Electrical Engineering Technology Lab Report Electrical Machines

Mireille Micallef (472890M)

Monday 15th December 2008

Mechanical Engineering

Johann Galea

AC Machine Asynchronous Induction Motor

Asynchronous induction motors are most commonly used for higher-powered motors. The phase differences between the phases of the three-phase electrical supply create a rotating electromagnetic field in the motor. The asynchronous induction motor does not have any direct supply onto the rotor; instead, a secondary current is induced in the rotor. To achieve this, stator windings are arranged around the rotor so that when a current is applied to it a rotating magnetic field pattern which sweeps past the rotor is created. This changing magnetic field pattern can induce currents in the rotor conductors. These currents interact with the rotating magnetic field created by the stator and the rotor will turn. Since the rotating magnetic field is constantly changing and reversing, the current induced in the conductors in the rotor also changes constantly, this current sets up a moving electromagnetic field that causes the rotor to turn in the direction the field is rotating. The rotor always rotates slightly behind the phase peak of the primary magnetic field of the stator and is thus always moving slower than the rotating magnetic field produced by the three-phase electrical supply, hence the name asynchronous induction motor (the speed of the motor does not follow the rotating magnetic flux which sets the speed of the stator). However, for these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor and the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator must be different, or else the magnetic field will not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will be induced. If by some chance this happens, the rotor typically slows slightly until a current is re-induced and then the rotor continues as before. This difference between the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called slip. It is unit-less and is the ratio between the relative speed of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor to the speed of the rotating stator field, thus the name asynchronous induction motor. Most current is needed when the motor is just starting so that the slip at this moment (which is at its maximum) can be overcome.

Standard induction motors can output up to about 500KW. This type of motor has been standardized so much that it has been made almost completely interchangeable between

manufacturers. Very large induction motors are capable of tens of thousands of KW in output, for pipeline compressors, wind-tunnel drivers and overland conveyor systems.

Disassembled 250W motor from a washing machine. The 12 stator windings are in the housing on the left. Next to it is the "squirrel cage" rotor on its shaft.

There are two types of rotors used in induction motors: squirrel cage rotors and wound rotors. Most common AC motors use the squirrel cage rotor, which will be found in virtually all domestic and light industrial asynchronous induction motors. The squirrel cage takes its name from its shape - a ring at either end of the rotor, with bars connecting the rings running the length of the rotor. It is typically cast aluminum or copper poured between the iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will be visible. The vast majority of the rotor currents will flow through the bars rather than the higher-resistance and usually varnished laminates. Very low voltages at very high currents are typical in the bars and end rings; high efficiency motors will often use cast copper in order to reduce the resistance in the rotor. In operation, the squirrel cage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating secondary. An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip rings on the shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to an external controller such as a variable resistor that allows changing the motor's slip rate. In certain highpower variable speed wound-rotor drives, the slip-frequency energy is captured, rectified and returned to the power supply through an inverter. Compared to squirrel cage rotors, wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the slip rings and brushes, but they were the standard form for variable speed control before compact power electronic devices were created. Transistorized inverters whose frequency can be varied can now be used to control speed, and wound rotor motors are becoming less common. Several methods for starting the motor are used:

Where the large inrush current and high starting torque can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by applying full line voltage to the terminals (Direct-online, DOL). When a machine has this type of starter it is connected directly to the mains and due to the initial high current it might produce momentary dips. It is used for machines of less than 1.5 Horse-Power. Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush current, reduced voltage starting using either series inductors, or an autotransformer, or thyristors, or other devices are used, this is called a solid state self starter. A technique sometimes used is Star-Delta (Y) starting, where the motor coils are initially connected in star for acceleration of the load, then switched to delta when the load is up to about 76% of its maximum speed. The two ends of the winding are required. This type of starter is used for machines with an output between 1.5 HorsePower and 300 Horse-Power. The auto transformer starter is connected in a three-phase star. It has mid-point tappings. It works by applying full voltage to the winding after the motor has accelerated. Machines connected in this way work between 50 Horse-Power and 300 Horse-Power. An inverter can also be used as a starter. This may also be called a variable frequency supply type of starter since the synchronous speed depends on the frequency of the supply current. It provides a way to control the speed by varying the frequency.

Throughout the years, standards for motors have been developed among which we can find the NEMA Standards. NEMA stands for National Electrical Manufacturers Association. It Provides a forum for the development of technical standards that are in the best interests of the industry and users, advocacy of industry policies on legislative and regulatory matters, and collection, analysis, and dissemination of industry data. Each NEMA standard provides information about the scope of the publication, the price of the product and much more. The purpose of these standards is to define products, processes or procedures with reference to one or more of the following; nomenclature, composition, construction, dimensions, tolerances, safety, operating characteristics, performance, ratings, testing and the service for which it is designed. It is NEMAs belief that standards play a vital part in the design, production, and distribution of products. Sound technical standards benefit the user, as well as the manufacturer, by improving safety, bringing about economies in product, eliminating misunderstandings between manufacturer and purchaser, and assisting the purchaser in selecting and obtaining the proper product for his particular need.

NEMA Standards also include the importance of the enclosure and applications of machines. For example they cater for machines being explosion proof, drill proof, water proof etc. according to the particular application of the motor. There is also an insulation code included in these standards. The following table is an example of such a code.
Table 49 Specified Temperature for Winding Resistance Correction When Rated Load Temperature Is Not Measured [MG 1-12.58.1]
Class of Insulation System A B F H Temperature, Degrees C 75 95 115 130

It is also important to say that there is a variety of electrical regulations for motors among which we can find European Regulations and International Regulations and of course the NEMA Standards.

DC Machines
Some DC machines work with AC they are called universal motors. Even though this type of motor is called universal, it is most commonly used with AC. The principle on which the universal motor works is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the armature will alternate at the same time, and therefore the force created is always in the same direction. The stator and rotor windings of the motor are connected in series through the rotor commutator. Therefore the universal motor is also known as AC series motor or an AC commutator motor. When this type of motor operates at normal mains frequency, its maximum output is limited (motors exceeding one kilowatt are quite rare). The construction of such a motor is very complex and this type of motor is quite unreliable and inefficient. However, it has a good power to weight ratio. The advantages of the universal motor are that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the typical characteristics of DC motors and it offers a high starting torque. Maintenance and life-span of such products are however limited by the fact that a commutator must be used. As a result such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are not used constantly. Speed control of a universal motor running on AC is easily accomplished by use of a thyristor circuit or multiple taps on the field coil. Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, hair dryers drills, circular and jig saws and weed trimmers among others. Traditional railway traction motors in electric railways also use universal motors. Damage to the motor may occur due to over-speeding if the machine is operated without a load. Since semiconductor rectifiers have become cheaper, some applications that would have previously used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a permanent magnet field. The DC motor on the other hand has a constant magnetic field around it (as if a permanent magnet was present). Another field is created when a current passes through the armature windings (which act as the conductor). The direction of this created field can be determined by using the right-hand grip rule. The two fields then interact together to give rise to a force according to Faradays law which states that the induced EMF in a conductor is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux cutting the conductor.

In a DC machine there are several parts to be considered. The field coil is used to create a constant field. Although it is really an electromagnet, it acts as a permanent magnet whose field will later interact with the field of the armature. The armature consists of a conducting wire wound several times to create a coil. A current is then passed through this coil so that a magnetic field is formed. The latter will then interact with the field produced by the field windings resulting in a force which will cause the armature to turn. In order to make this motion continuous, a commutator consisting of split rings is needed.

The commutator will alternate the direction of the current in the armature when the fields become parallel, making it rotate until the direction of the current needs to be reversed again. A steady rotating force (a torque) is now acting on the armature. All practical commutators
contain at least three rotor segments to prevent a dead spot in the rotation of the commutator. A commutator typically consists of a set of copper segments, fixed around part of the circumference of the rotor, and a set of spring-loaded brushes fixed to the stationary frame of the machine. To improve the

conduction between the supply and the commutator, carbon brushes are introduced. These are considered to be quite a drawback of the dc motor since they produce friction and they wear out and might need to be changed.

While the motor is rotating, a back EMF is created according to Lenzs law (the direction of the induced EMF in a conductor is such that it tends to oppose the flux change creating it, and it actually does oppose it if an induced current flows) to counteract the field created. The back EMF produced is initially zero but as the speed increases, it also increases and becomes powerful enough to start opposing the supply. If it is assumed that a motor is 100% efficient with no friction or windage losses, the speed of the armature will increase until the back EMF is equal to the applied EMF, i.e. there will be no net EMF, no current flow and hence, no net force. The armature will spin at a constant rate, of its own accord. In order to avoid direct rush of current, a resistance in series with the armature is applied. The starting resistance is initially at a maximum and is then reduced to a lower value. The supply current is then kept under control by the back EMF so the current does not damage the system. The particular machine we used in the lab had a system which involved a lever that could control the value of the resistance which protects the armature. We started with maximum resistance (to protect the machine) and then every time the lever was moved in a clockwise manner, the resistance was reduced. The current also became less because of the creation of the back EMF. The lever was then moved again and the current rose again momentarily until it became counterbalanced by the back EMF. This process was repeated until resistance was reduced to its minimum and the current became stable. After that, the resistance which protects the field coil was adjusted through the use of a knob. It was important for us to realize that the magnetic field created by the field coil was to provide the main flux and therefore needed a certain amount of current. The magnetic field produced by the field coil needs to be set at an optimum value to obtain best results.

When Rf is increased, If decreases therefore the field shrinks. However, Ia, remains the same, therefore the armature field remains approximately the same so the force of the armature is more effective (it is felt more but it doesnt mean that it is stronger). The torque decreases but the speed increases. The formula for field regulation with supply kept constant (V) is:

E = K If
Where: E = back EMF (which is motor dependent), K is a constant, If = field current, = speed If Rf increases, the field current If decreases and increases.

The formula for current/torque regulation with supply kept constant (V) is:

T = K I f Ia
Where:

T = Torque, K is a constant, If = field current, Ia = armature current

With armature resistance in the circuit, the armature voltage drops. If I f is kept constant, both E and decrease. I found this experiment of particular interest since I had never seen in so much detail how an actual DC motor works. In previous years we had always been shown simplified versions and diagrams of such motors. Even though my main line of study is not electrical engineering I believe that this particular lab experience was highly educational for me because I have come to appreciate the importance of knowing the basics of electrical engineering and realized that the two areas of study complement each other.