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1MRB520046-Len Edition October 1998

Generator and Transformer Protection

Lecture

1997

ABB Network Partner AG / Baden / Switzerland ABB Kraftwerke AG / Baden / Switzerland ABB Kraftwerke AG / Mannheim / Germany 3rd Edition

All rights with respect to this document, including applications for patent and registration of other industrial property rights, are reserved. Unauthorised use, in particular reproduction or making available to third parties, is prohibited. This document has been carefully prepared and reviewed. Should in spite of this the reader find an error, he is requested to inform us at his earliest convenience. The data contained herein purport solely to describe the product and are not a warranty of performance or characteristic. It is with the best interest of our customers in mind that we constantly strive to improve our products and keep them abreast of advances in technology. This may, however, lead to discrepancies between a product and its Lecture Notes.

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___________________________________________________________________ Contents 1. 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 2. 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 5. 5.1. 5.2. 6. Introduction ............................................................................................. 2 Fault Conditions...................................................................................... 2 Abnormal Operating Conditions.............................................................. 2 Basic Requirements................................................................................ 3 Basic Conditions ..................................................................................... 4 Additional Requirements......................................................................... 4 Overall Protection of a Generator-Transformer Unit ............................... 4 Currents and Voltages During Faults...................................................... 6 Protection Devices for Fault Conditions.................................................. 7 Overcurrent Protection............................................................................ 7 Differential Protection .......................................................................... 11 Minimum-Impedance Protection ........................................................... 22 Interturn Fault Protection ...................................................................... 23 Buchholz Relay or SPR ........................................................................ 29 Stator Ground Fault Protection ............................................................. 30 Rotor Ground Fault Protection .............................................................. 41 Transformer Ground Fault Protection ................................................... 42 Breaker Failure Protection .................................................................... 44 Protection Devices for Abnormal Operating Conditions........................ 47 Overload Protection .............................................................................. 47 Unbalanced Load Protection ................................................................ 56 Voltage Protection ................................................................................ 68 Overexcitation Protection...................................................................... 69 Frequency Protection............................................................................ 70 Loss-of-Excitation Protection ................................................................ 71 Pole Slipping Protection........................................................................ 75 Reverse Power Protection .................................................................... 80 Inadvertent Energization Protection...................................................... 81 Voltage Unbalance Protection .............................................................. 82 Protection Current Transformers .......................................................... 84 Current Transformers with Closed Magnetic Core................................ 86 Linear Current Transformers................................................................. 96 Figures and Tables ............................................................................. 100

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___________________________________________________________________ 1. INTRODUCTION The task of the generator and transformer protection is maintaining operation during: - faults - abnormal service conditions. 1.1. Fault Conditions On electrical machines the following kinds of faults can occur and cause damage: - Short-circuits - Interturn faults - Ground faults Most of the fault currents are of a higher level, usually higher than two-times the rated value (refer to the Tables); the damage is therefore great and continuing operation may not be possible. Because the damage rises with time, it is necessary to interrupt operation as soon as possible by a trip of: - circuit breaker(s) - excitation circuit breaker - turbine shut down. During stator ground faults the circulating fault currents are small; they are limited to a level of 20 A by a grounding resistor. An arc between the faulted slot bar and the laminated stator iron causes damage to the generator and long and expensive repair work. Therefore operation must also be interrupted by a trip. An exception are faults on ungrounded and impedance-grounded systems having a low level of circulating currents. This is the case for: - rotor ground faults - M.V. system ground faults. With respect to restricted damage, the protection device often emits only an alarm and operation is not interrupted usually. During a short-circuit between generator and transformer (refer to Fig.1-1 or 1-2) the faulted point is injected by a current of the H.V. power system and by a current of the generator.The first component can be interrupted by an AC circuit breaker e.g. 100 ms after the fault has occured. The second component cannost be cleared by an AC circuit breaker. This component is proportional to the field current. Its interruption by a DC circuit breaker is not possible due to a very high inductance of the field winding. It is only possible to suppress the field current. Its suppression can be accelerated with the help of a discharging resistor connected in parallel to the field winding. 1.2. Abnormal Operating Conditions Under abnormal operating conditions the normal electrical, mechanical and thermal stress of protected machines is increased by 2

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___________________________________________________________________ - overcurrent - unbalanced load - overtemperature - overvoltage - over- and underexcitation - over- and underfrequency - asynchronous running - generator motoring. The protected machines are still sound, but their life can be influenced. The abnormal operating conditions could cause a fault later, if they are not detected by a protection system in time. The abnormal operating conditions can be caused by: - switching, failures and faults on the connected power system (they influence current, voltage, frequency) - failures on protected machines (e.g. on the cooling system) - failures on the control system (current, temperature, voltage, excitation, speed, inadvertent nonsynchronized connection). In cases of a chance to correct the abnormal conditions to normal ones, the protection system emits an alarm (e.g. during unbalanced load, overtemperature etc.). 1.3. Basic Requirements The basic requirements on the protection system are: a) Reliable operation during - internal faults - abnormal operating conditions b) No operation during - external faults - normal operating conditions. The high protection availability is enabled by: - the simple arrangement of important inner circuits (rule: the failure rate rises with the number of elements) - simple trip circuits - additional devices used for the same protection purpose during dangerous faults - doubling the DC voltage supply. The groundless operation of the protection is restricted by a suitable design of the internal circuits of the protection system. In order to reinforce the protection during dangerous faults, additional devices may be used to increase the protection reliability. E.g. an overcurrent device used in addition to the differential device. At the same time the application of two devices for the same purpose must not considerably increase the danger of maloperation. Therefore two devices are used usually using different 3

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___________________________________________________________________ measuring methods and having a different sensitivity. They are called main and back-up protection devices. 1.4. Basic Conditions Basic conditions for the correct operation of the protection system are: - suitable settings - a suitable location and specification of voltage and current transformers. The suitable settings depend on the sufficient knowledge of minimum fault currents and voltages. For the specification of VT's and CT's the maximum fault currents and voltages must be applied. The fault current level is - the highest during interturn faults - high during short circuits - very low during ground faults on generators. For calculated values of short circuit currents refer to Tables 2-III...VI. 1.5. Additional Requirements Additional requirements on the protection system are: - selectivity - reliable operation during worst conditions. The selectivity enables the detection of individual failures and faults. The corresponding zone is cleared and the other system stays in operation. The protection system must also be able to operate under worst conditions (e.g. at a reduced level of the DC voltage, failure on AVR, etc.). 1.6. Overall Protection of a Generator-Transformer Unit With respect to safety and selectivity a number of different protection devices are applied. Refer to the single-line diagrams in Fig. 1-1 and 1-2. During the design phase the following points should be considered: - Suitable split-up of the protection zones - Overlapping of zones as short as possible - Overcurrent device of the generator located at its neutral point - Unbalanced load device and reverse power device connected to CT'S and VT's with small voltage, current and phase angle errors - Voltage transformers located in the zone of the differential device - Protection devices divided into two independent groups if possible - For protection devices as those for overcurrent/undervoltage, frequency, overexcitation, underexcitation, minimum impedance, pole slipping, reverse power, only a line-to-line voltage as a supplying voltage should be used, because only this voltage is independent of ground faults - No overall differential protection should be used for units with a generator 4

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___________________________________________________________________ C.B. - Although the breaker failure protection can be provided for each circuit breaker, it is applied mainly for units with a generator C.B. The scheme using two 52 G and 52 T circuit breakers enables the supply of the station transformer at an open H.V. or generator C.B. and is often preferred for gas turbine generators. For steam turbine and water-wheel generators the 52 G circuit breaker is usually omitted. For the REG216/316 and RET316 systems the frequency range of the measured voltages and currents is considerably restricted by filtering for most protection devices. Therefore the DC component and the higher harmonics need not be considered during selection of the setting values. For a suitable application of individual protection devices at different ratings of generators and transformers refer to Tables 1-II and 1-III.

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___________________________________________________________________ 2. CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES DURING FAULTS The current and voltage values required for the dimensioning of the current and voltage transformers, for various protection components as well as for the determination of protection setting values can be calculated according to the following figures and tables. The characteristic of short-circuit currents of transformers and generators are quite different (refer to Fig. 2-1 and 2-2). The field-discharge circuit breaker is a modified DC circuit breaker with a main and a discharging contact (Fig. 2-3). In order to extinguish a DC current the arc voltage Varc of a C.B. must be higher than the voltage of the excitation system V: Varc > V (Fig. 2-4)

With the help of the discharging resistor the time constant T'd of the field current can be reduced by approx. one half and the suppression of the field current can thus be accelerated. For symmetrical current components during asymmetrical short circuits refer to Fig. 2-5, 2-6 and 2-7. For current distribution during a line-to-line fault of transformers refer to Fig. 2-8. For current distribution during a line-to-ground fault of two transformers operating in parallel (one unit solidly grounded and the other ungrounded) refer to Fig. 2-9. For current distribution during asymmetrical short circuits of a generatortransformer unit refer to Fig. 2-10. For formulas required for the calculation of currents and voltages during symmetrical short-circuits on generators, transformers and generator-transformer units refer to Tables 2-I to 2-VI.

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___________________________________________________________________ 3. PROTECTION DEVICES FOR FAULT CONDITIONS

3.1. Overcurrent Protection The overcurrent protection is used: - to supervise service overcurrents - to detect faults as a back-up protection. The overcurrent protection for generators and transformers is different due to different requirements given by the different characteristics of the short-circuit current (Fig. 2-1 and 2-2). 3.1.1. Overcurrent Protection for Generator-Transformer Units

3.1.1.1. Definite Time Overcurrent Protection The task of this protection device connected to CT's located at the generator neutral point is to protect: a) the zone between the generator neutral point and the H.V. circuit breaker against service overcurrents b) the zone from the generator neutral point up to the H.V. power system as a back-up protection during faults (If a M.V. bus is applied, it is also involved in the protected zone). The current curve of a suddenly shorted generator comprises damped subtransient and transient components (Fig. 2-2). After a certain time of several seconds the overcurrent measuring system drops out, because the instantaneous current values do not exceed the current setting level anymore. If the A.V.R. is not active the continuous steady-state short-circuit current is smaller than the rated stator current, due to the high value of the synchronous reactance. At xd = 2 the continuous current i = 0.5. It is even zero when the excitation system is supplied from the generator terminals. The definite time overcurrent characteristic with a desired delay of several seconds would prohibit the trip at such a curve of the fault current. For satisfactory tripping a combination of an overcurrent and an undervoltage measuring system (ANSI device Number 51 V, Fig. 3.1-2) is to be used. The current setting must be chosen between the minimum through-fault current (usually during a line-to-line fault on the H.V. side) and the maximum short-time overcurrent (Fig. 3.1-1). This maximum short-time overcurrent is to be determined in accordance with the: - maximum continuous operating current 7

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___________________________________________________________________ - switching conditions in the H.V. power system - influence of the ceiling voltage - accuracy of current detection - reset ratio. An example of calculated short-circuit currents supplied by a generatortransformer unit in Table 2-VI shows that the highest short-circuit current circulates during a line-to-ground fault. During H.V. faults the current circulating on the generator side has the following consequences: - During a line-to-ground fault the through-fault current is 2.89 p.u. - During a line-to-line fault the through-fault current of one phase is 4.0 p.u. and 2.0 p.u. of the other phases. The minimum through-fault current is therefore equal to 2.0 p.u. and circulates through the generator CT's during an H.V. line-to-line short-circuit. A suitable current setting is usually i = 1.5. The undervoltage setting value must be higher than the maximum line-to-line voltage measured on the generator terminals during all possible kinds of faults on the M.V. and H.V. side. The usual voltage value is v = 0.7. The value of the applied delay depends on the grading with overcurrent devices of the power system and of the auxiliaries. The setting value of the delay is usually in the range between 2 and 5 s. At its selection the permitted maximum through-fault current duration of 2 s for many transformers is to be considered. 3.1.1.2. Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection Sometimes an instantaneous stage is asked for. This stage should enable fast clearing of short-circuit currents during faults between the generator C.B. (if applied) and the generator transformer. For selective protection the current value setting is to be chosen in the range between: - minimum short circuit currents and - maximum through-fault currents during faults on the H.V. side. The minimum short-circuit fault current would be a line-to-line fault. The maximum current during an H.V. fault circulates during a three-phase short-circuit. If, for example, we use the following reactance values xd'' = 0.15 we get 8 x2 = 0.15 xT = 0.1

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i=

0.9 3 xd + x2
"

0.9 3 = 5.2 0.15 + 0.15

for the minimum fault current (at a voltage of 90%) and 1.1 1.1 1.1 = = = 4.4 i= " xd + xt 0.15 + 0.10 0.25

for the maximum through-fault current during an H.V. three-phase fault (at a voltage of 110%) For protection devices with a significant restriction of the influence of the DC component, a possible setting would be i = 4.8 or 5. Without that restriction, an H.V. fault could cause a trip of the generator C.B. In this case it is better to omit the instantaneous stage. For large machines the difference between the minimum fault current and the external maximum fault current is smaller due to a higher value of xd''. It is then even more difficult to find a suitable setting level. If the generator-transformer unit has no generator circuit breaker, the instantaneous overcurrent device connected to CT's located at the generator neutral point would not make any sense.
3.1.2. Overcurrent Protection for Generator Transformer

The application of a generator circuit breaker enables the supply of the auxiliaries from the H.V. system by the generator transformer at an open generator C.B. In this case the generator transformer should be protected by its own overcurrent device aside from the other protection devices. This is a usual arrangement for gas turbine generators. The preferred type of the transformer overcurrent protection has a definite time overcurrent device and often also an instantaneous overcurrent device. This overcurrent protection is afforded by H.V. current transformers. The short-circuit current curve of transformers has no damping of the AC component (refer to Fig. 2-1). Therefore no additional voltage monitoring is desired and only an overcurrent measuring device is used.
3.1.2.1. Definite Time Overcurrent Protection

The task of the definite time device is a selective detection of short circuits on the transformer and on its M.V. side supplied by the H.V. power system. This device must be graded with the overcurrent devices of the M.V. side of auxiliary transformers. Naturally this device must not operate during continuous operation current as well as during short-time
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___________________________________________________________________ overcurrents. This device must operate at all short-circuits on the M.V. side. The minimum fault current circulates during a line-to-line fault; its value is 8.66 IN at the transformer reactance of 10% (refer to Table 2-V). If we assume a maximum short-time overcurrent level of 1.3 IN then the possible setting range is between 1.3 IN and 8.66 IN.
3.1.2.2. Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection

The task of the instantaneous overcurrent device is the protection against high current faults on the transformer H.V. side supplied by the H.V. power system. The instantaneous device must operate during H.V. faults between the H.V. current transformers and the transformer H.V. winding. It must not operate during M.V. faults and transformer inrush currents. The application of an instantaneous device is especially important at long distances between the H.V. current transformers and the transformer H.V. winding, threatened by a very high fault current level. E.g. if the H.V. current transformers are located close to the H.V. circuit breaker at the begin of a line supplying this transformer.The current setting must be selected between - minimum fault current of the H.V. side and - maximum through-fault current. Designating the H.V. power system reactance xS and the transformer reactance xT, the minimum H.V. fault current is
iF = 3 2x S

during a line-to-line fault.The maximum through-fault current is

i=

1 xT

during a symmetrical three-phase fault. Let us assume: xS = 0.02;


iF = 3 = 43 2 x0. 02

xT = 0.1
i= 1 = 10 0.1

and we get

A sensible current setting would then be e.g. i = 15 (Fig. 3.1-3). In the case that an inrush current is higher than the through-fault current, the bottom limit of the instantaneous stage setting range is to be specified by the inrush current level instead of the through-fault current level. Very
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___________________________________________________________________ high inrush currents occur at transformers supplied by a power system with a very high level of short-circuit currents. For the REG216/316 and RET systems the instantaneous stage can be blocked if the circulating overcurrent has a 2nd harmonic component which is higher than 10 % of the current setting level.
3.1.3. Overcurrent Protection of Auxiliary Transformer

Overcurrent protection of the input side: The protection device comprises a definite time stage and if required also an instantaneous stage like the generator transformer. Overcurrent protection of the output side: This protection device has only a definite time stage; it is to be graded with other overcurrent devices of the connected and supplied auxiliary system. For application of overcurrent devices refer to Fig. 3.1-6. For an example of grading with possible current and delay setting values refer to Fig. 3.1.7.
3.2. 3.2.1. Differential Protection Introduction

The differential protection is the main and most important protection against short-circuits. Transformer interturn faults and ground faults of solidly grounded windings are additionally detected. As a back-up protection a minimum impedance overcurrent device and a Buchholz or a sudden pressure relay (SPR) are used. The differential protection is used for the detection of internal faults within a zone defined by the location of the supplying current transformers. It operates with a comparison of the currents before and behind the protected machine (Fig.3.2-1). The differential protection must be sensitive and fast (Fig. 3.1-2). Otherwise the damage caused by high fault currents, rising with time, would be too high. The high sensitivity is demanded in order to detect most of the faults; this is important especially during transformer ground faults. It is usually accepted that the differential protection detects failures of the secondary CT circuits (interturn faults, short-circuits as well as interruptions) and trips. During external faults the differential protection must not trip (Fig. 3.2-1).

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3.2.2 Differential Protection for Transformers

3.2.2.1. Application

The differential protection for transformers must be designed to meet three conditions: - sensitive detection and fast clearing of internal faults - sufficient stability during external faults - sufficient stability at transformer inrush currents (Fig. 3.1-4). To satisfy these requirements, the differential device for transformers comprises: - a sensitive instantaneous overcurrent system - a sensitivity restraint by the bias circuit - a sensitivity restraint acc. to the 2nd harmonic current. The sensitivity of the differential overcurrent detection during internal faults is set by a basic setting "g" for ABB relays. The stability of the differential protection during external faults depends on the factor "v" defining the slope of the trip characteristic.
3.2.2.2. Basic Setting "g"

The sensitivity of differential devices during internal faults is given by the basic setting value "g". This value should be selected as low as possible in order to enable the detection of most of the faults but without jeopardizing any device operation at - Generators due to CT current errors - Transformers due to - CT current errors - transformer no-load current (especially at short time overvoltages) - tap changer operating range. For an average magnetizing curve of transformers refer to Fig. 3.2-3. Using the protection class 5P20 for CT's the differential current caused by the current error of CT's is usually considered to be 10 %. The transformer no-load current depends on its design. Nevertheless acc. to Tabel 3.2-I a value of 10 % can be used if no actual value is known. The differential current caused by the tap changer depends on its range, which can be e.g. +/- 5 % or +/- 10 %. If we consider the sum of these 3 components to be 30 % as the worst case, then the minimum setting value "g" should be 0.3 for transformers (Tabel 3.2-I). 12

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3.2.2.3. Factor "v"

The stability of the differential protection depends on the slope of the operating characteristic given by the factor "v" (sometimes called "pic-up ratio"). The value "v" is given by the ratio of the pick-up differential current , I to the through current IH (Fig. 3.2-4). The value "v" should be selected such that: - during normal operation also small fault currents can be detected - danger of a false tripping during external faults due to CT saturation is restricted. The ABB differential protection uses an operating characteristic, which is a combination of a constant curve and of two slope curves. The protection stability is influenced during: - through-currents of the medium level by the gentle slope - high through-currents by the steep slope. The gentle slope can be set by the ratio "v". The steep slope is fixed. The danger of false tripping during external faults is considerably restricted by the steep slope. For CT's with a different behaviour at off-set overcurrents, higher values of "v" are to be selected. The normal setting value is v = 0.5. At the REG and RET protection systems the steep slope is activated only during CT secondary currents I > b IN, where "b" is a certain through current in p.u. By setting the value "b" the point of intersection of both slopes is selected. The steepness of the steep slope is infinite (Fig. 3.2-4). The usual setting value is b = 1.5. In the case of danger of a false tripping at low through currents the value b = 1.25 can be applied.
3.2.2.4. Matching and Filtering

Very often rated currents of the protected transformer and of the CT's are different. The difference between the ratio of the transformer rated currents and the ratio of CT's rated currents must be matched. Otherwise this difference would produce a spurious differential current. This matching is possible for the REG216/316 and RET316 systems with the help of "reference values". It is an advantage if the setting value "g" (p.u.) can be based on the rated currents of the transformer and not of the CT's. The phase shift between the currents of the primary and secondary transformer side is given by the connection group and must also be matched.

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___________________________________________________________________ An external line-to-ground fault of a Dy-connected transformer causes a circulating current with positive, negative- and zero-sequence component on the faulted "wye" side. The line current supplying the "delta" side has only a positive and negative-sequence component. The zero-sequence current circulates only in the delta-connected winding. The differential device measuring the line currents on the primary and secondary transformer side, would detect an unbalance, if the zero-sequence component of the"wye" side is not prohibited to circulate to the differential device. Therefore the following remedies are applied for the transformer differential protection: - Current matching - Connection group matching - Filtering of the zero-sequence component. These remedies can be performed by a suitable current ratio and a correct connection group of interposing CT's or by modern protection systems alone.
3.2.2.5. Increased Basic Setting g-High

The REG and RET systems offer the possibility to reduce the sensitivity by increasing the value "g" ,if it is required, with respect to - increased transformer no-load currents (due to a short time overvoltage) - differential currents caused by a tap changer - various other purposes. A suitable setting must be selected according to the purpose.
3.2.2.6. Differential Current I-Inst

The operating time of the transformer differential device is independent for the REG216/316 and RET316 systems on the energizing detector during differential currents exceeding the setting value I-Inst. Such a shorter operating time is important during internal faults with a very high current level.
3.2.2.7. Transformer Inrush Current Detection

The inrush current detection operates with the detection of the 2nd harmonic. During normal operation this detection is not activated. It can be activated by the: - energizing detector - external signal "InrushInp". The energizing detector operates when the setting value of the "inrush ratio" is exceeded, i.e. when the content of the 2nd harmonic exceeds the setting value. 14

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___________________________________________________________________ The inrush current detection is only active during the "InrushTime", which must be set.
3.2.3 Differential Protection for Generators

3.2.3.1. Application

The differential protection for generators must be designed to meet two conditions: - Sensitive detection and fast clearing of internal faults - Sufficient stability during external faults. The inrush current of newly energized transformers can also circulate in the generator stator winding; but for generators this is a through-current and no differential current such as for transformers. Therefore the sensitivity restraint for inrush currents is omitted at some differential protection devices for generators, such as e.g. at the REG216 and 316 systems. Also matching and measuring of the 2nd harmonic are omitted for these systems.
3.2.3.2. Settings

The highest applicable sensitivity is limited by different current errors of both CT's; therefore the minimum setting value "g" should be 0.1(p.u.). The factor "v" is usually set to the value 0.25 with respect to not especially high through-currents during external faults. If necessary the higher value of 0.5 can be applied. The factor "b" cannot be set at the differential device of the REG216/316 systems for generators. Its value 1.5 is fixed.
3.2.4 Suitable CT's for Differential Protection

3.2.4.1. Application

The current transformers applied for the differential protection must enable correct operation of the protection during internal as well as at external faults. For generator-transformer units the differential protection must be stable during H.V. faults (Fig. 3.2-6a). The fault current level is limited by reactances of the generator and of the transformer. Similarly the time constant of the through fault current is given by the time constant of the generator and of the transformer. The units for gas turbines have a generator circuit breaker which en15

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___________________________________________________________________ ables the supply of the auxiliaries also at a disconnected generator. In this case the transformer differential protection must be stable during shortcircuits in the generator zone supplied from the H.V. side and enable the supply of auxiliaries without any service interruption (Fig. 3.2-6b). Naturally the generator differential protection must also be stable during faults on the auxiliary feeders (Fig. 3.2-6c). The CT's designed for conditions of external faults mostly enable correct protection operation during internal faults too. Therefore the CT's are usually specified with respect to the protection stability during external faults. This stability depends on the behaviour of the protection device and of the CT's. The differential protection device has a suitable operating curve as a means for device stability. Therefore it is not necessary to demand that CT's do not saturate. Such a requirement would cause big CT's with a high magnetic core cross section. Nevertheless the applied CT's must be able to transfer such a current to the CT secondary side, which enables correct operation of the differential protection device. The ability of CT's to transfer overcurrents to the secondary side without any saturation is specified by the overcurrent factor "n". Most of the applied CT's are not specified for the full value, but for a reduced factor "n" with respect to the stabilizing form of the operating curve of the differential device. The current transformers designed for protection purposes are specified according to the class and the rated output. CT's specified according to IEC standards are usually of the class 5P20 . The maximum current error allowed is then 5 % at a current 20 times the rated value. The current error is the difference between the primary and secondary current, if both currents are based on the same number of turns for the primary and secondary side (Fig. 3.2-5). The factor 20 called "overcurrent factor" is used to specify the highest current, during which the current error is still acceptable for the operation of protection devices.
3.2.4.2. Calculation of the Overcurrent Factor

The overcurrent factor "n" desired for a faulted circuit and non-saturating CT's is defined by a continuous AC overcurrent without any DC component. This factor "n" may also be used for offset overcurrents having an AC current component "i" and a DC component. The influence of the DC component is specified by a factor "k" :

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___________________________________________________________________ n = k i The factor "k" is a function of: - frequency - time constant of the faulted circuit J - time constant of the CT secondary circuit J 2 - time t. The factor "k" is determined by the exponential functions given by the short-circuit and by the CT secondary circuit. It depends on the instantaneous voltage at the instant of the short-circuit. Short-circuit at voltage v = vmax : In this case the short-circuit current has only an AC component. i1 I1N 2 = sin wt

The CT secondary current curve thus comprises an induced AC component and an exponential function of the CT secondary circuit. The factor "k" is given by the CT magnetizing current and is k=e
-

J2

- cos wt

The maximum value of "k" appears at w t = p : k=2 Short-circuit at v = 0: The short-circuit current has a DC and an AC component.
i1 I1N 2 =e
-

J2

- cos w t

Assuming a CT linear magnetizing curve, the factor "k" is then (Fig. 3.2-7):
J2 k = MJ J2 -J
t - Jt - e 2 - e J +1

The first formula for the factor "k" can be used: - at fault currents without any DC component - if the influence of a CT saturation, due to the DC component, can be accepted.

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___________________________________________________________________ The value k = 2 can be used e.g. for ground faults on resistance grounded systems, where the fault current has almost no DC component. The second formula is to be used if the CT must not saturate during an off-set fault current. The function of "k" given by two exponential functions has a maximum value at a certain time (Fig. 3.2-7):

tm =

J J J2 ln J -J2 J2

J J J 2 -J k m = MJ +1 J2

The specification of a CT according to "k" makes sure that the CT never saturates under given short-circuit conditions. The calculation for the fault instant at v = 0 is the worst case. If it is accepted that a mechanical reason for a fault is not probable and that an electric break-down must be initiated by a certain voltage, then the result of the calculation of "k" acc. to the second formula can be reduced. E.g. a reduction of the DC component and also of the factors "k" by 0.866 corresponds to an instantaneous voltage of 50 % of the peak value. Current transformers with a magnetic ring core have a high time constant J 2 . If the " J 2 " is much higher than " J "

t 2 >> t
an approximate formula for "k" can be used: t - J k = MJ 1 - e + 1
3.2.4.3. Current Transformers Specified acc.to IEC Standard

Protection current transformers of the class 5P20 have a magnetic core designed for an inner voltage E2 given by 20 times the value of the rated output voltage V2N and by 20 times the value of the voltage drop R2 I2N across the resistor R2 (Fig. 3.2-5). The magnetic core of CT's for generators and many transformers is a ring core, at which the leakage inductance of the secondary winding is very small and may be neglected at the calculation: E2N = V2N + R2 I2N 18

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___________________________________________________________________ E2 = 20 ( V2N + R2 I2N ) The internal voltage E2 is the maximum voltage produced during current errors < 5 %. The same CT may be used when a higher overcurrent factor "n" is required and if the actual burden is smaller: E2 = n ( V2 + R2 I2N ) If we compare the last equations we get: n = 20 V2N + R2 I2N V2 + R2 I2N

or using power instead of voltage: rated output secondary copper losses actual output n = 20 SN + DPCu2 S + DPCu2 SN = V2N I2N , PCu2 = R2 ( I2N )2 S = V2 I2N

This equation shows that an overcurrent factor "n" higher than 20 can be reached if the actual burden is smaller than the rated burden at SN. The above formula is to be used if a certain CT is to be applied for a required higher factor "n" . In opposition if the desired overcurrent factor "n" was calculated, the actual burden is known and the CT copper losses can be estimated, the CT is to be specified for class 5P20 by the calculated rated output
SN = n S + DPCu2  -DPCu2 20

such as e.g. class 5P20 and rated output SN = 90 VA. Example: Required value Actual output Secondary copper losses Using the equation
SN = n S + DPCu2  - DPCu2 = 40  5 + 35 - 35 20 20

n = 40 S = 5 VA , PCu2 = 35 W = 35 VA

SN = 45 VA
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___________________________________________________________________
3.2.4.4. Current Transformers Specified acc. to ANSI / IEEE Standard

Protection CT's according to ANSI or IEEE and having a magnetic ring core (a low inductance type) are specified by the class C and by the output voltage "V2 " at 20 I2N . E.g. the class C 400 means a ring CT with an output voltage of 400 V at 20 I2N and of 20 V at I2N . If the rated output current is 5 A, the rated output would be SN = 20 x 5 = 100 VA. The CT's specified acc. to ANSI or IEEE standard are designed for an inner voltage E2 given by the output voltage and by the voltage drop across the resistor R2. The allowed maximum current error is 10 % at 20 I2N .These CT's may also be applied for a higher overcurrent factor if the actual burden is smaller than the rated burden.
3.2.4.5. Requirements on CT's Applied for the REG and RET Systems

There is no simple method of calculating the performance of the differential device together with its CT's under fault conditions. A possibility is an investigation of that performance by measurement at simulated fault conditions. The performance of the differential functions of the RET316 system together with supplying CT's was investigated in the range between 3 IN and 20 IN with and without a DC component given by the time constant between 40 and 300 ms. The results show the following: a) Considering the stability during external faults under above conditions: The CT's may saturate and the stability is unaffected at the following minimum overcurrent factor "n" values: - between 5 and 15 for transformers with 2 windings - between 9 and 33 for transformers with 3 windings. b) The operating time during internal faults under above conditions is unaffected by fault currents if the inrush detector is not activated. The above results for transformers with 2 windings can also be used for generators. Thanks to the similar design all above results can also be used for the REG216 and 316 systems. Conclusion: - CT's of the class 5P20 may be used for the differential protection devices for generators and 2-winding transformers - CT's of the class 5P20 may also be used for the differential protection of 3-winding transformers if the rated output SN is calculated with respect to the required factor "n" and to the actual required output S; 20

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___________________________________________________________________ i.e. if the rated output SN is higher enough than the required output S in order to enable the required value "n".
3.2.4.6. Trouble shooting

Difficulties during the operation of the differential protection can be caused either by the differential protection or by the current transformers. A very good possibility of checking the function of the differential device under normal operating conditions is the measurement of the differential current. An unusually high differential current can be caused by: - opposite polarity of CT's - wrong current matching - wrong vector group - harmonics. False tripping of an energized transformer at no-load can be caused by an insufficient inrush current detection. Check the setting "InrushRatio" and if necessary the content of the 2nd harmonic in the curve of the measured inrush current. False operation during external faults can be caused by CT saturation as well as by an unsuitable setting especially of the value "v". The differential current produced by different CT secondary currents can be caused by: - different current ratioes - unadapted burden - CT no-load curve (magnetizing curve). Under the assumption of a correct CT turn ratio, the accuracy of the CT can be checked with the help of several points of the CT magnetizing curve. Supplying the secondary side at a primary side with I1 = 0 the measured current is a no-load current, producing the current error of the CT. The supplying voltage is to be adjusted to the internal voltage E2 . This value is given by the sum of the terminal voltage at 20 I2N and of the voltage drop across the resistor R2 at 20 I2N at the IEC class 5P20 as well as at the ANSI or IEEE class "C". The measured current value must not exceed 5 % of 20 I2N , i.e. I2N , according to IEC or 10 % of 20 I2N , i.e. 2 I2N , according to ANSI / IEEE class "C" (Fig. 3.2-8). At the voltage E2 given by the rated current I2N the measured no-load current must not exceed 1 % of I2N .
3.2.4.7. Checking the Differential Devices

Aside from the internal simulation of a differential current at the REG216, 316 and RET316 systems, an injected current or a generator current can be used for the test. With the help of an injected current at machine standstill the following can be measured: 21

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___________________________________________________________________ - the value "g" - the operating time and with the help of the running generator, supplying a symmetrical short circuit arranged by a link, the following can be checked: - protection operation during an internal fault - protection stability during an external fault. If it is not possible to arrange an artificial internal fault by a link or by grounding isolators, an artificial differential current can be produced shorting an input current circuit. In any case the artificial short-circuit must be symmetrical; otherwise the generator rotor could be damaged.
3.3. Minimum Impedance Protection

This protection is a back-up protection of the generator-transformer unit against short circuits. For the protected zone refer to Fig. 3.3-1. The advantage of this protection function is a shorter tripping time than the time required by overcurrent functions. The minimum impedance device is connected to voltage transformers located at the generator terminals (Fig. 3.3-1). The device is usually set to protect the connection to the generator transformer and its M.V. winding. The H.V. winding cannot be well protected by this protective device due to the danger of maloperation for faults on the H.V. side. A short delay is to be used to avoid any maloperation. This is especially the case for units with a generator C.B., due to: - grading with the main protection (differential protection) - transformer inrush currents. A maloperation would also be caused by the loss of a VT voltage; in this case the minimum impedance function must be blocked. The impedance setting is selected according to 70% of the transformer impedance voltage. Assuming the transformer impedance voltage to be 10% and the same rating of the generator as well as of the transformer we get for - impedance setting 0.07 p.u. - usual delay values at - units without generator C.B. 0.2 s - units with generator C.B. switching the transformer (inrush currents) 0.5 s

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___________________________________________________________________
3.4. Interturn Fault Protection

3.4.1 Interturn Fault Protection of Generators

The interturn faults of generator and motor stators cannot be detected by the differential protection, because the measured currents at both sides of the winding are the same. Therefore other detection methods must be used. The ABB generator protection scheme uses detection methods monitoring: - Voltage (Fig. 3.4-1 - Current (Fig. 3.4-2,3) - Differential current (Fig. 3.4-4). All above methods use the decreased magnetic flux of the faulted phase for the detection. A large current circulating in the shorted turn or turns produces a magnetic flux of the opposite polarity in contrast to the polarity of the original flux. The total magnetic flux is then much smaller and the phase voltage too. At a winding having two circuits connected in parallel per phase an interturn fault causes a circulating current which can be monitored. Features of the voltage method - simple, sensitive - 3 VT's with both primary terminals insulated for the high voltage - applicable sensitivity limited by - asymmetry of the 1st harmonic of phase voltages - zero-sequence voltage caused by the 3rd, 9th and other harmonics. Features of the current method: - useful only for windings having two circuits connected in parallel - applicable sensitivity limited by unsymmetry of voltages of winding circuits connected in parallel, - 1 or 2 CT's. Features of the differential method: - applicablel only for windings having two circuits connected in parallel - applicable sensitivity limited by unsymmetry of voltages of winding circuits connected in parallel, - 6 CT's - monitoring of the circulating current individual for each phase. The differential method is the sole one enabling the detection of the faulted phase.

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___________________________________________________________________ This protection should be fast to restrict the damage caused by high fault currents. Nevertheless sometimes a short delay between 0.1 and 0.5 s may be necessary to avoid any maloperation. This especially holds true for the method using the voltage measurement.
3.4.2 Interturn Fault Protection of Transformers

The interturn fault of a transformer may under certain circumstances be detected by the differential protection using the comparison of primary and secondary currents, contrary to generators and motors at which the currents are compared at the begin and the end of the winding and do not enable any detection of interturn faults. Some of the interturn faults can also be detected by an overcurrent protection scheme. The transformer currents caused by an interturn fault depend on the number of shorted turns, on the transformer leakage reactance and on the circuit resistance. The leakage is variable, depending on the number of shorted turns. Interturn faults across a smaller number of winding turns may cause small and not well measurable circulating currents. Such interturn faults should be detected by a gas protection device like the Buchholz relay or the SPR device. Nevertheless, in the range of interturn faults with more shorted turns the currents are high enough to be detected by a differential or an overcurrent protection.
3.4.3 Voltages and Currents at Interturn Faults 3.4.3.1 Interturn Faults on Generators

Any interturn fault on a phase of the generator stator winding causes a reduced magnetic field of that phase. The consequence is a reduced phase voltage. A supervision of the change of this voltage enables the detection of interturn faults (Fig.3.4-1). During interturn faults on windings with branches connected in parallel the current distribution in those branches is changed and the current circulating between those branches can be used for the fault registration (Fig. 3.4-2,3,4). The sensitivity of the interturn fault detection depends on the ratio of sound and faulted turns of the failed branch and naturally on the protection setting. The level of the voltage displacement depends on the - number of shorted turns - kind of service of the generator.

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___________________________________________________________________ In an extreme case the total length of a stator phase winding is shorted; i.e. all turns of a phase winding are shorted and the voltage on this faulted phase fully disappears. The two different service kinds are: - generator disconnected from the power system (running at no-load) - generator directly connected to a large power system At no-load the potential of the terminal of the faulted phase moves to the neutral point. The line-to-line voltage between the sound phases is fixed, non influenced. The line-to-line voltages between the faulted phase and 2 sound phases drop to the phase voltage value. Using the measurement of the neutral point voltage displacement by the broken delta side of three VT's connected in parallel with the generator phase windings the voltage measured during an interturn fault along the total phase winding length is 1/3 of the maximum value e.g. of 100 V (Fig. 3.4-5a). On a generator connected to a fixed voltage of a large power system all three line-to-line voltages are fixed. The voltage measured across the broken delta of VT's rises with the number of short-circuited turns up to the maximum value e.g. of 100 V at an interturn fault across the total phase winding length (Fig. 3.4-5b). Therefore the sensitivity of the interturn fault detection by the voltage measurement is smaller at the disconnected generator. The detection of interturn faults by the supervision of the voltage accross the broken delta of VT's connected to the generator terminals is independent of ground faults. On the other hand a supervision of the generator neutral point displacement, used for the detection of stator ground faults, is not only able to detect ground faults but also interturn faults. In the case of a stator winding with 2 or more branches connected in parallel for each phase, it is preferable to apply a circulating current or a differential current for the interturn fault detection. These currents depend on the ratio of the shorted turns to the total number of all turns per phase connected in series and on the number of parallel branches. Currents in a disconnected generator (Fig. 3.4-6): - On a winding without branches connected in parallel the current can circulate only in the shorted turn(s) - On a winding with branches connected in parallel - a high current circulates in the shorted turn(s) - a smaller current circulates between the faulted and the sound branches. Generaly during interturn faults the currents circulating on a winding with 2 branches connected in parallel can be calculated according to the following equations developed from the circuit in Fig. 3.4-7. 25

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___________________________________________________________________ The current i1 circulating in the sound section of the faulted branch: i1 =

n3 1 - s 2 N2 N3 n 2 x n N2 + n N2 - 2 N N 1 1 3 3 1 3

n2

N2 2

The current i2 circulating in the section with the interturn fault:


i2 =

n 3 N3 n 2 N2

1 x

-1 1 + N2 s2 2 2 2 2 n 2 n1 N1 + n 3 N3 - 2 N1 N3 - N2

The phase voltage u1 reduced by the influence of the interturn fault:

s 2 N1 u1 = = n 3 N3 E
U1

1 N2 n1 N1 - N3 + N2 2 n2 1 + 1 2 2 2 n1 N1 + n3 N3 - 2 N1 N3 N n2 2

The measured voltage change Du1:


, u1 = 1 - u1

Used symbols: E E.M.F. per phase, induced from the rotor U1 , u1 phase voltage during an interturn fault Du1 phase voltage change caused by an interturn fault i1 current of the sound section in p.u. i2 current of the section with the interturn fault in p.u. N1, N2, N3 number of turns of section 1, 2 and 3 Blondel's factors (ratio of the total flux to the excitation flux, n1, n2, n3 defined by the leakage) s1 , s2 , s3 leakage factors x subtransient reactance. From the diagram im Fig. 3.4-8 it is evident that the minimum number of shorted turns, which can be registered, depends on the ratio of faulted and total turns per phase and naturally on the protection voltage setting. Therefore a better detection sensitivity is reached at turbogenerators which have a smaller number of turns per phase as e.g. N3 =10, in comparison with salient pole generators having e.g. N3 = 40. In the absence of parallel branches we get the simple formulas from the above modified equations:

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___________________________________________________________________ i1 = 0 i2 =

n 3 N3 n 2 N2 s 2 N1 n 2 N3

1 x

u1 =

The last formula shows that the reduction of the phase voltage depends on the leakage factor s2. Without this leakage the voltage u1 would sink to zero. Generator connected to the power system: - The currents not only circulate in shorted turn(s) and between the faulted and sound branches of the faulted phase but also between the generator and the power system. In this case the currents circulating in the faulted winding are overlapped with currents circulating from the power system.
3.4.3.2 Interturn Faults on Transformers

The Interturn faults on transformers can sometimes be detected by the differential protection, contrary to generators and motors at which the currents are compared at the begin and at the end of the winding and do not enable any detection of interturn faults. The transformer currents during an interturn fault depend on the transformer leakage reactance and on the circuit resistance. The leakage is variable, depending on the number of shorted turns. The current curves for the following diagrams were calculated under the assumption of a certain variability of the leakage reactance.
Interturn Faults on the Transformer Secondary Winding

The circulating currents can be calculated acc. to the following formulas:


i1 = 1 3 1 2 N2sc xs + x T 5 - 4 N2 3
2

N 2 2 + r N2sc

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___________________________________________________________________ i 2sc = i1 3 N2 N2sc

Used symbols: i1 primary current in p.u. of the transformer rated current i2sc current in the interturn faulted winding section in p.u. xs reactance of the supplying power system in p.u. of the transformer rating xT transformer reactance (impedance voltage) in p.u. r resistance of the faulted circuit in p.u. N2 number of secondary winding turns (per phase) N2sc number of shorted turns of the secondary winding. With respect to the protection sensitivity desired for the fault detection, the currents circulating during interturn faults were calculated considering the severe conditions given by the great variability of the transformer leakage reactance being between 10 and 50% and by the circuit resistance. Fig. 3.4-9 shows that during interturn faults on a secondary winding with a constant leakage reactance and without any resistance, the primary as well as the secondary currents are high enough for the detection at each interturn faulted winding length "x". The leakage reactance variability causes the circulating currents to be smaller. For the influence of the circuit resistance refer to the (Fig. 3.4-10). It is shown there that especially the range of short faulted winding lengths is influenced by the circuit resistance. Nevertheless in the range of the longer faulted winding lengths (above 20% of the total winding length), the measured primary currents are high enough to be detected also by a simple overcurrent protection scheme. Conclusion: In the range of the faulted secondary winding lengths between 20 and 100% the currents are influenced especially by the variability of the secondary winding leakage. In the range between 0 and 20% the currents are restricted especially by the circuit resistance.
Interturn Faults on the Transformer Primary Winding

The circulating currents can be calculated acc. to the following formulas: i1 = 1

3r

+ 2 x s +

N1 - N1sc 2 x 5 - 4 3 1l N1

N1sc N1

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___________________________________________________________________ i1sc = i1 N1 N1sc

Used symbols: i1 primary current in p.u. of the transformer rated current i1sc current in the interturn faulted winding section in p.u. xs reactance of the supplying power system in p.u. of the transformer rating x1l primary leakage reactance of the transformer in p.u. r resistance of the faulted circuit in p.u. N1 number of primary winding turns N1sc number of shorted turns of the primary winding For interturn faults on the transformer primary winding the critical range for the detection is again at the short interturn faulted winding lengths (Fig. 3.4-11,12), especially due to the circuit resistance. Nevertheless the measured primary current value is often sufficient for the detection also in this range.
3.5. Buchholz relay

The Buchholz relay is a gas detection relay protecting oil transformers during - internal insulation faults such as short circuits, interturn faults, earth faults - small failures such as spark emission, discharges, iron lamination faults - tank leakages. The Buchholz relay supervises gas emissions and is built into the oil pipe connecting the transformer tank with the expansion chamber. The relay consists of a small reservoir to accumulate the incoming gas, and of two swimmers to monitor the oil level located one above the other. The relay has two stages for an alarm and a trip. The upper swimmer operates the very sensitive 1st stage protection and is able to detect small oil level differences caused by small gas emissions or by a small oil leakage. The lower swimmer operates the 2nd stage protection; it detects greater oil level differences and oil stream surges caused by sudden insulation faults. The second stage detecting the fast oil streams caused by insulation faults trips in approximately the same time as the differential protection. The Buchholz relay is a second protection device against heavy faults. It has a quite different detection system than the differential device. Its advantage is a very high sensitivity and ability to detect faults and failures which cannot be detected by the differential device. The zone protected 29

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___________________________________________________________________ by the Buchholz relay is limited to the transformer tank, whilst the zone of the differential protection is given by the location of current transformers installed inside or outside of the tank. The Buchholz relay is usually used for transformers with ratings above 1000 kVA and in some exceptional cases between 100 and 1000 kVA. For larger transformers, the Buchholz relay is used together with the differential relay as an important protection against faults. The first stage of the Buchholz relay is very sensitive and detects very small gas emissions, which cannot be detected by the differential relay responding to higher measurable currents, e.g. above 20 % of the rated current. On the other hand, high fault currents are detected by the differential relay and by the Buchholz relay which both initiate a trip and interruption within approximately the same time. In the US a Sudden-Pressure Relay (SPR) is usually used instead of the Buchholz relay. There are two types of SPR devices, operating on sudden changes - in the gas above the oil or - in the oil itself. Both types are sensitive to low-and high-energy arcs and have inversetime characteristics. Generally the SPR devices are used to trip. They are free from false operation.
3.6. Stator Ground Fault Protection

The stator ground fault protection protects the generator stator against damage caused by ground faults. The consequence of a ground fault is the damage of the insulation and additionally the damage of laminated iron of electrical machines. The damage depends on the level of the fault current; therefore this current should be kept very small. Higher ground fault currents on rotating machines can lead to short-circuits in the iron lamination and to higher iron losses. The stator ground fault protection system is different for generators working with a generator transformer or working directly to a busbar.
3.6.1. Stator Ground Fault Protection for Generators Operating in Connection with Generator Transformers

The following stator ground fault protection devices are applied for generators with an impedance-grounded or an ungrounded neutral point. For the detection of a stator ground fault either the generator voltage or an auxiliary voltage can be used. Using the generator voltage, approximately 30

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___________________________________________________________________ 95 % of the generator winding lengths can be protected; the rest of the winding near the neutral point remains without protection. An artificial voltage displacement of the generator neutral point by an auxiliary voltage is to be used if the winding at the neutral point should also be protected.
3.6.1.1. 95% Stator Ground Fault Protection

The stator of generators operating in a unit with the transformer is usually high resistance grounded. The task of the grounding resistor is a sufficiant selectivity of the applied ground fault protection device. Stator ground faults cause a voltage displacement of the generator neutral point. This displacement depends on the point of the ground fault. It is zero at a neutral point ground fault and it is equal to the generator phase voltage at a terminal ground fault (Fig. 3.6-1). The voltage displacement of the neutral point can be measured either - between the generator neutral voltage and the ground (Fig. 3.6-1) or - by the voltage across the broken delta of the tertiary windings of three VT's located at generator terminal side (Fig. 3.6-2). It is also possible to measure the current of the grounding resistor instead of the neutral point voltage. The neutral point voltage consists of several components, two of which occur only under fault conditions; the other two components occur also during normal operating conditions. These voltage components are: Va - Voltage caused by a ground fault and depending on its position Vb - Voltage transferred from the H.V. side at a ground fault on the H.V. side Vc - Voltage of the 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st and higher harmonics Vd - Voltage caused by asymmetry of phase capacitances and phase voltages. During a ground fault of the neutral point the component "a" is equal to zero. This voltage increases with the rising distance from the neutral point and reaches the value of the full phase voltage at a fixed ground fault on the generator terminals. The measured voltage may be higher than the phase voltage value during an arcing ground fault due to oscillations produced between the stator circuit and the ground. The neutral point voltage transformer should never become saturated with respect to a danger of ferro-resonance. Therefore it is to be designed for a higher voltage than the phase voltage. The best method is to specify the VT for the voltage factor 1.9 (acc. to IEC standard) or for the line-to-line voltage (acc. to ANSI standard). Also the three VT's of the variant with the VT's located at the generator 31

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___________________________________________________________________ terminal side should be specified by the voltage factor 1.9 or by the lineto-line voltage value. A modified method uses the current measurement instead of the voltage measurement. In this case a current transformer is connected between the grounding resistor and the ground (refer to Fig. 3.6-3). In case of a ground fault on the H.V. generator-transformer side, the phase voltage of the H.V. side produces a certain voltage transferred to the generator side (component "b") by the capacitive coupling. During normal as well as abnormal operating conditions the neutral point voltage contains the 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st and higher harmonics of the component "c" and a component "d" given by the asymmetry of the phase capacitances and phase voltages. Taking into account a danger of a protection maloperation the suitable setting of the measured voltage must be selected with respect to the spurious components "b", "c" and "d". At an usual protection device sensitivity of 5 % the total value of spurious components should be equal to or below 2.5 %. Based on such a sensitivity, 95 % of the winding length is protected, naturally under the assumption of a linear voltage distribution along the winding. ABB devices are usually delayed for 0.5 s, in order to exclude any maloperation at transient voltages.
Property of the Protection Method

ABB prefers the method using a grounding resistor and a voltage transformer connected in parallel between the generator neutral point and the ground for the following reasons. In both cases (Fig. 3.6-1 and 3.6-2) the grounding resistor reduces the transferred voltage of the component "b" and enables a selective detection of ground faults on the generator side. If this resistor fails or is interrupted, the selectivity of the protection may be lost, but the generator side remains protected. The voltage transformer located at the neutral point is without any voltage under normal operating conditions. It is energized only during a ground fault and is then slightly loaded by the very small power consumption of the protection device. The three voltage transformers at the generator terminals operate with a rated voltage under normal running conditions. During a ground fault their voltage is different for each phase and in the range between zero and the line-to-line value. For a short time the voltage transformers are overloaded by the current of the grounding resistor connected to the broken delta of tertiary windings. 32

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___________________________________________________________________ The method of monitoring the current circulating between the generator neutral point and the ground is simple; the sensitivity is the same as for the voltage method. The detection is lost by an interruption of the grounding resistor.
Grounding Resistor

The grounding resistor has to restrict the influence on the voltage displacement of the generator neutral point by: - voltages transferred from the transformer during H.V. ground faults - transient overvoltages produced by generator arcing ground faults and circuit breaker restrikes. The above mentioned reduction of transferred voltages requires a resistance value which is as small as possible. Such a low resistance value increases the ground fault current. On the grounds of test results, ABB recommends to limit the ground fault current to 20 A for a duration of 0.5 s. Higher currents cause damages making the repair of the iron lamination necessary. At ABB the grounding resistor is usually specified for currents between 5 and 15 A during 10 seconds.
Dimensioning of Grounding Resistor

The grounding resistor is to be designed according to two conditions: - Maximum ground fault current IE < admitted value IEmax < 20A - Spurious voltage Vs < 0.5 of the setting value Vset Used symbols: IE, IEmax ground fault current

Vs, Vb, Vc, Vd spurious voltages Vset V Vph RE U2ph C setting voltage value neutral point voltage generator phase voltage grounding resistance phase voltage of the H.V. generator transformer winding capacitance equivalent to three phases of the generator side to ground; it consists of the following capacitances: Co generator capacitance 33

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___________________________________________________________________ Ce capacitance of the lead connection to the generator transformer C1 capacitance of the L.V.winding of the generator transformer L C12
M

inductance equivalent to all voltage transformers connected to the three-phase system of the generator. capacitance between the primary and secondary winding of the generator transformer per phase angular velocity

The capacitance C = 3 (Co + Ce + C1) Based on the first condition of the maximum ground fault current, it is necessary to calculate and specify the maximum current of the grounding resistor. The second condition is used for the determination of the maximum value of the grounding resistance with respect to spurious voltages. A spurious voltage consists of three components. The equation for these three components expressed in p.u. values: vs = vb + vc + vd The neutral point voltage displacement causes a ground fault current which is limited by the impedance ZE of the generator stator side to ground. The influence of the winding reactance is small and can be neglected. The impedance ZE has generally a capacitive component, a certain inductive component given by the VT's and an additional resistive component given by the grounding resistor. Using the total capacitance to ground C, the inductance L equivalent for all VT's applied at the generator terminal side (per three phases) and the resistance RE of the grounding resistor we get the following formula for the impedance: ZE = RE w 2LC - 1 1 + jwCRE w 2LC

The value M 2LC has to be checked. If it is M 2LC >> 1 as usual, then 34

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___________________________________________________________________ ZE @ or RE @ ZE 1 - jw CZE
Vph IE max

RE 1 + jw CRE

We put Z E

and get e.g. for


Vph = 24000 V 3

IEmax = 10 A

C = 0. 6 x10 -6 F (per 3 phases)

ZE

24000 = 1385 ohms 3 10

For the connection of RE and C in parallel:


1 1 2 = +  w C ZE RE
2 2

R =

2 E

1 - w CZ E 

2 ZE

REmin

1385 2 1 - 314x0.6x10 -6 x1385


2

for M = 314 1/s

REmin > 1435 ohms The ABB static devices applied for monitoring the neutral point voltage displacement are less sensitive to higher harmonics and therefore vc = 0 The componnent "d" is usually smaller than 1 or 2 % of the phase voltage. Using the value vd = 2 % and keeping the value vb < 2.5 % a setting value vset = 5 % is not exceeded by spurious voltages. The transformer capacitance C12 is much smaller than the generator capacitance C0. Therefore for an approximate calculation of a transferred current during a ground fault on the transformer H.V. side only the capacitance C12 may be applied: 35

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___________________________________________________________________ a) Transformer H.V. neutral point ungrounded

IC ( 3M C12 V2ph The voltage drop across the impedance ZE


DV = ZEIC

should be equal or smaller than 2.5 % of the generator phase voltage Vph. Then DV = 0. 025 Vph = ZEIC and the maximum impdedance and resistance value is
ZE R
2 Emax

0. 025 Vph IC 1 - w CZ E 
2 ZE 2

Using the values


Vph = 24000 = 13856 V 3

w = 314 1/ s
C12 = 3 x10 -9 F V2ph = 110000 = 63500 V 3

C = 0. 6 x10 -6 F

we get
IC = 3 x314 x3 x10 -9 x63500 = 0.18 A

ZE =

0. 025 x13856 = 1924 ohms 0.18 1924 2 1 - ( 314 x0. 6 x10 -6 x1924)2

REmax

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___________________________________________________________________ REmax < 2064 ohms The final resistance value is to be chosen between REmin and REmax, it is between 1435 and 2064 ohms. Taking the value of e.g. 1500 ohms we get for the - maximum resistor current
IR = Vph RE
=

13850 = 9. 23 A 1500

- maximum ground fault current Vph IE = ZE RE ZE = 1 + jw CRE 1500 ZE = 1 + j314 x0. 6 x10 -6 x1500 ZE = 1443 ohms IE = 13850 = 9. 60 A 1443

b) Transformer H.V. neutral point solidly grounded. In this case only 1/6 of the value of 3 C12 is activ. IC = 0. 5w C12 V2ph
IC = 0. 5 x314 x3 x10 -9 x63500 = 0. 03 A

ZE =

0. 025 x13856 = 11547 ohms 0. 03

Comparing this maximum impedance value ZE with the reactance value of the capacitance C
1 10 6 XC = = = 5308 ohms w C 314 x0. 6

we see that the capacitance C allone is able to keep the voltage drop produced by a current transferred from the H.V. side, below the level of the ground fault protection pick-up value. The resistor RE is thus not desired to stabilize the protection device at H.V. ground faults; it is to be 37

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___________________________________________________________________ used only to damp transient voltage oscillations. Its value should thus be equal or smaller than the capacitive reactance Xc. The final resistance value can be chosen between 1435 and 5308 ohms. Taking the value of e.g. 3000 ohms we get: IR = 13850 = 4. 62 A 3000 3000 ZE = 1 + j314 x0. 6 x10 -6 x3000 ZE = 2612 ohms IE = 13850 = 5. 3 A 2612

For a resistor connected to the secondary side of a voltage transformer situated between the generator neutral point and the earth the resistance value Re must be recalculated:
V2N R e = RE V1N
2

The voltages V1N and V2N are rated voltages of this voltage transformer. The value of a resistor connected to a tertiary side in delta of 3 voltage transformers situated at generator terminals is:
3V3N Re = RE V1N
2

The voltage V3N is the rated tertiary voltage of a VT. If the transformer capacitances are not known, the following maximum data can be used for an approximate calculation: Capacitance of 1 phase (pF) 5000 - 12000 1000 - 1500 3000 - 6000

C1 C2 C12 where: C2

is the H.V. generator transformer winding capacitance ( not important for the determination of the grounding resistor)

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___________________________________________________________________
3.6.1.2. 100 % Stator Ground Fault Protection

The task of the 100 % stator ground fault protection is the detection of all stator ground faults. The 100 % stator ground fault protection comprises a 95 % scheme and an injection scheme. The injection scheme operates with a neutral point displacement by an injected voltage. At the REG216 and 316 systems the injection voltage has an impulse waveform with an amplitude of about 100V and a frequency of 12.5 or 15 Hz. The protected winding length depends on the maximum current of the power system frequency circulating through the grounding resistor RE during a terminal ground fault. If this current is smaller than 5 A, the total winding length of 100 % is protected by the injection scheme. If this current is higher, e.g. 10 A, then only 50 % of the winding length from the neutral point is protected by the injection scheme. The advantage of the low frequency for the injection voltage is the: - possibility to distinguish between a service and a ground fault current - low capacitive currents during normal operation. Typical settings: 95 % scheme Voltage 5 or 10 % Delay 0.5 s Delay 1s 0.5 s

Injection scheme Insulation resistance stage No.1 "alarm" 10000 ohms stage No.2 "trip" 1000 ohms

Remark: a similar injection scheme can also be applied for the rotor ground fault protection.
3.6.2. Stator Ground Fault Protection for Generators Directly Connected to a Busbar

This ABB protection system is applicable for ungrounded systems (Fig. 3.6-6). The purpose of this protection system is - on the bus and transformer feeders: - on generator feeders : during ground faults. to give an alarm to trip the faulted feeder

Any ground fault on the system is detected by a voltage displacement measured on the busbar, which is common for all machines of this system.

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___________________________________________________________________ The voltage displacement is measured by a sensitive voltage device connected to the broken delta of the tertiary windings of three voltage transformers supplied by the busbar voltage. In order to selectively detect and remove the feeder affected by the ground fault, a current or better a directional current measurement is necessary in addition. For an ungrounded power system the ground fault currents are determined by the capacitances to ground. In most cases these currents are small, not well measurable and cannot be used for the detection of a ground fault. In these cases it is necessary to increase the level of the ground faults by a grounding impedance. Usually a grounding resistor is applied. The ABB protection system uses a grounding resistor Re limiting the ground fault current to 20 A. As mentioned, when a ground fault occurs the voltage device picks up. This device sounds an alarm. Consequently the voltage device initiates the connection of the grounding resistor to the broken delta of 3 VT's (Fig. 3.6-7). A sufficient ground fault current can now flow. According to the location of the ground fault, the ground fault currents vary between 0 and 20 A. For a ground fault on the busbar and on the transformer feeders no current device can pick up, and therefore the grounding resistor will be disconnected after 3 - 6 s. The grounding resistor and the grounding transformers are full-currentrated only for a short time operation of 10 s. The purpose of the resistor Rp is to reduce the influence of spurious voltages for a ground fault on the H.V. side. The resistor Rp is dimensioned for continuous operating conditions. For a ground fault on the generator side of the current transformers the directional overcurrent device picks up and the faulted generator is tripped after 0.5 s. Features of this method: - very sensitive and complex - not available for large machines. In the case of large machines it is not possible to detect small ground fault currents below the relatively high rated current. - the special zero sequence current transformers are required - the grounding transformer is overloaded for a short time - the grounding resistor is dimensioned for a short time only - reference voltage value depends on the location of the ground fault. Summary: - The voltage device detects any ground fault 40

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___________________________________________________________________ - If only the voltage device picks- up, it means that the bus or some transformer feeder is faulted to ground - The directional current device detects ground faults on its generator feeder. If a running generator is not yet connected to the busbars, a ground fault on its feeder cannot be detected. In this case it is possible to use an additional neutral point voltage transformer (see Fig. 3.6-7) and a voltage device to detect ground faults on its feeder. A grounding resistor is not required, because there is no transferred current as a spurious component. This protection device trips the excitation circuit breaker. When the generator circuit breaker is closed, this additional protection system is blocked.
3.7. Rotor Ground Fault Protection

The rotor ground fault protection is the protection of the field circuit against ground faults. The rotor ground faults are less dangerous, because the fault current is small due to the low voltage. More dangerous is the double rotor ground fault causing heavy rotor vibrations due to the magnetic unsymmetry. For generators with sliprings the rotor insulation resistance is sometimes reduced by a coal dust layer produced by the coal-brushes. The applied rotor ground fault protection device is not able to differentiate between single- and double-ground faults. Depending on the kind of the excitation system, the ground faults of the excitation machine, rectifier and excitation transformer are also detected. The rotor circuit is ungrounded under normal operating conditions and the excitation voltage is divided into two voltages of the + and -pole to ground. At the occurrence of a ground fault this voltage distribution is changed and results in a small ground fault current. Concerning the capabilities of the measuring technique, this small DC current, compared with the much higher field current, is not suitable to be applied for the ground fault detection. Instead a small AC voltage is injected between the field circuit and the ground according to Fig. 3.7-1. This voltage value has to be limited to a level of 50 V for the safety of the maintenance personnel. The capacitor C blocks any DC current to avoid saturation of the supplying transformer as well as of the measuring transformer. The simple rotor ground fault protection system monitoring the current of the supplying voltage transformer is suitable for generators with excitation systems having a voltage with only few harmonics, such as e.g. excitation 41

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___________________________________________________________________ systems with diode rectifiers. Larger harmonics would cause faulty operation at this protection system. At generators with modern excitation systems, using controlled thyristors, various harmonics as well as a certain fundamental frequency voltage components can occur in the excitation voltage. For that application a new protection device was developed. This device, using a balanced bridge connection (Fig. 3.7-1), is less sensitive to the above spurious components. During commissioning the measuring bridge circuit must be balancend according to the rotor capacitance C by the capacitor C2. During a ground fault the capacitance C is shorted and the bridge is getting unbalanced.
3.8. 3.8.1. Transformer Ground Fault Protection Typical Ground Fault Protection

Transformer ground faults are detected by a Buchholz relay or by a suitable protection device for windings connected to - an ungrounded system: - an impedance grounded system: - a solidly grounded system: by supervision of the voltage across the broken delta circuit of VT's (Fig. 3.8-1) by supervision of the neutral point current (Fig. 3.6-3) by the differential protection

The protection device of an ungrounded system using the voltage supervision across the broken delta is an unselective protection; the ground faults on the winding as well as on the connected system produce such a voltage. During ground faults on the connected lines the measured voltage is 100 %; during ground faults on the transformer winding the measured voltage depends on the faulted point. At a delta connected winding the minimum measured voltage is 50 %. A suitable setting value would be e.g. 40 % for the detection of local and remote ground faults. For the detection of remote ground faults on lines a setting value between 60 and 80 % may be sufficient. If the voltage level of the other transformer winding is higher, as is the case with generator transformers, it is to be calculated with transferred capacitive currents from the H.V. side and the circuit of the broken delta is to be closed by a resistor or by a nonlinear element. Also the device operating with the neutral point current of an impedancegrounded system (Fig. 3.6-3) is an unselective protection detecting ground faults not only on the transformer winding but also on the connected system. The maximum ground fault current circulates during ground faults on the terminals or on the connected lines. Evaluating the maximum 42

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___________________________________________________________________ ground fault current as 100 % and using a current setting of 20 %, the protected winding length is 80 %. On a solidly grounded system the level of ground fault currents is similar to the level of short-circuit currents. Therefore a differential device is able to detect the currents of both kinds of faults.
3.8.2. Restricted Ground Fault Protection

The restricted ground fault (R.E.F.) protection is a selective protection (Fig. 3.8-2). The R.E.F. protection is used especially for impedance-grounded transformer windings protected by the transformer differential protection. Its task is to improve the ground fault protection extending the protected Wye-winding length. During ground faults on the wye connected winding the ground fault current induces a current into the delta winding. This induced current is smaller than the ground fault current (both in p.u. system) due to a changed turn ratio. The differential protection operates with the smaller current i1 whilst the R.E.F. protection operates with the higher current i2, which is more suitable for the detection. E.g. the R.E.F. protection enables the protection of 80 % of the winding length, whereby only 42 % can be covered by the differential protection with the same setting, when the maximum ground fault current is limited to the value of the rated current by the grounding impedance and the setting is 20 % for both devices (Fig. 3.8-2). For the detection of faults instantaneous voltage or current devices are used. The current device is used with a series-connected stabilizing resistor (Fig. 3.8-3). The measuring system is usually a high-impedance system; its advantage is a very good stability for external faults. For internal faults the fault current causes high overvoltages across the high-impedance of the differential circuit. These overvoltages must be limited by one or more nonlinear resistors connected in parallel to the differential circuit. Sometimes the differential circuit is to be shorted after the protection device has tripped. Only current transformers with the same current ratio can be used. They are to be specified by the knee-point voltage and by the maximum allowed secondary winding resistance. Although the advantage of the R.E.F. protection is most important for windings with impedance grounded neutral points, this protection is also used for solidly grounded windings. 43

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___________________________________________________________________ The R.E.F. is to be designed in two steps: step No.1 - determination of the R.E.F. device and of its setting according to an external ground fault or short-circuit step No.2 - determination of the CT's acc. to an internal ground fault. The determination of the 1st step is required to avoid maloperation due to CT saturation during through-ground-fault currents as well as external short-circuits.
3.8.3 Tank Leakage Protection

The tank leakage protection is a selective protection against ground faults between the transformer winding and the tank. It can be applied only if the tank is fully insulated from ground and is connected to the ground by a current transformer supplying a ground fault current device (Fig. 3.8-4). The ground fault current circulates from the tank to the ground during an internal fault and is monitored by the current device. The protected zone, generally limited to the tank, can be extended to cables if their sheath can be insulated from the ground in a similar way as the transformer tank.
3.9. Breaker Failure Protection

If a fault in a protected zone cannot be cleared due to a C.B. failure, the tripping command must be extended to the next C.B. or CB's. This remote tripping must be fast enough to limit the damage caused by the fault. The breaker failure protection B.F. can be realized by two different schemes using as criterions (Fig. 3.9-1): a) a pick-up signal of an overcurrent device and trip command (device 50/62 BF) or b) a C.B. image and trip command (device 62 BF). The BF protection can be arranged with one stage only to trip the remote C.B.'s or with two stages. In the second case the first stage is provided to repeat the trip of the local C.B. and the second stage to trip the remote C.B.'s.
3.9.1 B.F. Device 50/62 BF

The scheme with the overcurrent device and the trip command is mostly used.

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___________________________________________________________________ It uses a trip signal and a current still circulating and not yet interrupted as a criterion of a C.B. failure. At a false trip signal a maloperation of the B.F. failure device is prohibited with the help of the current supervision. During correct operation of the C.B. the fault is cleared after a time given by: - the operating time of the fault detecting device - the C.B. operating time. After the fault has been cleared, the overcurrent device drops out after the reset time. If the overcurrent device does not drop out, this means that the current still circulates due to a C.B. failure. In this case the fault current must be interrupted by a next C.B. or by next C.B's tripped by the C.B. failure protection after a delay set on the timer 62. In order to keep a short operating time the reset time of the overcurrent device must be as short as possible. The CT's applied to supply the current device of the B.F. protection should be located close to the protected C.B. The B.F. protection is provided for the detection of currents circulating trough the failed circuit breaker. If the applied CT's are located too far from the C.B., only the current supplied by the generator is monitored during faults between the CT's and the C.B. and can cause a B.F. device maloperation although the C.B. is already open (Fig. 3.9-2). The minimum operating time of the device 50/62 BF is given by the operating time of the failed C.B. and by the reset time of the overcurrent device at the standard version (Fig. 3.9-3). It can be e.g. 70 + 30 = 100 ms. The setting value of the operating time should be higher by a certain margin. The operating time is to be set on the timer 62. Together with the operating time of the fault protection (e.g. of 30 ms) and with the operating time of the next C.B. (e.g.70 ms) the total fault clearing time would be 200 ms. The modified B.F. device has a minimum operating time given by the operating time of the failed C.B. only. The current setting must be selected such that the overcurrent device does not drop out due to the damping of the fault current during the operating time of the B.F. device. A typical current setting is above the rated current value. Applying a value below IN the range of the current supervision is extended down to the service current values, but the risk of a maloperation is higher. If the reset time of the overcurrent device is too long a modified B.F. 45

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___________________________________________________________________ device can be used. Its overcurrent device 50 BF is normally blocked and is released only if the timer 62 is timed out. A disadvantage of the device 50/62 BF is that it is not applicable during faults with no fault overcurrent such as - overvoltage, overexcitation, frequency - unbalanced load, ground faults on ungrounded systems - loss-of-excitation, pole- slipping, reverse power and C.B. failures at a normal operating current.
3.9.2 B.F. Device 62 BF

The protection scheme uses a trip signal and an auxiliary contact of the C.B. for the detection of a C.B. failure (Fig. 3.9-1,4). Advantage: - The device is independent of the current level. - The device can also be used at unbalanced load, loss-of-excitation, overvoltage, etc.

Disadvantage: - Increased risk of a maloperation by a false trip signal during normal operation - Maloperation during a fault and wrong operation of the C.B auxiliary contact.

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4. 4.1. 4.1.1 PROTECTION DEVICES FOR ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS Overload Protection Introduction

The overload protection is a protection of the winding insulation against overheating which could influence the insulation life. Electrical machines such as generators, motors and transformers are designed for a certain maximum ambient air temperature; mostly 40C. At load the winding temperature rises due to machine losses, especially to copper winding losses. The winding and its cooling system are usually designed such that the temperature rise is 60 K for oil transformers and 80 K for air cooled generator stators at rated current. This implies an absolute continuous winding temperature of 100C or 120C. The permitted maximum continuous temperature value depends on the insulation class and is usually higher by 10C; that means an absolute temperature of 110C or 130C. Higher winding temperatures cause a shorter insulation life and are therefore allowed for faults for a short time only. During normal service overloads, the maximum temperature value of 110 or 130C must not be exceeded. For transformers with high through-fault currents a maximum short time copper winding temperature of 250C is allowed. The insulation overheating can be caused by: - increased winding current - failure of the cooling system. Various monitoring and protection devices supervise: - cooling gas or oil temperature - winding temperature rise - winding temperature. The following components are used for overload protection: - Thermal sensors - Thermal devices.
4.1.1.1. Thermal Sensors

The spot temperature the of insulation surface, the cooling gas or the oil is monitored. Advantage: Critical points are able to be supervised

Disadvantage:- Only the insulation temperature instead of the winding temperature can be measured, due to the high voltage 47

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___________________________________________________________________ level. - Delay of the temperature detection


4.1.1.2. Thermal Devices

Thermal devices are provided for the supervision of the average temperature rise or of the average winding temperature. Because the direct measurement of the winding temperature for high-voltage machines is not possible, a thermal image of the winding temperature is used. The thermal image usually operates with the assumption that the temperature rise depends only on the winding current. If the current suddenly changes, the winding temperature rise follows according to several exponential functions for the temperature rise of the - cooling medium against the ambient air - winding against the cooling medium. The transient functions of the variable temperature rise are specified by the: - end temperature rise at a certain current step - thermal time constant. E.g. a transformer oil temperature rise curve can be specified by the: - temperature rise of 55 K at IN - thermal time constant value between 120 and 210 min. A winding temperature rise curve can be specified by the: - temperature rise of 5 K at IN - thermal time constant value between 5 and 20 min. The thermal image enables the simulation of the instantaneous temperature rise without direct temperature measurement and without any additional delay. The supervision of the winding temperature rise ensues independently of the ambient air temperature and the cooling system. The winding temperature including the ambient air temperature and cooling intensity can be supervised using a thermal sensor in addition to the thermal image. Using two exponentional functions the variable winding temperature of an oil cooled transformer loaded by an overcurrent i can be calculated as follows: (Fig. 4.1-1).
t t J oil Jw J w (t ) = J 0 + DJ Noil (1 - e ) + ( DJ Nw - DJ Noil )(1 - e ) (i 2 - 1)

Equation 1.1 48

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___________________________________________________________________ I IN

where Used symbols:


J w ( t)

i=

- variable winding temperature as a function of time - time - ambient air temperature equal to cold machine temperature - temperature rise of the oil at the rated current IN - temperature rise of the winding at the rated current IN - thermal time constants of the oil and winding - instantaneous and rated current

t
J0 DJ Noil DJ Nw J oil , J w

I , IN

Monitoring the instantaneous oil temperature J oil by a thermal sensor


t J oil = J 0 + DJ Noil 1 - e J oil

Equation 1.2

we get a simplified equation for the winding temperature


J w (t ) = J oil + ( DJ Nw
t Jw - DJ Noil ) 1 - e (i 2 - 1)

Equation 1.3

J oil - instantaneous oil temperature

For a gas or water cooled generator or motor similar equations are valid. Although under transient current conditions the winding temperature changes mainly in accordance with two exponential functions, most of the thermal devices operate with only one exponential function. This function must be as equivalent as possible to both of the above functions (refer to Fig. 4.1-2). This equivalent exponential curve corresponds to the winding temperature rise and has a certain time constant J with a value between that of t oil and t w . The thermal image thus operates according to the equation:
t - J DJ w = DJ Nw 1 - e (i 2 - 1)

Equation 1.4 49

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___________________________________________________________________ For an optimum value of " J " refer to Fig. 4.1-2. Often a suitable value is J = 0.7 t oil .
4.1.1.3. Equations for Operation Curve of Thermal Devices

According to the equation for an instantaneous winding temperature rise DJ a certain temperature rise is reached at various currents during different times. We can consider an allowed maximum operating temperature rise, e.g. of 70 K, as a such temperature rise. The locus of all points with the allowed maximum temperature rise is a curve of the thermal capability of the protected machine (Fig. 4.1-4). It is a pattern for the characteristic of the applied thermal device which has to operate at the same or shorter times. Used symbols: IN I Im
J0 JN J Ji Jm

rated current current at overload current at maximum temperature temperature at I = 0 steady-state temperature at IN steady-state temperature at I instantaneous temperature at time ti maximum temperature instantaneous time overload duration until J M is exceeded thermal time constant multiplying factor

ti tm
J

The end value of the temperature rise is given by the current (Fig. 4.1-3):
DJ = J - J 0 = KI2
2 DJ N = J N - J 0 = KIN

Equation 1.5 Equation 1.6

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___________________________________________________________________
DJ I2 = 2 DJ N IN

The instantaneous temperature:


t - i J i = J N + (J - J N ) 1 - e J or t - i J 1 = J N + ( DJ - D J N ) 1 - e J

Equation 1.7

t I 2 - i J 1 = J N + DJ N - 1 1 - e J I N

Equation 1.8

The device picks-up at


Ji = Jm

t i = tm Equation 1.9

t I 2 - m J m - J N = DJ N - 1 1 - e J I N

DJ m = J m - J N

According to the last and following equations the allowed maximum temperature rise DJ m can be reached at various currents I during different times tm:
tm Jm - J N 1 = 1- e J DJ N I 2 -1 IN

tm 1 Jm - J N - ln e = ln 1 2 t DJ N I - 1 IN

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___________________________________________________________________
1 t m = t ln 1 1 - J m - J N DJ N I 2 - 1 IN

Equation 1.10

The limits of the last equation are given by: I = : IN t m = t ln1 = 0

tm = I = Im : 1 = ln 1 1 - J m - J N DJ N I 2 - 1 IN Im J - JN = 1+ m DJ N IN For the overload capability of the machine according to the equation 1.10 refer to Fig. 4.1-4. The thermal time constant is
t=

hG J cS

[s; J/kg; W/cm2; cm2] Equation 1.11

where: h G Jc S specific heat weight cooling factor cooling surface [ J/kg ] [ kg ] [ W/cm2 ] [ cm2 ]

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4.1.2. Overload Device for Generators

4.1.2.1. Overload Device Characteristic

The tripping characteristic of this ABB device consists of two sections. For small overcurrents a definite time curve and for high overcurrents an inverse time characteristic is provided. The characteristic of the second section is specified according to the overload requirement by the American Standard ANSI C 50.13 for turbogenerators. The applied characteristic is given by an approximate equation, which is suitable at fast short time current changes. Using a series development of the exponential function we obtain: e- x = 1 1 - e- x 1 1 1 x + x2 - x3 +... 1! 2! 3! 1 1 2 1 3 = x - x + x -... 1! 2! 3!

Usig the equation 1.8 we get 2 3 I 2 t 1t 1t J m - J N = DJ N - 1 i - i + i -... 6 t I N t 2 t Approximately for t i < 0.1t it can be written: I 2 t i J m - J N @ DJ N - 1 I N t The tripping time tm is reached when
Ji = Jm

ti = tm

tm = t

Jm - J N 1 DJ N I 2 -1 IN

This approximate equation is correct for small ratios

ti << 1; it results in t shorter tripping times for overcurrents of longer duration than the exact solution. For a characteristic according to ANSI for turbogenerator stators the following is valid:
t Jm - JN = 41. 4 DJ N

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___________________________________________________________________ The bottom of the definite time curve for stators is at 1.16 In and 120 s (Fig. 4.1-5). A similar characteristic can be applied for turbogenerator rotors.
4.1.2.2. Thermal Device for Universal Heating Curve

If the heating curve of the protected machine cannot be represented by a suitable exponential function a universal heating curve can be used for this thermal device of the REG system. The heating curve is to be devided into 40 steps. By a temporal derivation of these steps an impulse responce function is obtained, desired for setting values. For details refer to the Instructions 1MDU02005.
4.1.3. Requirements of Standards

The maximum permissible continuous winding temperatures ( IEC 34-1, VDE 0530 ) based on the insulation class B and on the ambient temperature of 40C are as follows. Generator stator air cooled winding: temperature rise absolute temperature Transformer oil cooled winding oil temperature rise winding temperature 60 K 105C 80 K 120C

Short-time overload capability at full load conditions Generator stator winding rotor winding IEC t= 37. 5 i2 - 1 ANSI 41. 4 i2 - 1 31. 8 t= 2 i -1 t=

According to the IEC / VDE standards the stator of generators up to 1200 MVA may be overloaded by 1.5 IN during 30 s.This value corresponds with the above formula of IEC. Transformers: maximum permissible copper winding temperature at through-fault currents: 250C

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___________________________________________________________________ In order not to exceed the value of 250C the duration of the through fault current is to be limited to 2 s according to VDE and ANSI / IEEE.
4.1.4. Thermal Device Setting

The setting depends on the winding insulation class and on the winding temperature at full load. E.g. oil cooled transformers are often designed for the following temperatures at rated current and at an ambient temperature of 40C: oil winding 95C 100C

The corresponding temperature rise is: oil winding 55 K 60 K

In view of the allowed max. winding temperature of 105C or 110C, possible settings of the thermal devices supervising the winding temperature rise, would be as follows: single stage devices double stage devices 1st stage (alarm) 2nd stage (trip) 65 ... 70 K 65 ... 70 K 70 ... 75 K

The recommended settings for devices with the scale in percent: single stage devices double stage devices 1st stage (alarm) 2nd stage (trip) 110 .. 120 % 110 .. 120 % 115 .. 125 %

Possible settings of thermal devices supervising the absolute winding temperature with the help of thermal sensors are: single stage devices double stage devices 1st stage (alarm) 2nd stage (trip) 105 .. 110C 105 .. 110C 110 .. 115C

Similar values can be determined for generators and motors.

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4.1.5. Thermal Time Constants

Generally the values of thermal time constants for generators and transformers vary in a wide range depending on the machine design. Also the values of the maximum temperature of the cooling medium and of the winding can be different depending on the insulation class. Therefore it is recommended to get those values from the machine manufacturer. For oil transformers the range of usual thermal time constants is as follows:
tw t oil

5 ... 10 ... 20 120 ... 210

min min

If the values of the individual thermal time constants are not known, the approximate equivalent value can be determined from the measured winding temperature rise curve. For this purpose the low-voltage transformer side is usually shorted and the high-voltage side is supplied by a voltage reduced approximately to the value of the impedance voltage. At certain time intervals the transformer supply is interrupted for a short time for the winding resistance measurement. The winding temperature is then calculated from the resistance rise. If the transmission lines between the circuit breaker and the transformer should also be protected, then it may be necessary to take their thermal time constants into account. Generally these are within the following range: overhead lines 5 ..... 30 min cables 15 ....100 min
4.2. 4.2.1. Negative Sequence Current Protection NPS Current Protection for Generators

The negative sequence current protection is a protection of the synchronous machine rotor against dangerous overheating caused by unbalanced stator currents. The negative sequence current device monitoring stator currents is often called the NPS current device; that means a negative phase sequence device. The task of the NPS protection is chiefly the protection against unbalanced load. If possible this protection should also operate during asymmetrical faults not cleared by the fault protection in time.

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___________________________________________________________________ The accuracy of the NPS current detection must be sufficient to avoid any maloperation at symmetrical three-phase fault currents. A negative sequence current component I2 circulating during a certain time causes a rotor temperature rise according to a thermal function from the initial value at rated conditions J 0 to a new end value J . Usually a suitable exponential function is considered as equivalent to the actual transient thermal function (Fig. 4.2-1). The allowed maximum temperature rise must not be exceeded at: - continuous current I2 - any short-time current I2.during time tm The NPS current protection operates when the value DJ m is exceeded.
4.2.1.1. Dangerous Conditions for Synchronous Machines

For synchronous machines any kind of operation with asymmetrical stator currents can be dangerous. This abnormal operation can be considered as an operation with additional current components which increase the machine losses. These additional stator current components increase losses and temperature of the stator winding and especially of the rotor surface temperature by induced eddy currents. Asymmetrical stator currents can be split up in three symmetrical components, the positive, negative and zero-sequence components. The negative sequence current component produces a magnetic field rotating in the opposite direction to the rotor with synchronous speed. In the rotor there are induced currents doubling the rated frequency. The zero sequence current component causes a magnetic field with a fixed axis and a variable amplitude. The currents induced in the rotor have the rated frequency. Most generators are high-resistance grounded and the zero-sequence current can flow to the ground only during a ground fault. In the ABB generators the ground fault current is limited to 20 A so that it is less dangerous for the machine. Nevertheless 0.5 s after any stator ground fault occurs the generator is tripped. Another source of a zero sequence current is a sudden line-to-generator neutral point short circuit. In this case the zero-sequence component of the generator current is very high, and this fault must be quickly cleared by a fault protection. The probability of a such fault is very small at modern construction arangements. Therefore it is expected that such faults are detected by the differential protection and no special zero-sequence current protection device is desired. 57

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___________________________________________________________________ The negative sequence current results in an increased rotor temperature. This is dangerous for the rotor surface and especially for some critical spots of the rotor.Therefore a supervision of the negative-sequence current is necessary; the NPS current device is to be applied, because no other device is able to supervise the negative-sequence current.
4.2.1.2. Unbalanced Stator Current Conditions

A negative sequence current occurs due to: - unbalanced load - asymmetrical faults. An unbalanced load can be caused by: - single-phase loads of the supplied power system (railways and furnaces) - asymmetrical three-phase loads - circuit breaker failures. The negative-sequence current is mostly a small and almost continuous current. Nevertheless sometimes the negative-sequence current is higher and its changes are faster. The negative-sequence currents circulating during asymmetrical faults are high transient currents (refer to Table 2-VI). Those fault currents must be quickly interrupted by a fault protection, so that the rotor temperature rise is kept less dangerous. During circulating fault currents, the negativesequence current protection may pick up but it does not trip. Only a failure of the fault protection might induce the negative-sequence current device to trip. Opening a circuit breaker under load or fault conditions can resolute in an asymmetrical current if the current is not interrupted by all three poles. Under load conditions the asymmetrical current caused by a breaker failure is smaller than the rated current and cannot be detected by any fault protection. The negative-sequence component of this current is very dangerous for the rotor (Table 2-I). In this case a breaker failure device initiated by the NPS current protection device has to operate and trip the next circuit breakers.
4.2.1.3. Application

ABB use two different NPS current devices. They operate either with a definite-time characteristic or with an inverse-time characteristic. The task of the definite-time NPS current device is the protection at unabalanced load. The NPS current definite-time device trips with a certain delay in order to avoid any trip at short-time NPS currents caused 58

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___________________________________________________________________ by sudden unablanced load changes or by remote faults before they are cleared by the fault protection. This device is not suitable to protect the generator during remote faults. The task of the inverse-time NPS device is the protection during unbalanced load as well as during asymmetrical faults. The negative phase sequence current devices (NPS current devices) evaluate the current I2 from the measurement of individual phase currents. For selection of setting values the thermal rotor capability must be known, specified by the machine manufacturer with the help of - permitted continuous negative-sequence current i2 (p.u.) - permitted product (i2)2 t (p.u.;s) The permitted negative sequence current value i2 usually in the range between 5 and 10 %.

for generators is

The allowed product value (i2)2 t is usualy in the range between 5 and 30 s. For details of permissible values for machines of different types and various ratings refer to Tables 4.2-II and III. With respect to low setting values of i2 at large machines, only current transformers with a sufficient accuracy are to be used. ABB use the NPS definite-time devices in two stages for an alarm and a trip (Fig. 4.2-2). The current setting of both stages is selected according to the value i2 ; the delay of the alarm stage is usually approximately one half of the trip stage delay. The alarm delay should avoid any false alarm at short-time unbalanced currents. The trip delay should avoid any trip during local and remote faults before they are cleared by a fault protection. The inverse-time device is preferred for higher short-time NPS currents under transient conditions caused by sudden unbalanced load changes and faults. This device operates according to the setting value of the product (i2)2 t. It enables a better protection at fast unbalanced load changes and at asymmetrical faults, because its setting can be selected according to the rotor thermal capacity.
4.2.1.4. Application of NPS Current Definite-Time Device

The NPS device with a definite time characteristic usually has to protect the generator only at unbalanced load. The expected values of the current i2 are between 0 and 57.7 %. The typical current setting is 0.1 IN for medium rating machines. The delay for the trip stage must be - longer than the operating time of all fast fault protection devices detecting the same current level; e.g. 59

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___________________________________________________________________ t >1s - shorter than the allowed time tm. This time is given by the allowed product (i2)2 t and by the expected maximum current i2 = 0.577 IN .E.g. for (i2)2 t = 10 s the delay is
tm

i 
2

2 2

10

 0.577 2

= 30s

A typical setting value for the alarm and the trip is 5 and 10 s.
4.2.1.5. Application of NPS Current Inverse-Time Device

The NPS inverse-time device operates according to a characteristic given by the product (i2)2 t and by the current i2 . The REG 216 and 316 systems enable the application of this device according to the requirements of the IEC 34-1, VDE 0530 and ANSI C50.13 standards. Used symbols for the calculation:
JO J Ji Jm

inital temperature end temperature I2 instantaneous temperature steady-state temperature at I2 maximum steady-state admissible negative sequence current instanteneous negative sequence current rated current thermal time constant multiplication factors time at instantaneous temperature J i maximum time as well as operating time times limiting the activated range of the inverse-time characteristic

I2 I2 IN
J

K,K1, K2 ti tm tmin, tmax

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___________________________________________________________________ Similarly as for the temperature rise caused by a symmetrial overload it can be written for stator unbalanced currents:
DJ = J - J O = KI2 2 DJ m = J m - J O = KI2 2
2 2

Equation 2.1 Equation 2.2

t - i J i = J O + KI 1 - e J Equation 2.3 According to the condition that the same maximum temperature J m is permitted for short time unbalanced loading as well as for steady-state unbalanced loading, we calculate the time tm, at which the temperature is exceeded:

ti = tm

and

Ji = Jm

tm 2 J m = J o + KI2 1 - e t and

Equation 2.4

J m = J O + KI2 2

Equation 2.5

Comparing the last equations we get tm 2 I2 1 - e t = I2 2


-

I2 -1 I2 and later 2 I2 I 2 t m = J ln 2 I2 -1 I 2

tm t

I2 I2
2

Equation 2.6

An approximate calculation is possible using the series development of the exponential function to the equation 2.3:
ti 1 ti 2 1 ti 3 J i = J 0 + KI - + -... 6t t 2 t
2 2

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___________________________________________________________________ For small ratios

ti an approximate solution using only the two first terms of J the series can be used:
ti 1 ti 2 J i @ J 0 + KI - t 2 t
2 2

Equation 2.7

For the maximum permitted temperature


Jm = Ji

tm = ti

we get
tm 1 tm 2 J m @ J 0 + KI - t 2 t
2 2

Equation 2.8 Equation 2.5

2 J m = J 0 + KI2

Now we compare:
tm 1 tm 2 KI - @ KI 22 t 2 t
2 2
2 2 I 2 @ I 2

Equation 2.9

1 tm 1 tm 1 2 J J

Equation 2.10

For

tm << 1 can be written approximately J

I2 @ I2 2 2

t 12 + I2 tm 2

Equation 2.11

The operating time is I2 t 2 tm @ 1 I2 - I2 2 2 2 or


i2 t K 2 tm = = 2 1 2 1 i2 - i 2 i2 - K 2 2 2 2

Equation 2.12

Equation 2.13

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___________________________________________________________________ where i2 = I2 IN i2 =
K2 =

I2 IN
1 i2 2

2 K 1 = i2 t

Equation 2.14

The REG system device "NPS-Invers" of ABB operates with curves given by the equation 2.13; for one of its curves refer to Fig. 4.2-3. The factor K1 is to be set according to the permitted product value of (i2)2t. Without the limitation by the "tmax" the operating time tm would by 1 i2 (refer to Equation 2.13). infinitely long at the current i2 = K2 = 2 The time "tmax" is the maximum permitted duration of the circulating current i2 This time is to be calculated from the permitted product value (i2)2 t: tmax =

i 
i

2 2 2

At usual values for medium rating machines it is: (i2)2 t = 10 s i2 = 0.1


10

tmax =

0,1 2

= 1000 s

The time "tmin" must be: - longer than the operating time of all fast fault protection devices detecting the same current level; e.g. tmin > 1 s - shorter than the allowed time tm . If the device has to protect the generator only at unbalanced load, the maximum value of i2 which should be considered is 0.577. From the value (i2)2 t = 10 the time tmin is 63

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___________________________________________________________________
10 = 30s  0.577 2

t min

A possible setting with respect to both conditions is e.g. tmin = 10 s. If the device has to protect the generator not only at unbalanced load but also during asymmetrical faults, then the maximum value of i2, to be considered, is e.g. 3.33 during a generator line-to-line fault (refer to Table III). For the value (i2)2 t = 10 s the time tmin is
t min
10 = 0.90s  3.33 2

The possible setting which can be realized with respect to both conditions is tmin = 1 s (minimum possible setting value)

tm in the bracket of the equation 2J t 2.10 is quite small and may be neglected because m << 1; then we get a 2t second approximate solution: At high currents I2 the second term I2 = I2 2 2

t tm
2 2

Equation 2.15

tm =

 I  J i  J
2

2 2

2 2

K1 2 i2

Equation 2.16

This second solution presupposes no heat dissipation and we get a very simple formula for the rotor thermal capability

i 
2

t m = i 2  J
2

Equation 2.17

Some NPS current devices (not involved in the REG216/316 system) operate according to this simple equation. The value of the thermal time constant J depends on the rotor surface and is much larger than the thermal time constant of the winding. For instance at K1 = 30 s , the thermal time constant is 64 i2 = 0.1

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___________________________________________________________________ K1 30 = 3000 s or 50 min 0.01

J =

i 
2

4.2.1.6. Level of Symmetrical Components at Various Conditions

The symmetrical components of a current system of the phases A,B,C can be calculated according to the following formula: I1 = I2 = I0 = 1 ( IA + a IB + a2IC ) 3 1 ( IA + a2IB + a IC ) 3 1 ( IA + IB + IC ) 3

where "a" denotes a phase shift of 120. The calculation of symmetrical components for various conditions follows.
1. Symmetrical Current System

Referring to Fig. 4.2-4 we get IB = a 2 IA and I1 = I2 = I0 = because I C = a IA

1 ( IA + a 3 I A + a 3 I A ) = IA 3 1 ( IA + a 4 IA + a 2 IA ) = 0 3 1 ( IA + a2 IA + a IA) = 0 3

1 + a + a2 = 0 a3 = 1
2. Interruption of 1 Phase

a4 = a

An interruption of e.g. phase B is followed by a change of current phases according to Fig. 4.2-5. At an ungrounded system it can be written IA + IB + IC = 0 65

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___________________________________________________________________ For IB = 0 : IC = -IA

and the symmetrical components are I1 = I2 = I0 = Because we get I1 = I2 = I0 = 0 The negative-sequence current is therefore 0.577 IA or 57.7 % of IA.This means that the negative-sequence component reaches 57.7 % of the phase current at the full unbalance of phase currents caused by the load.
3. Reversed Phase Sequence
1 IA 3 1 IA 3

1 (IA + 0 - a2 IA) 3 1 (IA + 0 - a IA) 3 1 (IA + 0 - IA) 3 and


1- a = 3

1 - a2 = 3

The supply of a symmetrical load by a negative-sequence voltage causes a reversed phase current sequence. According to Fig. 4.2-6 we get IB = a IA and I1 = 1 3 1 I2 = 3 1 I0 = 3 (IA + a2 IA + a4 IA) = 0 (IA + a3 IA + a3 IA) = IA (IA + a IA + a2 IA) = 0 IC = a 2 IA

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___________________________________________________________________ This shows that a 100 % negative-sequence current can be obtained only by a negative sequence voltage.
4. H.V. Line-to-Line Fault

Referring to Fig. 2-10 IA + IB + IC = 0 I B = - IA and I1 = 1 3 1 I2 = 3 1 I0 = 3 (IA - a 1 1 IA - a2 IA) = 2 2 1 1 (IA - a2 IA - a IA) = 2 2 1 1 (IA - IA - IA) = 0 2 2 1 IA 2 1 IA 2 IC = - IA

5. H.V. Line-to-Ground Fault

Referring to Fig. 2-10 IB = 0 and I1 = 1 3 1 I2 = 3 1 I0 = 3


1 IA 3 1 IA (IA - a IA) = 3

IC = - IA

(IA - a2 IA) =

(IA - IA) = 0

6. Testing by Single-Phase Supply

IB = IC = 0 I1 = 1 IA 3 I2 1 =IA 3 I0 = 1 IA 3

4.2.2.

With respect to the equation for I2 the pick-up value is three times higher than the setting value. NPS Protection for Motors The NPS current protection is also required for induction motors. The 67

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___________________________________________________________________ negative sequence current causes a braking torque producing higher currents and an increased rotor temperature. At motors the current unbalance can be caused by: - Network voltage asymmetry - Circuit breaker failures - Motor faults. The characteristic of the NPS motor protection device may be again a definite-time one or an inverse-time one.
4.2.3. Checking of the NPS Current Device

Sometimes a test by an injected current is required. At standstill of a generator it is possible to supply only one phase input of the applied device by an injected current. The pick-up value is then threetimes higher than the setting value. For the test a generator operating into a symmetrical short circuit arranged by a link or by a grounding isolator can also be used. After shorting 1 or 2 current inputs the NPS current device operates, if the current value is sufficient. Never should an asymmetrical short-circuit of the generator be used for the tests because the danger for the rotor would be too high.
4.3. 4.3.1. Voltage Protection Overvoltage Protection

The overvoltage protection is the protection of electrical machines and current circuits against damage caused by overvoltage and overheating. Particularly protected are: - windings of electrical machines and current circuits against dangerous electrical stress of the insulation - laminated iron of electrical machines against overheating caused by increased iron losses - stator conductors situated near the air gap of large machines against overheating from eddy currents due to the high intensity of the radial magnetic field. The overvoltage protection is considered as a back-up protection for the A.V.R., which normally keeps the generator voltage within a certain tolerance range. The overvoltage protection is normally provided with two tripping stages. The first stage is intended against smaller and longer lasting overvoltages. The second stage is foreseen against higher and short-time overvoltages. Both stages have a definite time operating characteristic. A delay is

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___________________________________________________________________ necessary to avoid any maloperation at short- time overvoltages caused by: - sudden load changes - asymmetrical short-circuits - switching overvoltages. The generators are designed for a continuous operation at a rated voltage with a tolerance of +/- 5 %, sometimes of +/- 7.5 % or +/- 10 %. With respect to a voltage device accuracy of +/- 5 % the typical setting value of the 1st stage is higher by 5 % than the highest continuous service voltage (Fig. 4.3-1): 1st stage: 1.10 VN for VN +/- 5 % 1.13 VN for VN +/- 7.5 % 1.15 VN for VN +/- 10 % 1.30 VN delay 5 s delay 0.1 s

2nd stage:
4.3.2.

Undervoltage Protection

An undervoltage is no danger for the generator itself. Therefore an undervoltage protection is not normally applied for generators. An exception is the case of a power system with an unusually low short-circuit current level. An undervoltage caused by underexcitation could result in an instability of the power system. In this case an undervoltage protection is to be used additionally to the "loss-of-excitation" protection. The undervoltage protection is important for motors because the torque sinks with the voltage squared. Due to the reduced torque the motor driving capability and especially starting-up is made difficult. Therefore the undervoltage protection has usually two stages. The first stage is applied for blocking the motor energization and the second stage for tripping.
4.4. Overexcitation Protection

The overexcitation protection is applied for generators and transformers against overheating caused by the increased intensity of the magnetic field. This protection is especially required for modern transformers. An overexcitation can occur e.g. : - at rated frequency and overvoltage - at rated voltage and underfrequency. An overexcitation occurs e.g. at start-up or running down due to a failure of the control system. Overheating due to higher magnetic intensity in electrical machines is

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___________________________________________________________________ caused by increased iron losses and by increased additional losses from eddy currents. Overexcitation of transformers is not only dangerous due to increased iron losses and increased eddy currents, it increases also the magnetizing current to a value which could cause maloperation of the differential device. The measuring quantity of the overexcitation device is the ratio of V/f which corresponds with the magnetic flux (at a neglected voltage drop on the leakage reactance). A short delay is recommended to avoid maloperation at sudden load changes such as load shedding, etc. As a reference for setting values the diagram specified for Westinghouse machines (Fig. 4.4-1), the ANSI / IEEE Standard C37.106 or the VDE Standard 05320 may be applied. For a protection device operating with a definite-time characteristic the typical settings are: 1.10 VN/fN 5s

This characteristic is suitable for a longer overexcitation. For a short-time overexcitation an inverse-time characteristic enables a better protection.The short-time overexcitation capability is different for various machines. For settings of a device using an inverse-time characteristic the required machine capability data must be supplied by the machine manufacturer.
4.5. Frequency Protection

The frequency protection protects rotating machines against vibration and overheating. Frequencies deviating below or above the rated frequency can cause dangerous vibration of the generator and its driving machine. A considerably increased frequency can be dangerous due to large centrifugal forces. In this case the frequency protection operates as a back-up protection for the speed regulator. A higher frequency causes overheating of the magnetic circuits due to increased iron losses. When selecting the settings the allowed continuous frequency tolerance of +/- 2 % for generators is to be considered. For allowed values of the prime-mover its manufacturer must be consulted.

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___________________________________________________________________
4.6. Loss-of-Excitation Protection

The loss-of-excitation protection is applied to protect synchronous machines, generators and motors operating in parallel with generators of the power system against dangerous conditions caused by underexcitation. The field current of synchronous machines connected to a power system must be of a level which enables the supply of a required value of MW and MVAR to the power system (as a generator) or to be supplied by a required value of MW and MVAR ( as a motor). If the field current is too low the required value of MVAR cannot be supplied, the inductive current of the stator is too low and could even get capacitive. Although a decreased field current cannot cause any stator or rotor overload at values of xd above100 % the temperature of stator end plates, of statorend laminated iron and sometimes also of stator winding ends rises above the value during rated conditions. This is caused by an increased local magnetic flux leakage. Depending on the short-circuit current level of the power system its voltage could be decreased due to the underexcitation. The operation of an underexcited machine can result in instability and in the loss of synchronism. If the underexcited machine decreases the voltage of the power system, the instability of other machines may be initiated. An underexcitation can be caused by: - wrong setting of the A.V.R. - failure of the A.V.R. - voltage rise of the power system. Dangerous conditions for an underexcited synchronous machine are as follows: Synchronous running with underexcitation: - Increased heating of stator end plates, stator end iron lamination and stator winding ends - Instability. Asynchronous running after loss of synchronism: - Rotor surface overheating - Increased rotor mechanical stress - Field winding overvoltages (only at excitation systems with semiconductors). With respect to the more dangerous consequences of "loss-ofsychronism" the protection is provided specially for this case. The usually called "loss-of-excitation protection" is designed and set for the detection of the majority of the service points at which the synchronism is getting 71

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___________________________________________________________________ lost. The protection device operates by monitoring the angle between two phasors V and E being the load angle @ (Fig. 4.6-3). The conditions of an underexcited machine during synchronous operation are monitored by the A.V.R. A monitoring of the field current by an undercurrent device would not be efficient, because the field current varies between 100 and 250 % or more during operation. A decreased field current of a generator operating in isolation causes a decreased voltage. The power factor is given by the load and does not depend on the field current. An "underexcitation" such as known for machines operating in parallel with other synchronous machines of the power system is not possible and the "loss-of-excitation protection" is not required.
Stability Conditions

The active power of a three-phase synchronous machine under steadystate conditions is given per phase by the equation P= VE sin @ Xd (Fig. 4.6-5)

V - stator phase voltage E - phase E.M.F. induced into the stator winding by the field current If @ - load angle between phasors V and E The equation for the power P shows that the load angle @ rises if at the constant value of P the phasor V or E sinks. However the active power P is zero if: - the phasor V is zero (short-circuit) - the phasor E is zero (loss-of-excitation) - the load angle @ is zero (no-load condition) Acc. to the above equation the maximum value of P is reached at @ = 90. If this value is exceeded, the active power sinks and the machine is getting unstable. If the load angle is still higher than 90, the synchronism is lost, the speed is higher and asynchronous. The generator then operates as an asynchronous generator running with negative slip. The rotating magnetic field of the stator induces voltages into conducting circuits of the rotor. Their frequency is low and is given by the slip. The induced voltages produce additional field winding currents and rotor eddy currents. The output power of the prime-mover is transferred to the power system by the asynchronous power of the machine. The speed of a turbogenerator is higher and constant if the excitation is zero, i.e. the lossof-excitation mode. If the field current is decreased only, than the rotor magnetic field causes speed swings. Similar swings are caused by salient poles of salient-pole generators at zero excitation. 72

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___________________________________________________________________
Performance of Synchronous Machines

Generally a synchronous machine operating to a bus of a large power system can - supply or receive an active power as generator or motor - supply an inductive or capacitive power as an overexcited or an underexcited machine. The active power can be changed by the power of the prime-mover and the reactive power by the field current (Fig. 4.6-1, 4.6-2). After the synchronous machine has been synchronized and connected to the power system the stator current is still zero at a field current if = 1. a) Loading by reactive power Increasing the field current the stator inductive current rises together with the reactive power. Decreasing the field current the stator capacitive current rises. At the field current if = 0 the stator capacitive current for a turbogenerator, directly connected to a power system according to the phasor diagram on Fig. 4.6-1, is: Xd I = V or 1 xd 1 = 0.5 2 I= V Xd

In the p.u. system i =

At the usual value xd = 2 the current is i =

and the maximum capacitive power at the constant voltage q = 0.5. b) Loading by active power Increasing the power of the prime mover the active power rises (generator mode). Decreasing the power of the prime mover the active power sinks (motor mode). At an increased active power the load angle rises; the stator current is getting capacitive if the field current is not increased too. Under stable conditions the load angle can rise up to a value of 90 (Fig. 4.6-4,5.6). At a load angle @ > 90 the active power of the generator starts to sink and the operation is getting unstable and the synchronism is lost.The limit of 90 can be reached only at a capacitive current (Fig. 4.6-2). With respect to the danger of damage caused by a loss of synchronism the "loss-of-excitation protection" is applied to trip the generator. This protection operates when the load angle value @ = 90 is exceeded. The locus of all points with @ = 90 is a circle with a diameter given by the 73

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___________________________________________________________________ synchronous reactance Xd (Fig. 4.6-7). This circle is the limit of the steady-state stability for generators directly connected to a power system. The load angle @ = 90 can be reached acc.to Fig. 4.6-6 at various values of V and E, or at V = 0 as well as at E = 0. The case with V = 0 means a short-circuit on generator terminals; the case with E = 0 means " loss-of-excitation". Both these points are on the axis X of the diagram on Fig. 4.6-7. The stability of a generator-transformer unit depends on the load angle between the phasors of the power system voltage VS and E. The locus of the steady-state stability is then a circle given by the reactances Xd and XT of the transformer (Fig. 4.6-9). The protection device uses a modified stability curve for generators as well as for generator transformer units. Its operating curve (Fig. 4.6-10) 1 ' has the upper point shifted down by X d to avoid any maloperation 2 during - short-circuits - out-of-step swings after a longer fault clearing. The protection operates with a delay of 2 s to avoid any maloperation at transient conditions such as a sudden voltage change, stable swings, etc. An integrator is used to enable a trip at stable swings at which the protection device picks up, drops out, picks up again, etc.(Fig. 4.6-11). For setting values for turbogenerators the reactance values Xd and Xd' must be known. For salient-pole generators the point with the maximum active power is not identical with the point at @ = 90; nevertheless the device is often set for the detection of 90 and the reactances Xq and Xd' are used for settings acc. to Fig. 4.6-3. A typical application of the device is the detection of load angles of about 90 (Fig. 4.6-13). At the reactance value Xd' = 0 the operating characteristic would be: - a circle touching the origin of the R-X diagram - a straight line in the power diagram. At a real value of diagram. Xd' or XT both characteristics are circles in the R-X

The REG216/316 system enables the shifting of the axis of the circles and thus to set another load angle limit, e.g. 70 (Fig. 4.6-14). The salient poles of generators produce a component of the active power which is independent of the field current. Therefore the stability limit characteristic deviates from the characteristic of turbogenerators. The 74

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___________________________________________________________________ diagrams in Fig. 4.6-15,16 show voltage, current and power at various load angles and should help to better understand the stability limit characteristics in Fig. 4.6-17,18. For transient values at loss-of-excitation refer to Fig. 4.6-19,20,21.
4.7. Pole Slipping Protection

Pole slipping protection has been developed to protect the generator rotor from disturbances causing dynamic instability. Such abnormal operating conditions are intiated by sudden load changes which cause a loss of synchronisms (unstable swings). Loss of synchronism is an onerous condition for the rotor, since it results in the following: - Overheating of the rotor surface by induced eddy currents - Increased mechanical stress - Possible overvoltages across the excitation winding. The overvoltages mentioned above occur at synchronous machines equipped with semiconductor excitation systems. An active power of a synchronous machine is given by the formula P = VI cos j = VE = sin @ Xd (per phase)

In accordance with that the load angle @ must rise if the voltage drops at a constant power P. Whilst fast changes of E.M.S. "E" are restricted by the time constant of eddy currents circulating in the rotor body, the voltage can be changed suddenly by a short-circuit. Under steady-state stability conditions the load angle can rise only up to 90. When the value 90 is exceeded, the synchronism is lost and the machine begins to slip. A well known example of such conditions is the supply of a power system by a generator through two lines connected in parallel. During a symmetrical short-circuit of one of the lines the voltage drops to zero and the transfer of the active as well of the reactive power is interrupted. Because the power of the prime mover cannot be transferred to the power system anymore, the turbine-generator accelerates. The load angle rises up to the instant when the fault is cleared by the line protection. At a fast clearing the load angle rise is not so high and the stability is still not yet lost. After several stable and damped swings the load angle is constant again. The load angle rise depends on the actual turbine power, on the time constant J A and on the operating time of the line C.B. 75

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___________________________________________________________________ The load angle can be calculated acc. to the following formula:

J = JN +

180 w N P 2 t p 2t A PN

[ ; 1/s ; s ; MW ; MVA ; s]

Example:
M N = 314 1/s ; J A = 10 s ;

t - fault duration ts 0.05 38

P = 0.8 ; @ N = 36 PN @ N - rated load angle 0.15 52 0.2 65 0.25 81

0.1 43

After "out-of-step" the stator reactance is reduced to the value of the transient reactance X'd due to the currents induced into the rotor. The current then varies between a minimum and a maximum value depending on the voltage varying between the difference and the sum of voltage phasors of the protected generator and of the power system. The impedance given by the generator voltage and current varies between a minimum and a maximum value too (Fig. 4.7-3, 4.7-4). If the load angle of a generator rises the service point given by the impedance phasor moves from the right side (generator mode) to the left side (motor mode) crossing the Xaxis close to the origin. This crossing is considered as a slip. The number of permitted slips must be specified by the generator manufacturer. After a longer fault clearing time when the load angle is greater than 90 it may happen that the load angle rises more and more when the recovery voltage again enables a power transfer through the healthy line. If the load angle @ > 90 the loss of the stability is to be expected; if the rating of the generator is equal or higher than 500 MW or if it is especially required by the generator manufacturer, a "pole slipping protection" is to be applied.
Pole Slipping Conditions

Under "pole slipping" conditions the generator active power supplied to the system varies between positive and negative values causing heavy mechanical surges. Under these conditions the rotor of the protected generator is no longer synchronous with the power system (nG nS). The simplified behaviour of the generator and of the system can be represented by their electromotive forces EG, ES and the reactances. The generator operates with the synchronous, transient and subtransient reactance according to the duration of the current-swings. With respect to the usual 76

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___________________________________________________________________ duration of unstable rotor swings in the range up to 1s, the generator can be represented under these conditions by the transient reactance. The generator current can be calculated from the instantaneous voltage difference (R.M.S.) between EG, ES and from the total reactance Xt, which usually consists of the generator transient reactance Xd', of the generator transformer restance XT and of the transient system reactance XS. The phasors EG and ES rotate with slightly different angular velocities. They can also be considered such that the phasor EG does not move and that the other phasor ES rotates with a slip angular velocity (Fig. 4.72).The voltage difference between EG and ES varies between a minimum and a maximum value, as does the current. The impedance measured at the generator terminals varies between a corresponding maximum and minimum value: Imin = EG - ES Xt V Imin Imax = EG + ES Xt V Imax

Zmax =

Zmin =

The measured impedance locus is a circle if EG and ES (R.M.S.) are constant. The location of the circle is given by the location of the VT's used for the impedance measurement. The origin of the X-R diagram is the point where the voltage is zero and the point of the VT's location. For the following considerations, the usual location of the VT's at the generator terminals is foreseen. Let us assume that the electromotive forces of the generator EG and of the system ES are of the same amplitude. The circulating current (R.M.S.) then varies between zero and a certain maximum value given by the double E.M.F. and by the total transient reactance. At the current zero, the measured impedance is infinite and the load angle is zero. The impedance point on the R-X diagram moves to the X-axis for a rising load angle (Fig. 4.7-3). On crossing the X-axis, the load angle reaches 180. The next point when the measured impedance is infinite occurs at a load angle of 360. If the E.M.F.'s EG and ES are not equal (EG ES), the impedance locus is a circle. The current varies between a minimum and a maximum value as well as the impedance given by the terminal voltage and the current. Generally, three extreme cases are possible: a) EG =1 ES 77

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___________________________________________________________________ circle diameter = b) EG = 0 full loss of excitation, the impedance locus is a point; its location is given by Xd'. This point is inside the circle of the "loss-of-excitation" device. c) ES = 0 full loss of system excitation, the impedance locus is a point; its location is given by XT + XS . On the R-X diagram (Fig. 4.7-3) the generator mode is drawn on the right side of the X-axis and the motor mode on the left side. The upper quadrants are used for the overexcited mode with the ratio EG >1 ES and the lower quadrants for the underexcited mode with the ratio EG <1 ES E.g. at the ratio EG =1 ES with the rising active power of a generator the measured impedance point moves to the X-axis and the load angle @ also rises. Crossing the X-axis, the angle @ = 180. Considering, for example the circle where EG <1 ES the upper point on the X-axis corresponds with the highest voltage difference of EG and ES out of phase and to the highest current at @ = 180. The lowest point corresponds with the smallest voltage difference of EG and ES in phase and to the smallest current at @ = 0. If, for unstable swings of a generator the load angle rises, then the X-axis 78

, the impedance locus is a straight line

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___________________________________________________________________ is crossed by the impedance point path anti-clockwise in the neighborhood of the origin. In this case, nG > nS. If, for an out-of-step motor, the impedance point crosses the X-axis from left to right near to the origin, the nM < nS and the locus path is clockwise. From the maximum and minimum values of the measured impedance the diameter D of the impedance locus circle can be calculated:
D=
' Xd + XT + XS

ES EG + 1 - 1 EG E S

and for EG = 0 : D = 0 ES = 0 : D=0 EG = ES : D = According to Fig. 4.7-3,5,6 for unstable swings caused by loss of synchronism, the end-point of the measured impedance phasor crosses the straight line given by Xd', XT and XS at each slip. As already mentioned, the impedance end phasor points on the straight line Xd' + XT + XS are points where @ = 180. If a circuit breaker interrupts the current at @ = 180 then it must withstand the highest possible recovery voltage. Therefore it is preferable to trip e.g. at load angle 270. This means a setting value of 90. The reactance characteristic is used to define two protection zones of the generator and of the system. The usual setting of the reactance characteristic enables the protection to distinguish between the slips of an overexcited (EG > ES) and of an underexcited (EG < ES) synchronous machine and to permit different durations of the out-of-step operation in these two cases. For this purpose, the pole slipping device has 2 stages No. I and No. II with individual counters for the number of slips. Thase stages initiate an alarm or trip as follows: stage No. I stage No II slips at EG < ES slips at EG > ES or slips at EG > ES and slips at EG < ES.

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___________________________________________________________________
4.8. Reverse Power Protection

The reverse power device is the protection of the - prime mover against motoring - generator and prime mover against overspeed. This device is to be used for the following kinds of prime movers: - Steam turbines - Gas turbines - Hydraulic turbines, type Francis and Kaplan - Diesel motors. Motoring is dangerous under various conditions such as overtemperature on steam turbines, overtemperature and possibility of fuel explosion on gas turbines, mechanical stress on Diesel motors etc. The reverse power occurs at - closed input valves of the prime mover - faulted prime mover or its supply - failured control system - shut down without tripping the C.B. or an inadvertent trip by the control system or by hand - changed power system frequency. Aside from the protection at various motoring conditions the reverse power device is also suitable to restrict the danger of overspeed. The motoring power of a generator driving a prime mover with closed input valves is given by the total losses of the generator-prime mover unit.
4.8.1. Motoring

The power setting value of the reverse power device is to be selected such that the device picks up at closed input valves of the prime mover. That pick-up value is very low for steam turbines, e.g. 1 %. In order to guarantee a trip, the power setting value is usually selected according to one half of the pick-up value at closed input valves (Fig. 4.8-1). The motoring conditions cause a danger coming not suddenly but rising slowly with time. E.g. the temperature of a steam turbine running at noload rises according to a relatively long time constant. Therefore the reverse power device operates with a delay of e.g. 20 s for steam turbines. This delay is necessary to avoid any maloperation at sudden load swings, especially after just synchronizing a generator or if it operates with a small load. During repeated power swings the applied delay disables the tripping of 80

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___________________________________________________________________ the circuit breaker, because the protection device picks-up and drops-out again before a trip can be released by the timer. In this case an additional integrating timer is to be used (Fig.4.8-2). Due to its longer reset time the trip is guaranteed also during swings. The integrator is used especially for steam turbines, because their motoring power is small. For ABB gas turbines two different power setting values are specified, e.g. 1.5 % and 8 %.
4.8.2. Overspeed

After disconnection of a loaded generator, it is accelerated by the primemover; the speed rises .Subsequently the speed is decreased to the normal value by the speed regulator. For the case of a faulted speed regulator a back-up protection is required. In order to restrict the danger of overspeed: - the circuit breaker is immediately tripped only during dangerous faults such as short-circuits and some ground faults - the circuit breaker can be tripped during less dangerous faults after the prime mover power has been reduced to zero with the help of the control system and the trip command has been initiated by a reverse or low forward power device - before any shut down the C.B. is to be tripped by a reverse power device after the prime mover power has been reduced to zero. The reverse power protection applied against overspeed should be fast. Only a short delay of 0.5 or 1 s is used to avoid any maloperation. With respect to a required high sensitive setting of the protection device for steam turbines, causing an increased danger of maloperation, the tripping is initiated by an auxiliary contact, after all inlet valves of the steam turbine have been closed. This interlocking has the task to avoid any inadvertent tripping of the loaded generator.
4.8.3. Conditions on Voltage and Current Transformers

Most steam turbines have such small losses that the power device sensitivity is required to be very high. The measurement of such very low power values may be affected by phase-angle displacements of the supplying voltage and current transformers, specially at lower power factors. It is therefore recommended to connect the reverse power device only to protective or measuring transformers of a sufficient accuracy and of a very small phase-angle displacement.
4.9. Inadvertent Energization Protection

The inadvertent energization protection is applied to protect the prime mover-generator unit against: 81

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___________________________________________________________________ - overcurrent and overtemperature - winding dynamic stress - mechanical stress of rotor and bearings. This protection is also known as standstill or dead machine protection. Caused by a failure of the control system an inadvertent energization can happen at: - standstill - start-up - running without or with voltage. A sudden energization at standstill is most dangerous. It causes a high circulating current and the highest dynamic as well as mechanical stress. The danger of damage is the highest for bearings at low oil pressure. Therefore a fast trip is required. The circulating current is given at a standstill energization by the generator reactance Xd'', the transformer reactance XT, the power system reactance XS and by an active current component supplying generator and prime-mover mechanical losses. Monitoring of the stator current or of the power can be applied for the protection. Naturally the applied protection device must be stable during normal operation as well as during external faults and transients. With respect to the applied delays of the generator overcurrent protection and of the reverse power protection, these devices cannot be considered as suitable for an inadvertent energization protection, and another protection device is to be applied. There are two different protection devices applied, operating either with overcurrent or power. The overcurrent method uses an instantaneous overcurrent device released by an undervoltage device. A maloperation of the overcurrent method at nearby short-circuits is prohibited by a pick-up delay of the undervoltage device. The power method uses an instantaneous power device detecting a power received to supply the desired reactive power and the active power given by total losses. A power setting should be higher than the setting of the reverse power device, e.g. for 10 % at steam and 15 % for gas turbines. A suitable phase angle setting is around 60.
4.10. Voltage Unbalance Protection

The voltage unbalance protection is used to detect any loss of an AC voltage desired for the supply of some protection devices which could maloperate due to a loss of an AC voltage; it is the minimum impedance device, the minimum reactance device, the reverse power device and the undervoltage device if applied. 82

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___________________________________________________________________ The voltage unbalance device operates by monitoring the difference between the voltages of two sets of VT's. A detected voltage difference can be caused by: - a blown fuse or open miniature C.B. on the L.V. side - VT faults - a blown fuse on the M.V. side. Features of the voltage difference monitoring: - Restricted influence of the M.V. level fluctuation (at continuous as well as short-time conditions) - Phase-selective detection. If this protection device operates, it has to block the above mentioned protection devices in order to avoid maloperation.

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___________________________________________________________________
5. Protection Current Transformers

Current transformers applied for the protection must be able to transfer the primary current to the secondary side also at high fault currents with a sufficient accuracy. The current transformers, which must not saturate under given fault conditions, are to be designed such that a certain maximum flux density, allowed with respect to the maximum permitted current error, usually being 1.8 Vs/m2, will be not exceeded. The CT's are to be designed according to the overcurrent factor n, given by the ratio of the maximum magnetic flux to the flux at the rated current. This factor n is calculated by the ac fault current component i (p.u.) and by the factor k corresponding to the dc fault current component: n=ki The factor n depends on - the frequency - the AC fault current component i (p.u.) - the time constants of the faulted ciircuit t and of the CT secondary side circuit t2 - the time t. The current transformer is to be specified according to the highest fault current. On the generator side this is the 3phase short-circuit current and on the main transformer HV side the line-to-ground fault current (refer to Table 2-VI). The fault current comprises an ac and a dc component. The ac component is to be calculated by transformer reactances, generator subtransient and inverse reactances. At the calculation of fault currents used for the specification of CT's the damping of the dc component is considered but no damping of the ac component. For examples of the ac component at H.V. faults on a generator-transformer unit refer to Table 2-VI. The dc component depends on the instant of the fault. It is approximately zero when the fault occures at the peak of the voltage sinus wave and it is the highest for faults at a voltage equal to zero. The damping of the dc component is involved in the calculation by means of the time constant for the dc component t. The fault current during a short-circuit on a certain unit supplied by an ac voltage can be calculated from the equation
V 2 sin ( M t + = ) = R iF + L diF dt

where 84

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___________________________________________________________________ V phase voltage of the supplying power system (RMS) iF instantaneous fault current w angular velocity t time a angle of the voltage curve at the time t = 0. R, L resistance and inductance of the faulted unit (transformer, generator) The fault current given by the solution of the above equation is: iF = K e J +
-t

V 2 Z

sin ( w t + a - j 

where Z is the impedance given by R and L and t is the time constant of the faulted unit (generator, transformer or both). The factor K is to be determined for the current iF at the time zero. If the current iF is zero at the instant of the fault we get iF (t=0) = K + K = -V 2 Z V 2 Z sin ( a - j  = 0

sin ( a- j 

and the fault current is iF = V 2 Z

( sin ( w t + a - j 

- e J sin ( a- j 

-t

The dc component depends on the angle (a-j). This component is zero at the angle a = j. The fault current is then: iF = V 2 Z sin M t

or using the RMS value of the fault current IF IF = V Z

iF = IF 2 sin M t A fault current limited especially by a resistor, as is the case of a ground fault on a resistance grounded transformer, is given by the same equation. The full dc component is developed at the angle (a-j) = -90. It may be e.g. at a = 0 and j = 90. In this case the fault current is:
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___________________________________________________________________
-t

iF = iF =

V 2 Z V 2

( sin ( M t - 90 )
( eJ
-t

- e J sin (-90 )

- cos w t ) Z or using the RMS value of the ac component of the fault current
iF = IF 2

-t

e J - cos M t

5.1.

Current Transformers with Closed Magnetic Core Fault Current without a DC Component

The desired overcurrent factor n is to be calculated from the function of the magnetizing current, given by the difference of the CT primary and secondary ampere turns. The applied angles are a = j. For the calculation the following basic equations can be used: i1
= iF

i1 = IF 2 sin ( M t) 0 = (R2 + RB ) i 2 + L 2 where i1, i2 R2 RB L2 M CT primary and secondary instantaneous currents CT secondary winding resistance burden resistance (the burden by static protection systems is resistive) CT total secondary winding inductance CT mutual inductance di 2 dt
-M

di1 dt

At first we have to calculate the CT secondary current; applying the time constant of the CT secondary circuit:

J2

L2 R2 + R B

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___________________________________________________________________
di1 dt 0 = = IF 2 M cos M t di 2 dt +

i2 IF 2

= e

-t
2

J2

i2 -

M L2

IF 2 M cos M t

(K

MM
L2

t
2

J22 1 ( 2 J2 1+ ( MJ ) 2

cos M t + M sin M t)

At the instant t = 0 the secondary current is also zero. The constant K is -J MM 2 K = L 2 1+ ( MJ ) 2


2

and the current i 2 i2 IF 2 =

MM
L2

-J

1+ ( MJ ) 2
2

(e

-t
2

- ( cos M t + MJ

sin M t)

With the help of the equation for CT ampere turns N1i1 = N1i1exc + N2i2 where N1 and N2 are numbers of primary and secondary winding turns, we get the equation for the instantaneous magnetizing (excitation) current i1exc:
i1exc IF 2 = 1 IF 2 (i1 N2 N1 i2 )

Neglecting the secondary winding leakage inductance L2L, we get L2 = L2exc and therefore the ratio of the secondary self-inductance L2 to the mutual inductance M is L2 M = N2 N1

The value of L2exc can be calculated from the CT magnetizing current. If this current is still unknown, its value can be estimated according to the current error allowed by the used CT class. E.g. at the class 5P20 the allowed magnetizing current is up to 5% at 20 I1N. For the instantaneous magnetizing current i1exc we get : 87

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___________________________________________________________________
i1exc IF 2 1 1+ ( MJ  2
2

( sin M t

+ MJ (e
2

-t
2

- cos M t )

Applying the factor k corresponding to the influence of the dc component of the magnetizing current
k = e
J
-t
2

- cos M t

we get a simplified formula for the instantaneous value of the magnetizing current at a fault if MJ2 >> 1:
i1exc IF 2 1

MJ

e
2

-t
2

- cos M t) =

MJ

k
2

The magnetizing current at the rated load is


E2N ( = N1 N2 N1 N2 ) = )
2

I1excN =

E1N X 1exc

(R 2 + RB )I2N (

N2 N1

) @

X 2exc 

M L 2exc

MJ

I1N
2

when we neglect the magnetizing current in the equation for CT ampereturns for the calculation of the ratio of the primary and secondary currents and put N1 I1N ( N2 I2N. The currents I1N and I2N are rated currents. For the p.u. value of the magnetizing current at rated load (refer to Fig.3.2-7) I 1 i excN = 1excN ( I1N MJ is also the CT current error of the CT primary rated current I1N under the assumption that the CT turn-ratio is correct. According to this formula the time constant of the secondary circuit J2 must be equal or higher than 318 ms at magnetizing currents up to 1% and at 50 Hz. It means that in this case the product MJ2 >> 100. According to the class 5P20 the allowed magnetizing current is 1% at the rated current and at the rated load. The p.u. value of the ac component of the fault current IF: I i = F I1N
2

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___________________________________________________________________ The instantaneous magnetizing current at a fault and based on the amplitude of the magnetizing current at the rated load i1excN:
i1exc I1excN 2 =

MJ

IF

(e
2

-t

- cos M t

MJ

I1N

= ki

The ratio of the instantaneous magnetizing current at a fault to the peak value of the magnetizing current at the rated load causes an increased magnetic intensity, important for the design of the CT magnetic core. This ratio is called overcurrent factor n, used for the specification of protection CT's. This ratio:
n = i1exc I1excN 2 = ki

According to the equation with factor k as a function of the time, the factor k reaches values up to 2 in the worst case with a large time constant J2 . Therefore the CT's are to be specified at least with the factor k = 2 , also in cases with no dc component of the fault current. This is e.g. the case of ground fault currents on a resistance grounded power system.
Fault Current with a DC Component

The CT primary current i1 comprising a full dc component is:


i1 = IF 2 (e J - cos M t)
-t

Similarly as at fault currents without any dc components we get now:


-t

i2 IF

-M = L2 2

t - t2
+

t2

( et

-t

- e

t2

M + L2

(wt )2 1 + (wt )2
2 2

)e

t2

-t

(wt ) M 2 L 2 1 + (wt )2
2

( w1 t
J

sin w t - cos w t
2

)
1 sin M t
2

and for MJ2 >> 1:


i2 IF 2 ( -M L2

J - J

eJ 2

-t

J - J

e
2

-t
2

+ cos M t -

MJ

The instantaneous magnetizing (excitation) current given by the difference of primary and secondary ampere turns:

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i1exc IF 2

J J- J

eJ 2

-t

J- J

e
2

-t
2

( MJ ) 2
2

1+ ( MJ ) 2
2 2 2

-t
2

( MJ 

1+ ( MJ ) 2
2

MJ

sin M t - cos M t
2

- cos M t

The simplified formula for this current at (MJ2)2 >>1:


i1exc
(

IF 2 2 The approximate peak value of the magnetizing current at each negative peak value of the sinus wave and at (Mt)2 >> 1: i1exc IF 2
(

J J- J

(e J

-t

- e

-t

MJ 2

sin M t

MJ

(
2

MJJ

J- J

2 2

(e J - e

-t

-t

) + 1

The p.u.value of the magnetizing current can be calculated according to the Fig.3.2-5 E1n 1 I1excN = ( I1N X 1exc MJ
2

i1exc IF 2

I1excN I1N
@

MJJ

J- J
2 2

2 2

(e J - e
-t

-t

-t 2

) + 1

)
where is i = IF I1N

i1exc I1excN 2

MJJ

J- J

(e J - e

-t
2

) + 1

)i

With the factor k the overcurrent factor n is:


k =

MJJ

J -J

2
2

e J - e

-t

-t

 + 1

n =

i1exc I1excN 2

= ki

For the factor k of CT's with a large time constant J2 >> J we get a simplified formula
k ( wJ (1 - e J ) + 1 and for the time t = k ( wJ + 1
-t

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___________________________________________________________________ For the comparison of the curves for the factor k according to above three formulas see Fig. 5.1-1. For curves of the desired factor k as a function of time t refer to Fig. 5.1-2. These curves have a peak value
km = M J

( )
J
2

t t -t J 2

+ 1

at the time tm =

J J2 J ln ( J -J J
2

For the curves of the factor km as a function of the time constant J2 at given time constants J see Fig.5.2-3. Often very large and expensive CT's are specified as a result of above equations. Therefore often a certain saturation is allowed or the time without saturation reduced in order to reduce the factor n (refer to Fig. 5.1-1). According to above equations the time constant J2 depends on the CT noload current (magnetizing current). For the class 5P20 the allowed limits are 1 and 5% for the current error at I1N and 20 I1N. Nevertheless the actual values are usually smaller. Especielly at CT's for the generator current the actual no-load currents and corresponding error values are very low, e.g. 0.002 due to the high number of ampere turns. The current error of a CT for 10 000 A may therefore be on the level of 0.2%. The value of J2 is then much higher e.g. 1.6s at 50 Hz or more. In such a case it is possible to calculate the factor n according to approximate formulas as considered in Chapter 3.2.4.2.
Estimation of CT Data for Steady-State and Transient Conditions

For each project it is necessary temporarily to specify the protection CT's with respect to steady-state and transient conditions. Therefore approximate values of the magnetic core cross section and of the resistance R2 are desired. The value of the core cross section determines whether the CT can be realized and built in; at CT's for generators this value should not exceed 100 cm2. The value of the resistance R2 is required in order to check the transient performance of the CT's at high fault currents. For the development of the desired formulas for the factor n the following equations can be used. The electromotive force E2 desired for the calculation of the CT

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___________________________________________________________________ E2 = 4.44 f N2 B A or E2 = 4.44 f N2 B A 10-4 [V; Hz; Vs/m2;cm2] [V; Hz; Vs/m2;m2]

The cross section A of the magnetic core with the sides a A = a2 =

( wire length )2
4 x1,25 xN2

R2 g s 5 N2

)2

cm 2 ; m ; W; Sm / mm 2 ; mm 2

The factor 1.25 is a safety margin, because the actual length of one turn is longer than the size of the magnetic core. The value s is the wire cross section. Applying the specific copper conductance C = 50 S m/mm2 we get:
A = 10 6

( R 2 s )2
N2

and using the typical values of the wire cross section we get for I2N = 1 A I2N = 5 A and and s = 0.6 mm2: A = 0.36 x10 6 s = 3 mm2:

( R 2 )2
N2

N2 The protection CT's have to transfer the primary current to the secondary side with a certain accuracy up to the highest current specified by the overcurrent factor. With respect to the required accuracy the magnetic flux density should not exceed the value 1.8 Vs/m2. Therefore we take B = 1.8 Vs/m2

A = 9 x10 6

( R 2 )2

and we get E 2 = 4.44 f N2 1.8 x10 6 E 2 ( 800 f (R 2 s)


2

( R2 s )2 10 -4
N2

= n (R 2I2N + V2N ) N2 The equation for the resistance R2 (R 2  2 f s2 N2 - R 2 (n I2N  - n V2N = 0

The solution of this equation gives 92

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___________________________________________________________________ 800 f s 2 n V2N N2

n I1N R2 = 2

 n I1N )2
2 800 f N2

+ s2

1.

Equations for f = 50 Hz I2N = 1 A and s = 0.6 mm2

1.1 Secondary rated current n = optional value : n R2 = 2 +

n)
2

14400 N2

n V2N

14400 N2

A = 0.36 x10 6

( R 2 )2
N2

n = 20 :
10 + R2 = 100 + 288 103 V2N N2

360 103 N2

A = as above

1.2 Secondary rated current n = optional value : 2.5 n + R2 = n = 20 : 50 + R2 = 2500 + 360 N2 10 7200 N2
3

I2N = 5 A

and

s = 3 mm2

6.25 n 2 + 360 N2

360 N2

10 3 n V2N
A = 9 x10 6

( R 2 )2
N2

10 3

V2N A = as above

2. Equations for f = 60 Hz 2.1 Secondary rated current I2N = 1 A and s = 0.6 mm2

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___________________________________________________________________ n = optional value : n R2 = n = 20 :


345.6 103 V2N N2 R2 = 17280 N2 2.2 Secondary rated current I2N = 5 A 10 + 100 +

( n )2
2

17.28 N2 N2

10 3 n V2N
A = 0.36 x10 6

17280

( R 2 )2
N2

A = as above and s = 3 mm2

n = optional value : 2.5 n + R2 = n = 20 : 50 + R2 = 2500 + 432 N2 8640 N2 10 3 10 3 V2N A = as above 6.25 n 2 + 432 N2 432 N2 10 3 n V2N
A = 9 x10 6

10 3

 2 2
N
2

With the help of the above formulas the secondary winding resistance, losses and the magnetic core cross section were calculated as example for the following CT's with four various current ratioes. CT ......../5 A 50 Hz 5P20 30 VA window, bar or bushing-type with only one primary turn (N1 = 1). item No. 1 2 3 4 CT ratio [A] 100/5 1000/5 10000/5 50000/5 R2 20 I2N [V] 0.084475 8.4475 0.28747 28.747 1.1402 114.02 3.6829 368.29 R2 [W] E2 [V] 128.45 148.75 234.02 488.29 DPCu2 [W] 2.11 7.18 28.50 92.07 A [cm2] 160 18.6 2.9 1.2

Remarks to item No. 1: - Small losses 94

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___________________________________________________________________ - Magnetic core cross section too great; possible help: - reduction of the rated output (especially important for cable summation CT's provided for a sensitive ground fault protection) - prefer a wound-type CT, which has a higher number of ampere turns item No. 2 : - Losses and size of the magnetic core are suitable - If a much higher rated output is required, - prefer a H.V. CT with 2 or 4 primary winding turns item No. 3: Acceptable losses and a small size of the magnetic core. Using an increased magnetic core a much higher rated output can be reached. For details refer to the next table. item No.4 : High losses and a very small size of the magnetic core. Such very high losses must be excepted. Try to restrict the number of proposed CT's and apply them for various protection, measurement and control circuits. CT's with the ratio 1000/5 A, number of primary turns N1 = 1, number of ampere-turns N1 I1N = 1000 A at various rated outputs: SN [VA] 15 30 60 100 V2N [V] 3 6 12 20 20 V2N [V] 60 120 240 400 R2 R220I2N E2 DPCu2 [V] [V] [W] [W] 0.2124 21.24 81.24 5.3 0.2875 28.75 148.75 7.1 0.3940 39.40 279.40 9.8 0.5000 50.00 450.00 12.5 A [cm2] 10.15 18.60 34.90 56.25

According to the above table a large magnetic core would be necessary for ratings 60 and 100 VA. Using a higher number of ampere turns the core cross section would be smaller. For the influence of several primary winding turns refer to the next table. CT's with the ratio 1000/5 A , at various numbers of primary turns N1 . The rated output is 100 VA, the rated output voltage V2N = 20 V, 20 V2N = 400 V. N1 1 2 4 N1 I1N 1000 2000 4000 N2 200 400 800 R2 [W] 0.5000 0.7245 1.0604 R220I2N E2 [V] [V] 50.00 450.00 72.45 472.45 106.04 506.04 A DPCu2 [cm2] [W] 12.5 56.25 18.1 29.5 26.5 15.8

It is obvious that the rising number of ampere-turns N1 I1N enables to decrease the cross section of the magnetic core "A". Unfortunately only some types of H.V. current transformers have the possibility of several primary turns. 95

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___________________________________________________________________ Sometimes it is necessary to check the CT phase displacement. Using the Fig. 3.2-5 it is possible for small values of the phase error to write 1 @ ( arc tg rad; 1 / s; s

MJ

and

d =

360 2p

60

wJ

1000 =
2

10 943

min; 1 / s; ms

E.g. application of a time constant t2 = 60 ms means a phase displacement of 182 min.


Note

The calculation of the resistance R2 and of the magnetic core cross section A described above is to be applied for preliminary values only, desired at the begin of the project. The final values are to be asked from the CT manufacturer.
5.2. Linear Current Transformers

Sometimes an application of linear current transformers with an air-gap is required in order to improve the transfer capability of the ac current component under transient conditions and thus to reduce the CT size. The transfer of the less important dc component to the secondary side is reduced. The features: Advantage: Disadvantage: Requirement: Remark: - much smaller cross section of the magnetic core - smaller copper losses - higher magnetizing current. - secondary winding leakage inductance not negligible The same time constant of the secondary circuits of both CT's for the differential protection if possible. The application of linear CT's is not favourable for a small number of ampere turns.

For linear CT's the same basic equations as those developed for CT's with closed magnetic core may be used, only the leakage inductance of the secondary winding is not negligable. At given overcurrent conditions the desired overcurrent factor n for linear current transformers is much smaller than this factor for current transformers with a closed magnetic core. The linear CT's operate with a reduced magnetizing inductance. Due to the reduced magnetizing
96

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___________________________________________________________________ inductance the core cross section sinks. Naturally the reduced magnetizing inductance causes an increased magnetizing current. Depending on the reduction of the magnetizing inductance the cross section of a linear magnetic core may be e.g. 3 up to 5 times smaller than the cross section of a closed magnetic core. At CT's for differential protection the increased magnetizing current must be kept so small, that a possible difference between magnetizing currents of both CT's supplying this protection does not cause a maloperation especially at external faults. Therefore a maximum magnetizing current of 3% at CT's for differential protection should not be exceeded. For other protection funtions supplied by one CT only the magnetizing current is less important; it is possible to accept its values of up to 5 or 6% and thus to reach a reduction of the magnetic core up e.g. up to 5-times.
Determination of Desired Data for Linear CT's

At the begin it is necessary to select the allowed current error. At protection CT's with a closed magnetic core, the allowed current error is e.g. 1% for the class 5P20 in the range of normal service currents; this current error may rise up to the value of 5% at the current 20 I1N. In contrast the selected current error of a linear CT is a constant value e.g. of 5% in the total range of currents for steady-state as well as transient conditions, specified by the overcurrent factor n, it means in the total range of CT linear current transfer capability. Therefore the allowed current error should be selected according to the application of the CT. For the CT's used for overcurrent or distance protection current errors up to 5 or 6% may be allowed. In contrast to the protection operating with a difference of currents such as the differential protection lower values of the allowed current, e.g. 3% should be preferred. With the help of the selected current error, given by the magnetizing current I1excN according to Fig. 3.2-5, the CT secondary circuit time constant t2 can be calculated:

I1N

M I1excN

or

N1 I1N

M N1 I1excN

or

M i excN

E.g. at a selected current error of 0.01 (iexcN = 0.01 or 1%) and w = 314 1/s the time constant t2 = 0.318 s or 318 ms. For several examples refer to the following table. Magnetizing currents at various values of the time constant t2 (at 50Hz):
t2 [ms] iexcN[%]

60 5.3

90 3.54

120 2.6

150 2.12

180 1.77

318.3 1

3 183 31 830 0.1 0.01 97

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___________________________________________________________________ According to the above recommendation of allowed current errors the CT's for a differential protection can be specified by a time constant t2 = 120 ms and the CT's for other protection functions by t2 = 60 ms. The required air-gap g is given by the ratio of magnetizing ampere-turns (peak) n N1I1excN 2 to the magnetizing force H or to the flux density B: g = or g = n N1 I1excN 0.8 B 2 10 -3 mm; A; Vs / m 2 n N1 I1excN H 2 = n N1 I1excN 0.8 B 2 10 -6 m; A; Vs / m 2

According to the above formulas the lengt of the air-gap is proportional to the number of ampere turns. The air-gap is quite short at low values of Ampere-turns and it is long at high values of ampere turns. The air-gap length at various ampere turns: I1N [ A ] g [ mm ] 500 0.5 1000 1.0 10 000 5.0 20 000 10 40 000 20

It is evident, that short air-gaps are difficult to be adjusted. The applied airgap or gaps cause an irregular distribution of the magnetic in the magnetic core. The result is a magnetic flux leakage and the value of the secondary leakage inductance L2L is not longer negligible. In order to keep the magnetic flux leakage as low as possible, the length of the air gap must be much smaller than the size of the magnetic core cross section. Therefore it is sometimes necessary to split the calculated value of the gap into several short air-gaps. This is especially the case for CT's for very high currents, as the above table shows.
Specification

The formulas developed for CT's with a closed magnetic core and negligeable secondary winding leakage inductance cannot be used for linear CT's. Due to the applied air-gap the secondary leakage inductance is not negligible. The formula for the calculation of the inner E.M.F. E2 as the sum of V2N and R2 I2N is not longer correct. The calculation of the secondary winding leakage inductance L2L is not simple and should be made by the CT manufacturer. Therefore the cross section of the magnetic core cannot be calculated and consequently the value of the secondary winding resistance cannot be estimated. Without any knowledge of L2L and R2 it is better to specify the transient performance of the required linear CT's by: 98

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___________________________________________________________________ - the actual burden (given by connection leads and by the protection system) - the maximum fault current (ac component in RMS value) - the time constant of the faulted circuit - the percentage of the dc component which should be considered - the desired time constant of the CT secondary circuit and its tolerance. Naturally the secondary circuits of both CT's for a differential protection must be specified by the same values of the time constant.
Conclusion

Although the linear CT has important advantages, its application should be restricted with respect to disadvantages and possible maloperations of the differential protection caused by differencies between both CT's.

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___________________________________________________________________ 6. FIGURES AND TABLES

Fig. 1-1

Generator protection. Single-line diagram acc. to ANSI standard IF - interturn fault

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Fig. 1-2

Generator protection. Single-line diagram acc. to IEC standard

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Item

Protection Device

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Overcurrent Overload Unbalanced load Voltage protection Overexcitation Frequency Loss-of-excitation Pole slipping Standstill Reverse power Differential Buchholz or SPR*) Minimum impedance Interturn fault Stator ground fault Rotor ground fault Transformer ground fault Breaker Failure

ANSI device number 50;51 51 V 49 46 59; 60 27 24 81 40 78 67 32 87 63 21 59 GN 64 GN 64 F 51 NT 87 NT 51/62 BF

*) SPR = sudden pressure relay Table 1-I Generator and transformer protection devices

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Fig. 1-3

Possible kinds of faults on a generator stator winding a) Short-circuit b) Interturn fault c) Ground fault

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Rating I>/U< D I> (overall) DIG > Z< Interturn fault 95% Stator ground fault 100% Stator ground fault Rotor ground fault DJstator > DJrotor > I2 > def. time inverse U> U< > def. time inverse f> f< Loss-of-excit. Pole slipping -P> Inadvertent energization

[MVA] 51V 87GT 87G 21 59GN 64GN 64F 49 49F 46 59 27 24 81 40 32 50/27 or 67

<5 x x

5-20 x x

20-50 x x x

50-200 x

200-500 x (x)

500> x x x x x x x

x (x)

x x x

(x)

(x)

x (x) (x)

x x x x x

x x x x x x

(x) x

x x

(x) x x

x x x (x) x x x x x x

x (x)

Table 1-II Generator protection x = typical application (x) = non-typical application

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___________________________________________________________________ Rating [MVA] Fuses Buchholz Overcurrent I> Overcurrent I >> Overload DJ > Differential current DI > Ground fault IE > Restricted ground fault DIE Overexcitation > Overvoltage *) U> 0.5 0.5 1 12 25 5 10 10 100 > 100

Table 1-III Transformer protection *) only at tap-changer transformers

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

i sc

N 1 t
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10
HEST 905 011 FL

Fig. 2-1

Transformer-Kurzschlussstrom uo = umax und xT = 0,1

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Fig. 2-2 Generator-short-circuit current 107

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Fig. 2-3 108

Field discharge circuit breaker

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U = Uarc + Ri + = L

di dt

current suppression:
U - U + Ri di = arc dt L

at the instant t = 0 is i0 = -

U and R

U di = arc or by the time constant T dt L U di = arc dt RT

the instantaneous current I=


t Uarc - T Uarc - U e R R

the arcing time


t arc = T ln Uarc Uarc - U

Fig. 2-4 Current suppression by dc circuit breaker

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Ea

Ic

Ua1

Ua2

Ea

Ua2 Ua1

Uc1 Uc Ub I b

Ub1

Ub2

Uc2

Uc1

Uc Uc2

Ub

Ub1

Ub2

Ic2
a

Ic1 Ia1 Ia2

Ic2 Ic1

Ic

Ib1 Ib2 Ib Ib2

Ib1

Fig. 2-5 Line-to-line fault symmetrical components

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Ua1

Ua = 0

Ib = Ic = 0

Uc2

Ub2

Ia Ua2 Ua0 Uc0 Ub0

Uc

Ub

Uc1

Ub1

Ua1

Ua2 Ua0

Uc2
Uc0

Uc1 Uc

Ub1 Ub

Ub2
Ub0

Ic1 Ia1

Ib2 Ia2 Ic2 Ia0 Ib0 Ic0

Ib1
Ic2 Ic0 Ib0 Ib2 Ib1 Ia1 Ia2 Ic1 Ia Ia0

Fig. 2-6 Line-to-ground fault symmetrical components at x1 = x2 = x0

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Ua1 Uc2 Uc Ua = 0 Ib = Ic = 0 Ub Ia Uc1 Ub1 Ua2

Ub2

Ua1 Uc Uc2 Uc1

Ua2 Ub Ub1 Ub2

Ic1

Ib2 Ia0 Ib0 Ic0

Ia1
c b

Ia2

Ib1 Ic2 Ic0 Ib0 Ib2 Ib1 Ia1 Ic1 Ia Ia2 Ia0

Ic2

Fig. 2-7 Line-to-ground fault symmetrical components at x1 = x2 and x0 = 0

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T
1 2

input

output

T
1 2

input

output

Fig. 2-8 Asymmetrical short-circuit of transformers with the connection group Yd and Dd

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T1

input

output

T2

Fig. 2-9 Line-to-ground fault of 2 transformers connected in parallel The neutral point of the one transformer is solidly grounded, the neutral point of the other transformer is ungrounded.

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T

Fig. 2-10 Asymmetrical short-circuit currents of the generator - generator transformer unit

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___________________________________________________________________
a c b

Ia = I b = Ic

E X1

Ib = Ic Ub = Uc Ea

3E X1 + X2 X2 E X1 + X2 2X2 E X1 + X2 3E X1 + X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0 2X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0 3E 3E

Ia Eb = Ec

c a

Ebc Ib = Ic I0

X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

3E

b Ea

3X2 E X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0 3X2 X0 E X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

Table 2-I Formulas for the calculation of short-circuit currents and voltages

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I1

I2

I0

E1

E2

E0

E X1

E X1 + X2

-E X1 + X2

X2 X1 + X2

X2 X1 + X2

E X1 + X2 + X0

E X1 + X2 + X0

E X1 + X2 + X0

X2 + X0 X1 + X2 + X0

-X2 X1 + X2 + X0

- X0 E X1 + X2 + X0

X2 + X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

- X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

- X2 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

X2 X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

X2 X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

X2 X0 X1(X2 + X0)+ X2X0

Table 2-II

Formulas for symmetrical components at short-circuits

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phase
A C B A B C A C B A B C A A B C A B C A B B C 7.2

subtransient current
6.7 6.7 6.7 0.0 5.8 5.8 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.2

transient current
4.0 4.0 4.0 0.0 4.3 4.3 6.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.9 4.9

steady-state current
1.25 1.25 1.25 0.0 2.0 2.0 3.33 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 1.8

Table 2-III

Generator short-circuit currents x''d = 0.15 i fmax = 2.5 i fo x'd = 0.25 xd = 2.0 x2 = 0.15 xo = 0.1

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xT0

1 xT

3 2 xT

3 2 xT + xT0

x2T+ xT xT0+x2T0

x2T+2 xT xT0

1.0

10

8.66

2.5

8.69

0.1

10

8.66

10

10

Table 2-IV

Transformer short-circuit currents at connection groups Yy, Dy and Ydy xT = 0.1

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1 xT

3 2 xT

10

8.66

10

8.66

Table 2-V

Transformer short-circuit currents connection group Yd and Dd xT = 0.1

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subtransient current
generator transformer

steady-state current
generator transformer

1 x''d + xT 4.0 4.0

2.5 xd + xT

1.19

1.19

3 x''d + x2 + 2xT

4.0 2.0 *

3.46

2.5 x 3 xd + x2 + 2xT

2.13

1.84

3 x''d + x2 + 3xT

2.89

5.0

2.5 x 3 xd + x2 + 3xT

1.77

3.06

Table 2-VI

H.V. side short-circuit currents of a generator-generator transformer unit i x''d = 0.15, x2 = 0.15, xd = 2.0, xT = 0.1, fmax = 2.5 i fo * one generator phase is loaded by i = 4.0 and the other by i = 2.0

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Min through fault current 2 I IN
2.0

1.5 1.3

Possible current setting range Max service current

IN

Fig 3.1-1

Generator overcurrent protection

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Start signal

Delay

Trip

Fig. 3.1-2

Generator current, voltage and signals of the protection device 51 V.

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50 I IN 10
43

Min. HV fault current Possible setting range of the instantaneous stage Max through fault current or max. inrush current Min through fault current Possible setting range of the definte time stage Max service current IN

15

10 8.66

1.5 1.3

Fig. 3.1-3

Overcurrent protection of a generator transformer

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sN (MVA) I0 peak IN

0.5

10

50

16

14

10

10

sN (MVA)
t (c) t (s)

0.5 ... 1
8 ... 10 0.16 ... 0.2

1.67 ... 10
10 ... 60 0.2 ... 1.2

> 10
60 ... 3600 1.2 ... 72

Fig. 3.1-4

Transformer magnetizing inrush current possible inrush current values, duration between the full and half peak value in cycles and seconds

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I IN 2

1.5 IN 2

IN 2

ts

Fig. 3.1-5

Suitable settings at a certain level of the inrush current.

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G
Power system 1000 MVA 10 % T 100 MVA 10 % AT 10 MVA 10 %

~
50T 51T
866 150 50T 83 83 IATN 8.3 ITN 866 IATN 86.6 ITN

50.1 51.1

51.2

150 IATN 15 ITN 100 IATN 10 ITN

15

51T

50.1 15 IATN 1.5 ITN

10

ITN 10 IATN

7.8

7.8 IATN

2.0 1.0

51.1

51.2

2 IATN IATN

Minimum fault current Rated current Current setting

Fig 3.1-6

Transformer overcurrent protection. Fault current level and current settings

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___________________________________________________________________
I>> I>

50 T

51 T
t

I>>

I>

50

51.1
t1

AT I>

51.2
t2

50 T
150 IATN

I IATN
15 IATN

51 T 50.1

2 IATN

51.1 51.2 IATN

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

t (s)

Fig. 3.1-7

Grading of overcurrent device settings for machine transformer T and auxiliary transformer AT.

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, I>

, I>

Fig. 3.2-1

Principle of differential protection at internal and external faults.

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i
is

1.5

iN

0.5

ts

iN

is 0 Fig. 3.2-2 Comparison of overcurrent- and differential device operating curves. t

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1.3

1.2

1.1

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 iexc

0.5

Fig. 3.2-3

Transformer excitation current as a function of voltage.

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I, IN 0,75

0,5 0,25 g b IH 0 0,5 1 1,5 IN

Fig. 3.2-4 Operating characteristic of the transformer differential protection for high through-fault currents

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R1 L1L L2L = 0 R2

input E1=E2 I1

L1 exc U2 Iexc I2 Z

E1 = E2 R2I2 Phasors for L2L = 0 Z=R U2=R I2 Iexc . I1 @ I2

Fig. 3.2-5 Equivalent ct circuit at N1 = N2 Used symbols: I1 , I2 , E 1 , E 2 U2 Iexc., L1exc. R1, R2 R, Z L1L, L2L N1, N2 @ primary and secondary currents and E.M.F's secondary voltage excitation current and inductances primary and secondary resistances burden resistance and impedance leakage inductances number of primary and secondary winding turns phase displacement

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H.V. FAULT

87T

87T

FAULT IN THE GENERATOR ZONE

87G

87G

a) H.V. SIDE FAULT

b) FAULT IN THE GENERATOR ZONE

0,4kV

c) FAULT IN THE 0.4kV SYSTEM

Fig. 3.2-6 134

Various fault points.

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Fig. 3.2-7

Factor "k" as a function of time.

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I1 = 0 I 20 A

V 2

220 V

HEST 905 043 FL

U = 20 x U2N + 20 x R2I2N
U
E2 (at I 2 = 20 I 2N )

E2

(at I 2 = I 2N )

I 20 0,05 x 20 I 2N = I 2N

I 20 0,01 x I 2N

I2
HEST 905 048 FL

Fig. 3.2-8

Measurement of the no-load characteristic of a current transformer. I1 = 0 Influence of iron losses neglected.

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Protected machine

Transformer CT current error no-load current

Tap changer Total range value

Typical setting g (%)

Generator Motor Reactor 10% --10% 15% or 20%

Transformer

10%

10%

10%

30%

30%

Table 3.2-I

Component of the differential current at rated current. Typical values of the basic setting value "g".

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GT

Protection zone I>

Z<

HEST 905 019 FL

Fig. 3.3-1 Underimpedance protection

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x
+0.07

j
0 r

Z-setting -0.07
HEST 905 027 FL

Fig. 3.3-2 Operating characteristic of the underimpedance function Setting: Z-Setting = 0.07 Z = actual impedance

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T Voltage transformer

Generator

Voltage relay

Fig. 3.4-1
R

Voltage detection of generator interturn faults


S T

1 2

Neutral points

Current relay

Current transformer

Fig. 3.4-2 Current detection of generator interturn faults

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___________________________________________________________________ R S T

1 2

Neutral points ct 1 ct 2

Current Relay

Earthing resistor

Fig. 3.4-3 Current detection of generator interturn faults

141

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
R S T

R1

S1

T1

R2

S2

T2

ct 4 ct 1 ct 2 ct 3

ct 5

ct 6

R1

R2

S1

S2

T1

T2

Differential relay

Fig. 3.4-4 Differential current detection of generator interturn faults

142

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 3.4-5 Interturn fault of generator stator winding measured voltages a) Circuit breaker open b) Circuit breaker closed, generator connected to a big power system

143

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

N = N1 + N2 N N N1 N2 I1 = 0 I2 X

N = N3

N1 N2

I1 I2 X

1 2

I1

I1

I>

Fig. 3.4-6 Interturn fault of generator winding Circulating branch currents at circuit breaker open position a) No winding branches connected in parellel b) Winding with 2 branches connected in parallel N1, N2, N3, N - number of winding turns

144

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

I1 X31 E N3 = N X X32 X23 E2 X12 X13

E1

X1 N1 I1

X21 X2 N2

I2

Fig. 3.4-7 Interturn fault of generator stator winding Circuit breaker open; 2 winding branches connected in parellel Self and mutual reactances N1, N2, N3, N - number of winding turns

145

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 3.4-8 Interturn fault of generator stator winding Currents i1, i2, and voltage u1 of the faulted branch as a function the number of shorted stator phase turns N2. Circuit breaker open; 2 winding branches connected in parellel N3 = N1 + N2 = N = 40

146

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
xs i1 T 1 N2 - N2K N2K i1 2 w1 r i2K

Feeder

xs xs

i1

Fig. 3.4-9 Interturn fault of transformer secondary winding Currents i1 and i2sc as functions of the faulted winding length [x = (N2sc/N2)100%]. Cicuit resistance not involved. Power system reactance xs = 0.005. Transformer reactance xT = 0.10. - curve Nr. 1 Variable leakage reactance: i1 i2sc - curve Nr. 2 - curve Nr. 3 Constant leakage reactance i1 i2sc - curve Nr. 4

147

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 3.4-10 Interturn fault of transformer secondary winding Currents i1 and i2sc as functions of the faulted winding length [x = (N2sc/N2)100%]. Cicuit resistance involved. Power system reactance xs = 0.005. Transformer reactance xT = 0.1, circuit resistance r = 0.01. - curve Nr. 1 Variable leakage reactance: i1 i2sc - curve Nr. 2 - curve Nr. 3 Constant leakage reactance i1 i2sc - curve Nr. 4

148

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
xs

i1

i1 i1K i1

N1-N1K N1K

xs xs

Fig. 3.4-11 Interturn fault of transformer primary winding Currents i1 and i2sc as functions of the faulted winding length [x = (N1sc/N1)100%]. Cicuit resistance not involved. Power system reactance xs = 0.005. Transformer primary winding leakage reactance x1l = 0.05. Variable leakage reactance: Constant leakage reactance i1 i1sc i1 i1sc - curve Nr. 1 - curve Nr. 2 - curve Nr. 3 - curve Nr. 4 149

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 3.4-12 Interturn fault of transformer primary winding Currents i1 and i1sc as functions of the faulted winding length [x = (N1sc/N1)100%]. Cicuit resistance involved. Power system reactance xs = 0.005. Circuit resistance r = 0.01. Transformer primary winding leakage reactance x1l = 0.05. Variable leakage reactance: Constant leakage reactance i1 i1sc i1 i1sc - curve Nr. 1 - curve Nr. 2 - curve Nr. 3 - curve Nr. 4

150

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

UA

UE;IE UE Uph; IEmax

UC

UB

C IC

RE IR

UE

L IL IE G (ground)

G UE = UA UAG = 0 IE IR UCG UA UBG

IL UC IC

UB

Fig. 3.6-1 Stator ground fault. Generator neutral point high-resistance grounded.

151

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

UA

I3 UC UB U3 C IC L IL IE

Re

(ground)

UC3 UA3 = 0 G G U3

UCG

UA

UBG

UC3

UB3

I3

IE

IR

UC

UB

IL IC

Fig. 3.6-2 Stator ground fault. Generator terminal side high-resistance grounded.

152

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________ A

IEmax

RE

IE >

Ground

Fig. 3.6-3 Stator ground fault protection applying a measurement of the grounding resistance current.

153

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
Generator 1
3 C12

Generator transformer 2 Ic
U2ph

Ic

Ic vt
R E UE> 3C12 Ic Ic U2ph

Ic

RE

Fig. 3.6-4 Influence of the H.V. ground fault on stator ground fault protection for generators operating with generator transformers.

154

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
3~ RPS
UiP

RES
N12
Ugen/3
100V

G
REr
2*2 mF

N11 US

RPr
Uir

+
Uis 110V Uir 50V Ui 25.8V

Ur

110V

Injection Transformer Block WU30Z

REX 011

US

Ur

P8

UStator 95% U N=100V [V] 110

UStator 100% UN=15V

URotor

Ui U N=25V

UN=100V

-110 Injection Test

A D
[ms] Coded 12.5Hz injection Signal Voltage

UDC
110V

Injection Unit

(95%) StEF CPU

Stator-EFP

Rotor-EFP

REX 010

REG 216

Fig. 3.6-5

100% stator and rotor ground fault protection.

155

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________ G1 T1

G2

T2

G3 T3

G4

zone of generator feeders

zone of the bus and of transformer feeders

Fig. 3.6-6

Generators directly connected to a busbar.

156

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
Generator Zero sequence ct Transformer
3 C 12

Voltage transformer

UE>
Rp

Re

voltage transformer
UE>

Interposing VT
IE>

Fig. 3.6-7

Stator ground fault protection for generators directly connected to busbars

157

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Rotor

Rotor shaft

C1

50 V

100 V

C2

R 100 V 50 V C1 C

C2

HEST 905 016 FL

Fig. 3.7-1 Rotor ground fault protection

158

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
50% of Uph

UE

UE >

Fig. 3.8-1

Ground fault protection for ungrounded systems.

159

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
,I>

A
i1

l
x i2

input
i1 ZE i2

output

IE > IE >

>

1,0

i1

i2

0,8 i2 0,6

Grounding impedance ZE >> XT

1 3

80% 42% i1

0,4

0,2

is

20

40

60 x [%]

80

100

Fig. 3.8-2

Restricted ground fault protection at impedance grounded transformer neutral point. a) grounding impedance determined for the maximum earth fault current which is equal to the rated current b) relay setting selected for 80% for the protected winding; this means a setting value of is = i2 = 20%

160

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
1 T 2

RE

CT's

CT

RS IE >

Fig. 3.8-3

Restricted ground fault protection of a delta - wye connected transformer.

161

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

IE >

Fig. 3.8-4

Transformer tank leakage protection.

162

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
I>
current

50 BF

timer 62 remote trip

trip signals

I>
current

50 BF release

remote trip

trip signals

timer 62

C.B.

+
remote trip timer 62

trip signals

Fig. 3.9-1

Breaker failure protection schemes.

163

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

~
Correct operation of B.F. protection

~
Maloperation of B.F. protection (C.B. is right and already open)

Fig. 3.9-2

Current detection at a breaker failure

164

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________ local C.B. fault current

closed

open

fault clearing time

50 BF
reset time

setting level

local trip signal

C.B. operating time


margin

remote trip signal


0

delay by 62

local C.B. fault current

closed

fault clearing time

50 BF

setting level

local trip signal remote trip signal remote C.B. 0 Fig. 3.9-3 Time chart of the device 50/62 BF. 165
delay by 62
remote C.B. operating time

closed

open

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________ local C.B. fault current

closed

open

fault clearing time


reset time

local trip signal

C.B. operating time


margin

delay by 62

local C.B. fault current

closed

fault clearing time

local trip signal remote trip signal remote C.B. 0


remote C.B. operating time

closed

open

Fig. 3.9-4

Time chart of the device 62 BF

166

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________ i

1.5

i JNw = 100 C JNoil = 90 C t w = 10 min D JNw = 60 K D Joil = 50 K toil = 120 min

1.0 i = iN

J (C) 160
140 120

Jw (t = ) Joil(t = ) J
w

Joil

JNw 100 JNoil


80 60 40

toil

tw
20

D Joil D Jw- D Joil

20

40

60

80

100 t (min)

120

140

Fig. 4.1-1

Temperature rise at a sudden increased current 167

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

J = 126.4 C

140 winding temperature 120 130 J (C) DJ (%) overload i = 1.2 DJNw - DJNoil = 10 K temperature rise at DJNoil = 50 K rated current relay setting of the thermal time constant simulated temperature rise

120 110

tw t oil t

= 10 min = 120 min = 90 min

110

10 0

100 100 200 300 t (min) 400 500

Fig. 4.1-2 Comparison of an actual winding temperature rise and of a temperature rise simulated by a thermal relay

168

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.1-3

Temperature rise at a sudden current change.

169

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.1-4

Short-time overload capability.

170

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.1-5

ABB stator overload device. Operating curve acc. to ANSI C50.13. specified by the following values:

I IN t [s]

2.26 10

1.54 30

1.3 60

1.16 120

171

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.2-1

Temperature rise at a sudden negative-sequence current change.

172

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

I2
IN

I2
IN

Tripping stage

Alarm stage

HEST 905 015 FL

Fig. 4.2-2

Operating characteristics of the definite time NPS protection device.

173

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.2-3

ABB device "NPS-Inverse" operating curve.

174

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
A B C

IA

IB

IC

a2 IC IA

3 I1

a IB a2 IB IA IA

IB

IC

IB

IA

a IC

IC

3 I1 = 3 IA I1 = IA

3 I2 = 0 I2 = 0

3 I0 = 0 I0 = 0

Fig. 4.2-4

Symmetrical components at a symmetrical load.

175

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
A B C

IA

IC

a2 IC IA 3 I1 IA IA 3 I2 a IC IA IC

IC

3 I1 = 3 IA I1 = 3 IA 3

3 I2 = 3 IA I2 = 3 IA 3

3 I0 = 0 I0 = 0

Fig. 4.2-5

Symmetrical components at fully asymmetrical load.

176

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Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

IA

IB

IC

a IC

I2 IA aIB

a2 IB IB IA

IA a2 IC IA IC

IB

IC

3 I1 = 0 I1 = 0

3 I2 = 3 IA I2 = IA

3 I0 = 0 I0 = 0

Fig. 4.2-6

Symmetrical components at symmetrical load supplied by negative sequence load.

177

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
unbalanced generator line-to-line load fault or M.V. circuit breaker fail. at IN X asymmetrical H.V. short circuits

I2 100 (%) IN

1 ... 57.7

333

200

167

H.V. circuit breaker failure at IN

I2 100 (%) IN

57.7

33.3

Table 4.2-I

Values of the negative sequence current at various conditions.

178

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Generator type
Indirectly cooled rotor air-cooled hydrogen-cooled Turbogenerator Directly cooled rotor ... 350 MVA 350 ... 900 MVA 900 ... 1250 MVA 1250 ... 1600 MVA Indirectly cooled Directly cooled

i2 [%]

i22 t [s]

10 10

15 10

8 8 .. 6 6 .. 5 5 8 5

8 8 .. 5 5 5

Salient pole generator

20 15

Table 4.2-II Generator capability at unbalanced stator currents according to IEC 34-1 / VDE 0530.

179

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Generator type
Indirectly cooled rotor Directly cooled rotor Salient pole generator ... 960 MVA

i2 [%]
10

i22 t [s]
30

8 6 5 10 10 ...5

961 ... 1200 MVA 1201 ... 1600 MVA ... 800 MVA 800 ... 1600 MVA

Table 4.2-III Generator capability at unbalanced stator currents according to ANSI C50.13

180

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

U set 2 U set 1 UN Stage 2 Stage 1

Delay 2 0

Delay 1 t

Fig. 4.3-1

Operating characteristic of the definite time overvoltage function UN = rated voltage of the protection

181

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

E Xd If

I Us U

Ss = Us = constant

E U Us

jXdI jXdI E U E U

j
I=0 If

I If

j
If

Fig. 4.6-1

Synchronous machine operating in parallel with a large power system. Reactive and capacitive power loading.

182

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.6-2

Current curves of a synchronous machine with xd = 2.0.

183

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

jXdI

a) Turbogenerator

d
E jXqI jXdI

b) Salient-pole generator

Fig. 4.6-3

Generator phasors under normal operating conditions.

184

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Xd I U I E U

XdI

Fig. 4.6-4

Synchronous machine with cylindrical rotor Active power loading.

P P

90

180

270

360

d []

Fig. 4.6-5

Active power of a synchronous generator as a function of the load angle d

185

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Xd Icos j

j
E jXdI

P = U I cos j

j sin d = Xd Icos E
P = U I If UE Xd sin d

d j

jXdI I E

I jXdI I jXdI

jXdI

d
E E

I E=0

Fig. 4.6-6

Voltage diagram of a turbogenerator for different load conditions.

186

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

E Xd

I Us U

XdI

Xd

U I

@
E U I E I
X

E I

Xd

Fig. 4.6-7

Turbogenerator directly connected to a power system. Steady-state stability curve.

187

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________ Icmax Iactive U = const Iactive max.

E Xd

d U Xd

j
0

I Ireactive

Qcmax

U = const P max.

EU Xd

S=UI Q

U2 0 Qexc= X d

Fig. 4.6-8

Synchronous machine with cylindrical rotor Power diagram at constant stator voltage.

188

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
I
E G Xd GT

Us U
XT

jXdI jXTI E U Us jXdI U Us jXTI

@
E

Us I

XT

E I R

Xd

Fig. 4.6-9

Generator with the generator transformer operating to a power system. Steady-state stability curve.

189

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
I
E G Xd GT

Us
XT

X XT X'd
2

U Z= I

Steady-state stability curve

Xd Loss-ofexcitation device curve

Fig. 4.6-10

Coordination of steady-state stability curve with characteristic of the loss-of-excitation device.

190

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

protection device start signal


reset delay

extended signal t

tripping signal

trip delay trip

protection device start signal t

extended signal
reset delay

tripping signal

trip delay

no trip

Fig. 4.6-11

Loss-of-excitation device. Trip at rotor swings.

191

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

E G Xd
U = Us = const

X B 0
Z= V I

I U j R E Z jXdI j d

Xd Point A, A':
E=0 U I= Xd
90

Point B:
U=0 E I= Xd

j = 90cap jXdI I j U B' P EU Xd A' U = const

j = 0 E

jXdI I

d U2 Xd

j
0

S=UI Q d

E j U I jXdI

B'

Fig. 4.6-12a Turbogenerator directly connected to a large power system with a constant voltage. Steady-state stability limit (d = 90)

192

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
E G Xd X'd XT U T
Us

X R US jXTI I j U
@

X'd 2

0 j
B

Z
Z= U I Xd

jXdI

Point B':
U I j E jX'dI B'

Us=U=const (XT=0)

P EU Xd

Point A':
jXdI U

A'

UI= S I Q

@
U2
Xd

-E = U 2U I= X'd

E=0

j = 90cap

2 X d

U2

I=

U Xd

@ = 180

@ = 90

j = 90cap

Fig. 4.6-12b Turbogenerator Typical device characteristic (90 < d < 180). R-X and power diagram.

193

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
E G Xd XT U T Us

X B
XT

Z=

U I

US jXTI R

I d U j
@G

j d dG

jXdI
Xd

A P

Point A':
jXTI Us jXdI I j A' U EU Xd U=const.

Point B':

jXdI

S = UI

@G U2 Xd

B' 0

Q U
Us = 0

U2

XT

jXTI j I

E=0

j = 90cap @ G = 90
I= U Xd

@G = 0

j = 90ind U I= X T Xd+XT E= U XT

Us = U

Xd+XT Xd

Fig. 4.6-13 Generator transformer unit. Steady-state stability limit (d = 90)

194

ABB Network Partner AG

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Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
D3 B3 F3 B2 0 D2
@

No.3 E2 No.2 E3 R

B1 D1

No.1

C1 C2 C3 A1=A2=A3

P No.1 B'1 E'2 E'3

B'2 U=const

No.3
C'1
A'1=A'2=A'3

0 C'3 U
2

D'3
U XT
2

D'1

Xd

B'3 F'3

No.2 D'2

Fig. 4.6-14

Application of the REG216/316 device "Minimum-reactance" at different load angle limits

195

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

j Xq Iq

j Xd Id

U I Id Iq
j d

j X q IL d j Iq E
Xd

j Id jI

U Xd I Id Iq
j d

Xd

Xd - Xq Xd Xq U
d

Fig. 4.6-15

Voltage and current diagram of a salient-pole generator.

196

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

j U Iq jU Id j UI EU Xd EU Xd Iq
j d

U2 Xd I Id

Xd - Xq 2 U Xd Xq

EU Xd
S = UI

P 1=

EU sin d Xd

j
d

P 2= U2 Xq U2 Xd 0 P = P1+P2

U2 Xd - Xq sin2d 2 Xd Xq Q

Fig. 4.6-16

Power diagram of a salient-pole generator.

197

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.6-17

Steady-state stability limit for a salient-pole generator. salient-pole generator ------------ turbo generator

198

ABB Network Partner AG

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Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.6-18

Steady-state stability limit for salient-pole generator and generatortransformer units. salient-pole generator ------------ turbogenerator (for comparison) 199

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.6-19

Impedance locus after loss of excitation.

200

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.6-20

Power components after loss of excitation.

201

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.6-21

Stator voltage, current and speed after loss of excitation.

202

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
GT EG

network system

EG

Xd U

XT US

XS

ES

XdI EG U ES
@

(XT + XS)I

XSI XTI XdI

ES XT + XS U EG
@

ES I U I
@

Xd

EG I

Fig. 4.7-1

Generator with generator transformer operating to the network system under steady-state conditions.

203

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

,E

EG

,E EG EG ,E

ES

ES

ES

Fig. 4.7-2

Phasors EG and ES under 'out-of-step' conditions.

204

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
X

EG > ES

XS XT X'd
@ @ @

EG = ES
R

EG < ES

Fig. 4.7-3

Impedance locus under out-of-step conditions.

205

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 4.7-4

Locus of the impedance measured at the generator terminals during pole slipping in relation to the power system A. X'd : transient reactance of the generator XT : short-circuit reactance of the step-up transformer ZS : transient impedance of the power system A

206

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Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

3.0

EG=1.2

2.0 EG=1.3 EG=1.4 EG=1.6 EG=1.8 1.0 EG=3.0 ES=0 xS xT x'd R

Fig. 4.7-5

Impedance locus on the R-X diagram at ES = 1.0 and different voltages EG > ES. x'd = xT = xS = 0.2 (non-typical values).

207

Generator and Transformer Protection

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ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________
X
xS xT x'd ES=0.2 EG=0.4 EG=ES=1.0 R

1.0 EG=1.8

EG=1.6 EG=0.7 2.0 EG=0.8

3.0 EG=0.85

X'D = XT = XS = 0.2

Fig. 4.7-6

Impedance locus at ES = 1.0 and different voltages. EG < ES. - - - - operating curve of 'loss-of-excitation' relay.

208

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________
PG

Qcap

Qind
reverse power device setting generator and turbine no-load losses

PM

Fig. 4.8-1

Reverse-power device characteristic.

209

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Block

U I P>

t 1> t 2> TRIP

t 3>
Integrator
HEST 935 018 FL

Fig. 4.8-2 Tripping circuit of a reverse power protection scheme for steam turbines

210

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

t = 300 ms t2 = 0.63662 (i.e. i0 = 0.5%) w = 314.16 1/1

Fig. 5.1-1

The factor k calculated according to 3 different formulas.

211

Generator and Transformer Protection

1MRB520046-Len

ABB Network Partner AG

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 5.1-2

The factor k as a function of the time t.

212

ABB Network Partner AG

1MRB520046-Len

Generator and Transformer Protection

___________________________________________________________________

Fig. 5.1-3

The factor km as a function of the time constant T2.

213

IMPORTANT NOTICE! Experience has shown that reliable operation of our products is assured, providing the information and recommendations contained in these Instructions for Installation and Operation are adhered to. It is scarcely possible for the instructions to cover every eventuality that can occur when using technical devices and systems. We would therefore request the user to notify us directly or our agent of any unusual observations or of instances, in which these instructions provide no or insufficient information. In addition to these instructions, any applicable local regulations and safety procedures must always be strictly observed both when connecting up and commissioning this equipment. Any work such as insertion or removal of soldered jumpers or setting resistors, which may be necessary, may only be performed by appropriately qualified personnel. We expressly accept no responsibility for any direct damage, which may result from incorrect operation of this equipment, even if no reference is made to the particular situation in the Instructions for Installation and Operation.

ABB Network Partner


ABB Network Partner AG Haselstrasse 16/122 CH-5401 Baden/Switzerland Phone +41 56 205 77 44 Fax +41 56 205 55 77
Printed in Switzerland (9810-0000-0)

ABB Network Partner AB S-72171 Vsters, Sweden Phone +46 21 32 13 00 Fax +46 21 14 69 18

ABB Transmit Oy Relays and Network Control P.O.Box 699 SF-65101 Vaasa, Finland Phone +358-61-162 111 Fax +358-61-161 094

ABB Power T&D Co. Relays Coral Springs, Fla. 33065, USA Phone +1 305 752-6700 Fax +1 305 752-6700, ext. 2283

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