UN 802 Reactor Physics

Eleodor Nichita University of Ontario Institute of Technology

Atomic and Nuclear Constituents

Atomic and Nuclear Constituents Atom Electrons Nucleus - made up of nucleons: o protons o neutrons The nucleus is held together by nuclear attraction forces. These have to be stronger than the repulsive electrostatic forces. For neutral atoms, the number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of electrons in orbit.

Some subatomic particles proton neutron electron (beta particle) positron photon (gamma particle) neutrino antineutrino alpha particle (2 protons + 2 neutrons)

Properties (quantities) characterizing subatomic particles Mass (rest mass) charge spin (denoted by s) parity o property resulting from Quantum Mechanics. o describes the parity of the wave function

+ (r ) = (r ) (r ) = ( r )
All these quantities are important because they are conserved in nuclear reactions.

Properties of Nuclei Atomic number Z = number of protons Mass number A = total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) Number of neutrons N The atomic number Z identifies the nuclear species. Two nuclei with the same Z but different N are called isotopes.
A Z

Notation:

X , where X is the chemical symbol.

Other properties of nuclei (parallel those of particles) Mass charge (+Ze) spin (s) parity

Atomic Mass Unit (amu) Defined as 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom That means that it is 1/12 of the 12C nucleus, plus the mass of 1/2 electron. Atomic weight = Mass of an atom expressed in amu Molecular weight = Mass of a molecule expressed in amu 1 Mole Quantity of a pure substance that has the same mass expressed in grams as the atoms (or molecules) mass expressed in amu. 1 Mole Has NA =6.023x1023 atoms (molecules) NA is the ratio between 1g and 1 amu. (There are NA amus in a gram.)

How many Kg does an amu have? NA atoms of 12C weigh 12 g. It follows that 1 amu weighs 1/NA grams.
12( g ) 1 1 1 amu = = (g) = ( g ) = 1.66 10 24 ( g ) = 1.66 10 27 ( kg ) 12 N A N A 6.023 10 23

Expressing mass using energy Because of the mass-energy equivalence expressed by Einsteins E = mc2 , mass can also be expressed in units of energy formula over c2. For example:

1kg c 1 3 10 = 1kg = 2 c c2
2

8 2

) ( J ) = 9 10

16

J 2 c

Expressing mass using energy In nuclear physics the energy is often measured in MeV, and the mass in MeV/c2. To find the relation between 1kg and one MeV/c2 we write:
MeV 10 6 eV 1 2 = c 3 108 (m / s )

10 6 1.602 10 19 C V

(3 10 (m / s))
8

10 6 1.602 10 13 J

(3 10 (m / s))
8

= 1.78 10 24 Kg

Instead of saying that the mass if a particle is X MeV/c2 it is customary to just say that the mass is x MeV. What is really meant is that the total energy of that particle is X MeV, and hence its mass is X MeV/c2. One just omits mentioning c2.

MeV Equivalent of 1 amu

1 1 3 2 8 m 1g c = Eamu = 10 Kg 3 10 = 23 6.023 10 NA s 1 3 8 2 10 3 10 J = 23 6.023 10 J 7 7 C V MeV = 1.494 10 J MeV = .494 10 6 10 e V MeV C V 7 1.494 10 MeV = 933MeV 6 19 10 1.6 10 C V

Examples of elementary particle mass particle kg proton neutron electron 1.6726E-27 1.6750E-27 9.1090E-31 mass amu 1.007276 1.008665 5.486E-4 MeV/c2 938.28 939.57 0.511

Atomic Weight for a Mixture of Atoms Consider a mixture of 30% (by atom) C and 70% (by atom) Al. What is the average atomic weight of the mixture? Answer Assume there are N atoms in total of these o NC=0.3N are C o NAl=0.7N are Al

Atomic Weight for a Mixture of Atoms The total mass of the mixture (in amu) is:

m = NC M C + N Al M Al = 0.3NM C + 0.7 NM Al (amu)

The average mass of one atom (in amu) is:

m 0.3 NM C + 0.7 NM Al = M = = N N = 0.3M C + 0.7 M Al = 0.3 12 + 0.7 13 = 12.7 (amu )

Atomic Weight for a Mixture of Atoms In general For a mixture of n types of atoms, each with atomic fraction Xi=Ni/N, the average atomic weight is:

M = XiMi
i =1

If the different types of atoms are isotopes of the same atom, the atomic fractions are called isotopic abundances.

Properties and Structure of Nuclei

Nuclear Radius Assume that nuclei are made of nuclear material of the same density for all species of nuclei. It follows that the mass of the nucleus is given by:

4R m = V = 3

Nuclear Radius The mass of the nucleus is given also by the mass of its constituents (neutrons and protons)

m = Nm n + Zm p
Because the mass of the proton and the one of the neutron are almost equal to 1 amu, we can write:

m = Nmn + Zm p N amu + Z amu = ( N + Z ) amu = A amu

Nuclear Radius By writing the equality between the two masses, we have:

4R A amu = 3
Solving for R3, we obtain

3 R = A 4 amu
3

Nuclear Radius Solving for R, by taking the cube root on both sides, we have:

R = A3
3

3 4

amu

It turns out that:

3 4

amu = 1.25 10
15

15

So:

R = 1.25 10

A
3

meters

Binding Energy Since particles that constitute the nucleus stay together (held by nuclear interaction forces), the total (rest) energy of the nucleus must be lower than the total (rest) energy of the particles if they were separated.

B = ( A Z ) Eneutron + Z E proton E
This is called the Binding Energy In the above, E denotes rest energy.

( X)
A Z

Binding Energy Einsteins energy formula translates into:

Eneutron = mneutron c
E

( X ) = M ( X )c
A Z

E proton = m proton c 2
2

B = ( A Z ) mneutron c 2 + Z m proton c 2 M

B = c 2 ( A Z ) mneutron + Z m proton M

{[

A Z

(M is rest mass of the nucleus.)

( X )} = c
A Z 2

( X )c
A Z

The mass of the nucleus is smaller than the sum of the masses of its constituents The difference, , is called the mass defect

Alternate expression for the mass defect Using the nuclear mass to calculate the mass defect can be difficult because, most of the time, what is given in tables is the mass of neutral atoms, rather than the mass of their nuclei. To use the atomic masses instead of the nuclear masses, we can add and subtract the mass of electrons. (We will also ignore the binding energy of the electrons. However, that energy is much smaller that the nuclear binding energy, so we can safely neglect it.) Hence:

[( A Z ) m
0 A Z

= ( A Z ) mneutron + Z m proton M
neutron proton e

1 A ( A Z ) mneutron 1 Z Where M ( X ) is the atomic mass of element

( X )= + Z (m + m )] (M ( X ) + Z m ) = + Z M ( H ) M ( X )
A Z A Z e
A Z

Question Period Q: If I climb to the top of the CN tower (approximately 550 m) will my body mass be larger? A: Yes, but not enough for people to notice.

mbottom c 2 + mbottom gh mtop mbottom = mbottom = 2 c mbottom gh 70 Kg 9.8m / s 2 550m = = 4.2 10 12 Kg 2 8 c2 3 10 m / s

Nuclear Models

Shell Model - Potential Well We can picture the nucleons (protons and neutrons) as living in a potential well created by the nuclear forces. The binding energy is the energy that needs to be communicated to the nucleons to allow all of them to exit the well.
E

p n

n p

More details on the potential well Nucleons can occupy different energy levels in the well, just like electrons can occupy different energy levels in an atom. The state of the nucleus is given by the states (energy, spin, parity) of all its nucleons. Paulis exclusion principle applies (No two nucleons can occupy the same state).
E n p n p n p
B A Average binding energy per nucleon b=

More details on the potential well

Depending on the arrangement of nucleons on energy levels inside the well, the nucleus can have different binding energies. The lowest energy level of the nucleus (corresponding to the largest binding energy) is called the ground level, and the corresponding state is called the ground state. Higher energy levels are called excited levels, and the corresponding states are called excited states.
Efree

E
p n n p

State 1 (ground)

E
n p

State 2 (excited)

p Eg=0

Eexcited > E ground Bground > Bexcited M

N Z

X excited > M

N Z

X ground

Binding Energy per Nucleon

Liquid Drop Nuclear Model Attempts to express the binding energy as a function of nuclear characteristics. Leads to a semiempirical formula. Shape of formula determined from the model Values of constants determined from measurement

B = av A as A ac

2 3

Z ( Z 1) A
1 3

( A 2Z ) + ( Z , A) aA 2
2

Liquid Drop Model Meaning of Terms

av Volume effect proportional to the volume of the nucleus, which can be considered to be roughly proportional to A. This term was introduced because it was observed that the binding energy per nucleon is almost constant. as Surface effect proportional to the surface of the nucleus, roughly proportional to A2/3. This negative term was introduced because the nucleons situated close to the surface have fewer neighbors, and hence contribute less to the binding energy. ac Coulomb effect electrostatic repulsion between protons has a potential energy Z (Z r 1)e Z (Z 1)
2 1

A3

aA Asymmetry effect. It vas observed that nuclei with N=Z are more stable, hence the binding energy is probably smaller if Z and N differ. This term accounts for that effect. (Z , A) - Pairing term. Introduced because it was found experimentally that two protons or two neutrons are bound stronger than a proton and a neutron. It is zero for odd A, a 1 for both Z and N odd and + a 1 for both Z and N even.
p

1 2

1 2

Liquid Drop Model Numerical values of coefficients

aV aS aC aA aP

15.7 MeV 17.8 MeV 0.71 MeV 23.6 MeV 12.0 MeV

Radioactivity

Nuclear Stability

Radioactivity Discovered first by Henri Becquerel (1852-1908). Becquerel discovered that a mineral containing Uranium would darken a photographic plate even when the latter was wrapped in opaque paper. In 1903 Becquerel shared the Physics Nobel Prize with Pierre and Marie Curie, for their discovery and work on radioactivity.

Radioactive Decay Some nuclei are stable, while others are unstable. Unstable nuclei decay, by emitting a particle and changing into a different nucleus. Most common types of decay (others possible too): 4 Alpha ( 2 ), Helium nucleus emission 0 Beta ( 1 ), electron emission 0 Beta plus ( 1 ) positron emission Gamma ( 00 ), photon emission (no change in nuclear species) Electron capture (an electron is captured rather than emitted)

Radioactive Decay

A Z
(Parent Nucleus

A m Z n

Y+ P
m n

Daughter Nucleus + Emitted Particle)

Charge and number of nucleons are conserved. For gamma decay, technically the nucleus does not change into a different one. Only its energy state changes. Electron capture (still classified as decay)
A Z

X + e Y
0 1 A Z 1

Alternative Notation (no chemical symbol) General decay

( Z , A) ( Z n, A m) + (n, m)
Alpha

(Z , A) (Z 2, A 4)+
4 2

Beta minus

~ ( Z , A) ( Z + 1, A)+ +
0 1

Electron capture
(Z , A) + e (Z 1, A)
0 ( Z , A)+ 1 ( Z 1, A)

Characteristics of Radioactive Decay Nuclei decay randomly. It is impossible to predict which nuclei will decay in a given period of time, and which not. It is impossible to predict when a particular nucleus will decay. On average, for large initial numbers of nuclei and for short periods of time t, the number of nuclei that decay within t is proportional to the time t, and to the original number of nuclei present at the beginning of the time interval.

Derivation of the Law of Radioactive Decay Let N(t) be the number of X-type nuclei present at time t. Let t be a short time interval. According to the second bullet on the previous slide, we have, on average: (1) is called the decay constant, is dependent on nucleus type, and is measured in s-1.

N = N (t ) + N (t + t ) = N (t ) t

Derivation of the Law of Radioactive Decay The previous can be rewritten as: N = N (t ) (2) t which, considering that t is small, yields: dN = N (t ) (3) dt

Derivation of the Law of Radioactive Decay Eq. (3) is an ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients. Its solution is of the form:

e t +c Ce t ;

C = ec

The multiplicative constant C can be determined from the number of nuclei present at t=0.

N ( 0) N 0 = C e 0 = C
It follows that the number of X-type nuclei is given at any time t by: t

N (t ) = N 0 e

Law of Radioactive Decay

Example At t=0, a sample of 24Na weights 1.0 mg. How many beta particles are emitted in an hour? ( =1.2836x10-5 s-1) Solution The number of emitted particles equals the number of decayed nuclei:

N = N 0 N (t ) = N 0 N 0 e t = N 0 1 e t
The initial number of Na nuclei is:
m 1.0 10 6 Kg 1.0 10 6 Kg N0 = = = = M amu 24amu 24 1.0 10 6 1.0 10 6 NA = 6.023 10 23 = 2.51 1016 24 24

Hence the number of emitted particles is:

N = 2.51 10

16

( e 1

1.283610 5 3600

) = 1.133 10

15

Half Life Definition The half life, T1/2, of a radioactive species is the time after which the initial number of nuclei decreases to one half. Expression By definition:

N0 N (T1/ 2 ) = 2

Expression of Half-Life The definition of half life is equivalent to: N0 T1 / 2 N0 e = 2 Dividing be N0 we obtain: 1 T1 / 2 e = 2 By taking the natural logarithm of both sides we get:
T1/ 2 1 = ln = ln (2 ) 2

Finally, we can solve for T1/2:

T1/ 2 =

ln(2)

Radioactive Decay and Half Life Important Notes Half life can be measured from any moment of time. The number of nuclei left after T1/2 elapses will be half of those existent at t0. According to the radioactive decay law, the number of parent nuclei keeps halving every T1/2, but never reaches zero. However, it can become negligibly small. As the number of remaining nuclei becomes small, deviations from the law of radioactive decay start to appear, as the law of radioactive decay is valid on average. We cannot have 2.5 parent nuclei left. What such a number means is that we can have 2 or maybe 3 nuclei left in different experiments, such that the average is 2.5

Exponential Decay
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 t(arbitrary units) 60 70 80 90 100

Law of Radioactive Decay Probabilistic Interpretation N(t) out of N0 nuclei do not decay. It cannot be determined a priori which nuclei do not decay and which do. The ratio N(t)/N0 can be interpreted as the probability of one nucleus not decaying after time t.

N (t ) = PND = e t N0
Conversely, the probability that a nucleus does decay after time t is:
t t

PD = 1 PND = 1 e

Activity The rate at which a radioactive sample decays is called activity.

dN (t ) (t ) dt
Equivalent definition

d (t ) = N (t ) N 0 e t = N 0 e t = N (t ) dt
Units: 1 decay/second = 1 Becquerel (Bq) 1 Curie = 3.7x1010 Bq

Average Life of a Nucleus At t=0 there are N0 parent nuclei. At time t, there are N parent nuclei left. At time t, (t )dt = N 0 e t dt decay in dt These nuclei have lived t before decaying. To get the average life, we need to sum (integrate) over dt and divide by the initial number of nuclei.

t(t )dt
0

N0

tN 0 e t dt
0

N0 = te t dt =
0

N 0 te t dt
0

te

N0 t

+
0

1 e t dt = e t dt = 0 1

(e )
t

Energy-Level Diagrams for Decay and Decay Scheme

Mass (Energy) Q

c2M(Z,A)

c2M(Z-n,A-m)+ c2M(n,m) (at rest)

Q=[M(Z,A)-M(Z-n,A-m)-M(n,m)]c2 Q>0 in order for the decay to be energetically possible By convention, the lowest energy on this graph is taken to be zero (Energy is expressed relative to the lowest value.).

Multimodal Decay Some nuclei can decay in more than one way
Parent Mass (Energy) a% (100-a)%

Branching factors Fraction of nuclei that decay in a certain mode Have to add up to 1. (100%) Consider a species of nucleus that can decay by either a reaction 1, or another reaction 2. Let dN be the total number of nuclei that decay in dt. The branching factors are defines as:

dN1 f1 = dN dN 2 f2 = dN f1 + f 2 = 1

Branching factors and derived quantities Partial decay constants

dN1 1 1 = = f1 dN N dN 2 1 2 = = f 2 dN N 1 + 2 =

Partial half-lives (What the half life would be if only that decay mode was present).
T1 = T2 = ln 2

1
ln 2

1 1 1 + = T1 T2 T

Decay Chains (Radioactive Families) Consider a nuclide whose daughter is also unstable and decays.
A Z

A m Z n

R+ P
m n

A m Z n

A m m Z n n

S + P

m n

This is called a decay chain. Chains can have more than two members. We then talk about radioactive families or series.

Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear Reactions General Expression

Ax 1 Z1 x

X1+

Ax 2 Zx2

X2

Ay 1 Z y1 1

Y+

Ay 2 Zy2 2

Q value

Q= M

[ (

Ax 1 Z1 x

X1 + M

Ax 2 Z x2

X2 M

( Y ) M (
Ay1 Z y1 1

Ay 2 Z y2 2

Y c

)]

M are rest masses of nuclei/particles Q>0 exothermic reaction (provides energy to the outside) Q<0 endothermic reaction (needs energy from outside in order to proceed)

Conservation Laws The following quantities are conserved in a nuclear reaction charge number of nucleons energy momentum

Conservation Laws Conservation of charge

Z x1 + Z x 2 = Z y1 + Z y 2
Conservation of number of nucleons

Ax1 + Ax 2 = Ay1 + Ay 2

Conservation Laws If additional particles enter or exit the reaction, their charge, number of nucleons, energy and momentum need to be accounted for when writing the conservation laws Example
Ax 1 Z1 x

X1 +

Ax 2 Zx2

X2 Y +
Ay 1 Z y1 1

Ay 2 Zy2 2

Y +e

Conservation of charge

Z x1 + Z x 2 = Z y1 + Z y 2 1
0 We can represent the electron as 1 e

Conservation Laws Conservation of momentum

P ( X 1 ) + P ( X 2 ) = P (Y ) + P (Y2 )
Conservation of energy Expressed by the definition of the Q value

[M (

Ax 1 Z1 x

X1 + M

Ax 2 Zx2

X2 c = M
2

)]

[ ( Y )+ M ( Y )]c
Ay 1 Z y1 Ay 2 Zy2 2

+Q

The liberated energy (Q) is found as kinetic energy of the products [including all emitted particles (photons or other)]

Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Atom Density Also called number density. Is the Number of Atoms per Unit Volume Connection with (mass) density n = # of atoms in volume V M = atomic weight of each atom N = Atom density

n N= V

m = V

m nM n = M = MN = = V V V

Mechanisms of Interaction for Charged Particles

Heavy Charged Particles e.g. alpha particles Interact mostly with electrons (there are usually much more electrons than nuclei) via Coulombic force Are much heavier than electrons Lose little energy in each individual interaction with any one electron Eventually do slow down as a consequence of the many interactions Have straight-line trajectories Electrons are knocked out of their orbits and atoms become ionized (Hence the name ionizing radiation) Behave like bowling bowls in a space filled with golf balls

Linear Stopping Power

dE S = dx
Bethes formula

4e 4 z 2 S= NB 2 m0 v m0 v 2 v2 v2 ln1 2 2 B Z ln I c c
Range (tens of microns)

Fast Light Charged Particles (electrons) Interact mostly with electrons (there are usually much more electrons than nuclei) via Coulombic force Are much of the same mass as electrons Can lose a lot of energy in each individual interaction with any one electron Slow down quickly, after only few collisions. Have broken-line trajectories Can be backscattered Atomic electrons are knocked out of their orbits and atoms become ionized (Hence the name ionizing radiation) When accelerated, incident electrons produce bremsstrahlung (electromagnetic radiation photons) Trajectory of an electron is a broken line (possible backscatter) Range (millimeters)

Mechanisms of Interactions for Neutral Particles

Photons Can have several types of interactions (all depend on energy) Photoelectric effect Compton Scattering Pair production o A highly energetic (E>1.02MeV) photon is stopped (by collision with a heavy nucleus) and its energy is converted into an electron and a positron emitted in opposite directions

e +e

Neutrons Interact with nuclei via nuclear forces, since they have no charge, hence they cannot interact electrostatically with electrons Possible reactions Elastic scattering Inelastic Scattering radiative capture (absorption) (n, 2n) fission

Neutron Elastic Scattering

n+ X n+ X
A Z A Z

Kinetic energy is conserved

KEn + KE X = KE 'n + KE ' X mv 2 MV 2 mv'2 MV '2 + = + 2 2 2 2

X X

The incident neutron is slowed down by elastic scattering Some of its kinetic energy is transferred to the target nucleus

Energy Loss in Elastic Scattering Collisions - Moderation

A 1 2 1 1+ E ' = 1 + E E = 2 A +1 2
Scattering of heavy nucleus (235U)- small energy loss (poor moderator)
234 2 1 E ' = 1 + E = 0.99 E 2 236

Scattering on light nucleus (1H) large energy loss (good moderator) Water used as moderator because it contains H.
0 2 1 E ' = 1 + E = 0.5 E 2 2

Inelastic scattering

n + X n'+ X
A Z A Z

Kinetic energy is not conserved any more (total energy is)

KEn + KE X > KE 'n + KE ' X

X X

The incident neutron is slowed down by inelastic scattering

Radiative Capture

n+ X
A Z

A +1 Z

Y +

X Y

The incident neutron is absorbed (disappears) by radiative capture

Fission
A A n + ZAX Z11 Y1 + Z 22 Y2 +n + + + neutrinos + approx. 200 MeV

= average number of neutrons 2.5

(2 to 5 neutrons can be produced)

Y1 X

Y2

Fission - Example
1 0

n + 235U X + Y + neutrons 92
1 0 1 0

Possible fission reactions

n+ U Xe+ Sr + 2n
235 92 140 54 94 38

n+ 235U 132Sn+101Mo + 3n 92 50 42

Distribution of fragments
Fission Yield

70

120

170

Attenuation of a Photon Beam

Photon Attenuation Attenuation of a collimated (parallel) beam Consider a beam of photons of intensity I0 that hits a target of thickness xt, and a collimated detector that measures the intensity of the beam emerging from the target. The fact that the detector is collimated means that only the particles that have not interacted in any way are detected. The intensity is defined as the number of photons that pass through a surface S per unit time and per unit area.

Photon Attenuation
S

I I0

Xt

The atom (number) density of atoms in the slab is Nv. (number of atoms per unit volume) The area of the material surface perpendicular to the beam is denoted by S.

Photon Attenuation Consider a thin slice of material, of thickness dx situated at depth x in the material. Consider each atom can be represented as a hard ball of radius, ra = ra2 , and with a corresponding cross-section area Also called microscopic cross section The number of atoms in the slice is dN = NaSdx where Na is the atom density Consider the photons to be infinitely small (points)

Thin slice of material

x+dx

View of the dx slice from the photons perspective

Total area: S

Area "covered" by atoms:

dN a

Attenuation of a collimated beam of photons The probability that a photon hits an atom equals the ratio between the area covered by atoms and the total area of the slice. Let Np(x) be the total number of photons that enter the slice over a time t

Np ( x) = I ( x) St

Let Np(x+dx) be the total number of photons that exit the slice dx over a time t

Np ( x + dx) = I ( x + dx) St

The probability of a photon interacting with an atom is: dn N a S dx Pcoll = = = N a dx = dx S S Attenuation coefficient

= Na
(units of cm-1)

Attenuation of a collimated beam of photons Number of photons that interact and are therefore removed from the beam

dNp = Np Pcoll = Np dx
Setting up the differential equation Account for the fact that the number of photons that interact represent the change in the number of photons that exit the slice, with a negative sign

dNp ( x) = Np ( x) dx
Solution

Np ( x ) = Np 0 e x
Np0 is the number of photons entering the material at x=0

Attenuation of a collimated beam of photons Given that Np I= S t We also have

Np ( x) Np 0 e x I ( x) = = = I 0 e x S t S t

Where Np(x) is the number of photons that make it to depth x.

Exponential attenuation (of a collimated beam of photons)

1

Np(x)/Np0 or I(x)/I0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Reaction (Collision) Rate For a thin slice of thickness dx, the volumetric reaction rate is:

number of collisions = RF = time volume dN p N p ( x) dx = = = t S dx t S dx N p ( x) I ( x) s t = = = I ( x) t S t S

Attenuation of a Neutron Beam

Neutron Attenuation Same reasoning as for photons, but with specific features Instead of the density of atoms previously denoted by Na we talk about the density of nuclei, denoted simply by N. That is because neutrons interact with nuclei and not with atoms as a whole. The product N is called macroscopic cross section (as opposed to attenuation coefficient) and denoted by (as opposed to ).

= N
(units of cm-1) Attenuation:

I ( x ) = I 0 e x
Neutron Reaction (Collision) Rate R F = I (x)

Neutron Beam Intensity Let n(x) be the neutron density (neutrons/cm3) Consider monoenergetic neutrons (All have the same speed) Let v be the speed of neutrons. Consider a thin slice of beam of thickness dx, that crosses surface S. There are dN n = nSdx neutrons in this slice. It takes the neutrons in the slice
dx time dt = v to cross surface S.

The beam intensity is therefore:

dN n nSdx I= = = nv Sdt S dx v
x dx

Microscopic Cross Sections and Reaction Rates for Neutrons

Consider a single nucleus in a parallel beam of monoenergetic neutrons

I n / m2 / s

Assume (for now) that scattering and absorption are the only possible reactions.

Reaction Rates
F = Rt = R s + R a

Probability of a Certain Reaction Type

Rs Ps = Rt

Ra Pa = Rt

Pa + Ps = 1

Rs + Ra =1 Pa + Ps = Rt

Microscopic Cross sections for Individual Reactions

Rt = I t

Rs = Rt Ps = I t Ps = I s s t Ps
R a = Rt Pa = I t Pa = I a ; a t Pa

The sum of individual microscopic cross sections equals the total macroscopic cross section. In our simplified case

t = a + s = t Pa + t Ps = t ( Pa + Ps ) = t
For the general case:

t =e +i + +

+ ...

... f

Microscopic Cross Sections as Measures of Probability We can write:

Rt t = I

Ra a = I
Rs s = I

The microscopic cross sections can hence be interpreted as the probability of interaction, per unit incident flux.

Energy Dependence of Microscopic Cross Sections The microscopic cross sections depend on the energy of the incident neutrons. The nucleus appears larger or smaller depending on how fast the incoming neutron is moving! t = t (E ) Where E is the kinetic energy of a neutron

a = a (E )

s = s (E )
Reaction rate per nucleus

R ( E ) = I ( E )

The reaction rate depends on the energy (speed) of the incident neutrons.

Energy Dependence of Microscopic Cross Section (fission)

Volumetric Reaction Rate for a Material (Collision Density) Consider a small piece of material placed in a beam of monoenergetic neutrons.

F=

Rsingle nucleus N nuclei V

= Rsingle nucleus N

Where N is the number density of nuclei.

F = I N = I
Where = N is the Macroscopic Cross Section. We have thus recovered the formula obtained in the previous lecture using the attenuation of a collimated beam.

Volumetric Reaction Rate for a Material (Collision Density) Dependence on the energy of the incident neutrons

F ( E ) = I ( E ) N = I ( E )

Neutron flux Q: What happens if we have a small piece of material bombarded by two beams of monoenergetic neutrons (both having the same energy)? 2

1 Reaction (collision) Rate

= (n1v + n2 v ) = nv =

F = I1 N + I 2 N = (I1 + I 2 ) =

Neutron flux for monoenergetic neutrons:

= nv

Alternative Interpretation of the Neutron Flux for Monoenergetic Neutrons Consider a small sphere at the intersection of two beams of same-energy monoenergetic neutrons. The situation is similar to having one nucleus bombarded by two neutron beams. Cross sectional area of sphere:

The number of neutrons crossing the sphere per second equals the reaction rate for the sphere, due to both beams (which is the sum of the reaction rates due to each beam).

Alternative Interpretation of the Neutron Flux for Monoenergetic Neutrons

= (n1v + n2 v ) r = nv r = r
2 2

Rcross = R1 + R2 = I1 r 2 + I 2 r 2 = (I1 + I 2 ) r 2 =
2

It follows that:

Rcross = r 2
So the flux can also be interpreted as the number of neutrons that cross a sphere per unit time, divided by the cross (r 2 ). sectional area of the sphere

Neutron flux for monoenergetic neutrons For the situation of more than two beams, all of the same energy, the definition of the flux is the same:

= nv

where n is the total neutron density due to all the beams. The flux can still be interpreted as the number of neutrons crossing a small sphere, divided by the cross section area of the sphere.

Macroscopic Cross Sections for Mixtures Consider a mixture of nuclei with number densities Ni. The volumetric reaction rate density for each nucleus type i is:

Fi = i N i = i
The total reaction rate density is:

F = Fi = i N i = i N i =
i i i

= i =
i

Macroscopic Cross Sections for Mixtures The total macroscopic cross section equals the sum of the (partial) macroscopic cross sections for each nucleus species

= i = N i i
i i

F =

Neutron Intensity, Flux, Current and their Applications

Single Beam Consider a beam of monoenergetic neutrons

The intensity is given by:

I = nv

The flux is a scalar quantity given by

= nv
J = nv

The current is a vectorial quantity given by:

Two intersecting beams of different-energy neutrons

Neutron Flux

= n1 v1 + n 2 v 2 = 1 + 2
J = n1 v1 + n 2 v 2 = J1 + J 2

Neutron Current

For many intersecting beams:

= ni vi = i
i i

J = ni vi = J i
i i

Usefulness of Neutron Flux Consider a small sample of material placed at the intersection of several beams of neutrons. The total collision density in the sample is equal to the sum of the collision densities due to the neutrons in each beam.

F = Fi
i

We rewrite the expression for the total collision density

F = Fi = i =
i i

= i =
i

Where So:

= i
i

F =

Regardless of how many beams we have (one or more).

Usefulness of Neutron Current Consider a monoenergetic neutron beam that intersects a plane surface.

We want to determine the rate at which neutrons cross this surface. Per unit area.

N R= St
Where

is the number of neutrons crossing the plate at time

through surface area S.

Before (t=0)
S

After ( t elapsed) (t=t)

V = Sh

vt h = vt cos

n
h

is the unit vector normal to S.

h = hn

V = Sv t cos

The rate at which neutrons cross the surface in t is given by the neutrons in the marked region.

N nV nS vt cos = = R= = St St St = nv cos = nvn = ( nv) n = Jn

Multiple Beams The number of neutrons crossing the surface per unit time per unit area is the sum of the neutrons in each beam that cross the surface per unit time per unit area.

R = Ri = J i n =
i i

= J i n = Jn i

Polyenergetic Neutrons Consider now a parallel beam that has neutrons of different energies (speeds).
n=dn/dE Dark Grey Area= Neutrons with Energy Between E and E + dE

n ( E ) = n ( E ) dE
0

Light Grey Area= Neutrons with Energy Between E1 and E2

d n( E ) n( E ) = dE
E

E1 dE E2

(volumetric) density of neutrons with energy less or equal to E.

n(E )
Neutron density spectrum

d n( E ) n( E ) = dE
(volumetric) density of neutrons with energy between E and E+dE.

d n = n( E )dE

Beam intensity for neutrons with energy between E and E+dE

d I ( E ) = d n( E ) v(E) = n( E ) v( E )dE
The above is the same as eq. 3.36 in the textbook but the textbook does not use the underline. Energy-dependent beam intensity (Beam Intensity Spectrum)

d I (E) I (E) = = n( E ) v( E ) dE
Energy-dependent Flux (Flux spectrum)

( E ) = n( E ) v( E )

Energy Dependent Current (Current Spectrum)

J ( E ) = n( E ) v( E )
Where n (number of neutrons with energy between E and E+dE, divided by dE) per unit volume. Total Reaction Rate for Reaction x
Rx = n( E ) v( E ) x ( E )dE = ( E ) x ( E )dE
0

Subscript x can stand for total collisions, or just absorption, or elastic scattering, etc.

Attenuation of a Neutron Beam from a Neutron Balance Perspective

Neutron Attenuation Revisited Parallel beam of monoenergetic neutrons For such a beam

I J
S

dx x

dx x
Neutron balance in the volume of thickness dx

J ( x ) S J ( x + dx ) S = ( x ) ( x ) Sdx
neutrons entering the volume neutrons exiting the volume neutrons colliding (reacting) in the volume

The neutron balance equation can be rewritten:

I ( x ) S I ( x + dx ) S = ( x ) I ( x ) Sdx
Dividing by Sdx on both sides we obtain

I ( x ) I ( x + dx ) = ( x) I ( x) dx

Equivalent to:

dI ( x ) dI ( x ) = ( x) I ( x) = ( x) I ( x) dx dx
If the macroscopic cross section is constant, then:

dI ( x ) = I ( x ) dx
Which can be integrated to obtain:

I ( x ) = I (0)e

Exactly what we obtained before using a different kind of reasoning. Moral: If assumptions are right and reasoning correct, the results are the same regardless of the method used.

Mean Free Path Neutrons that react (collide) between x and x+dx have had a "free path" of length x. To find the mean free path, we need to average over all the neutrons that interact from x=0 to x=.

xI ( x)dx xI (0)e
0

dx =

I ( x)dx
0 x

I (0)e
0 x

dx

I (0) xe I (0) e
0 0

dx =

xe
0

dx

dx

e
0

dx

The numerator is integrated by parts to give

xe
0

e dx = x 0
x

dx =
x

'

e = x e = 2
(Since
x

e 0 0

dx =

1 = 2 0

lim( xex ) = 0 ) x

The denominator integrates as:

e
0

e dx =

1 = 0

It follows that:

1 2 =1 = 1

Fission

Fission
1 0

~ 1n + 0e + n+ X A+ B + 0 ~ 1
AX ZX AA ZA AB ZB

~ = 2, 3, 4, 5 on average 2.5

A & B = Fission Products (Fission Fragments)

Conservation Laws Number of nucleons

~ AX + An = AA + AB +
~ AX + 1 = AA + AB +
Charge

~ Z X = Z A + ZB

Energy

c [M (n) + M ( X )] = c [M ( A) + M ( B)] + ~c 2 M (n) + c 2 M (e) + E ~ +

2 2

M is the relativistic mass

Using the rest mass and kinetic energy E, we have:

c [M 0 (n) + M 0 ( X )] + En =
2

= c [M 0 ( A) + M 0 ( B)] + ~c 2 M (n) + c 2 M (e) + ~ +

2 0 0

+ E + E A + EB + E~n + Ee ~
M0 is the rest mass

The above can be rewritten using the Q:

c [M 0 (n) + M 0 ( X )] + En =
2 2

= c [M 0 ( A) + M 0 ( B)] + ~c 2 M (n) + c 2 M (e) + Q + E ~ +

0 0

For fission, Q is approximately 200 MeV

Distribution of Energy From Fission

Carrier Fission Fragments Beta Gamma neutrinos neutrons Total

Energy (MeV) 168 8 14 12 5 207

Most energy is taken by fission fragments and deposited locally.

Fission Mechanism (simplified)

In reality, fission occurs through a compound nucleus which, in turn, can decay very rapidly in several different ways.
1 0

n+ ZAXX X AXZ+1X X
(mode 1 - prompt ) (mode 2 - prompt n)

AX +1 ZX

A'+ B'+ X ~ A'+ B'+ p n

(fast)

p = 23

Both A' and B' can be stable or further decay in several possible modes:

A ( A' was stable) (delayed ) A + 0 (mode 3) A+ 1 HE A' 0 (mode 4) A' '+ 1 LE (fast) A+ n (delayed neutron)
If A' decays according to mode 4, it is called a precursor. There are six possible types of precursor, and six possible values for A'' is then called an emitter.

We cannot predict in advance which nuclei will be precursors, but we can predict, on the average how many will do so. This number is equal to the number of delayed neutrons emitted, called the delayed neutron yield.

# of delayed neutrons d = # of fissions

We cannot predict how many prompt neutrons will be emitted in each reaction either. But we can predict how many will be produced on the average. This is called the prompt neutron yield.

# of prompt neutrons p = # of fissions

On the average, the fission reaction can be written:

n + X A + B + p n p + d nd + e +
The total neutron yield is defined as:

= d + p
The delayed neutron fraction is:

2 .5

d =

Delayed Neutrons Are emitted by emitters which result from the beta decay of precursors. There are 6 precursor (delayed neutron) groups, based on their half-life.

d = d1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 + d 5 + d 6
d

Fission Products (Heavy Nuclei) Mass is distributed asymmetrically.

Energy Dependence of Fission Cross Section for 235U

10^-3
235

100

10^4

U is fissile, i.e. undergoes fission with near-zero energy neutrons with high probability.

lower energies

1 2

1 v

Energy Dependence of Fission Cross Section for 238U

U is fissionable, but not fissile, i.e. it can undergo fission, but with higher energy neutrons and with low probability.

238

Energy Spectrum of Fission Neutrons Energy Spectrum

n( E ) (E) = nt n( E )

n( E )dE
0

It follows that:

( E )dE =
0 0

n( E )

dE =

n( E )dE
0

n( E )dE
0

n( E )dE = 1
0

Energy Spectrum of Fission Neutrons Prompt-neutron spectrum (Eavg=2MeV)

Delayed-neutron energies are slightly lower.

Important Facts Fission neutron energies are much higher than thermal energies (0.025 eV), so they are not appropriate for efficient fission in fissile materials. To achieve fission efficiently, the neutrons need to be slowed down (their energy needs to be reduced). This process is called moderation. It is achieved by elastic collision with light nuclei (usually Hydrogen or Deuterium) Reactors that use thermal neutrons for fission are called Thermal Reactors. Special reactor designs can be conceived, where fast neutrons are used for fission. These are called Fast Reactors.

Fission-Related Parameters Capture-to-fission ratio

= f Number of neutrons released per absorbed neutron.

f = a

For mixtures of fissile and non-fissile elements:

1 = a

i i

fi

Nuclear Reactors The Basics

Nuclear Reactors Can be of two Types: Thermal - fissions induced by thermal (E<1eV) neutrons in fissile nuclei Fast - fissions induced by fast (E1MeV) in fissile/fissionable nuclei

Thermal Reactor Components Fuel - consists of nuclei that fission liberating energy Moderator - slows down fast neutrons resulting from fission to thermal energies so they can fission fuel nuclei Coolant - removes the heat The three can be: mixed together Homogeneous Reactor separated Heterogeneous Reactor Most reactors are heterogeneous.

Power Reactors Pressurized Water Reactors Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactors (CANDU) Gas-Cooled Reactors Other

CANDU Reactors Heterogeneous Fuel: Natural Uranium Oxide o (UO2 0.7% 235U, 99.3% 238U) Coolant: Heavy Water (D2O) Moderator: Heavy Water (D2O)

CANDU Reactor Schematic

CANDU Reactor - How it Works Fissions take place in the fuel Most energy from fissions is taken up by fission fragments which stop in less that one micron. In stopping, the fission fragments' kinetic energy becomes heat, which raises the fuel temperature. The fuel is cooled by the coolant, which takes the heat from the fuel to the steam generators. Neutrons are also produced from fission. Fission neutrons are slowed-down by elastic collisions in the moderator and, to a smaller extent, in coolant. Once they become thermal, neutrons can induce new fissions, keeping the chain reaction going.

CANDU Reactor - How it Works (cont.) Part of the neutrons get absorbed by radiative capture or "leak" out of the reactor. These do not induce fissions. On the average, only one neutron per each fission succeeds in inducing a new fission, so there is a uniform rate of fissions and not an avalanche of fissions.

The CANDU Power Plant

The CANDU Power Plant

The Nuclear Steam Supply System

CANDU Reactor Fuelling

Fuel Handling

Primary Heat Transport System

Steam Generator

Secondary Heat Transport System

Turbine and Generator

Containment Building

Plant Layout

Neutron Diffusion and Moderation

Nomenclature

General Nomenclature Consider a quantity, say the number of collisions Ncoll: Rate We call rate, the ratio between the amount of that quantity that is found or produced between time t and time t+dt and dt. (i.e. the collision rate is the ratio between the number of collisions that occur between t and t+dt divided by dt):
Rcoll = dN coll dt

Spectrum We call (energy) spectrum the ratio between the amount of that quantity that is found or produced between energy E and E+dE and dE (i.e. the collision spectrum is the ratio between the number of collisions suffered by neutrons with energies between E and E+de and dE ):
F (E) = dN coll dE

Density We call (volumetric) density, the ratio between the total quantity dQ existing or produced in volume dV and dV (i.e. the collision density is the ratio between the number of collisions suffered by neutrons in volume dV and dV )
F= dN coll dV

We can have names that imply double ratios, e.g. Collision density spectrum. - the ratio between the number of collisions suffered by neutrons in dV with energies between E and E+dE and dVdE
F (E) = dN coll dVdE

Collision density rate:

F= dN coll dVdt

Oftentimes, when talking about double ratios people omit to name one of them, so you must pay attention to the context. For example, one will often refer to the collision rate or collision density, when, in fact, meaning collision density rate. The same letter is sometimes used to denote different quantities.

Always look at the context.

Recapitulation of Important Concepts

Recapitulation of Important Concepts

Volumetric total reaction (collision) rate density for monoenergetic neutrons

F = t
or

F = t nv

Reaction rate for neutrons with energies between E and E+dE:

dF = ( E ) n( E )dE v(E)
(Total) Reaction rate for neutrons of all energies:

F = t ( E )n( E ) v(E)dE = t ( E ) ( E )dE

0 0

where

( E ) = n( E ) v(E)

Reaction Rates for Individual Reactions Scattering reaction rate density:

Fs = s ( E ) ( E )dE
0

Absorption reaction rate density (number of neutrons absorbed per cm3 per s):

Fa = a ( E ) ( E )dE
0

Neutron Diffusion

Ficks Law

Fick's Law (Diffusion Law) Will accept it without proof. Valid far from interfaces. Valid for materials with relatively low absorption. Gives the neutron current as a function of the neutron flux Assume monoenergetic neutrons Assume the flux only varies along the x axis:
d( x) J x = D dx

D = Diffusion Coefficient

In three dimensions (and monoenergetic neutrons):

J = Dgrad = D

Definition of gradient:
f dx f f ( x , y , z ) = dy f dz

Number of particles crossing a surface of orientation n per unit time per unit area (normal current):

Jn = J n
1 ( = ) D= 3 ,
tr
Transport mean free path
1 1 tr = = tr s (1 )

Average of the cosine of the scattering angle

= cos

Neutron

Nucleus

2 = 3A

Diffusion Equation

Neutron Balance Equation (equation of Continuity) for Monoenergetic Neutrons Expresses the conservation of neutrons

[Rate of change in the number of neutrons in a small volume dV ] = = [Rate of neutron production in volume dV ] [Rate of neutron absorption in volume dV ] [Rate of neutron leakage from dV ]

dV = dxdydz

Will follow a derivation slightly different from the one in the textbook. You are welcome to use the derivation in the book. Brush up on your vector calculus and Gauss' formula if you want to follow the derivation in the book.

Infinitesimal (i.e. very small) Volume

z
A' D' B' C'

y dz
D C

dV = dxdydz
dy

r = ( x, y , z )
A B

dx x

dx, dy, dz small-enough that:

( x, y, z ) ( x + dx, y, z ) J ( x, y, z ) J ( x + dx, y, z )

and similarly for y and z

Production
The number of neutrons being produced per unit time in volume dV. (Neutron Source)
z

Production Rate:

SdV
y dz

s ( cm 3 s 1 )

r = ( x, y , z )
dx

dy

Production Rate = SdV = Sdxdydz

Absorption
z

y dz

r = ( x, y , z )
dx

dy

Assume, dx, dy, dz are small enough that the flux varies negligibly inside our volume

Ra = a dV = a dxdydz

Leakage Through Face BCC'B'

z
A' D' B' C'

y dz
D C

r = ( x, y , z )
A B

dy

dx x

LK x +

dy dz = LK BCC 'B ' J x + dx, y + , z + u x dydz 2 2 LK x + = LK BCC 'B ' J x ( x + dx, y, z )dydz

Leakage Through Face ADD'A'

z
A' D' B' C'

y dz
D C

r = ( x, y , z )
A B

dy

dx x

LK x

dy dz = LK ADD' A' J x, y + , z + ( u x )dydz 2 2 LK x = LK ADD' A' J x ( x, y, z )dydz

Net Leakage Along X Axis

J x ( x + dx, y, z ) J x ( x, y, z )dydz
Let's remember that:

LK x = LK x + + LK x = LK BCC 'B ' + LK ADD' A'

J x ( x + dx, y, z ) J x ( x, y, z )dydz J x (x, y, z ) = dx x

Hence:

J x J x ( x + dx, y, z ) J x ( x, y, z )dydz = ( x, y, z )dx x

LK x J x ( x + dx, y, z ) J x (x, y, z )dydz = J x = ( x, y, z )dxdydz x

Total Leakage out of dV

LK = LK x + LK y + LK z = J y J x J z = ( x, y, z )dxdydz + ( x, y, z )dxdydz + ( x, y, z )dxdydz = x y z J x J y J z = dxdydz = divJ dxdydz = J dxdydz x + y + z x, y , z

Definition of divergence for a vector function f ( x, y , z ) :

f x f y f z divf f = dx + dy + dz

Rate of Change of Number of Neutrons in dV

# neutrons(t + dt )# neutrons(t ) n(t + dt )dV n(t )dV Rchange = = = dt dt n(t + dt ) n(t ) n dV = dxdydz = dt t

Neutron Balance Equation for dV

n dxdydz = sdxdydz a dxdydz Jdxdydz t

Dividing by the volume
dV = dxdydz

we obtain:

n = s a J t
Valid regardless of whether Fick's law holds true or not

Neutron Balance in the Diffusion Approximation Assume Fick's Law to be true:

J = D
Substitute into the neutron balance eq:

n = ( D ) a + s t
This is the time-dependent diffusion equation for monoenergetic neutrons. It is important because by solving it we find the flux and the flux allows us to calculate all reaction rates, including fission rate which is really what we are after, by using R = .

If the diffusion coefficient is constant:

n = D ( ) a + s t
Remember the definition of the Laplacian:

2 f 2 f 2 f f ( x, y, z ) 2 f = (f ) = 2 + 2 + 2 x y z
The diffusion eq. can then be rewritten:

n 2 = D a + s t

If we keep in mind that

n 1 d = nv n = = = v t t V V dt
We obtain:

1 2 = D a + s v t
Steady-State Situation (no time dependence)

D a + s = 0
2

Steady-State diffusion equation for monoenergetic neutrons and constant D

Dividing by D:

a s + =0 D D
2

Introducing notation (Diffusion Length):

D L = a
2

1 s + 2 = D L
2

Interface Conditions for the Diffusion equation: Continuity of flux:

A = B

Continuity of normal component of current J A = J B Vacuum Interface

(d ) = 0
Extrapolation distance

d = 0.71tr

d = 2.13 D
tr =
1 1 1 ; tr = s (1 ); D = tr 3 tr 3D tr

The Concept of Infinite Homogeneous Medium

Medium is the same at any point Hence, there is no reason why the flux would be different an any particular point

( x, y, z ) = = const
The current is given by Fick's Law
x 0 J = = = 0 = 0 y 0 z

The current is zero in an infinite homogeneous medium

a = S ; 2 = 0; = S a

The Concept of Homogeneous Half Space

x ( , ) y ( , ) z (a, )
In such a configuration, since for the same z all points are identical, there is no variation in the flux with x or y
2 2 = 0 + 0 + 2 ( x, y , z ) = ( z ) ; z

( z ) D a ( z ) + S ( z ) = 0 2 z
2

The Concept of Infinite Homogeneous Slab - finite in Z, but infinite in X and Y directions
X

(x, y, z)
Z Y a b

x ( ; ) z (a;b)

y ( ; )

Because there is no change in the material properties in either X or Y direction,

( x, y , z ) = ( z )

Energy-Dependent Diffusion

Differential Microscopic Scattering Cross Sections Beam of monoenergetic neutrons

I = nv ( E )

I n / cm2 / s

Scattering rate:

Rs = I s (E )

Equivalently, we can write (using only macroscopic quantities that can be measured):
Rs s (E) = I

By scattering, neutrons lose energy. Let dR s (E ) be the rate at which neutrons are scattered in energy range E', E'+dE' We have:

dR ( E ) = R
s 0

Definition of the differential scattering microscopic cross section

dRs ( E ) s ( E E ) IdE Equivalently, we can write: dRs ( E ) Rs Rs dRs ( E ) dRs ( E ) s ( E E ) = = s (E) IdE Rs I Rs dE Rs dE

Scattering Kernel

dRs ( E ) dP ( E , E ' ) = k ( E E ) = Rs dE dE

s ( E E ) = s k ( E E )
The scattering kernel can be interpreted as the probability density function for a neutron of energy E to be scattered such that its final energy is between E' and E'+dE'. The differential and total scattering cross section satisfy:

s ( E ) = s ( E E )dE
0

Differential Macroscopic Scattering Cross Sections

s ( E E ) = N s ( E E )
or, using the scattering kernel:

s ( E E) = N s ( E )k ( E E) = = s ( E )k ( E E)
Volumetric reaction rate at which neutrons scatter within energy range (E, E+dE)

Rs ( E E ' ) = I s ( E E)

Energy-Dependent Neutron Balance Equation

Balance Equation for Neutrons with Energy Between E and E+dE

[rate of change of number of neutrons in volume dV with energy within range (E, E+dE)] = [rate of production in volume dV of neutrons with energy within range (E, E+dE)] + [rate of scattering of neutrons in dV into energy range (E, E+dE)] [rate of absorption in dV of neutrons with energy in range (E, E+dE)] -[rate of scattering of neutrons in dV outside of energy range (E, E+dE)] [rate of leakage out of dV of neutrons with energy within range (E, E+dE)]

[rate of change of number of neutrons in volume dV with energy within range (E, E+dE)]
n( E , t + dt )dEdV n( E , t )dEdV = Rchange ( E ) = dt n( E ) n( E , t + dt ) n( E , t ) dEdV = dV = t dt

[rate of production in volume dV of neutrons with energy within range (E, E+dE)]

R p ( E ) = s ( E ) dEdV
s(E) = number of neutrons produced inside dV with energies between E and E+dE, divided by dEdV.

[rate of scattering of neutrons in dV into energy range (E, E+dE)]

Rate at which neutrons with energy within ( E ' ; E '+ dE ) scatter such that their energy is within ( E; E + dE )

Rs ( E ' E ) = ( E ' )dE ' s ( E ' E )dEdV

Rate at which all neutrons scatter such that their energy is within ( E; E + dE )

Rs ( E ) = ( E ' ) s ( E ' E )dE dEdV 0

[rate of absorption in dV of neutrons with energy in range (E, E+dE)]

Ra ( E ) = ( E ) dE a ( E ) dV = ( E ) a ( E )dEdV

[rate of scattering of neutrons in dV outside of energy range (E, E+dE)]

Rs ( E ) = ( E ) dE s ( E ) dV = ( E ) s ( E ) dEdV
Note that:

s ( E ) = s ( E E )dE
0

[rate of leakage out of dV of neutrons with energy within range (E, E+dE)]

LK ( E ) = J ( E ) dEdV

Balance Equation for Neutrons with Energy Between E and E+dE

R change ( E ) = R p ( E ) + R s ( E ) R a ( E ) R s ( E ) LK ( E )
n( E ) dEdV = s( E )dEdV + ( E ' ) s ( E ' E )dE dEdV t 0 ( E ) a ( E )dEdV ( E ) s ( E )dEdV J ( E )dEdV

Dividing by dEdV we obtain the energy-dependent neutron balance equation (continuity equation):

n( E ) = s( E ) + ( E ' ) s ( E ' E )dE t 0 ( E ) a ( E ) ( E ) s ( E ) J ( E )

We can show the dependence on time explicitly:

n( E , t ) = s( E , t ) + ( E ' , t ) s ( E ' E )dE t 0 ( E , t ) a ( E ) ( E , t ) s ( E ) J ( E , t )

Definition of energy-dependent flux:

( E ) ( E ) = n( E ) v(E) n( E ) = v(E)

Substituting the expression for the energy-dependent neutron density, we obtain:

1 ( E , t ) = s( E , t ) + ( E ' , t ) s ( E ' E )dE v( E ) t 0 ( E , t ) a ( E ) ( E , t ) s ( E ) J ( E , t )

Energy-Dependent Steady-State Neutron Balance Equation

0 = s( E , t ) + ( E ' , t ) s ( E ' E )dE

0

( E , t ) a ( E ) ( E , t ) s ( E ) J ( E , t )
Diffusion Approximation (use Fick's Law)

J ( E ) = D ( E ) ( E )

0 = s( E , t ) + ( E ' , t ) s ( E ' E )dE ( E , t ) a ( E ) ( E , t ) s ( E ) + (D( E )( E ) )

0

For position-independent diffusion coefficient:

0 = s( E , t ) + ( E ' , t ) s ( E ' E )dE

0

( E , t ) a ( E ) ( E , t ) s ( E ) + D( E ) 2 ( E )

Multigroup Formalism Approximate treatment of the energy-dependent diffusion equation.

Energy Groups Divide the energy domain

(0, E max )

into intervals called groups

EG=0

EG-1

..........

E1

E0

0 = EG < EG 1 ..... < E 2 < E1 < E0 = E max

Group neutron density
E g 1

ng

Eg

n( E )dE

(Energy) Group Flux

Eg 1

g
(E )

Eg

( E )dE

Eg

Eg-1

Can depend on parameters such as position and/or time

E g 1

g (r )

Eg

(r , E )dE

Group Current
E g 1

Jg

Eg

J ( E )dE

Can depend on parameters such as position and/or time

E g 1

J g (r )
Group Source

Eg

J (r , E )dE

Eg 1

sg =

Eg

s( E )dE

Group Reaction Rates Reaction Rate for a single Nucleus

E g 1 single Rg nucleus

Eg

R( E )dE = ( E ) ( E )dE
Eg

E g 1

Reaction Rate Density for a Material

E g 1

Rg

Eg

R( E )dE = ( E )( E )dE
Eg

E g 1

Can depend on parameters such as position and/or time

E g 1

Rg (r )

Eg

R(r , E )dE = (r , E )(r , E )dE

Eg

E g 1

Group Cross Sections Microscopic Group Cross Sections

E g 1

Eg

( E ) ( E )dE
E g 1 Eg

single Rg nucleus

( E )dE

Macroscopic Group Cross Sections

E g 1

Eg

( E )( E )dE
E g 1 Eg

Rg g

( E )dE

Inter-Group Scattering (Transfer) Cross Sections Microscopic

E g 1

g g =

Eg

E g 1 ( E ) s ( E E )dE dE Eg
E g 1

Eg

( E )dE

Macroscopic
E g 1

g g =

Eg

E g 1 ( E ) s ( E E )dE dE Eg
E g 1

g g

Eg

( E )dE

Intra-Group Scattering Cross Section Microscopic

E g 1

gg =

Eg

E g 1 ( E ) s ( E E )dE dE Eg
E g 1

Eg

( E )dE

Macroscopic
E g 1

gg =

Eg

E g 1 ( E ) s ( E E )dE dE Eg
E g 1

Eg

( E )dE

Multigroup Neutron balance Equation

[rate of change of number of neutrons in volume dV with energy within group g] = [rate of production in volume dV of neutrons with energy within group g] + [rate of scattering of neutrons in dV into energy group g] [rate of absorption in dV of neutrons with energy in group g] -[rate of scattering of neutrons in dV outside of energy group g] [rate of leakage out of dV of neutrons with energy within group g]

Multigroup Neutron balance Equation

G ng dV = sg dV + sg ' g g 'dV ag g dV sg g dV J g dV t g ' =1

Dividing by dV:
G ng = sg + sg ' g g ' ag g sg g J g t g ' =1

Multigroup Neutron balance Equation Multigroup Fick's Law:

J g = D g g

Multigroup Diffusion Equation

G ng = sg + sg ' g g ' ag g sg g + (Dg g ) t g ' =1

For constant diffusion coefficient:

G ng = sg + sg ' g g ' ag g sg g + Dg 2 g t g ' =1

Steady state (no time dependence)

Dg 2 g + ag g + sg g sg ' g g ' = s g
g '=1 G

Particular Cases of the Diffusion Equation

One-Group Diffusion Equation The entire energy range is included in just one group
E1=0 E0

Time-dependent:

n = S + s a s + D 2 t n 2 = S a + D one group D.E t

One-Group Diffusion Equation Steady State: The steady-state multigroup diffusion equation
Dg g sg ' g g ' + ag g +
2 g ' =1 g 1

g ' = g +1

sg g '

g = sg

becomes:
D1 21 + a11 = s1 We can drop the group index to obtain: D 2 + a = s

Two-group Diffusion Equation

E2=0

E1

E0

Group 1 (fast group):

g=1

n1 = S1 + s11 1 + s 21 2 a1 1 s1 1 + D1 21 t Where s1 = s12 + s11

n1 = S1 + s11 1 + s 21 2 a1 1 s12 1 s11 1 + D1 21 t n1 = S1 a1 1 s12 1 + D1 21 t

Group 2 (Slow, thermal)

n2 = S 2 + s12 1 + s 22 2 a 2 2 s 2 2 + D2 2 2 t Where s 2 = s 21 + s 22

n2 2 = S2 + s12 1 + s22 2 a2 2 s21 2 s22 2 + D2 t

n2 = S 2 + s12 1 a 2 2 + D2 2 2 t

Two-group diffusion equation

n1 = S1 a1 1 s12 1 + D1 21 t n2 = S 2 + s12 1 a 2 2 + D2 2 2 t

a1 + s12 = r

(Removal cross section)

Two-group diffusion equation Steady state

n =0 t

D1 2 1 + r1 1 = S1 2 D2 2 + a2 2 = S 2 + s12 1

Two-Group Diffusion Equation We could have started directly with the steady-state multigroup diffusion equation
Dg 2 g sg ' g g ' + ag g +
g ' =1 g 1 g ' = g +1

sg g '

g = sg

Group 1 (fast):
D1 21 + a11 + s1 21 = s1 Group 2 (slow, thermal): D2 2 2 s1 21 + a 2 2 = s2

Two-group diffusion equations: D1 21 + a11 + s1 21 = s1

D2 2 2 s1 21 + a 2 2 = s2

Solving the Diffusion Equation for Simple Cases

One Group, Infinite Homogeneous Medium, Uniformly Distributed Source

D 2(r ) + a (r ) = s

Infinite, homogeneous medium

(r ) = = ct

2 = 0

The equation becomes:

a = s

Solving for the flux, we obtain:

s = a (constant)

Two Groups, Infinite Homogeneous Medium, Uniformly Distributed Source

D1 21 + a11 + s1 21 = s1 D2 2 2 s1 21 + a 2 2 = s2

For an infinite and homogeneous medium with uniformlydistributed source:

1 (r ) = 1 = ct 2 (r ) = 2 = ct

21 = 0

2 2 = 0

The two-group equations become:

a11 + s1 21 = s1 s1 21 + a 2 2 = s2

The first equation can be easily solved to yield:

s1 s1 1 = = a1 + s1 2 r
r = removal cross section

The second equation can be rewritten as:

a 2 2 = s2 + s1 21 s1 21 = qT = slowing down density

Using the expression found for the fast flux, we have:

s1 a 2 2 = s2 + s1 2 r

The thermal flux is hence:

s1 s2 + s1 2 r 2 = a 2

If there is no external thermal source (s simplifies to:

= 0) ,

then the solution

s1 2 = s1 2 r a 2

One-group diffusion equation for a semi-infinite medium (half space)

Surface Source
Y

Medium

( x, y , z ) = ( z )
d 2 D 2 + a = 0 dz

Assume no volume sources

d 2 a 2 + =0 dz D D 2 L = Diffusion Length a d 2 a 2 + 2 =0 dz L

Characteristic Equation
1 r + 2 =0 L 1 2 r = 2 L 1 r= L
2

General solution is

ae + be
Finding the constant b:

z L

z L

be

z L

Consider an infinite parallelipiped of cross section area A and extending from zero to infinity in the z direction :
a 0

A=a2

Express the equality between total absorption in the parallelipiped and the source of neutrons coming in from the boundary source Sb at Z=0. Absorption rate from 0 to in a prism of cross-section area A

a ( z )dz A 0
Source rate

Sb A

Equality between source and absorption:

Sb A = a (z )dz A 0 Sb = a (z )dz = abe dz = ab e dz

0 0 0 z L Le + Le = L e dz = Le = lim z 0 0 0 Sb Sb = a bL b = a L z L z L z L z L

Hence:

Sb e (z ) = a L
Units:

z L

n [S ] = cm 2 s = n [] = [][L] 1 cm cm 2 s cm

One Group Diffusion for an Infinite Planar Source Situated in an Infinite Homogeneous Medium at x=0
S (n/cm2/s

Equivalent to two half-spaces (left and right)

D 2( x, y, z ) + a ( x, y, z ) = 0 for x 0

Because of the planar (y-z) symmetry, = (x) The equation becomes:

2( x) D 2 + a ( x) = 0 ( x)

Using the diffusion length notation:

d 2 1 2 = 0, 2 dx L x0

This is a homogeneous second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients. The general solution is of the type:

( x) = Ae

x L

+ Ce

x L

Because the flux needs to be finite, we have C=0. Hence:

( x) = Ae

The current is:

d x L D x L J ( x) = D Ae = A e dx L
To find A, we use the boundary condition:

lim x+0

S J ( x) = 2

The initial condition yields:

D 0L s D s sL J ( x) = A e = A = A = L 2 L 2 2D
The flux for x>0 is hence:

SL x L = e 2D
Analogously, the flux for x<0 is:

SL x L = e 2D

One Group Diffusion for a Point Source Situated in an Infinite Homogeneous Medium Use spherical coordinates with the source placed at the center
d 3 r = dV = r 2 dr sin dd dA = r 2 sin dd = r 2 d

r r

dr

Z
d = dA r2

rd

r sin d
d

Because the problem is symmetrical with respect to both and (spherical symmetry), the flux will only depend on r.

( x, y, z ) (r , , )

= (r )
Expression of Laplacian in spherical coordinates for a function with spherical symmetry, f(r).

1 d 2 df f (r ) = 2 r r dr dr
2

The diffusion equation becomes:

1 d 2 d 1 r 2 =0 2 r dr dr L
This is a homogeneous second order differential equation with constant coefficients. The boundary condition is
S J 4 = S J = 4
2 2

lim r 0

S r J (r ) = 4
2

Rate at which neutrons exit a very small sphere of radius , surrounding the origin: S = J 4 2 This is equal to the rate at which neutrons are produced, because is so small that absorption in this very small sphere can be ignored.

To solve the equation, we make the substitution:

w w = r = r
The equation becomes:

1 d 2 d w 1 w r dr r L2 r = 0 2 r dr
which yields:

d 2w 1 2 w=0 2 dr L
Ae w = Ae ; = r
r L r L

Solution is:

Following a similar treatment as for the plane source, we find:

S e = 4D r
r L

One Group Diffusion for a Bare Slab with an Infinite Planar Source Situated in the Middle

S (n/cm2/s)

-a

The problem is symmetric with respect to the source and also has planar symmetry
= (x)

Diffusion equation:
d 2 1 2 = 0, 2 dx L x0

Will treat the right half. This is a homogeneous second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients. The general solution is of the type:

( x) = Ae

x L

+ Ce

x L

The left boundary condition is, just as before:

lim x+0
yielding:

S J ( x) = 2
x L x =0

D J ( x) = Ae L

x L

D + Ce L

D S D = A+ C = 2 L L

The right boundary condition is now a vacuum boundary condition, that is the flux vanishes at the extrapolated boundary.
S (n/cm2/s

-(a+d)

(a+d)

~ (a ) = 0

where

~ a = a+d

The above yields:

~ (a ) = Ae

~ a L

+ Ce = 0

~ a L

We obtain A and C by solving the system:

D S D A+ C = L L 2 ~ (a ) = Ae
~ a L

+ Ce = 0

~ a L

The final solution is:

SL e e ( x) = ~ 2a 2D L 1+ e
x L ~ x 2a L

Neutron Moderation (two group treatment) Two-group diffusion Assume

a = 0

(good moderator)
D1 21 + s1 21 = 0

D2 2 2 s1 21 + a 2 2 = 0

The two equations can be rearranged to:

D1 21 + s1 21 = 0 D2 2 2 + a 2 2 = s1 21

We make the following notations: D1 = T = age s12 D2 = L2 = thermal diffusion area T a2

LT = thermal diffusion lenght With the new notations, the equations are written:

1 +
2 2

1 = 0

D1 1 2 + 2 2 = 1 LT D2 T These can be solved for different configurations.

Nuclear Reactor Theory

Multiplication Constant

Preliminaries - Neutron Fluence Neutron fluence is defined as the time integral of the flux

= (t )dt
t1

t2

Where units for are

n cm 2

and units for

n are cm 2 s

Fission Chain Reaction

142 235 92

Xe

n n

Kr

n n

92

Sr Kr Ba
n n

235 92

Kr
n n n

U
141

92

Ba

235

U
141

235

90

Rb
n
235

90

Rb Cs Xe

n n

141

Ba

U
144

235

U
n
144

Cs

235

142

n n

92

Sr

Each fission produces 2-3 more neutrons which can, in principle, induce new fissions in avalanche. This is not desirable. However, not all neutrons resulting from fission induce new fissions. Some undergo gamma capture. If two few neutrons (less than one per fission) induce new fissions the fission reaction dies down. Not desirable either. The trick is to only allow one of the secondary neutrons to induce a new fission and thus have a fission rate that is constant in time. A reactor operating at a constant fission rate is said to be critical.

Multiplicative medium ( f > 0 ).

Infinite Homogeneous Reactor (One-Group Diffusion Approximation)

Non-Multiplicative medium ( f = 0 ). The steady-state diffusion equation is written:

D 2 + a = S
The source now consists of fission neutrons:

S = f

So the equation becomes: D 2 + a = f

The flux is constant in space because the medium is infinite and homogeneous, so the equation becomes.
a = f

It is obvious that the above cannot be satisfied, unless

a = f

If that is not the case, then the source is artificially divided by a factor k, just to balance the equation.
1 a = f k

k is called the multiplication constant (factor). For an infinite medium, it is called the infinite multiplication constant and denoted by k. It is obvious that, for the one-group homogeneous reactor case: f
k = a

It is also obvious that the value of the flux cannot be determined because once the appropriate k is used, any value of the flux will satisfy the balance equation. 1 1 a = f a = f f k a

Interpretation of k Since the balance equation is written:

1 a = f k

We have:
k =

f
a

production rate loss rate

So k can be interpreted as the ratio of the neutron production rate and the neutron loss rate.

The name "multiplication factor" is used because k represents the ratio between the neutron density for one generation of neutrons, divided by the neutron density for the previous generation. This needs some explaining. Consider a bare infinite homogeneous reactor. Initially there are no neutrons present. Now, assume some neutrons, with density n0 are introduced in the reactor. Let's call these "generation 0" neutrons. These neutrons will fly around, producing a flux 0 (t ) = n0 (t ) v which will decrease as the neutrons are absorbed, until all neutrons are eventually absorbed.

The time dependence of the zero-generation neutrons looks something like this:
n

The flux, has a similar shape

As these zeroth-generation neutrons are absorbed, some of them produce fissions. We consider the neutrons born out of these fissions first generation neutrons. They are produced at a rate:

f 0 (t )
and are absorbed at a rate

a1 (t )

Overall, the number of first-generation neutrons that are produced per unit volume is:

n1 = f 0 (t )dt = f 0 (t )dt = f 0
0 0

The total number of absorptions of first-generation neutrons is:

(t )dt = (t )dt =
a 1 a 1 a 0 0

Since, in the end, all first-generation neutrons get absorbed, we have:

a 1 = f 0
which yields:

1 =

f
a

0 = k 0

The first-generation neutrons, in turn, produce second generation neutrons. Their number is:

n2 = f 1 = f k 0 = k n1

The process continues:

n3 = k n2
and so on. The number of neutrons in each generation is equal to the number in the previous generation multiplied by k. Hence the name multiplication factor.

Infinite Homogeneous Reactor (Two-Group Diffusion Approximation) Diffusion equations:

D1 21 + a11 + s1 21 = f 11 + f 2 2
D2 2 2 s1 21 + a 2 2 = 0

Because the reactor is infinite and the flux (both fast and thermal) is constant in space, we have:
a11 + s1 21 = f 11 + f 2 2
s1 21 + a 2 2 = 0

Attempt to solve the system: Group 2 equation yields:

s1 2 2 = 1 a2

Substituting into the group 1 equation, we obtain:

s1 2 a11 + s1 21 = f 11 + f 2 1 a 2

Obviously, the above is only satisfied if:

a1 + s12 s12 = f 1 + f 2 a2 1 k

which may not always be the case. This means that unless the above is satisfied, we cannot have a steady-state solution to our diffusion equations. To force the system of equations to have a (steady-state) solution, we resort to the same trick as before: use a "fudge factor" 1/k that multiplies fission productions.

Thus, our equations become:

1 a11 + s1 21 = ( f 11 + f 2 2 ) k s1 21 + a 2 2 = 0

s1 2 2 = 1 And, by substituting into the fast-group a2 equation, we obtain:

1 s1 2 a11 + s1 21 = f 11 + f 2 1 k a 2

Dividing by the flux, we obtain:

a1 + s1 2 1 = k s1 2 f 1 + f 2 a2

We can now solve for k .

f 1 + f 2
k =

s1 2 a2

a1 + s1 2

Choosing k to have the above value ensures the system admits a solution. That solution is s12 2 = 1 a2 We cannot find the fast flux explicitly.

A close look at the system of equations

1 a11 + s1 21 = ( f 11 + f 2 2 ) k s1 21 + a 2 2 = 0

reveals that it is a homogeneous system of linear equations which defines an eigenvalue/eigenvector problem. The eigenvalue is 1/k and, as expected, the eigenvector can only be determined up to a multiplicative constant which, in our solution, is 1 .

k can, in the two-group case be interpreted in three different ways: 1. the eigenvalue that allows the system of equations to have a solution 2. the ratio of productions over losses 3. the factor by which the number of neutrons gets multiplied from one generation to the next

Criticality
K<1 - Subcritical Number of neutrons decreases form one generation to the next Rate of neutron production smaller than rate of neutron loss K=1 - Critical Number of neutrons stays constant form one generation to the next Rate of neutron production equals rate of neutron loss K>1 - Supercritical Number of neutrons increases form one generation to the next Rate of neutron production larger than rate of neutron loss

Neutron Life Cycle, Four Factor Formula, Six Factor Formula

The Four-Factor Formula Let us look at the group 1 equation in the two-group approximation.
1 a11 + s1 21 = ( f 11 + f 2 2 ) k

Solving for the multiplication factor, we obtain:

k =

f 11 + f 2 2
a11 + s1 21

The above can be processed as follows:

f 11 + f 2 2 f 2 2 k = = = a11 + s1 21 a11 + s1 21 f 2 2 f 11 + f 2 2 f 2 2 = f 2 2 a11 + s1 21

By making the notation:

f 11 + f 2 2

f 11 + f 2 2 = f 2 2

We obtain:
k =

f 2 2
a11 + s1 21

We can continue the processing:

f 2 2 a 2 2 a 2 2 k = = a11 + s1 21 a 2 2 a11 + s1 21 a 2 2
Denoting:
a 2 2 p= a11 + s1 21

f 2 2

We have:
k = p

f 2 2
a 2 2

We can, moreover divide the thermal absorption cross section into the absorption cross section for fuel, and the one for moderator.

a 2 = fuel + moderator a2 a2

With this, we can rewrite the formula for the multiplication factor as follows:
fuel 2 f 2 2 = p a 2 k = p a 2 2 fuel 2 a 2 2 fuel 2 a2 a2

f 2 2 fuel 2 a2

Denoting:
fuel 2 f = a2 a 2 2

and

f 2 2
fuel 2 a2

We obtain:

k = pf

This is known as the four factor formula.

The names and interpretation of the factors are as follows: Fast fission factor

f 11 + f 2 2 total fission rate = = f 2 2 thermal fission rate

Resonance escape probability
a 2 2 s1 2 2 = p= a11 + s1 21 a11 + s1 21 rate of slowing down = rate of slowing down + absorptions

Thermal utilization factor

fuel 2 rate of thermal absorption in fuel = f = a2 total rate of thermal absorption s a2 2

(number of neutrons produced per neutron absorbed in fuel)

f 2 2
fuel 2 a2

rate of neutron production through thermal fission = rate of thermal absorption

Six Factor Formula For a finite reactor, in addition to the processes we studied above, fast neutrons, as well as thermal neutrons can leak out of the reactor. We define the following two factors to account for the leakage:

f = fast non - leakage probabilit y t = thermal non - leakage probabilit y

Our expression for k then becomes the six-factor formula:

k eff = pf f t

One-Group Treatment of Finite Reactors

Diffusion Equation

1 D a + v f = 0 k
2

1 1 + a + f = 0 D k
2

Notation: (B2 is called Buckling)

1 1 B = a + f D k
2

The equation can be rewritten:

2 + B 2 = 0
B depends on k. It turns out that B cannot take just any value. It has to be equal to the value imposed by the geometry, called the geometrical buckling.

B =B
2

2 g

Then:

1 1 2 a + f = Bg D k
offers an equation for k.

k=
2 Bg D is the leakage. Where

f
2 Bg D + a

Things will become clearer by showing an example.

Infinite Slab Reactor

-(a/2+d)

(a/2+d)
X

~ a ( ) = 0 2

where

~ a = a + 2d

We then have:
d 2 + B 2 = 0 dx 2

Boundary conditions:
~ ~ a a = =0 2 2

The symmetry of problem implies:

d dx

=0
x =0

General Solution:

( x) = A cos Bx + C sin Bx
d ( x) = [ AB sin Bx + CB cos Bx] = dx x =0 = CB = 0 C = 0
Hence:

( x) = A cos Bx

Vacuum B.C.

~ ~ a Ba = A cos =0 2 2

Implies:

~ Ba = + k 2 2 ~ Ba = + 2k = (2k + 1) = n
Yields:

~ Ba cos =0 2

n Bn = ~ a ;

B1 = ~ a

Fundamental solution

x ( x) = A cos B1 x = A cos ~ a
B1 is the geometrical buckling A cannot be determined from the diffusion equation. It can be determined from the condition on the reactor power.
a

P = ER f

( x)dx
2

~E A sin a 2a R f ~ 2a P=

x cos ( x) = 2aER f a

k=

f
B D + a
2 g

f
~ D + a a
2

Spherical Reactor
Z

w = r (change of variable)

d 2w 2 +B w=0 2 dr w(r ) = A sin Br + C cos Br w (r ) = r

We have, in sequence:

1 d 2 d + B 2 = 0 r 2 r dr dr

sin Br cos Br =A +C r r
Because the flux has to be finite at r=0, we have:

C=0

sin Br =A r

B.C.

~ R =0 ~ R = R+d

()

=A

B = ~ R sin r ~
2 2 1

The total power can be used to find A.

P = E R f (r )dV

dV = 4r 2 dr

sin r ~ P R = r 4E R f R 2

Infinite Cylinder
Z

z
X

Cylindrical coordinates

We have in sequence:

1 d d r + B 2 = 0 r dr dr
d 2 1 d + + B 2 = 0 dr 2 r dr
Bessels Equation:

d 2 1 d 2 m 2 + + B 2 = 0 2 r dr dr r
Our equation is Bessels equation for m=0.

Solution: Bessel functions of first and second kind:

= AJ 0 ( Br ) + CY0 ( Br )
J Bessel Function Y- Modified Bessel Function
Y0(x) x

= AJ 0 ( Br )

Y0 infinite at origin hence C=0

B.C.

~ ~ ( R ) = AJ 0 ( BR ) = 0
J0(x)

x x1

~ R

Final Solution

x1 ~ BR = x1 B = ~ R
x1 2.405 B = ~ = ~ R R
2 1 2 2

2.405r = AJ 0 ~ R

Finite Cylinder
Z

d 2 1 2 + 2 + B 2 = 0 + r 2 r r z

B.C.

~ (R , z) = 0 ~ H (r , ) = 0 2
(r , z ) = R(r ) Z ( z )
Z =0 , r R =0 r

Separation of Variables

1 d R 2Z + R 2 + B 2 RZ = 0 Z r z r r r 1 1 d R 1 2 Z r + = B2 R r r r Z z 2
1 1 d R r = Br2 ; R r r r
R = AJ 0 (Br r )
Z = A cos(Bz z )

1 2Z = Bz2 ; Z z 2

Solution:

z 2.405r (r , z ) = AJ 0 ~ cos ~ H R
(r , z ) = AJ 0 (Br r ) cos(Bz z )

Point Kinetics

Point Kinetics Equations part 1: all neutrons emitted in a fission are assumed prompt

Static One-energy-group diffusion equation time-dependent diffusion (results from neutron balance)

n(r , t ) = f (r , t ) + D 2 (r , t ) a (r , t ) t

If sources are exactly equal to sinks, then the static equation results (no time dependence) 0 = f ( r ) + D 2 ( r ) a ( r ) D 2 ( r ) + a ( r ) = f ( r ) To keep the static form of the diffusion equation even when the sources do not exactly equal the sinks, we introduced K, (multiplication factor) to artificially adjust the sources.
1 1 0 = f (r ) + D 2 (r ) a (r ) D 2 (r ) + a (r ) = f (r ) k k

Time dependent one-energy-group diffusion equation Now, we will not use k any more, but rather concentrate on the time-dependent equation Time-dependent one-energy-group diffusion equation

n(r , t ) = f (r , t ) + D 2 (r , t ) a (r , t ) t
But lets remember:

= nv n = v
n 1 = t v t

so:

Time-dependence of the neutron flux and neutron density We can now write the time-dependent diffusion: in two separate ways concentrate on the flux

1 (r , t ) = f (r , t ) + D 2 (r , t ) a (r , t ) v t
concentrate on the neutron density
n(r , t ) = f vn(r , t ) + D 2 vn(r , t ) a vn(r , t ) t

Some assumptions Static one-energy-group diffusion equation for a critical reactor D 2 ( r ) + a ( r ) = f ( r ) It can be rewritten as:

2 ( r ) + B 2 ( r ) = 0
Where f a = B2 D Assume that the equation satisfied by the time-independent flux in a critical reactor is also satisfied, at any time t, by the timedependent flux in a non-critical reactor.

2 ( r ) + B 2 ( r ) = 0
2 ( r , t ) + B 2 ( r , t ) = 0 2 ( r , t ) = B 2 ( r , t ) This is equivalent to assuming that the spatial shape of the flux does not change with time

Back to the time-dependence of the neutron flux and neutron density

We can now write the time-dependent diffusion for the flux

1 (r , t ) = f (r , t ) DB 2 (r , t ) a (r , t ) v t

for the neutron density

n(r , t ) = f vn(r , t ) DB 2 vn(r , t ) a vn(r , t ) t

Time-dependence of the neutron density

n(r , t ) n(r , t ) 2 = f v DB v a v n(r , t ) = n ( r , t ) t t

where

= ( f DB a )v
2

n(r , t ) = n ( r , t ) t
Integrating over the entire reactor we obtain:

n(r , t ) 3 d r = n ( r , t ) d 3 r t V V
d n( r , t ) d 3 r = n( r , t ) d 3 r dt V V

d r = dV
3

Time-dependence of the total neutron population Total neutron population

n(t ) = n(r , t )d 3r
V

Equation governing the time behavior of the total neutron population

d n(t ) = n(t ) n(t ) = n(t ) dt

solution

n(t ) = n0 e

Time dependence of the neutron flux

1 (r , t ) = f (r , t ) DB 2 (r , t ) a (r , t ) v t
1 (r , t ) = f DB 2 a (r , t ) v t

(r , t ) (r , t ) 2 = f DB a v (r , t ) = ( r , t ) t t

 The results are analogous to those for the neutron density. Integrating over the volume of the reactor:

(r , t ) 3 d r = ( r , t ) d 3 r t V V
d (r , t )d 3r = (r , t )d 3r dt V V

d (t ) = (t ) (t ) = (t ) (t ) = 0 et dt where:
(t ) = (r , t )d 3r
V

is the volume-integrated flux

Observations The total neutron population and the volume integrated flux obey the same equation. The relation between the volume integrated flux and the total neutron population is the same as that between the flux and neutron density.

( r , t ) = n( r , t ) v
(r , t )d r = v n(r , t )d r (t ) = n(t ) v
3 3 V

Point Kinetics Equation without Delayed Neutrons Just a special way of arranging the coefficients. Usually written for the neutron population, but similar equation can be written for the volume-integrated flux. Multiplication constant f
keff = a + DB 2

Reactivity

k 1 1 = =1 k k
f DB 2 a = = ( f DB 2 a )v = f v f
f DB 2 + a f v f f = f v 1 1 k eff = f v

we can write:

 Notation:

1 = f v
It follows that:

The equation for the neutron population can then be written

dn(t ) = n(t ) = Point kinetics eq. w/o delayed neutrons dt

A similar equation can be written for the volume-integrated flux. d (t ) = (t )

dt

Alternative Processing Leading to the Point Kinetics Equation f DB 2 a = = ( f DB 2 a )v = (DB 2 + a )v 2

DB + a

f DB 2 + a = DB 2 + a v(k 1) DB 2 + a v DB 2 + DB 2 + a a

New notation

1 = 2 DB + a v

With the new notation the point kinetics eq. can be written (a less common form): dn(t ) k 1 = n(t ) dt and, for the volume-integrated flux: d (t ) k 1 = (t )
dt

Point kinetics equation(s) Nomenclature called point-kinetics because the reactor is reduced to a point no accounting for spatial or energy dependence. Can be derived starting from a more general, space and energy dependent, flux.

Names and interpretations of symbols Neutron generation time

1 = v f

Interpretations Average time between two neutron births in successive generations Time it would take to generate the current number of neutrons at the current generation rate. Average age of neutrons in the reactor. (Note that this is a time, and not the Fermi age).

 Neutron life time

1 1 = v a + DB 2
For an infinite reactor: 1 1 = v a Interpretations average time between the birth and death of a neutron Time necessary to lose all the neutrons in the reactor at the current loss rate. Average life expectancy for neutrons in the reactor.

Important Notes For a critical reactor the generation time and neutron lifetime are equal. For a supercritical reactor, the generation time is shorter that the neutron lifetime. Neutrons live longer than the time it takes a new generation to appear. The neutron population increases. For a subcritical reactor, the generation time is longer that the neutron lifetime. Neutrons live less than the time it takes a new generation to appear. The neutron population decreases.

Point Kinetics Equations part 2: Accounting for Delayed Neutrons

Point Kinetics with Only One Delayed Neutron Group (Equivalent to assuming that all precursors have the same half life) We make the same assumptions about the buckling staying constant as in the case with no delayed neutrons. We write directly the equation for the entire reactor (volumeintegrated quantities) Some neutrons are emitted directly from fission Some neutrons come from the decay of precursors.

Neutron Balance Equation for the Entire Reactor Sources Prompt neutrons from fission
V

p f (r )d 3r = p f (r )d 3r = p f = ( d ) f = (1 ) f
V

Delayed neutrons from the decay of precursors

C
V

(C = total number of precursors in the reactor)

C (t ) = C (r , t )d 3 r

Sinks Absorption
V

a (r )d 3r = a (r )d 3r = a
V

Leakage
V

DB 2(r )d 3r = DB 2 (r )d 3r = DB 2
V

Precursor Balance Equation for the Entire Reactor Source

V

d f (r )d 3r = d f (r )d 3r = d f = f
V

Sink

C
Neutron and Precursor balance Equations Neutron Balance
dn(t ) = p f a DB 2 + C dt

Precursor Balance
dC (t ) = d f C (t ) dt

We now have a system of two (coupled) differential equations.

Point Kinetics Equations with One Group of Delayed Neutrons Rearrange the first equation in a few steps

dn(t ) 2 = (1 ) f a DB + C dt
1 f a DB 2 dn(t ) = f + C dt f
f a DB 2 f dn(t ) = v f f f dt + C v

[(

dn(t ) = v f dt

a + DB 2 + C 1 f v

 Rearrange the second equation

d C (t ) = d f C (t ) dt

dC (t ) = f C (t ) dt
dC (t ) = v f C ( t ) v dt

Make the same notations and observations as for the case with no delayed neutrons
= 1 f v

(t ) = n (t ) v n (t ) =
f

(t ) v

1 a + DB 2 k= = 2 k f a + DB

a + DB 2 1 = 1 = 1 k f

 Neutron Balance Equation

a + DB 2 dn(t ) = v f 1 f dt + C v

dn(t ) = n(t ) + C dt

Precursor Balance Equation d C (t ) = v f C ( t ) dt v

dC (t ) = n(t ) C (t ) dt
Final form of kinetics equations using the neutron population dn(t ) = n(t ) + C
dt

dC (t ) = n(t ) C (t ) dt

 Final form of the point kinetics equations using the volumeintegrated flux (t ) (t ) = n ( t ) v n ( t ) = v
d (t ) d (t ) = (t ) + 1 C (t ) + v C = dt dt f

dC (t ) dC (t ) 1 = (t ) C (t ) = f (t ) C (t ) dt dt v

Point Kinetics Equations with Six Groups of Delayed Neutrons Equations using the neutron population (7 coupled differential equations) 6 dn (t ) = n(t ) + k C k dt k =1
dCk (t ) k = n(t ) k Ck (t ), k = 1...6 dt

Equations using the volume-integrated flux (7 coupled differential equations)

6 6 d (t ) d (t ) 1 (t ) + v k Ck (t ) + = = k Ck dt dt f k =1 k =1 dC k (t ) k 1 (t ) dC k (t ) = (t ) C (t ) = (t ) k Ck k f k k v dt dt

Inhour Equation

Inhour Equation Start with the point kinetics equation 6 dn (t ) = n(t ) + k C k dt k =1

d C k (t ) k = n(t ) k C k (t ), k = 1...6 dt

This is a system of seven coupled differential equations with constant coefficients.

net t c1e Solutions are of the form t c6 e

Substituting the above form we obtain:

n =

n + k ck
k =1

c k =

n k ck , k = 1...6

Solving for ck in the precursor equations, we obtain:

k ck = n, k = 1...6 ( + k ) 6 k = + k ( + k ) k =1

We can solve graphically for by plotting the RHS and intersecting it with a horizontal line at y=.
+

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

Reactor Period:

T=

max

Discussion If = 0

1 = 0 e 0 = 1 2 7 < 0 e ~ t

n(t ) after a long time n becomes constant

If < 0

n(t ) = a1 + a2 e

2t

+ = a1 + a2 e

~t

k < 0; k = 1,2, 7
n(t ) = a1e
~t

+ a2 e

~t

+ a3 e

~t

a7 e

~t

as t ; n(t ) 0

n(t)

t
7 ak (k 1 )t n(t ) = a1e 1 + e a1 k =2

1t

For large t

n(t ) a1e

1t

= a1e

t T

Asymptotic behavior of the neutron population. Here is where the reactor period comes in.

If

>0
1 > 0 k > 0 k = 1,2, 7

n(t ) = a1e

+ ~t

+ a2 e

~t

+ a3 e

~t

a7 e

~t

7 a2 (k 1 )t 1t n(t ) = a1e 1 + e k =2 a1

For large t

n(t ) a1e1t = a1e

T= 1

t T

1 The asymptotic behavior of the neutron population is governed by the reactor period.

Fission Product Poisoning

Fission Product Poisons Poisons are isotopes with large absorption cross sections for thermal neutrons Some poisons are introduced intentionally to control the reactor, such as B or Gd. Some poisons are produced as fission products during normal operation of the reactor. Xe and Sm are the most important of these We will only study Xe in detail

Effects of Poisons on Reactivity For a homogeneous reactor, in a one-energy-group formalism:

0 eff

f
a 0 + DB 2

If we add a poison (say Xe) with a uniform concentration (number density) X, we have:

aX = X aX
a = a 0 + aX

It follows that:
k eff =

f
a + DB
2

f
a 0 + aX + DB 2

The insertion of the poison induces a change in reactivity:

1 1 = 0 = k eff 1 1 k0 eff = 1 1 k0 k eff eff

If we assume the initial reactor to be critical ( 0 = 0) , then the reactivity of the reactor with poison is:

1 1 aX X aX a 0 + DB 2 a 0 + aX + DB 2 = = = 0 = = keff keff f f f f

In order to calculate the reactivity inserted by the poison, we need to be able to calculate the concentration of poison nuclei, X.

Effects of Non-Uniform Poison Concentration In the case of non-uniform poison concentration we need to apply the perturbation formula for reactivity:
= 1 1 =V k0 k
V

2 (r ) a (r )dV

V
V

2 (r ) aX (r )dV

=V

2 (r ) X (r ) aX dV 2 (r ) f (r )dV

2 (r ) f (r )dV

2 (r ) f (r )dV

It is easily seen that for a uniform distribution of poison, we recover:

= 1 1 = k0 k aX 2 (r )dV
V

f 2 (r )dV
V

aX f

Xe Production and Destruction

absorption of a neutron
135

, 1 / 2 11sec , 1 / 2 6 .7 , 1 / 2 9 .2 , 1 / 2 2.3 10 Te T= 135 I T=h 135 Xe T=h 135Cs T=xy 135 Ba ( stable )

fiss

fiss

fiss

Simplified Xe production/destruction
absorption of a neutron
135

I Xe 135Cs ( stable)
135

,T1 / 2 = 6.7 h

,T1 / 2 = 9.2 h

fiss

fiss

Finding the Xe Concentration To find the number density of Xe nuclei, we first write the balance equation for Iodine nuclei:
dI = I f I I dt

Where is called the fission product yield and equals the average number of I nuclides created per fission. Next, we write the balance equation for Xe nuclei
dX = I I + X f X X aX X dt

I Concentration for Equilibrium (Steady-State) Conditions

I f I = I

Xe Concentration for Equilibrium (Steady-State) Conditions

X =
X =

I I + f X + aX
( 1 + X ) f

X + aX

Note that both I and Xe concentrations depend on the flux level.

Xe Absorption Macroscopic Cross Section

aX = X aX = ( 1 + X ) f aX

X + aX

By making the notation:

X X = = 0.770 1013 cm 2 sec 1 aX

We can rewrite the Xe macroscopic cross section as:
aX = ( 1 + X ) f

X +

If Xe is Assumed Uniformly Distributed:

aX ( 1 + X ) 1 ( 1 + X ) f = = = f f X + X +

( + ) = 1 X

X +

For >> X we have:

For << X we have:

I +X
( 1 + X ) =
X

Xe After Shutdown-Reactor Dead Time Shutdown means = 0 Iodine

I (t ) = I 0 e
Xe

I t

X (t ) = X 0 e

X t

I I 0 + (e t e t ) 1 X
X I

If Xe is assumed to be uniformly distributed:

I 1 ( I + X ) X t xt I t + e (e e ) = X + I X

Where:
I = 1I = 1.055 1013 cm 2 sec 1 aX

Xe Oscillations

II

Normal flux shape I = II X I = X II

Tilted flux shape I > II X I > X II

Consequence of XI>XII
I

II

I < II => Over time : X I < X II

Consequence:
I

II

In CANDU Reactors the liquid zone controllers are used to dampen Xe oscillations.