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........................................INTRODUCTION...................................

The aim of this project is to control the speed of the DC motor . Generally DC motor speed control is done by voltage control, armature resistance control and flux control methods. But in this project we are control the speed of the DC motor by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique. From this method we can obtain a smooth speed variation without reducing the starting torque of the motor. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a common technique for speed control which can overcome the problem of the poor starting performance of a motor. It is based on a method of controlling the amount of power to a load without having to dissipate any power in the load driver. Imagine a 10W light bulb load supplied from a battery. In this case the battery supplies 10W of power, and the light bulb converts this 10W into light and heat. No power is lost anywhere else in the circuit. If we wanted to dim the light bulb, so it only absorbed 5W of power, we could place a resistor in series which absorbed 5W, then the light bulb could absorb the other 5W. This would work, but the power dissipated in the resistor not only makes it get very hot, but is wasted. The battery is still supplying 10W. An alternative way is to switch the light bulb on and off very quickly so that it is only on for half of the time. Then the average power taken by the light bulb is still only 5W, and the average power supplied by the battery is only supplying 5W also. If we wanted the bulb to take 6W, we could leave the switch on for a little longer than the time it was off, then a little more average power will be delivered to the bulb. This on-off switching is called PWM. The amount of power delivered to the load is proportional to the percentage of time that the load is switched on. In the chapter on speed controllers on this site, there is an explanation why PWM signals are used to drive speed controllers. It is the same reason as for the light bulb example above. The circuit described here is for a general purpose device that can control DC devices which draw up to a few amps of current. The circuit may be used in either 12 or 24 Volt systems with only a few minor wiring changes. This device has been used to control the brightness of an automotive tail lamp and as a motor speed control for small DC fans of the type used in computer power supplies.

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1.

MODULATION

Modulation is the process of superimposing the information contents of a modulating signal on a carrier signal by varying the characteristic of carrier signal according to the modulating signal. Carrier wave is a high frequency , constant amplitude, constant frequency and non-interrupted wave generated by radio frequency oscillator.tsese are inaudible i.e by themselves they are not able to produce sound in the loudspeaker.

We can divide modulation in two parts Analog modulation. Digital modulation. 1.1 ANALOG MODULATION

Analog modulation can further divided in three parts : Amplitude modulation :- In amplitude modulation the amplitude of high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of baseband modulating signal keeping frequency and phase of carrier signal constant. The frequency domain representation of the resultant modulated signal contains carrier signal plus two sidebands of modulating signal (information signal).

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Frequency modulation :- In frequency modulation, the frequency of high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal keeping amplitude constant. Phase modulation :- In phase modulation, the phase of high frequency carrier signal is varied directly in accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal keeping amplitude constant .

1.2

DIGITAL MODULATION

Digital modulation can be further divide into four parts : Pulse code modulation :- In this technique the modulating signal is first passed through a sampler to which take samples of signal at discrete time intervals, then signal is passed through the quantizer its function is to convert signal into digital signal.Then signal is passed through a encoder which assign n number of bits to each samples, and the signal is transmitted over the channel. Differential pulse code modulation :- The signal does not change rapidly from one sample to next, so instead of transmitting samples at each sampling instant , the difference between sample and its predicted value

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is transmitted in this technique. Thus due to this system efficiency is increased. Delta modulation :- Delta modulation is a one-bit pulse code modulation system in which staircase approximation of original signal is generated by oversampling the signal. The original signal can be obtained by passing the approximation signal through a low pass filter at the receiving end. Adaptive delta modulation :- The basic principal of ADM is to vary the step size in accordance with slope of input signal i.e. when slope of input is steep, step size must be increased and if input signal slope is small step size is reduced. This technique is more accurate then above method. 2. TECHNIQUES FOR PWM GENERATION

The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast speed. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher power is supplied to the load. The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would affect the load, which is to say the device that uses the power. The PWM signals can be generated in a number of ways. There are several methods: 1. Analogue method 2. Digital method 3. Discrete IC 4. Onboard microcontroller. We will now go through each of these stages and work out how to implement them. 2.1 ANALOG METHOD

An analog signal has a continuously varying value, with infinite resolution in both time and magnitude. A nine-volt battery is an example of an analog device, in that its output voltage is not precisely 9V, changes over time, and can take any real-numbered value. Similarly, the amount of current drawn

from a battery is not limited to a finite set of possible values. Analog signals are distinguishable from digital signals because the latter always take values only from a finite set of predetermined possibilities, such as the set {0V, 5V}.

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Analog voltages and currents can be used to control things directly, like the volume of a car radio. In a simple analog radio, a knob is connected to a variable resistor. As you turn the knob, the resistance goes up or down. As that happens, the current flowing through the resistor increases or decreases. This changes the amount of current driving the speakers, thus increasing or decreasing the volume. An analog circuit is one, like the radio, whose output is linearly proportional to its input. As intuitive and simple as analog control may seem, it is not always economically attractive or otherwise practical. For one thing, analog circuits tend to drift over time and can, therefore, be very difficult to tune. Precision analog circuits, which solve that problem, can be very large, heavy (just think of older home stereo equipment), and expensive. Analog circuits can also get very hot; the power dissipated is proportional to the voltage across the active elements multiplied by the current through them. Analog circuitry can also be sensitive to noise. Because of its infinite resolution, any perturbation or noise on an analog signal necessarily changes the current value. The diagram below shows how comparing a ramping waveform with a DC level produces the PWM waveform that we require.

PWM OUTPUT

The higher the DC level ,the wider the PWM pulses . The DC level is the 'demand signal'.

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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) refers to the method of applying a signal to the fan that will vary the width of the fan's pulse. An 80% duty cycle means that the fan is "on" 80% of the time and "off" 20% of the time. A 50% duty cycle signal means that the fan is "on" 50% of the time and "off" 50% of the time (similar to a perfect square wave). On a PWM fan, the 4 th wire consists of the PWM line and will be directly proportional to the speed of the fan. That is to say, a high duty cycle will produce high speeds and a low duty cycle will produce idle speeds.

2.2

DIGITAL METHODS

The digital method involves incrementing a counter, and comparing the counter value with a pre-loaded register value, or a value set by an ADC. It is basically a digital version of the analogue method above. In a nutshell, PWM is a way of digitally encoding analog signal levels. Through the use of high-resolution counters, the duty cycle of a square wave is modulated to encode a specific analog signal level. The PWM signal is still digital because, at any given instant of time, the full DC supply is either fully on or fully off. The voltage or current source is supplied to the analog load by means of a repeating series of on and off pulses. The on-time is the time during which the DC supply is applied to the load, and the off-time is the period during which that supply is switched off. Given a sufficient bandwidth, any analog value can be encoded with PWM. By controlling analog circuits digitally, system costs and power consumption can be drastically reduced.
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Figure shows three different PWM signals. Upper figure shows a PWM output at a 10% duty cycle, That is, the signal is on for 10% of the period and off the other 90%. Middle and lower figure shows PWM outputs at 50% and 90% duty cycles, respectively. 2.3 PWM GENERATOR CHIPS

There are ICs available which convert a DC level into a PWM output. Many of these are designed for use in switch mode power supplies. Unfortunately, the devices designed for switch mode power supplies tend not to allow the mark-space ratio to alter over the entire 0 - 100% range. many limit the maximum to 90% which is effectively limiting the power you can send to the motors. Devices designed as pulse generators should allow the whole range to be used. Alternatively, a MOSFET driver which includes a PWM generator can be used. 2.4 ONBOARD MICROCONTROLLER If you have a microcontroller on the robot, this may be able to generate the waveform, although if you have more than a couple of motors, this may be too much of a load on the microcontrollers resources. So if you have chosen to use an onboard microcontroller, then as part of your selection process, include whether it has PWM outputs. If it has this can greatly simplify the process of generating signals. The Hitachi H8S series has up to 16 PWM outputs available, but many other types have two or three. Many microcontrollers include on-chip PWM controllers. For example, Microchip's PIC16C67 includes two, each of which has a selectable on-time and period. The duty cycle is the ratio of the on-time to the period; the modulating frequency is the inverse of the period. To start PWM operation, the data sheet suggests the software should.

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3.

DC MOTORS

The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines devised to convert electrical power into mechanical power. Permanent magnet (PM) direct current convert electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields. One field is produced by a permanent magnet assembly, the other field is produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings. These two fields result in a torque which tends to rotate the rotor. As the rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a continuous torque output. Permanent magnet (PM) motors are probably the most commonly used DC motors, but there are also some other type of DC motors.

3.1

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTOR

We know that the speed of shunt motor is given by:

where, Va is the voltage applied across the armature and is the flux per pole and is proportional to the field current If. As explained earlier, armature current Ia is decided by the mechanical load present on the shaft. Therefore, by varying Va and If we can vary n. For fixed supply voltage and the motor connected as shunt we can vary Va by controlling an external resistance connected in series with the armature. If of course can be varied by controlling external field resistance Rf connected with the field circuit. Thus for shunt motor we have essentially two methods for controlling speed, namely Varying armature resistance. Varying field resistance.

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Speed control by varying field current If we vary If, flux will change, hence speed will vary. To change If an external resistance is connected in series with the field windings. Control is obtained by weakening the shunt-field current of the dc motor to increase speed and to reduce output torque for a given armature current. Since the rating of a dc motor is determined by heating, the maximum permissible armature current is approximately constant over the speed range. This means that at rated current, the dc motor's output torque varies inversely with speed, and the dc motor has constant-horsepower capability over its speed range. Dc motors offer a solution, which is good for only obtaining speeds greater than the base speed. A momentary speed reduction below the dc motor's base speed can be obtained by overexciting the field, but prolonged overexcitation overheats the dc motor. Also, magnetic saturation in the dc motor permits only a small reduction in speed for a substantial increase in field voltage. Dc motors have a maximum standard speed range by field control is 3:1, and this occurs only at low base speeds. Special dc motors have greater speed ranges, but if the dc motor's speed range is much greater than 3:1, some other control method is used for at least part of the range.

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Speed control by armature voltage variation

In this method, shunt-field current is maintained constant from a separate source while the voltage applied to the armature is varied. Dc motors feature a speed, which is proportional to the counter emf. This is equal to the applied voltage minus the armature circuit IR drop. At rated current, the torque remains constant regardless of the dc motor speed (since the magnetic flux is constant) and, therefore, the dc motor has constant torque capability over its speed range. Horsepower varies directly with speed. Actually, as the speed of a self-ventilated motor is lowered, it loses ventilation and cannot be loaded with quite as much armature current without exceeding the rated temperature rise.

3.2

CHARACTRISTICS OF SERIES MOTOR

For constant load torque, steady armature current remains constant, hence flux also remains constant. Since the machine resistance asr+r is quite small, the back emf Eb is approximately equal to the armature terminal voltage Va. Therefore, speed is proportional to Va. If Va is reduced, speed too will be reduced. This Va can be controlled either by connecting external resistance in series or by changing the supply voltage. In this motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature and the combination is supplied with d.c. voltage as depicted in figure 39.13. Unlike a
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shunt motor, here field current is not independent of armature current. In fact, field and armature currents are equal i.e., If = Ia. Now torque produced in a d.c motor is ,

Since torque is proportional to the square of the armature current, starting torque of a series motor is quite high compared to a similarly rated d.c shunt motor.

1. Using a diverter resistance connected across the field coil. In this method shown in figure 39.19, a portion of the armature current is diverted through the diverter resistance. So field current is now not equal to the armature current; in fact it is less than the armature current. Flux weakening thus caused, raises the speed of the motor. 2. Changing number of turns of field coil provided with tapings. In this case shown figure 39.20, armature and field currents are same. However provision is kept to change the number of turns of the field coil. When number of turns changes, field mmf sefNI changes, changing the flux hence speed of the mot 3. Connecting field coils wound over each pole in series or in parallel. Generally the field terminals of a d.c machine are brought out after connecting the field coils (wound over each pole) in series.

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4.

PWM MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLER

To control the speed of a d.c. motor we need a variable voltage dc power source. However if you take a 12v motor and switch on the power to it, the motor will start to speed up: motors do not respond immediately so it will take a small time to reach full speed. If we switch the power off sometime before the motor reaches full speed, then the motor will start to slow down. If we switch the power on and off quickly enough, the motor will run at some speed part way between zero and full speed. This is exactly what a PWM. controller does: it switches the motor on in a series of pulses. To control the motor speed it varies (modulates) the width of the pulses - hence Pulse Width Modulation.

Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform f(t) with a low value ymin, a high value ymax and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the average value of the waveform is given by:

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This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where ymin = 0 as . From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( ) is directly dependent on the duty cycle D. The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the green sine wave in figure 2) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.

THEORY OF DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

The purpose of a motor speed controller is to take a signal representing the demanded speed, and to drive a motor at that speed. The controller may or may not actually measure the speed of the motor. If it does, it is called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed Loop Speed Controller, if not it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller. Feedback speed control is better, but more complicated, and may not be required for a simple robot design.

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Motors come in a variety of forms, and the speed controller's motor drive output will be different dependent on these forms. The speed controller presented here is designed to drive a simple cheap starter motor from a car, which can be purchased from any scrap yard. These motors are generally series wound, which means to reverse them, they must be altered slightly. Below is a simple block diagram of the speed controller. We'll go through the important parts block by block in detail.

The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so if we reduce the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How can this be achieved when the battery is fixed at 12 Volts? The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. It could do this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is quite inefficient to do. A better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect.

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When you watch a film in the cinema, or the television, what you are actually seeing is a series of fixed pictures, which change rapidly enough that your eyes just see the average effect - movement. Your brain fills in the gaps to give an average effect. Now imagine a light bulb with a switch. When you close the switch, the bulb goes on and is at full brightness, say 100 Watts. When you open the switch it goes off (0 Watts). Now if you close the switch for a fraction of a second, then open it for the same amount of time, the filament won't have time to cool down and heat up, and you will just get an average glow of 50 Watts. This is how lamp dimmers work, and the same principle is used by speed controllers to drive a motor. When the switch is closed, the motor sees 12 Volts, and when it is open it sees 0 Volts. If the switch is open for the same amount of time as it is closed, the motor will see an average of 6 Volts, and will run more slowly accordingly. As the amount of time that the voltage is on increases compared with the amount of time that it is off, the average speed of the motor increases. This on-off switching is performed by power MOSFETs. A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device that can turn very large currents on and off under the control of a low signal level voltage. For more detailed information, see the dedicated chapter on MOSFETs) The time that it takes a motor to speed up and slow down under switching conditions is dependant on the inertia of the rotor (basically how heavy it is), and how much friction and load torque there is. The graph below shows the speed of a motor that is being turned on and off fairly slowly. You can see that the average speed is around 150, although it varies quite a bit. If the supply voltage is switched fast enough, it wont have time to change speed much, and the speed will be quite steady. This is the principle of switch mode speed control. Thus the speed is set by PWM Pulse Width Modulation.

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5.1

POWER DELIVERY

PWM can be used to adjust the total amount of power delivered to a load without losses normally incurred when a power transfer is limited by resistive means. The drawbacks are the pulsations defined by the duty cycle, switching frequency and properties of the load. With a sufficiently high switching frequency and, when necessary, using additional passive electronic filters the pulse train can be smoothed and average analog waveform recovered. High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realisable with semiconductor switches. As has been already stated above almost no power is dissipated by the switch in either on or off state. However, during the transitions between on and off states both voltage and current are non-zero and thus considerable power is dissipated in the switches. Luckily, the change of state between fully on and fully off is quite rapid (typically less than 100 nanoseconds) relative to typical on or off times, and so the average power dissipation is quite low compared to the power being delivered even when high switching frequencies are used. Modern semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are quite ideal components. Thus high efficiency controllers can be built. Typically frequency converters used to control AC motors have efficiency that is better than 98 %. Switching power supplies have lower efficiency due to low output voltage levels (often even less than 2 V for microprocessors are needed) but still more than 70-80 % efficiency can be achieved. Variable-speed fan controllers for computers usually use PWM, as it is far more efficient when compared to a potentiometer or rheostat. (Neither of the latter is practical to operate electronically; they would require a small drive motor). Light dimmers for home use employ a specific type of PWM control. Home-use light dimmers typically include electronic circuitry which suppresses current flow during defined portions of each cycle of the AC line voltage. Adjusting the brightness of light emitted by a light source is then merely a matter of setting at what voltage (or phase) in the AC halfcycle the dimmer begins to provide electrical current to the light source (e.g. by using an electronic switch such as a triac). In this case the PWM duty cycle is the ratio of the conduction time to the duration of the half AC cycle defined by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the country). These rather simple types of dimmers can be effectively used with inert (or relatively slow reacting) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for which the additional modulation in supplied electrical energy which is caused by the dimmer causes only negligible additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other types of light sources such as light-emitting diodes
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(LEDs), however, turn on and off extremely rapidly and would perceivably flicker if supplied with low frequency drive voltages. Perceivable flicker effects from such rapid response light sources can be reduced by increasing the PWM frequency. If the light fluctuations are sufficiently rapid, the human visual system can no longer resolve them and the eye perceives the time average intensity without flicker (see flicker fusion threshold). In electric cookers, continuously-variable power is applied to the heating elements such as the hob or the grill using a device known as a Simmerstat. This consists of a thermal oscillator running at approximately two cycles per minute and the mechanism varies the duty cycle according to the knob setting. The thermal time constant of the heating elements is several minutes, so that the temperature fluctuations are too small to matter in practice.

5.2

PWM FREQUENCY

The frequency of the resulting PWM signal is dependent on the frequency of the ramp waveform. Some pros and cons are: Frequencies between 20Hz and 18kHz may produce audible screaming from the speed controller and motors - this may be an added attraction for your device! Each switching on and off of the speed controller MOSFETs results in a little power loss. Therefore the greater the time spent switching compared with the static on and off times, the greater will be the resulting 'switching loss' in the MOSFETs. The higher the switching frequency, the more stable is the current waveform in the motors. This waveform will be a spiky switching waveform at low frequencies, but at high frequencies the inductance of the motor will smooth this out to an average DC current level proportional to the PWM demand. This spikyness will cause greater power loss in the resistances of the wires, MOSFETs, and motor windings than a steady DC current waveform. RF interference emitted by the circuit will be worse the higher the switching frequency . Choosing a frequency based on motor characteristics One way to choose a suitable frequency is to say, for example, that we want the current waveform to be stable to within p percent. Then we can work out mathematically the minimum frequency to attain this goal. This section is a bit mathematical so you may wish to miss it out and just use the final equation.

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The following shows the equivalent circuit of the motor, and the current waveform as the PWM signal switches on and off. This shows the worst case, at 50:50 PWM ratio, and the current rise is shown for a stationary or stalled motor, which is also worst case.

PWM controllers Many microcontrollers include on-chip PWM controllers. For example, Microchip's PIC16C67 includes two, each of which has a selectable on-time and period. The duty cycle is the ratio of the on-time to the period; the modulating frequency is the inverse of the period. To start PWM operation, the data sheet suggests the software should:

Set the period in the on-chip timer/counter that provides the modulating square wave Set the on-time in the PWM control register Set the direction of the PWM output, which is one of the generalpurpose I/O pins Start the timer Enable the PWM controller

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6.

PWM CIRCUIT LAYOUT

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is an efficient way to vary the speed and power of electric DC motors. Here two drivers are described for 24 V (15 V to 30 V) motors with a maximum current up to 80 A. These drivers can for example be used to vary the speed of small electric vehicles. The first driver use a power PROFET transistor switched at 500 Hz and the second use a power MOSFET transistor switched at 20 kHz. The second method is preferred due to its higher frequency. The best switching conditions are when the switch frequency is much higher than the dynamics of the motor. The motor should think that it is powered from a true DC voltage. Due to different references the frequency must be at least 5 times higher than the rotation speed of the motor. I.e. if the motor rotates at 6000 rpm (100 rps) the frequency must be higher than 5* 100 Hz = 500 Hz. A theoretically better explanation is that switching frequency must be much higher than 1/Ta where Ta = L/R is the electric time constant of the motor. Here L is the inductance and R the inner resistance of the motor. For a typical DC motor (200 W, 24 V) L = 1 mH and R = 0.5 Ohm. This again means that the frequency must be much higher than 1/Ta = R/L = 0.5 / 0.001 Hz = 500 Hz. Usually a frequency around 20 kHz is used. This also avoids noise from the motor in the audio range.

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The following resistors and capacitors were used:

The values of the resistors are marked on the body using coloured rings.

6.1

IC SPECIFICATIONS

The TL084 is a high speed J-FET input quad operational amplifier. It incorporates well matched, high voltage JFET and bipolar transistors on a monolithic integrated circuit. The device features high slew rates, low input bias and offset current, and low offset voltage temperature coefficient. FEATURES Low Power Consumption Wide Common-Mode (Up To Vcc+) and Differential Voltage Range Low Input Bias and Offset Current Low Noise eN = 15 (typ) Output Short-Circuit Protection High Input Impedance J-FET Input Stage Low Harmonic Distortion: 0.01%(typ) Internal Frequency Compensation Latch up Free Operation.

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6.2

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers are important building blocks for a wide range of electronic circuits. They had their origins in analog computers where they were used in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits. Their popularity in circuit design largely stems from the fact that characteristics of the final elements (such as their gain) are set by external components with little dependence on temperature changes and manufacturing variations in the opamp itself. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the opamp, but with two outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more opamps and a resistive feedback network).

: non-inverting input : inverting input : output : positive power supply : negative power supply

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The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a input and a input, and ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation,

Ideal and Real op-amps An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and they are considered to hold for all input voltages:

Infinite open-loop gain (when doing theoretical analysis, a limit may be taken as open loop gain AOL goes to infinity). Infinite voltage range available at the output (vout) (in practice the voltages available from the output are limited by the supply voltages and ). The power supply sources are called rails. Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to be flat everywhere with zero phase shift). Infinite input impedance (so, in the diagram, , and zero current flows from to ). Zero input current (i.e., there is assumed to be no leakage or bias current into the device). Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so that , the output is a virtual ground or vout = 0). Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies). Zero output impedance (i.e., Rout = 0, so that output voltage does not vary with output current). Zero noise. Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio .

Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails.

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7.

OBSERVATIONS

The PWM duty cycle can be varied from 0% to 100% with the 47k potentiometer. The small transient spikes that are seen at the positive flank of the voltage curves at 20 kHz probably occur because the power supply is not fast enough to keep the voltage stable for a short time. The DC motor (15 V, about 100 W) is running without load. The lamp is of normal car lamp type (12 V, 50 W). PWM pulse over DC motor at 20 kHz and 30% duty cycle. Here the pulse frequency is so high that the motor behaves almost as if powered from a true DC voltage. However some transient current spikes occur at the flanks of the pulses.

8.

PRECAUTIONS

Be very careful if connecting these circuits to larger lead accumulators! Very high short circuit currents could be dangerous and destroy and burn the circuits! It is highly recommended to first test the circuits with a current limited power supply and a small motor!

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9.

ADVANTAGES

The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM can be used to adjust the total amount of power delivered to a load without losses normally incurred when a power transfer is limited by resistive means. PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a powerful technique for controlling analog circuits with a processor's digital outputs. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications, ranging from measurement and communications to power control and conversion PWM is also used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the load with the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at the desired level. The switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and a capacitor. PWM is sometimes used in sound (music) synthesis, in particular subtractive synthesis, as it gives a sound effect similar to chorus or slightly detuned oscillators played together. A new class of audio amplifiers based on the PWM principle is becoming popular. Called "Class-D amplifiers", these amplifiers produce a PWM equivalent of the analog input signal which is fed to the loudspeaker via a suitable filter network to block the carrier and recover the original audio. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is an efficient way to vary the speed and power of electric DC motors. PWM is also used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the load with the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at the desired level.

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10.

FURTHER ADD ONS

This power MOSFET motor driver is better than the PROFET driver because it is working at a higher switch frequency of 20 kHz. This circuit also avoids the voltage drop and power loss over the power diodes present in the PROFET driver. The MOSFET transistor in this motor driver requires a special driver circuit between the PWM circuit and the MOSFET itself. The reason for this is that switching the gate voltage of the MOSFET transistor requires high transient current (2 A) due to relatively high capacitive load. The MOSFET transistor requires a relatively large heatsink for high current motors.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING , BIT SINDRI

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INFERENCE
The circuit described here is for a general purpose device that can control DC devices which draw up to a few amps of current. The circuit may be used in either 12 or 24 Volt systems with only a few minor wiring changes. From this method we can obtain a smooth speed variation without reducing the starting torque of the motor. We can overcome the problem of the poor starting performance of a motor. This device has been used to control the brightness of an automotive tail lamp and as a motor speed control for small DC fans of the type used in computer power supplies. The switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and a capacitor. We can control a high power motor by adding a MOSFET transistor which requires a special driver circuit between the PWM circuit and the MOSFET itself. This circuit gives efficient control upto 80 Amp.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING , BIT SINDRI

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REFERENCES
Electrical Machinery Dr. P.S. Bimbhra Electronic Devices And Circuits J.B. Gupta www.google.com www.freecircut.com www.googleimage.com www.yahoo.com http://www.4qd.co.uk/?co%26period%3B%3Buk=4QD%26period%3B%3 Bco%26period%3B%3Buk

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING , BIT SINDRI

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