, Philippines. Foster, J.R.M. and T.W. Beard. 1974. Experiment to assess the suitability of nine species of prawn to intensive culture. Aquaculture 3:355368. Hanson, J.A. and H.L. Goodwin. 1977. Shrimp and prawn farming in the Western Hemisphere. Dowdey Hutchingson and Ross, Inc. Hepher, B. and Y. Pruginin. 1981. Commercial fish farming with special reference to fish culture in Israel. Wiley International Publ. N.Y. 261 pp. Kato, J. 1980. Guide to design and construction of coastal aquaculture pond. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Tokyo. 180 pp. Kubo, I. 1949. Studies on the penaeids of Japan and its adjacent waters. J. Tokyo University Fish., 20(10). 870872. Kungvankij, P. 1973. A survey of the distribution and abundance of economically important shrimp along the Indian Ocean coast of Thailand. Phuket Marine Fisheries Station, Fisheries Cont. No. 3. 19. Kungvankij, P. 1976. On the monoculture of jumbo tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Phuket Marine Fisheries Station Contribution No. 7. 14 pp. Kungvankij, P. 1984. Overview of penaeid shrimp culture in Asia. Paper presented at the 1st International Conference on shrimp/prawn culture. Dec. 1984. Iloilo, Philippines. Kurata, H. 1975. Culture of the Kuruma shrimp. JICA Culture of Marine Organisms. 1550. Liao, I-/Chiu. 1977. A culture study of grass prawn, Penaeus monodon, in Taiwan - the patterns, problems and prospects. Journal of the Fisheries Society of Taiwan, Vol. 5, No.2. p. 29. Mao, S.L. and V.J. Mancebo. 1982. Pond culture of P. monodon in the Philippines: survival, growth and yield using commercial formulated feeds. Journal of World Mariculture Society Vol. 14. p. 7585. Motoh, H. 1981. Studies on the fisheries biology of the giant tiger prawn, P. monodon, in the Philippines. SEAFDEC Technical Report No. 7. 127 p. Shigueno, K. 1970. Problems of prawn culture in Japan. OCTA. 33 pp.
Shigueno, K. 1975. Shrimp culture in Japan. Association for International Technical Promotion, Japan. 150 pp. Singh, V.P. and A.T. Poernomo. 1984. Acid sulfate soils and their management for brackishwater fishponds. Proceedings of the Second International Milkfish Aquaculture Conference, Inland Pub. Philippines. Tang, Y.A. 1979. Planning, design and construction of coastal fish farms. FAO/UNDP, Rome, Italy.