What is next ?

A codeword can be represented as a polynomial c(x) = n1 xn1 + + 1 x + 0 What do we know so far? GF (p), p = prime In cyclic codes g(x)|xn 1 We dont know How to factor xn 1 How to construct codes over richer alphabets (GF (q m )) What are the roots of g(x) (or c(x)) and what roll do they play How to construct a code with a given minimum distance
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Puzzles
Let N = (an1 , . . . , a1 , a0 )10 . Then, N is divisible by nine if the sum of its digits is divisible by nine. Let a and b two integers. Then, there exist a number of the form aa a0 0 that is divisible by b Consider the multiplication table modulo 6. How many columns consist of all the residues modulo 6 ? ((6)) Which numbers will appear in the remaining columns ? (n/GCD(a, n) ) Let a, b integers. Show that there exist two integers x and y such that ax + by = 1. Let b = prime, then for a {1, 2, . . . b 1} there exists a unique a1 {1, 2, . . . b 1} such that a a1 = 1 mod b.

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Eulers Totient function

Eulers totient function (n) represents the number of positive integers less than or equal to n that are coprime to n. (n) = |{k|0 < k < n, GDC(n, k) = 1}| Example: (10) = |{1, 3, 7, 9}| = 4 Theorem: Let n = Partial proof: Let n = prime then (n) = n 1. Let n = pm , p = prime, then (n) = (p 1)pm1 . Let n = p q and p, q are primes, then (n) = n By induction (n) = n
i i

Eulers Totient function

Example: 10 = 21 51 (10) = (2 1)211 (5 1)511 = 4

i (pi

pei , then (n) = i

1)pei 1 i

Fermat-Euler theorem: If a and m are relatively prime, then a(m) = 1 mod m. Proof: b= 1 1 q
b,GCD(b,m)=1 b,GCD(b,m)=1

n n + p q

n 1 + =n 1 pq p 1 pi

ab = a(m)
b,GCD(b,m)=1

mod m

=
i

(pi 1)pei 1 i
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Euclidean Algorithm
The Euclidean algorithm provides a simple way to nd the greatest common divisor of two integers a, b a > b Algorithm g0 = a g1 = b g2 . . . gi . . . = . . . = . . . g0 . . . gi2 . . . mod g1 mod gi1 mod gk1 = 0 Example g0 = 91 g1 = 65 g2 = 91 mod 65 = 26 = 91 1 65 g3 = 65 mod 26 = 13 = 65 2 (91 1 65) = 2 91 + 3 65 g4 = 26 mod 13 = 0

Euclidean Algorithm

The Euclidean Algorithm can be applied on polynomials. For example, the GCD of x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + 1 and x3 + 1 is calculated as follows: g0 = x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + 1 g1 = x3 + 1 g2 = g0 g3 = g1 mod g1 = x + 1 mod g0 = 0

GCD(x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + 1, x3 + 1) = x + 1

gk = gk2

The GCD(a, b) equals gk1 . In our example GCD(91, 65) = 13.

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