Functional Grammar: An Introduction for the EFL student

A coursebook by Maria Freddi

Functional Grammar Studies for Non-Native Speakers of English Series Editor D.R. Miller

Table of Contents
Foreword of Series Editor

Preface ............................................... Chapter 1 - Why study grammar? ........................ 1.1. The Text-Context connection ...................... 1.2. Formalism vs. Functionalism ...................... 1.3. The Grammar-Meaning connection ................... Keys to exercises ..................................... Chapter 2 Ways with Words ........................... 2.1. The Rank Scale ................................... 2.2. The Nominal Group ................................ Keys to exercises ..................................... Chapter 3 - Interpersonal Meanings .................... 3.1. The MOOD SYSTEM .................................. 3.2. The MODALITY SYSTEM .............................. 3.3. The APPRAISAL SYSTEM ............................. Keys to exercises .....................................

sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl. sl.

4 6 10 21 26 30 35 37 50 65 69 75 89 101 108

Chapter 4 - Ideational (Experiential and Logical) Meanings ................................. 4.1. The TRANSITIVITY SYSTEM ......................... 4.2. Grammatical Metaphor (Ideational) ............... 4.3. Clauses in combination: the Clause-Complex ............................. Keys to exercises .................................... Chapter 5 - Textual Meanings ......................... 5.1. THEME and RHEME ................................. 5.2. Non-Structural Cohesive devices ................. Keys to exercises ....................................

sl. 111 sl. 113 sl. 162 sl. 169 sl. 195 sl. sl. sl. sl. 198 200 214 227

Appendix A Test sample items .................................... sl. 235 Keys ................................................. sl. 239 Appendix B List of texts ........................................ sl. 240

Foreword
Donna R. Miller Series Editor

It is with great pleasure that I present the first three e-books of this new series of Functional Grammar Studies for Non-Native Speakers of English, which is contained within the superordinate: Quaderni del Centro di Studi Linguistico-Culturali (CeSLiC), a research center of which I am currently the Director and which operates within the Department of Modern Foreign Languages of the University of Bologna. The first three volumes of this series: M. Freddi, Functional Grammar: An Introduction for the EFL Student M. Lipson, Exploring Functional Grammar D.R. Miller (with the collaboration of A. Maiorani and M. Turci), Language as Purposeful: Functional Varieties of Texts

have as their primary consumers the students of the English Language Studies Program (ELSP) in the Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literature of the University of Bologna, for whom they are the basic coursebook in each of the three years of the first-level degree course. They are the fruit of from 2 to 4 years of trialling, which was a vital part of an ex-60% research project, financed in part by the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research, that I first proposed in 2002 and that is now into its third and final year, but which had already been initially set in motion when the reform of the university system was first made known back in 1999. Without going into undue detail about what the reform meant for language teaching in the Italian universities, Ill just say that in the first-level degree course our task is now twofold: parallel to the many hours of traditional EFL practice with mother-tongue speakers, there are lectures which aim at providing, over the three years, a metalinguistic description of English grammar in a functional, socio-semiotic perspective. The contents of these volumes are thus progressive and cumulative. In the first year a skeleton of the Hallidayan Functional Grammar model is taught; in the second it is fleshed out, and in the third it is animated, as it were, put into practice, being made to work as a set of analytical tools for the investigation of the notion of register, or functional varieties of texts. A fourth volume on translation of text-types in this same perspective is also in the planning stages. This kind of metalinguistic reflection on the nature of the language being taught and on how it works is thus relatively new for Faculties of LLS in the Italian university system. Its justification is essentially the premise put forth by F. Christie (1985/1989) apropos of the L1 learners education: i.e., that explicit knowledge about language on the learners part is both desirable and useful. It is our conviction

that such an insight not only can but should be extended to the L2 learning situation. In short, foreign language learning at the tertiary level should not be merely a question of the further development of students competence in communicative skills; it should involve learning not only the language, but about the language. Indeed, what scholars define as the good adult language learner has long been known to readily attend to language as system and patterns of choice (Johnson 2001: 153). To design and implement this component of the syllabus and try to create the required synergy with the more practical work being done by the native speaker collaborators, so as to lead to better and more holistic L2 learning, needed, however, serious reflection and experimentation. Hence the project mentioned above, in which both Freddi and Lipson and other researchers and teachers took part. Developing what began as sketchy class notes into proper coursebooks that would serve the needs not only of those coming to lessons, but also of those many who, alas, dont was one important aim of the project. Another was monitoring the success of the new dual pedagogical syllabus by means of various quantitative and qualitative studies, the details of which I will not go into here. I will, however, say that the revised curriculum has proved to have a rate of success that I dont dare yet to quantify. Moreover, a significant proportion of the students who have reached the end of their degree course report not only that they have understood what it was we are trying to do, but that they are actually convinced that our having tried to do it is valuable! Some even add that by the end they actually came to enjoy what at the beginning seemed to them a slow form of torture! But what was it that we were trying to do, and by what means? As already said or at least implied above, we wanted, firstly, to get the students to reflect on the workings of language, tout court, and the specific functions of the English language, in particular. To do that, we wanted to investigate with them the grammar of English, but we knew wed have to chip away at the die-hard myths surrounding the study of grammar that see it as a boring, or even elitist, enterprise, one that is basically meaningless. We chose a functional grammar as we are firm believers in the language-culture equation. We chose the Hallidayan model because its lexico-grammatical core is inextricably tied to meaning-making on the part of human beings acting in concrete situational and cultural contexts, and we believe our students must be offered language awareness in this wider and richer perspective. Our approach in these e-coursebooks is consistently language-learner oriented: we have tried, in short, to keep in mind the fact that our students are L2 learners and take account of their practical learning experiences, and not only that of the complementary EFL component of their English courses. In aiming at helping them develop as learners and more particularly at empowering them through an increasing awareness of the functions of the English language in a variety of more, but also less, dominant socio-cultural contexts, we obviously aimed at working on their intercultural consciousness as well. These considerations dictated the choice for an explicit critical pedagogy that would make the workings of language as visible, and as attainable, as possible to our students (Cf. Martin 1998: 418-419). At the same time it also dictated the choice of the linguistic framework weve adopted, as it sees language as a vital resource not only for behaving, but also for negotiating and even modifying such behavior, and views the study of language as an exploration of some of the most important and pervasive of the processes by which human beings build their world (Christie 1985/1989: v). It is our hope that we are

ii

helping our students to be able not only to participate actively in these processes, but also to act upon them in socially useful ways. Such a hope is conceivably utopistic, but some amount of idealism is eminently fitting to a concept of socially-accountable linguistics conceived as a form of political action (Hasan & Martin (eds.) 1989: 2). It is also surely indispensable when attempting to break what is, in terms of our specific pedagogic setting, wholly new ground. We leave aside the thorny issue of English as global lingua franca, acknowledge merely that it is, and propose that these materials are proving to be effective teaching/learning resources for improving English literacy outcomes in that particular setting (Cf. Rose 1999). From what has been said, it follows that the linguistic theory we adopt here is, at the same time, a social theory. The same cannot be said of the course that our students take (and that is obligatory in most degree courses in foreign languages and literature in Italy) in General (and generally formalist) Linguistics. As most of the students in our degree course opt to study English, this series was also conceived as a way to ensure they are provided with another way of looking at what a language is. Undoubtedly, the contrast in frameworks often slips into conflict, but we feel that their being rather uncomfortably caught between sparring approaches is a crucial part of their education and we are starting to see that it has its positive payoffs too.

Donna R. Miller Bologna, 10 November, 2004

Cited References: Christie F., 1985/1989, Foreword to the series in educational linguistics, Australia: Deakin University Press; Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hasan R. & J.R. Martin (eds.), 1989, Language Development: Learning Language, Learning Culture (Meaning and Choice in Language: Studies for Michael Halliday), Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. Johnson K., 2001, An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching, London, Longman.

iii

Martin J.R. 1998 Linguistics and the Consumer: the Practice of Theory, in Linguistics and Education 9 (4): 411-448. Rose D., 1999, Culture, competence and schooling: approaches to literacy teaching in indigenous school education, in F. Christie (ed.), Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness: Linguistic and Social Processes, London & New York: Continuum.

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Preface
Despite its forbidding reputation, grammar is one of the most interesting aspects of language study. This coursebook introduces English grammar from a Hallidayan systemic-functional perspective, which will be extended in the 2 volume of this series, and related to different text-types in the 3. The main purpose is to offer an account of how the English clause works in relation to its context of use. The idea is that lexico-grammatical choices speakers make become fully meaningful depending not just on the channel of communication, but also on the relationship between interlocutors and the purpose of what is said. The handbook necessarily takes for granted on the part of the students a knowledge of the grammar of their own language. Also, though only to a certain extent, it builds on elementary knowledge of the grammar of English, in an attempt to bridge the gap between more traditional accounts of how it works and the Hallidayan approach.
4

Together with the other authors in this series, I too am utterly convinced that an understanding of the nature of language, of how it works is not a natural by-product of knowing how to use language, even for native-speakers. On the contrary, I firmly believe that knowing about a language does help become better users, that is, better readers, better writers, better speakers and listeners of that language. I therefore hope that, in providing EFL learners with a new analytical tool, they will become aware of the resources which English has and improve their learning of it at the same time. Students are also encouraged to practice their grammatical analysis and develop their awareness with reference to mini-texts (titles, headlines, blurbs, and the like) of their own choosing.

Chap. 1- Why study grammar?

Why study grammar? Why study Functional Grammar? What is new about the Hallidayan functional approach? Why is it attractive?

The assumption of this course is that knowledge of grammar facilitates language learning, that it helps produce and understand texts in English. What follows is taken from the lexicographic definition of Grammar in the OED Online.

[ad. OF. gramaire (F. grammaire), an irregular semipopular adoption (for the form of which cf. OF. mire repr. L. medicum, artimaire repr. L. artem magicam or mathematicam) of L. grammatica, ad. Gr. (scil. art), fem. of adj., of or pertaining to letters or literature, f. letters, literature, pl. of letter, written mark, f. root of to write. Cf. Pr. gramaira (prob. from Fr.). Old Fr. had also a learned adoption of the L. word, gramatique, parallel with Sp. gramtica, Pg., It. grammatica, G. grammatik, Welsh gramadeg. In classical Gr. and L. the word denoted the methodical study of literature (= philology in the widest modern sense, including textual and aesthetic criticism, investigation of literary history and antiquities, explanation of allusions, etc., besides the study of the Greek and Latin languages. Post-classically, grammatica came to be restricted to the linguistic portion of this discipline, and eventually to grammar in the mod. sense. In the Middle Ages, grammatica and its Rom. forms chiefly meant the knowledge or study of Latin, and were hence often used as synonymous with learning in general, the knowledge peculiar to the learned class. As this was popularly supposed to include magic and astrology, the OF. gramaire was sometimes used as a name for these occult sciences. In these applications it still survives in certain corrupt forms, F. grimoire, Eng. GLAMOUR, GRAMARYE.]
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Task 1already Can you writing

Analyse the following text: what are the words you know? And which are those you are not sure about? understand this text? That is, can you tell who is to whom about what?

We at Kier recognise the importance in executing the construction works here at 20 King Street, in a safe and hazard free environment for both the general public and local businesses. The process of developing a working structure with the public and local business continues and remains on going. We therefore require feedback, advising us of any measures you feel we should take whilst on this project, as to maintain a correct environment to work and live in. In return we would ask that should you see this building being vandalised or in such state that requires emergency services, then you call them direct and report the incident that you are witnessing. We would then hope to be contacted ourselves on: 0207 930 9216 or 0208 464 3377 or 07747760173 Thank you for your Assistance. Mr. G. Whittle Kier Group

NonLinguistic Level

1.2.The Text-Context Connection

Language takes Language takes place in place in CONTEXT. The CONTEXT. The meanings we meanings we construct in construct in using language using language are strictly are strictly linked to both linked to both the cultural the cultural and and situational situational context in context in which language which language is used. is used.

SEMANTICS (meanings)

LEXICO-GRAMMAR (wordings)

Linguistic Level

PHONOLOGY/GRAPHOLOGY (sounds/symbols)

Fig. 1- The text-context connection I (Adapted from Martin 1992)

Language is aa set of Language is set of lexico-grammatical lexico-grammatical options realizing options realizing certain meanings and certain meanings and being expressed being expressed through the phonic through the phonic or graphic matter. or graphic matter.

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Context of Situation

Semantics

LexicoGrammar

Fig. 2- The text-context connection II

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The Context of Culture

Halliday (1994: xv) says that any evaluation of a text requires an interpretation also of its context. In order to analyse language in use, therefore, a theory of grammar will have to take into consideration not just the text, but also the context, both situational and cultural. The model will put together context, meaning and grammar realizations. In part, we understand the meanings of sentences because we know the vocabulary (lexis) and the grammatical structures (as speakers, we follow regular patterns in our selections of both). This makes it possible to communicate successfully, even if sometimes interpretation is ambiguous and miscommunication possible. In the same way, we understand the meanings of speakers because we know something of the culture in which texts are embedded. How do we define culture? The context of culture can be understood in terms of the beliefs, ideas and ideologies, worldviews and value systems that are constructed in language.

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The Context of Situation

In modern linguistics context came to refer to the NONVERBAL environment and generally includes whos talking to whom, when and where, and how. According to Hallidayan linguistics, the context of situation can be described by three variables: FIELD is both the kind of social activity effected and the topic or subject-matter. It is sometimes translated with campo dazione. Answers the question Whats going on? TENOR is the people involved in the language event, the more permanent (social roles or statuses) and more temporary (discourse roles) relations established. Answers the question Whos taking part? MODE is the function accorded to the text, the rhetorical aim. Answers the question Hows language being used?
Halliday derives his notion of the c.o.s from the Halliday derives his notion of the c.o.s from the anthropologist Malinowski. I quote, the situation in which anthropologist Malinowski. I quote, the situation in which words are uttered can never be passed over as irrelevant to the words are uttered can never be passed over as irrelevant to the linguistic expression (Malinowski 1923: 306). linguistic expression (Malinowski 1923: 306).

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Mode
Mode can be understood as the part language plays. It includes: -the channel of communication, whether phonic (e.g. face-to-face communication, radio, telephone, etc.), or graphic (e.g. book, newspaper, written note, scientific article, etc.), or some combination of the two (e.g. CD-ROM); -the medium, degrees of spoken-ness/written-ness, i.e. whether the text is more lexically dense (high incidence of lexical vs. grammatical words) and packaged (in nominalised strings, for example), or more lexico-grammatically intricate (in complex combinations of clauses); -the nature of the exchange, dialogic or monologic, and whether it is spoken and spontaneous, or writtento-be-read, or written-to-be-spoken, and thus prepared, or at least semi-prepared.
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Medium
The notion is a complex one. It has to do with degrees of writtenness and degrees of spokenness on a continuum, i.e. lexical density (high incidence of lexical vs. grammatical words) and grammatical intricacy (complex clausal organisation), and with degrees of spontaneity.

Task 2- Compare the two extracts on slide 16 and 17 to have a grasp of this important distinction: what features do you find most typical of either two? Where do you think the extracts were drawn from?

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Extract AAn increasingly large number of television programmes coming from the United States, i.e. serials, sitcoms, soap operas, and the like, have increased the business of dubbing in countries such as Italy, which have always traditionally dubbed rather than subtitled. Commercial reasons like this together with the need for highly trained translators have aroused new interest on the part of academics in the theoretical issues involved in dubbing. The questions I would like to pose here are, firstly, at which point does translating cease and dubbing take over? In other words, what exactly is the difference between translation proper and adapting a script for the TV screen? And, secondly, can Dialogue Analysis provide the dubbing scriptwriter with useful criteria for a critical reading?
(From Freddi 1998 Dialogue Analysis and Multimedia Translation)
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Extract BWell, Mrs. Moss, I think you should avoid sleeping pills if you can. You may come to rely on them completely and find it impossible to sleep without them. Id suggest some other remedies, perhaps very obvious ones. Have you tried drinking herb tea, like camomile, before you go to bed? This can help you relax. You could also try listening to music or reading.
(From Lipson 2001-2002)

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Register
Note that these three variables of context, namely Field, Tenor and Mode, define the register to which a text belongs. There is an inextricable, systematic association between context and text (the extra-linguistic situation and the linguistic/verbal realizations) and vice versa: the context activates the meanings (i.e. the Semantics) that are realized in and by the grammar (i.e. lexico-grammar). Thus a register can be defined as a culturally specific text-type which results from using language to accomplish something (Gerot & Wignell
1994: 17).

Examples of registers are: the lecture, the research article, various types of serviceencounters, etc.

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Task 3- Analyse the exam-situation in terms of Field, Tenor and Mode. Task 4- Identify the following registers and describe the three variables of the contextual configuration: a) Wash and dry a 450g chicken, boned and skinned. Cut into small, similar-sized pieces and place in a bowl. Add the spices (1/2 tsp freshly ground black pepper, 1/2 tsp ground cumin, 1/2 tsp ground turmeric), some salt and two tbsp of olive oil and mix together. Cover and chill for at least an hour. Thread the chicken, 2 medium red onions and 4 baby sweet green peppers alternatively along 4 long skewers. Cook over hot coals on a barbecue for 10-15 minutes, turning frequently and basting with extra oil during cooking, until tender and cooked through. Serve hot or cold. If you wish, add a dressing of greek yogurt, flavoured with a pinch of paprika, a pinch of cumin, some mint and crushed garlic, plus a pinch of salt, to taste. b) Well, Well, Mrs. Moss, I think you should avoid sleeping pills if you can. You may come to rely on them completely and find it impossible to sleep without them
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c) Volvo. For life. d) Christmas Greetings and Best Wishes for the Coming Year. e) Subject: Fwd: Re: University meeting Date: Tue, 01 Jul 2003 14:06:52 +0200 From: Joanna <xxxxx> To: mfreddi@lingue.unibo.it >At 11.13 30/06/2003 +0200, you wrote: >>Hi Sandra, >> >>Maria suggested that we try and together. When >>would be a ggod time? >> >>Hope everything is well with you. >> >>Best wishes. >> >>Joanna

have

meeting

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1.2.Formalism vs. Functionalism

In order to start answering the questions in slide 6, let us consider this advertisement.

Task 5- What aspects of the sentence do we want to consider in providing a linguistic description of the following travel advertisement of a British region?
(Based on Thompson 1996: 2) 21

The basic philosophy of a FORMALIST:

Grammar is an abstract set of rules. The primary concern is with the forms of grammatical structures and their relationship to one another. Grammar = morphology and syntax Grammarians often use made up sentences to illustrate rules.

22

The basic philosophy of a FUNCTIONALIST:

Grammar is a system of human communication and allows speakers to make and exchange meanings. The primary concern is with the functions of grammatical structures and with their meanings in their context. Grammar = lexico-grammar Grammarians aim at using sentences drawn from real world sources, authentic pieces of linguistic evidence.
Note, however, that formal analyses Note, however, that formal analyses must at some stage take account of must at some stage take account of meaning and function, and meaning and function, and functional analyses must at some functional analyses must at some stage take account of form. stage take account of form.

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Why do we need FG then?

In the history of language study in the West, there have been two somewhat different theoretical conceptualizations of grammar. Both have their origins in Ancient Greece, there have been many variations, but we can still trace these two strands of thinking today (Matthiessen & Halliday 1997). 1) In one, language is a set of rules, rules for specifying structures, for example the construction of a transitive sentence with verb + accusative. This perspective is that of logic and philosophy in the foregrounding of the sentence as the basic unit of language, organized on a logical model into Subject + Predicate. Since the sentence is the basic unit, it is studied in isolation.

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2) In the other view, language is a resource for making meanings. This perspective is that of rhetoric and ethnography in the foregrounding of the text (discourse) as the basic unit of language, organized according to the rhetorical aim. Since text is the basic unit, the sentence is studied in its discourse environment. Moreover, Matthiessen and Halliday 1997 observe that at this stage in the history of human-kind, we need a richer theory of grammar to meet the challenges of the age of information. To the new needs of our society and new purposes of language use corresponds a new theory of language. For example, in the field of education, one should ask, how do we give access to and transfer knowledge through language?, or in the field of language teaching, how do we help people learn a foreign language?, or in the field of media studies, what is the best way to explain and describe the way language works in advertising a product, as in slide 21?
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1.3.The Grammar-Meaning Connection

The founder of the theory says: Language is a semiotic system: meaning is created in language. (M.A.K. Halliday 1994) Functional means that we are foregrounding the role of grammar as a resource for construing meaning. (M.A.K. Halliday 1994)
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The claim that meaning is created in language hints at the philosophical issue of the locus of meaning and the relation between language, meaning, thought and reality. Similarly, the claim that grammar is considered a resource for making meaning, entails that grammar equals meaning and vice versa (see Figure 3, sl. 30). There is in fact circularity between meanings and grammar in that meanings are realized or constructed in and by the grammar, which means that they are accessible to speakers only via the grammar and that grammar has an internal meaning creating role. How can we have access to a semantic category without its grammatical realization? For example, how are we to understand the semantic category temporality (time) in different languages, unless we explore the grammatical resources that realize it (tense, etc.)? Thus, there is no point in asking which determines which.
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SEMANTICS (MEANINGS )

LEXICOGRAMMAR (WORDINGS )

(fro m Miller 2000-2001)

Fig. 3- The Grammar-Meaning connection

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To sum up:
Functional use. Grammar focuses on language

It is descriptive, more than prescriptive, in its examination of actual occurrences of spoken and written language and the context of their use It aims at: -showing how meaning is made -understanding and interpreting texts.

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Keys to exercises
Task 1Glossary: hazard free = not dangerous Vandalised = damaged on purpose Witnessing = seeing We, ourselves = the reference for the 1st person plural subjectpronoun is the Kier Group, which also coincides with the writer of the text (sender of the message), Mr. Whittle, as representative of the group You = the 2nd person plural pronoun refers to the addressee and reader of the text (receiver of the message) The importance of granting a safe working environment at the construction works at 20 King Street = the main topic of the text, a declaration of intents (Function is Informative) advising us of any measures you feel we should take whilst on this project, as to maintain a correct environment to work and live in = complex combination of clauses (dependent and embedded) In return we would ask that should you see...then you call them direct...we would then hope= modal verbs are used to modalize the message, however, this second part of the text is a clear call for action, almost an injunction (Function is Exhortatory) Thank you for your Assistance = this line is the closing addressing the readers in a direct way, asking for their help and action.
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Task 2- The first paragraph of Extract A is characterised by nominalization: long Nominal Groups (NGs) functioning as participants within the clause as representation. Such NGs contain a high number of lexical or content words, while the number of clauses is very low. If we count up the lexical words and divide them by the number of clauses we get the lexical density of the paragraph. If this number is high, then the paragraph is more likely to be an instance of the written medium. The second paragraph has more clauses (in order to identify them, count up the verbs of both independent and dependent clauses). These are questions in form, but function as research questions, which will be addressed and investigated by the author of the research paper. On the other hand, Extract B shows signs of its spoken nature. Among others, the continuative well, and the direct form of address, the vocative, Mrs. Moss, which are both typical of spoken English; then, there are many independent coordinated clauses as well as dependent, subordinated clauses (identify the verbs). Grammatical intricacy is more typical of spoken discourse. The topic (remedies for insomnia) together with the high incidence of prescriptive deontic modality lead us to think that this is an instance of doctor-patient telephone interaction. 31

Task 3The exam-situation is defined by: 1) its Field: an activity that tests the acquired knowledge of the student; the subject-matter of the exam, e.g. say, an exam on Elizabethan literature; 2) its Tenor: namely the examiner/-s and the examinee engaged in the exchange (the hic et nunc), with their social, semi-permanent roles or statuses (teacher-student) and their ongoing discourse roles: the teachers discourse role consists in asking questions and giving feedback on the students answers; 3) its Mode: the channel is phonic, the medium is more spoken than written, and a dialogue, even though the interaction is semi-planned rather than spontaneous. Where can the medium be put in the continuum between spokenness and writtenness? (see Gerot and Wignell 1994: 159 ff.) Task 4a recipeField: giving instructions on how to prepare chilli-chicken skewers Tenor: writer-general readership Mode: graphic channel, more written than spoken medium
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Task 4- contd b) a telephone conversationField: advising on how to overcome a medical against insomnia Tenor: doctor-patient Mode: originally phonic channel, medium is spoken

problem,

remedies

c) an ad Field: the activity of advertising in order to sell a car Tenor: Volvo company-potential buyers Mode: graphic channel (originally multi-modal, i.e. including the visual mode of images), medium is more written than spoken d) a greeting card Field: Christmas greetings Tenor: very generic and impersonal, no explicit trace of sender or receiver Mode: graphic channel (maybe multi-modal if including an image, medium is written e) an e-mail Field: activity of making an appointment, a University meeting Tenor: 3 colleagues Mode: graphic channel, medium mixed, written but with features of spokenness
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Task 5The following issues can be highlighted: what is the writer doing with the imperative? The sentence is indeed an order or command realized by the imperative Mood (spend), but being an ad, it functions more like an invitation. Why didnt the writer choose an indicative statement form? Who is the addressee of this command/invitation? And whom does the adverbial together include? Also, why is the time one spends in that part of Britain characterised as being worthwhile (quality time)? Then, what features of the graphic co-text, including lay-out, pictures, that is, the visual semiotics, trigger the grammatical choices and affect the message of the sentence? Therefore, what is the ultimate purpose of the sentence? What is its function, i.e. its meaning?

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Chapter 2- Ways with Words

In order to approach a text, we need to be able to break it down into smaller, more manageable units, so, for example, into sentences (those units of the writing system beginning with a capital letter and ending with a full-stop), which in turn can be broken down into clauses, (which combine with each other to form a text), which can be broken down into groups of words, and so on. We therefore need to start looking in a more systematic way at the units of grammar on which our analysis is going to be based. We will then identify their functions within ONE clause, and we will eventually go back to how clauses are put together to form a text.
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2.1. The Rank Scale

(or, the constituent structure of grammar)
The Rank Scale is defined as: the layered part-whole relationship that occurs among the units of grammar (Halliday 1994: 23). Larger units are made up out of smaller units (e.g. sentences consist of clauses, which consist of groups of words, which, in their turn, consist of words, which, in their turn, consist of see following slide). Each unit consists of one or more of the next smaller, and sometimes these can be conflated:
Ex. Stop! = one sentence = clause = one group = one word = one morpheme

(ex. based on Halliday 2004: 9)

36

A TEXT is a meaningful instance of language, a coherent whole that makes sense to someone that knows the language; it is indeterminate in length (it can be the Stop! above, or consist of one or more volumes). It consists of one or more CLAUSEs, i.e. a group of words with at least one Verb (or Verbal) GROUP (VG). But clauses can also have Noun (or Nominal) groups, (NG), Adjectival Groups, Adverbial groups (AG), and Prepositional Phrases (PP). These in turn are made up of at least one WORD. Words have both content (lexical) and function (grammatical). They are made up of at least one MORPHEME. Morphemes are the smallest distinctive unit of grammar having meaning.

TEXT
CLAUSE

GROUP

WORD

MORPHEME

Fig. 4- The Rank Scale

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An example of a TEXT could be the one already seen in sl. 9 and 10:
We at Kier recognise the importance in executing the construction works here at 20 King Street, in a safe and hazard free environment for both the general public and local businesses. The process of developing a working structure with the public and local business continues and maintains on going. We therefore require feedback, advising us of any measures you feel we should take whilst on this project, as to maintain a correct environment to work and live in. In return we would ask that should you see this building being vandalised or in such state that requires emergency services, then you call them direct and report the incident that you are witnessing. We would then hope to be contacted ourselves on: 0207 930 9216 or 0208 464 3377 or 07747760173 Thank you for your Assistance. Mr. G. Whittle Kier Group
38

A text can be broken down into sentences and into CLAUSES:

We at Kier recognise the importance in executing the construction works here at 20 King Street, in a safe and hazard free environment for both the general public and local businesses.

The sentence above is made up of just ONE clause, although a very a long and qualified one, and in particular one independent clause, as there is only one finite verb (recognise). Some of you might notice, however, a non-finite verb (executing), and might argue that this is another clause, a dependent one. However, later we will see that this second clause loses its status of clause, as it were, it is down-ranked, becoming a constituent within a group, namely the Nominal Group. This phenomenon is called Embedding. Thus, here the second clause (in executing) is embedded as part of the NG the importance (see sl. 56 ff.).
39

Clauses combine to form a CLAUSE COMPLEX:

The process of developing a working structure with the public and local business continues and maintains ongoing.

In the sentence above you have two coordinated clauses (the second of which has the Subject elided), both independent, both with finite verbs (continues, maintains), they form a clause-complex. In the next one there is one independent clause (with the VG require), and two dependent, both with nonfinite verbs (advising, as to maintain). The other two verbal groups (feel, should take) are in embedded clauses, as are the last two, (to work and live in).
We therefore require feedback, advising us of any measures you feel we should take whilst on this project, as to maintain a correct environment to work and live in.

The CLAUSE is the basic unit of analysis in this model and is considered to be representative of the text as an instantiation of a meaning potential.
40

Each clause can be broken down into groups:

We at Kier = 1 Nominal Group (1 pronoun + 1 embedded, qualifying Prepositional Phrase) recognise = 1 Verbal Group the importance in executing the construction works here at 20 King Street, = 1 Nominal Group in a safe and hazard free environment = 1 Prepositional Phrase for both the general public and local businesses = 1 Prepositional Phrase The process of developing a working structure with the public and local business = Nominal Group continues = Verbal Group (it) = ellipted pronoun, thus Nominal Group maintains = Verbal Group Ongoing = Adjectival Group
41

More examples of VERBAL GROUPS, VG, (and of what are called Verbal Group expansions) are:

We recognised.
Lexical Verb + Finite [-ed, Simple Past] (or Predicator)

We have recognised.
Finite [have, Present] + Lexical Vb. + [-ed, Perfect] (or Predicator)

We should have recognised.

Finite [should, Modal Auxiliary] + [have, Present] + Lexical Vb. + [-ed, Perfect] (or Predicator)

42

Task 3- Underline the VGs in the following examples:

1- Stella got the first prize. 2- He must have left. 3- The reply had been accepted as valid. 4- The duke gave my aunt this teapot. 5- I would have thought so. 6- Sanctions against the country should be eased. 7- We would then hope to be contacted. 8- The building requires emergency services. 9- They seldom come to Italy. 10- Did you take my glasses?

43

In the clauses analysed so far there was no example of ADVERBIAL GROUPS (AG). Again, an Adverbial Group can be made up of one word only, one Adverb, as in the examples below:

They left the room quickly. They seldom come to Italy.

or even of a modified Adverb, as in:

They come to Italy very rarely. They dont come to Italy enough for their tastes. quite often

44

Each group in its turn can be broken down into WORDS:

We at Kier = 1 NG, 3 words recognise = 1 VG, 1 word the importance in executing the construction works here at 20 King Street, = 1 NG, 11 words in a safe and hazard free environment = 1 Prepositional Phrase (henceforth PP), 7 words for both the general public and local businesses = 1 PP, 8 words

More examples of words are:

Tall, a, book, serendipity, the, crosscheck.

45

Each word is identified by both its Content, that is its lexical or conceptual value, and its grammatical Function, that is, its relation to other words in the clause. The total meaning of a word is the sum of both these aspects. Furthermore, we can distinguish between: Lexical words (= also content words), they function in lexical open sets rather than in closed grammatical systems; Grammatical words (= also empty words), they have no lexical or conceptual content, they have only their grammatical function.
46

The image shows an entry of the lemma and taken from the MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, MacMillan 2002. Task 1- Look up in one or more dictionaries both a grammatical (e.g. the) and a lexical word (e.g. red), and compare the entries with the contentfunction distinction in mind.

47

Each word can be broken down into MORPHEMES, the smallest unit of grammar:

Execut-ing is formed from the lexical morpheme execut- and

the grammatical morpheme ing for the Gerund;

Work-s is formed from the lexical morpheme work- and s

indicating the Plural. A useful exercise to improve your command of lexis is practising word formation, as in the example below. Notice how morphemes change the word-class (or part of speech): Safe Safe-ty Safe-ly Un-safe Adjective (Adjectival Group) Noun (NG) Adverb (AG) Adjective (Adjectival Group), an antonym of safe

48

Task 2- Identify the morphemes and function in the following examples:

their

A, kindness, trees, soften, moisten, approbation, approval, recital, proposition, proposal, employer, transfer, presume, receive, deduce, away, alone, unselfishly. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species - that mystery of mysteries (C. Darwin, The Origin of Species)

49

2.2. The Nominal Group

In the English grammar the NG is an extremely productive unit and an economic way to represent reality linguistically, thanks to its structural capacity to be expanded both to the left (pre-modification) and to the right (post-modification), something we have already seen with reference to AGs above. This is why considerable space is dedicated here to this interesting language structure and to its functions. You will learn how to decode the logical and experiential relations between the various elements within a NG, and this will help you read and understand different texts. There is a special type of text, which Halliday 1994 calls little texts whose grammar is reduced to one NG exclusively: these include titles, newspaper headlines, road signs, and the like. As is illustrated below, the relationship between the elements within a NG can be seen from two different perspectives: 1)the logical, highlighting the hierarchical relationship between the head noun and its modifiers, and 2)the experiential, which stresses the type of semantics, or meanings, instantiated. 50

Modifier | Head Noun = logical relation A | book

Deictic | Thing = experiential relation A | book

51

Pre-Modification
The | book Specific Deictic | Thing The | two | books Spec. Deictic + Numerative + Thing The | two | most fascinating | books Deictic + Numerative + Epithet + Thing The | FG | book Deictic + Classifier + Thing Those | big | reference | books Demonstrative + Epithet (objective) + Classifier + Thing
52

Pre-Modification Classifier

contd:

Notice that the Classifier + Thing structure is of particular importance in technical and scientific texts: Adjectives, but also Nouns and Participles, often function as Classifiers. E.g. weak force, ecological problems, water pollution, living organism, virtual reality, virtual-reality generator, quantum theory, memory capacity, information technology, etc. Notice the difference between: A fascinating movie Epithet (=objective/subjective quality) A De Niro movie Classifier (=what kind/type?)
53

Post-modification: Qualifier
Those books | with colourful pictures Qualifier = often a prepositional phrase (PP) or a clause providing additional defining or circumstantial information about the Thing. Examples A Room with a View (Title of a beautiful novel by E.M. Forster) Deictic + Thing + Qualifier (PP with Deictic + Thing) The street [around the corner] The man [at the train station] People [[who have been involved in the accident]] The woman [at the reception] The news [[(that) you gave me yesterday]] Her attitude [to emancipation] doesnt help.
(ex. based on Thompson 1996: 23) 54

Embedding

Note that the common Note that the common meaning of embedded is meaning of embedded is fixed firmly and deeply. fixed firmly and deeply.

Another way to look at the post-modification of the NG, the Qualifier, is by means of its status within the group: what is happening is that the PP or clause becomes a part of, and inserted into the Thing (i.e. the Head Noun) by delimiting, defining and specifying it. This is why we say that it is embedded. The characteristic embedded clause is the DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE (also called restrictive relative clause, or identifying in some formal accounts of grammar), where the relative pronoun can be omitted. So, for example, Every cup [[you taste]] gives you an exquisite coffee
Embedded defining relative clause

experience. In short, as Halliday points out (1994: 188), embedding allows a unit (here a NG) to be expanded by inclusion of another unit from a higher rank (e.g. a 55 clause) or the same rank (another NG).

All defining relative clauses are embedded and function as Qualifier. Compare the example in the slide above, every cup you taste, with the following one, where we have a NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE (or nonrestrictive): Stella, whom you met yesterday, is coming with us to the Lighthouse.

Notice that in a written text, a non-defining relative clause is usually signalled with a comma corresponding to a pause in spoken discourse. The meaning of a NONDEFINING relative clause is different from that of a defining one, in that it introduces a kind of gloss, an extra-comment elaborating on the primary clause. So, it differs in function from the embedded clause, which is an integral part of the NG.
56

Task 4- Identify the embedded PPs or embedded clauses in the following examples. Say what kind of clause it is. Use the square brackets (singles for PP and doubles for clauses) to signal the embedded element. 1. Experiments in the dehydration and evaporation of milk were carried out. (ex. from Thompson 1996: 23) 2. Singing in the bath is a funny habit. 3. Ill tell you everything you want to know. 4. The team was hard to beat. 5. This is the man whose views I normally agree with. 6. The theme of this week is bakery. 7. Here you have the measure of his arrogance. 8. Please find enclosed the agreement terms you proposed. 9. Her decision to resign was a surprise for everybody. 10. The child in the garden is my youngest cousin.

57

Task 5- Analyse the following experiential structure:

NGs

for the

A tall, black-haired witch in emerald-green robes (Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone J.K. Rowling) A Midsummer Nights Dream (Title of a famous play by Shakespeare)

Task 5a- Analyse all the NGs you can identify in the two pictures on slide 59:

58

59

Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic

(or Grammar as System and Grammar as Structure)

I went to the theatre I went to the movies He s going home Go home!

on Sunday last night tonight _______

Fig. 5- Paradigm and Syntagm

60

Lexis and Grammar are inseparable: LEXICO-GRAMMAR.

With reference to the figure above, it is helpful to note what Matthiessen and Halliday 1997 say about the distinction and dynamic relationship between these 2 axes: System and structure theorize the axes of organisation in language, namely the paradigmatic or vertical axis and the syntagmatic, or horizontal axis. System is a point of choice (e.g. indicative vs. imperative within the MOOD system, or past vs. future within the TENSE system), whereas structure is a sequence of combinatory possibilities, a sort of patterning. The concept of choice is fundamental in language: a paradigm is the list of options from which a speaker makes a choice. Each choice or selection the speaker makes (the vertical dimension) contributes to the wording and thus affects the structure (the horizontal dimension).
61

Language is multifunctional
In the course of these lessons we will be introducing a range of semantic functional labels which reflect the fact that word classes (or, parts-of-speech) do not express only one kind of meaning and can have more than one function. Take a Noun (or NG), a Verb (or VG), another Noun (NG) and yet another Noun (NG) and put them in a sequence and mutual relation such that you get the Subject Verb (or Predicate) Complement Object structure of the English clause: The duke gave my aunt this teapot. S V C O
(From Halliday 1994: 30)

Although both my aunt and this teapot are NGs, their function within this clause is very different. In fact, my aunt is the indirect Object expressing the Beneficiary of the action expressed by the Verb, while this teapot is the direct Object, or Goal of the action. 62

The same clause could be rewritten Object Adjunct (SVOA): The duke gave this teapot to my aunt. S V O A

as

Subject

Verb

In this second formulation, the form has changed, the NG my aunt has become a PP, to my aunt, while the function is the same, that is, Beneficiary of the action. Also, according to Halliday (1994: 31), the duke is Subject in a threefold sense: (i) Grammatical Subject (Subject)= that of which something is being predicated, having number and person agreement with the Verb; (ii) Logical Subject (Actor)= the doer of the action; (iii) Psychological Subject (Theme)= that which is the concern of the message, what the speaker (or writer) has in mind to start with.

63

The duke is thus contemporaneously Subject-ActorTheme, that is, all three functions are combined in one Nominal form. This is typical of the standard, unmarked form of a statement-type clause, where what is called the Subject in traditional grammar occurs in initial position and also functions as doer of the action. In other words, the function Subject is looked at from both the point of view of its structural characteristics (e.g. the number and person agreement with the verb, or the element that can come first in the clause) and of its semantics, highlighting the various strands of meaning (e.g. the doer of the action, the concern of the message). It is thus broken down into a set of functions that show the complexity of language and its multi-functionality.

64

Keys to exercises
Task 1- no keys are suggested Task 2A, kind+ness, tree+s, soft+en, moist+en, ap+prob+ation, ap+prov+al, re+cit+al, pro+pos+ition, pro+pos+al, employ+er, trans+fer, pre+sume, re+ceive, de+duce, a+way, a+lone. Th+ese, fact+s, seem+ed, to, me, to, throw, some, light, on, the/th+e, origin, of, specie+s, th+at, myster+y, myster+ie+s Task 31- got 2- must have left 3- had been accepted 4- gave 5- would have thought 6- should be eased 7- would hope; to be contacted 8- requires 9- come 10- did take

65

Task 41. [in the dehydration and evaporation [of milk]] Embedded PP with Embedded PP 2. [in the bath] Embedded PP 3. [[you want to know]] Embedded clause, defining relative 4. [[to beat]] Embedded clause, infinitive 5. [[whose views I normally agree with]] Embedded clause, defining relative 6. [of this week] Embedded PP 7. [of his arrogance] Embedded PP 8. [[you proposed]] Embedded clause, defining relative 9. [[to resign]] Embedded clause, infinitive 10. [in the garden] Embedded PP
66

Keys to exercises

cont'd

Task 5Non-Spec. Deictic + Epithet (objective) + Epithet (obj.) + Thing + Qualifier (Epithet + Thing) A= Non-Spec. Deictic + Midsummer Nights = can be considered one Classifier + Dream = Thing or Midsummer Nights = Possessive (within Possessive: Midsummer = Classifier + Nights = Thing) Task 5-a Science Museum | Information | Map. Map = Thing (Head) + pre-modification. Within pre-modification from right to left: Museum= Classifier of Map Science= Classifier of Museum Science Museum= Classifier of Map, but also Science Museum= Classifier of Information (services)

67

Keys to exercises

cont'd

Task 5-a Clarks. The Original Desert Boot. The story of a legend. = 3 NGs 1) Thing. 2) From left to right: Spec. Deictic + Epithet + Classifier + Thing 3) Spec. Deictic + Thing + Qualifier (=PP providing additional defining information about the Thing) Note that this is the typical telegraphic way that ads compress meanings, leaving their relations only vague and at most implicit. Indeed, there are relations, although indeterminate; possible readings of what has been ellipted include: Clarks ARE The Original Desert Boots. They ARE (REPRESENT) THE story of a legend, or even: Clarks, WHICH are the Original Desert Boots, ARE the story of a legend, with the second NG functioning as a nondefining relative clause.
68

Chapter 3-

Interpersonal Meanings

Task 1- Consider the following exchange, where does it take place, who are the interlocutors, (the TENOR), that is, who is talking to whom? Which features of language reveal them?

TIT FOR TAT. When I recently asked my husband, Why are those trousers lying on the bed?, he replied: Because they need washing. If it happens again, how can I respond without causing a bad atmosphere between us?

Empty the kitchen bin on the bed because the rubbish bag needs taking out. Park your car in the hall because the oil needs changing. Just remember, he started it.
69

Clause as Exchange
One function of language is as a means of constructing interaction; the clause is organized as an interactive event involving a speaker/writer and a listener/reader. The speaker/writer together with his/her interlocutor(-s) (listener/reader) engage in a social and discoursal relation, by assuming discourse roles. For example, when you ask a question, you act as seeker of information, and the addressee may (or may not) take on the role of supplier of the information being demanded. We will then ask: a) What kind of interaction is taking place? b) What are the lexico-grammatical resources used to construe the interaction?

70

Basic SPEECH FUNCTIONS

Commodity Act

goods & services OFFER

information STATEMENT

giving

Would you like some coffee? I drink coffee every morning. Have some coffee. Ill get you some coffee.

COMMAND
Suggestive: Invitation, Recommendation Lets get some coffee, (shall we?) Coercive Make me some coffee! Spend some quality time together in Northumbria.

QUESTION
What is your favourite drink? Is coffee your favourite drink?

demanding

proposals
Table 1- The 4 basic speech functions

propositions
71

As can be seen in the table above (adapted from Halliday 1994: 69), interaction, when thought of in terms of the types of meanings being exchanged, can be reduced to four main moves corresponding to the two acts of giving or asking for information (respectively, statement and question), and to the other two of giving or asking for something, either good or service (respectively, offer and command). In other words, interaction is seen as a sequence of propositions and /or proposals. From the point of view of the listener/reader, there are various ways in which he/she can comply with the discourse role he has been assigned and contribute to carry on the interaction initiated by the speaker/writer (see the following table).

72

Speech function

Preferred response

Dispreferred response

Offer Command Statement

acceptance undertaking

rejection refusal

acknowledgement agreement disagreement answer disclaimer

Question

Table 2- Speech functions and responses (adapted from Halliday 1994: 69)

Notice that not all communicative functions need a verbal response, e.g. a command is successful if the action demanded is carried out (non-verbal response).
73

Examples of: Response to offer: Yes please/No thanks. Response to command: Listener does something, i.e. carries out the command, or doesnt do it. Response to statement: Listener acknowledges the proposition by either agreeing or disagreeing (e.g. Yes / Right / mm / No, thats not true, etc.) Response to question: Yes/No, I didnt know, etc.
TAGS signal explicitly that some feedback is required TAGS signal explicitly that some feedback is required and what kind of feedback it is expected to be (i.e. the and what kind of feedback it is expected to be (i.e. the kind of reaction). kind of reaction). Ex. Lets get some coffee, shall we? Ex. Lets get some coffee, shall we? You drink coffee every morning, dont you? You drink coffee every morning, dont you?
74

3.1. The MOOD SYSTEM

Declarative (Statement) Indicative Yes/no (polar) Interrogative (Question) Wh(content) Imperative (Command, Suggestion)

Clause

Fig. 6- The system of MOOD Adapted from Matthiessen and Halliday 1997
75

The communicative (or speech) functions we have been considering are variously construed in the clause by means of grammatical choices made within the MOOD system, as can be seen in the figure above. Notice that there are at least three standard ways to make an offer (see the examples in Table 1 sl. 71). Moreover, there being no one-to-one correspondence between grammar and semantics, there are, for example, also Moods other than the imperative you can choose to give a command (e.g. Will you shut up, please?, with a modalized interrogative). There is one particular component of the clause that is involved in the grammatical variation that occurs and that is essential for carrying the exchange between the speakers and hearers forward. This is called the Mood block: it is made up of two parts, each of which has a particular semantic contribution to make to the clause: the Subject, which is the nominal component and the Finite, the verbal 76 component (see following slide).

The Mood block Subject= the grammatical Subject of earlier terminology, i.e. that of which something is being predicated, having person and number agreement with the verb (see slide 63). Finite= that part of a VG which expresses TENSE (past, present, or future) by reference to the time of uttering, or MODALITY (e.g. can, could, must, etc.), and POLARITY, i.e. positive/negative validity.

Past

Present Now = Time of uttering

Future

77

Finiteness is thus expressed by a verbal operator,

which is either temporal or modal. Notice that in some instances (unmarked declarative simple past, e.g. She left her old job, or simple present with positive polarity, e.g. She now works for IBM) the finite element and the lexical verb are fused into a single word: The duke Subj. gave give + [Past] that teapot to my aunt

The forms of the verb DO (does/doesnt, did/didnt, etc.) function as Finite in interrogative, negative and contrastive clauses: The TAG test: The TAG test:

Ex.

A: Do you know Stella? B: No, I dont (know her).

Subj. and Finite Subj. and Finite are repeated in are repeated in the TAG! the TAG!

Ex.

A1: You dont know Stella, do you? B1: Yes, I do know her.
78

Residue: Predicator, Complement, Adjunct

How do we analyse the elements that fall outside the mood block? The other main component of the structure of Mood is the Residue. The Residue consists of elements of three kinds: the Predicator, the Complement (one or two at most), and the Adjunct (which may be numerous).

Predicator = the non-finite, the VG minus the Finite (i.e. the main temporal information or the modal operator). Ex. The duke is drinking.
Subj. ^ Finite ^ Predicator

79

Complement = the Object or Complement of many other grammars; it is the element that has the potential of being the Subject, but is not; it is typically realized by a NG or an Adjectival Group. Ex. The duke is drinking his cup of coffee.
Subj. ^ Finite ^ Predicator ^ Complement

Adjunct = an element giving extra, or adjunctive, information about the other elements of the clause; it is typically realized by an AG or PP. Ex. The duke never drinks coffee in the evening.
Subj. ^ Fin. + Predic. ^ Complement ^ Adjunct
There are also elements outside the Mood and Residue structure: There are also elements outside the Mood and Residue structure: among these, among these, Vocatives (e.g. Stella, can you get the dog out?), Vocatives (e.g. Stella, can you get the dog out?), Expletives (e.g. Get that bloody dog out!), Conjunctions and Expletives (e.g. Get that bloody dog out!), Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adjuncts (e.g. And dont let the dog in again!) Conjunctive Adjuncts (e.g. And dont let the dog in again!)

80

The MOOD block and its function

Therefore, the ordering of Subject and Finite shows whether information/goods & services are being given or asked for. In other words, what goes in the mood block is dictated by the mood type. The mood block has a clearly defined semantic function: it carries the burden of the clause as an interactive event (Halliday 1994: 77). As the following dialogue shows, the part of the message which is being picked up and reused to keep the exchange going is precisely the mood block.
81

Mother Beauty Salmonella Rubella Listerine All Beauty Others Audience Beauty Mother

Beauty, you cruel girl, what have you done to your sisters? Nothing Mother, they did it to themselves. It's Beauty's fault, she ruined my beautiful hair. And she sprayed the soda siphon all over my beautiful nightie. And she knocked me down and sat on me. (Pointing) She did it mother! Oh no I didn't. Oh yes she did. Oh no she didnt. Oh no I didnt. etc.

Well, I don't know what to believe. Tell me Salmonella darling, what did that nasty Beauty do to you? (from Beauty and the Beast. A pantomime.)
82

Pantomimes
Perfect examples of the clause as an interactive event are the dialogues between principals and the semi-improvised interactions between actors and audience in pantomimes***. Notice the function of the mood block in the extract given above: it is the pivot of the whole negotiation between participants in the exchange, and the shifts of Subj. and Finite keep the interaction going (did you, they did, she did, I didnt, she did, she didnt etc.)
***(from the NSOED in CD-rom) pantomime. A traditional ***(from the NSOED in CD-rom) pantomime. A traditional theatrical performance, orig. in mime, now consisting of theatrical performance, orig. in mime, now consisting of a dramatized fairy tale or nursery story, with music, a dramatized fairy tale or nursery story, with music, dancing, topical jokes, and conventional characters, dancing, topical jokes, and conventional characters, freq. played by actors of the opposite sex from the freq. played by actors of the opposite sex from the characters, characters, chiefly chiefly performed performed in in Britain Britain around around Christmas. Christmas.

We can now look more closely at the order of Subject and Finite and how changing that order changes the mood.

83

The MOOD system and its syntagmatic realizations

INDICATIVE declarative: Subj. ^ Finite I Subj. dont drink coffee in the evening Adjunct (Circumstantial)

Finite Predicator Complement

Mood block

Residue

INDICATIVE interrogative, Yes/No question: Finite ^ Subj. Do you drink coffee in the evening? Adjunct (Circumstantial)

Finite Subj. Predicator Complement

Mood block Residue

84

INDICATIVE interrogative, Wh- question, and Wh- = Subj.: Wh- ^ Finite Who Subj. drank Finite[-ed] + Predicator my coffee? Complement

Mood block

Residue

otherwise, Wh- ^ Finite ^ Subj., if Wh- = Circumstance/Complement Where is Finite my coffee? Subject

Residue Mood block

EXCLAMATIVE: Subj. ^ Finite (see declarative) What a fool he is!
85

IMPERATIVE, unmarked: the Mood element is missing. The Subj. is not specified and by default can only be the addressee (you). Make Predicator Spend Predicator me Complement some coffee! Complement in Northumbria. Adjunct (Circ.)

some quality time Complement

IMPERATIVE, marked for pos./neg. polarity: the Finite is present Do spend some quality time in Northumbria! Adjunct (Circ.)

Finite Predicator Complement Dont Finite go Predicator to Northumbria! Adjunct (Circ.)

86

IMPERATIVE, marked for person: Finite ^ Subj. (if negative polarity)

Dont

you

go

to Northumbria Adjunct

without me! Adjunct (Circ.)

Finite Subj. Predicator

IMPERATIVE, marked for person: the Subj. is present (if positive polarity)

And

you

make

me

some coffee!

Adjunct Subj. Predicator Complement Complement (conjunctive)

87

A word on MARKEDNESS:
Markedness (it. Marcatezza)= a meaningful choice; having a feature which is not that expected or predicted by some general principle (i.e. from other features). Thence, in general, of any unit, construction, configuration, etc. which is in any way a special case, or which is simply less frequent, more rare.
(from The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics)

Ex. I will see you.

-unmarked, default

Compare with the following example where the order of words is marked, (cf. thematic structure): Ex. You I will see. -marked, meaning you and nobody else

88

3.2. The MODALITY SYSTEM

Task 2- In the text below, identify all the expressions of modality you already know, modal verbs, modal Adjuncts, etc. What meanings do they express? General Tips One of the most common reasons for Brits getting into trouble with the police in Europe is dazzling other road users. Modern halogen headlights often need to be adjusted by a garage to prevent dazzling, otherwise deflector strips can be used. Itll be a major problem for British drivers on the continent, says Barry Johnson, of the AAs International Motoring Services. Another old danger is the translation of diesel. It is often referred to as gasoil or gazole, not to be confused with gasoline. The future may hold even more pitfalls because a planned European enforcement network could make traffic offences transferable between EU members. This means a drink-driving offence on holiday will no longer be forgotten at home. You cant say you have not been warned. (The Times July 2001)
89

Modality can be defined as the grammatical resource by which speakers/writers communicate degrees of their opinions; thus, it can be seen as the intermediate space between the positive and the negative poles, or, the various kinds of indeterminacy that fall in between. Pos. Yes Neg. No

certainly, maybe, possibly, etc.

always, usually, often, seldom, rarely, never

90

(I) EPISTEMIC modality or MODALIZATION:

Is the expression of degrees of PROBABILITY (or likelihood), and degrees of USUALITY (or often-ness). There are various resources in the lexico-grammatical repertoire of English that a speaker can choose from to express these epistemic meanings: (1) a finite modal operator (may, can, will, etc., see slides 95-97) (2) modal Adjuncts (possibly, certainly, maybe, etc.) (3) both (1) and (2) together (see example on slide 93) (4) expressions such as It is usual for, It is likely that I think that
Epistemic comes from Greek Epistemic comes from Greek meaning knowledge meaning knowledge
91

(II) DEONTIC modality or MODULATION:

Is the expression of degrees necessity), and degrees of willingness). of OBLIGATION INCLINATION, (or (or

There are various resources in the lexico-grammatical repertoire of English that a speaker can choose from to express these deontic meanings: (1) a finite modal operator (must, should, will, etc., see slides 95-97) (2) modal Adjuncts (gladly, willingly, etc.) (3) both (1) and (2) together (see example on slide 94) (4) expressions such as It is necessary, It is required that, x is supposed to, x is willing to, etc. Deontic comes from Greek
Deontic comes from Greek meaning duty meaning duty
92

Some examples
That will be Stella. Modalization (epistemic modality) realized by a finite modal operator Thats probably Stella. Modalization (epistemic modality) realized by a modal Adjunct Thatll probably be Stella. Modalization (epistemic modality) realized by both a finite modal operator and a modal Adjunct That must be Stella. Modalization (epistemic modality) realized by a finite modal operator Stella usually arrives later. Modalization (epistemic modality) realized by a modal Adjunct MODALIZATION is linked to the INDICATIVE mood and the exchange of information: the meaning is maybe (i.e. either yes or no) or sometimes (both yes and no), i.e. some degree of probability or usuality.

93

More examples
You should pay your taxes. You must take your medicine. Modulation (deontic modality) realized by a finite modal operator - linked to command (expression of duty according to a standard of what is right)

Shall I close the door? I will help you with the washing up. Modulation (deontic modality) realized by a finite modal operator- linked to offer (expression of willingness)

MODULATION is linked to the IMPERATIVE mood and the exchange of goods & services: the meaning is x is wanted to/wants to, i.e. some degree of obligation or inclination (see Halliday 1994:356).
94

MODAL OPERATORS

(traditionally called modal auxiliaries)

are always FINITE and therefore always part of the Mood block; have no Subj.- Finite number agreement (e.g. She must leave); form interrogatives by being placed in front of the Subject (e.g. Must she leave?); are followed directly by NEGATIONS (e.g. She mustnt leave) some have NO PAST tense forms (e.g. for must, had to is used: She had to leave)
(based on Lock 1996)
95

Finite modal operators:

Notice that can also expresses Capacity (or Ability), a category of modality which doesnt fit perfectly into either the epistemic or deontic type: e.g. Those students can speak English. Compare with the use of can to express degrees probability: This cant be Stella; its too early! or degrees of obligation (prohibition, lack of permission): You cant go there!

will would may might can could shall should must ought to
96

SEMI-MODALS
need dare
are always FINITE and therefore always part of the Mood block; can have Subj.-Finite number agreement (e.g. He needs to do it); form interrogatives with/without DO (e.g. Do you need to do it? / Need you do it?); form negatives with /without DO (e.g. He doesnt need to do it / He neednt do it) are always FINITE and therefore always part of the Mood block; form interrogatives and negatives with/without DO (e.g. Does he have to go there? He didnt use to go there, but in British English, Has he got to go there? He used not to go there)

to infinitive

Have + Used +

to

infinitive

Used to expresses USUALITY in the past!

97

MODAL ADJUNCTS
As we have already seen, modal Adjuncts can be used to express nuances of modality. What follows is an incomplete list of some of the most common ones: Probability: probably, possibly, maybe, certainly, etc. Usuality: usually, sometimes, never, etc. Willingness: willingly, readily, gladly, etc. Obligation: definitely, absolutely, etc. There are also other meanings that can be expressed through a modal Adjunct, among others, Temporality: yet, still, once, already, etc. Typicality: occasionally, generally, etc. These elements can function as MOOD ADJUNCTS, as they tend to occur within the Mood Block of which they are part, between the Subject and the Finite. See, for example: But I still havent found what Im looking for.
98

See also: He definitely wont be there on time. However, the same Adjuncts, depending on the position they have and on the extension of their meaning, together with the intonation patterns with which they are uttered, can also function as COMMENT ADJUNCTS, as in: Definitely, he wont come. Other examples of comment Adjuncts include: unfortunately, hopefully, surprisingly, of course, in my opinion, frankly, to be honest, apparently, no doubt, provisionally, etc. Comment Adjuncts can be moved much more freely within the clause than Mood Adjuncts. They are typically positioned at the beginning (as in the example above), in the middle, or at the end of the clause, and are separated from the rest by a comma, or commas.
The main difference between these two types of interpersonal The main difference between these two types of interpersonal Adjuncts is in the scope of their meaning: Mood Adjuncts are Adjuncts is in the scope of their meaning: Mood Adjuncts are limited to the VG, whereas Comment Adjuncts refer to the whole limited to the VG, whereas Comment Adjuncts refer to the whole clause. clause. 99

Task 3- Identify the elements expressing the various kinds of modality in the following examples. Say what kind of modality it is. a) We definitely wont be there on time. b) Harrys team will probably lose on Saturday. c) I think hell almost certainly pass the exam. d) Housework will probably be done by robots in 3004. e) That cant be Stella. Shes never on time. f) This must be Harry. I recognise his knocking. g) You must take your medicine! h) Stella should practice the piano more regularly. i) When we were kids, we used to spend part of our summer in Britain.
100

3.3. The APPRAISAL SYSTEM

Notice that the Notice that the of the system of the system ongoing! ongoing! modelling modelling is still is still

In discussing Appraisal, we are moving from strictly structural grammatical issues towards ATTITUDINAL LEXIS and lexical choices (remember, however, that we are dealing with LEXICO-GRAMMAR! See slide 61). APPRAISAL SYSTEMS are defined by Martin (2000: 145) as the lexico-grammatical resources used to express and negotiate emotions, judgments and evaluations, together with resources for amplifying and engaging with these evaluations. The simplest and most basic type of Appraisal is the indication of whether the speaker/writer thinks that something is GOOD or BAD, but there are many other scales of evaluation, as shown in the following slides. Notice also that any word class can construe evaluation.
101

Task 4- Look up all the words you dont know in the dictionary, give a synonymous alternative wherever possible. What kind of evaluation/attitude is the writer construing?

DESPERATE TEENAGER. I am going to a party soon, and there is a boy I really fancy, but I do not know the right thing to say to him. I want to sound seductive and flirty. Also, I am not sure what to wear. Im looking for make-up ideas. Please help this is a cry for help from a desperate teenager.

102

APPRAISAL SYSTEMS give us a realization of interpersonal semantics in that they have to do with how interlocutors feel, the judgments they make about others behaviour, and the value they place on the various phenomena of their experience. The appraisal can be either explicit or implicit. It is explicit if there is a clear linguistic marker of the evaluation going on, if there is an element appraised, usually in the immediate vicinity of the appraisal, and as long as a specific appraiser is retrievable in the text. In this coursebook we will only be dealing with the major system of Appraisal, Attitude and its explicit realizations, leaving out the analysis of the other attendant systems and their lexico-grammatical resources (see vol. 2 in this series). 103

The major APPRAISAL system of ATTITUDE is broken down into: Judgment, Affect and Appreciation.

Fig. 7- The system of APPRAISAL (Adapted from Martin 2001)

104

As the resource for construing human emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, frustration, in/security, dis/satisfaction, etc.), and the physical expressions that are evidence of such emotions (so, for example, crying or smiling, etc.), AFFECT is central to the other two sub-types, it is the common core from which the others derive.

JUDGMENT constructs moral evaluations of human behaviour expressing either social sanction or social esteem. (Draws upon Hallidays 1994 account of the English system of Modality). APPRECIATION is the evaluation of objects and products according to aesthetic principles, or social value. E.g. clear definition, powerful arguments, beautiful vase, old-fashioned concept, an incredible mess, profound implications, catastrophic policies, fun game, spectacular sunrise. 105

Some examples of JUDGEMENT: 1. It is so unfair that she did that. 2. He is always colleagues. frank in his dealings with his

3. So, Liza Minelli and David Gest have split up. Such a bizarre, dysfunctional union of freaks could only end one way: divorce. 4.You have worked determinedly to achieve what is now coming your way. 5. Vivienne Westwood and Jean-Paul Gautier were the first to show the newly empowered aggressive woman on their catwalks.
106

Task 5- Identify all the elements expressing the writers attitude (appraisal) and say what kind of appraisal it is.

DESPERATE TEENAGER. I am going to a party soon, and there is a boy I really fancy, but I do not know the right thing to say to him. I want to sound seductive and flirty. Also, I am not sure what to wear. Im looking for make-up ideas. Please help this is a cry for help from a desperate teenager.

107

Keys to exercises
Task 1The text is a written exchange between MRS MILLS (who solves all your problems) and a female reader in the problem letters section of The Sunday Times Style Magazine. The reader poses a problem (Indicative mood), and asks for advice (Interrogative mood). The writer answers with suggestions, dos and donts (Imperative mood). Task 2need to be adjusted = deontic, obligation can be used = deontic, obligation will be = epistemic, probability It is often referred to as = epistemic, usuality not to be confused with = deontic, obligation (negative, prohibition) may hold = epistemic, probability could make = epistemic, probability will no longer be forgotten = epistemic, probability cant say = deontic, obligation
108

Keys to exercises
Task 3-

cont'd

a) definitely wont = epistemic, certainty b) will probably = epistemic, probability c) I think, ll almost certainly = epistemic, high probability d) will probably = epistemic, probability e) cant= epistemic, likelihood; never= epistemic, usuality f) must= epistemic, certainty g) must= deontic, obligation h) should= deontic, suggestion/recommendation i) used to= epistemic, usuality

109

Keys to exercises
Task 4desperate = worried, distressed fancy = like seductive and flirty = attractive and attracted to him

cont'd

The writer (a typical adolescent female voice) expresses her insecurity and is asking for advice on how to improve her look and behaviour so has to become irresistible.

Task 5DESPERATE teenager = Adj./Epithet, Affect: unhappiness really fancy = VG/ mental Process, Affect: inclination/desire the right thing to say to him = Adj./Epithet, Judgment/Appreciation seductive and flirty = Adj./Attribute, Affect not sure what to wear = Adj./Attribute, Judgment this is a cry for help = NG/Thing, Appreciation: social value from a desperate teenager = Adj./Epithet, Affect: unhappiness
110

Chapter 4 Ideational (Experiential and Logical) Meanings

Task 1- Consider the represented there? What help us understand the speech (word classes) do following text. What is the reality being is going on? Which words (or groups of words) topic or subject-matter? And what parts-ofthese belong to?

Chapter Eleven- Quidditch

As they entered November, the weather turned very cold. The mountains around the school became icy grey and the lake like chilled steel. Every morning the ground was covered in frost. Hagrid could be seen from the upstairs windows, defrosting broomsticks on the Quidditch pitch, bundled up in a long moleskin overcoat, rabbit-fur gloves and enormous beaverskin boots. The Quidditch season had begun. On Saturday, Harry would be playing in his first match after weeks of training: Gryffindor versus Slytherin. If Gryffindor won, they would move up into second place in the House Championship. Hardly anyone had seen Harry play because Wood had decided that, as their secret weapon, Harry should be kept, well, secret. But the news that he was playing Seeker had leaked out somehow, and Harry didnt know which was worse people telling him hed be brilliant or people telling him theyd be running around underneath him, holding a mattress.
111

Clause as representation
Language is used to represent our experience of reality, or the world around us; it is a means of constructing and expressing it. The question, therefore, is what is reality made up of primarily? Reality is made up of events, goingson, or PROCESSES and of entities, PARTICIPANTS inherent to them. We will then ask: a) What are the kinds of Processes? b) How are they realized in the lexico-grammar? a) There are Processes which express the outer experience, i.e. actions and events (e.g. do, eat, go), others which manifest the inner experience, i.e. cognitive and affective states (e.g. feel, think). There is a third type of process which is that of relating one fragment of reality to another (e.g. x is a). b) The clause functions as REPRESENTATION: each clause constructs an action, event or state in the material and/or mental world, as well as the animate and inanimate participants involved and, possibly, the circumstances in which it occurs.
112

4.1.The TRANSITIVITY SYSTEM

What is the status of Processes in the grammar? Processes are realized in the grammar by VGs. They are the core constituents of the Transitivity system which includes: 1)the PROCESS itself, 2)typically 3)sometimes, one the or more of the inherent associated PARTICIPANTS in the Process, and, CIRCUMSTANCES with it; these are optional.
113

These ideational (experiential) functions (or meanings) are usually taken on by VGs NGs, and AGs, or PP: MEANINGS GRAMMAR are realized in/by PROCESS VG PARTICIPANTS CIRCUMSTANCES

NG or
Group

Adjectival

AG, or PP

or to a lesser degree a NG.

114

On Sunday my sister made a delicious cake.

On Sunday= my sister= the action) made=

VG

PP

Circumstance (when?) Participant (which does

NG

Process (the action)

a delicious cake = NG Participant (which receives the action)

Adapted from Gerot and Wignell (1994) 115

Notice the distinction between a prepositional phrase as Circumstance (slide 115 above) and embedded prepositional phrases (slides 54 ff.) A helpful clue for distinguishing between the two functions is as follows, if you can move it, without changing the meaning of the clause, then the PP is usually functioning as Circumstance: On Sunday my sister made a delicious cake. My sister on Sunday made a delicious cake.

If you cannot move it, then it is an embedded PP functioning as post-modification: My sister made a delicious cake with white icing. *My sister with white icing made a delicious cake.
116

Types of Process
MATERIAL- of the external world MENTAL- of the internal world RELATIONALexperience relating parts of

But there are also other categories located at the boundaries, namely behavioural, verbal and existential.

117

The cover of Halliday 1994

118

MATERIAL Processes

(of doing)

Ex. I left. left= VG, material Process, a doing confined to the doer of the action I= NG, a participant, the doer of the action functioning as ACTOR Ex. I left Cambridge. left= VG, material Process, a doing directed to a receiver of the action I= NG, a Participant, the doer of the action functioning as ACTOR Cambridge= NG, Participant, the receiver of the action, functioning as GOAL*
*Notice that here since nothing is really done to *Notice that here since nothing is really done to the receiver of the action, namely the element the receiver of the action, namely the element Cambridge , it is more accurate to call it RANGE Cambridge , it is more accurate to call it RANGE rather than GOAL (see slide 126 for more examples rather than GOAL (see slide 126 for more examples of Range). of Range). The original reads: The original reads: Left Cambridge by car at 9.30 in aa mist. (from My Left Cambridge by car at 9.30 in mist. (from My Name Escapes Me, by Alec Guinness) Name Escapes Me, by Alec Guinness)

119

Ex. I left Cambridge by car. by car= Prepositional Phrase (PP), a CIRCUMSTANCE of (Manner) Means

Ex. I left Cambridge by car at 9.30. at 9.30= PP, a CIRCUMSTANCE of Time

ACTOR= the one which perpetrates/is responsible for the action GOAL= the one to whom/which the process is extended, to whom/which something is being done RANGE= what specifies the scope of the doing

120

The GRAMMAR of MATERIAL Processes

1)TRANSITIVE vs. INTRANSITIVE clauses 2)PARTICIPANTS: ACTOR and GOAL 3)PARTICIPANTS: BENEFICIARY and RANGE 4)TENSE

121

1) Transitive vs. Intransitive Clauses

The Goal has been defined as the element to which the process is extended, thus clauses with a material Process and one participant, the Actor, are INTRANSITIVE, while clauses with two participants, Actor and Goal, are TRANSITIVE. In this way, transitivity can be seen in terms of extension vs. non-extension of the Process. Compare the following sentences: Ex. The smoke rises from his cigarette. 1 participant = Actor Ex. You should raise your hands. 2 participants = Actor and Goal See also the following examples found in Halliday (1994)
122

Transitive clauses: active into passive

Ex. They have cancelled the show.
have cancelled= material Process, an active VG, a transitive clause they= Subject + Actor the show= Object + Goal

Ex. The show has been cancelled by them.

has been cancelled= material Process, a passive VG the show= Subject + Goal by them= PP + Actor Compare the two clauses below:

a) The show has been cancelled by them. b) The show has been cancelled.
In a) the Actor is there, although expressed as Prepositional Phrase, whereas in b) the agent is deleted. Note that the passive voice allows for agency deletion, i.e. the suppression of the doer of the action. In certain texts, e.g. newspaper reportage, this could well result in a serious distortion of the facts. 123

2) ACTOR and GOAL

In a material Process clause, the Actor is necessarily a human or conscious participant. Compare: Ex. The glass fell. Actor = The glass, an inanimate participant Ex. I broke the glass. Actor = I, an animate participant As already shown under Transitive vs. Intransitive clauses, the Goal can or cannot be present (see slides above). not

124

3) Other Participants functions: Beneficiary and Range

Ex. He gave the book to me.
(or He gave me the book.)

gave= material Process He= Actor the book= Goal (to) me= Beneficiary

Beneficiary= the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place.
125

Examples of Range: 1) take a shower, have a bath, take a look, play tennis, play a game, give a smile, etc. 2) ride a bike, climb the mountains, sign your name, etc. Range= the element that specifies the scope of the process. Nothing is being done to this element. This phenomenon, at least the one exemplified by the first set of examples, is known to traditional grammar as DELEXICALISATION, i.e. the representation of the process has entirely shifted onto the Halliday (1994: 144)/ In participant. Halliday (1994: 144)/ In
More examples: I need to take an early start. He took a huge bite.
traditional grammar the traditional grammar the Beneficiary is the logical Beneficiary is the logical indirect Object as much as indirect Object as much as the Actor is the logical the Actor is the logical Subject and the Goal the Subject and the Goal the logical direct Object. The logical direct Object. The Range is the logical cognate Range is the logical cognate Object. Object.

126

4)TENSE
The unmarked option for material Processes is the PRESENT CONTINUOUS, whereas the marked option, at least in British and North-American English, is the PRESENT SIMPLE, signalling a general, habitual action: Ex. They are building a house. Ex. They build a house (general or habitual). Ex. I am eating an apple. Ex. I eat an apple a day, to keep the doctor away.

127

MENTAL Processes

(of sensing)

Ex. Stella liked her new hairstyle. liked= mental Process Stella= SENSER her new hairstyle= PHENOMENON Ex. This computer doesnt like me. doesnt like= mental Process this computer= SENSER me= PHENOMENON

SENSER= the one who senses, perceives, feels.

This first Participant personified. sensed, perceived, felt.
128

is

ALWAYS

human

or

PHENOMENON= the thing or fact which is

The GRAMMAR of MENTAL Processes

1)PARTICIPANT:SENSER 2)PARTICIPANT:PHENOMENON 3)PROJECTION 4)TENSE 5)BIDIRECTIONAL SEMANTICS

129

1)SENSER
In a clause of mental Process, the sensing participant, i.e. the SENSER, is always human or human-like, that is it is credited with consciousness (see examples), whereas in a material Process no human or conscious participant is required (e.g. The glass fell). Task 2- Identify the Senser and the Actor:
1. They destroyed the economy and created chaos. 2. The boss wants you in his office. 3. The empty house was longing for the childrens antics. 4. He was being pursued. 5. Hardly anyone had seen Harry. 6. I enjoy practically all classical music. 7. The glass broke. 8. Please, return the form to this address. 9. People will be running around, holding a mattress. 10. If you dont know the answer, just guess. antics = funny ways of behaving
130

2)PHENOMENON
The Phenomenon sensed can be not only a person or thing, that is, a phenomenon of our experience (e.g. He realized his mistake), but also a FACT, that is, more of what is called a meta-phenomenon, i.e. something that is constructed as a sort of prepackaged participant, typically in the form of an embedded that-clause. This latter status is often signalled by the word fact itself. Among the verbs that can take FACTS are: know, acknowledge, realize, accept. FACT as PHENOMENON: He realized that he had made a mistake. (I.e. the fact) He realized (the fact) that she had left. (The fact) that she isnt here worries me.

131

3)PROJECTION
Mental Processes can project what was traditionally known as reported and direct speech. Stella thought (that) it was a wonderful gift. (I.e. +that clause, traditionally called Reported Speech) Stella thought to herself: This is a wonderful gift! (I.e. +quote, traditionally called Direct Speech) The difference, semantically, between projection and embedded fact is that the latter is merely entering into the Process without being projected by it.

132

4)TENSE
The unmarked present tense for mental Processes is the PRESENT SIMPLE, whereas the marked option is PRESENT CONTINUOUS, signalling the inceptive meaning of the Process: Ex. I dont understand you. Ex. I am not understanding you very well. (inceptive, meaning at the current time) Ex. I enjoy classical music. Ex. I am enjoying this music, its performed greatly.

133

5)BIDIRECTIONAL SEMANTICS
Mental Processes can be realized in two directions, in fact either the Senser or the Phenomenon can be grammatical Subject, still keeping the clause in the active voice. Compare: Ex. I admired the piano performance.
I = Subj. + Senser the piano performance = Obj. + Phenomenon

Ex. The piano performance impressed me.

The performance = Subj. + Phenomenon I/me = Obj. + Senser

(i.e. I was impressed by the performance.) In the two examples above, the grammatical roles within the Mood-Residue structure change, while the representational functions stay the same: the Senser in both cases is the first person pronoun I/me representing the voice of the speaker, while the Phenomenon sensed is the piano performance.
134

In table 3 below some of the most common pairs are given. Notice the difference between, for example, Ex. People fear you. Ex. You frighten people.

Verbs of like type like enjoy fear wonder at not understand believe admire

Verbs of please type please delight frighten amaze puzzle convince impress

etc.

Table 3- Mental Processes (based on Halliday 1994: 117)

135

Task 3- Try to classify the following mental Processes into sub-types, labeling them according to their semantics, i.e. their meaning. See, feel, think, taste, admire, realize, believe, need, baffle, like, understand, please, puzzle, know, smell, worry, impress, strike, imagine, doubt, notice, fancy, hear, delight.

136

RELATIONAL Processes

(of being)

Ex. Maxine is wise. is= relational Process Maxine= CARRIER wise= ATTRIBUTE x is a, that is, a is an attribute of x Ex. Stella is the leader. is= relational Process Stella= IDENTIFIED the leader= IDENTIFIER x is a, that is, a is the identity of x What about?: Ex. Stella is a leader. x is a, that is, x is a member of the class of a is= relational Process Stella= CARRIER a leader= ATTRIBUTE
137

Relational Processes = a relation is set up between two

entities. There are 3 types of relation: POSSESSIVE and CIRCUMSTANTIAL. Each type can ATTRIBUTIVE or IDENTIFYING. x is a INTENSIVE ATTRIBUTIVE: Ex. Stella is wise. -INTENSIVE IDENTIFYING: Ex. Stella is the leader. x has a POSSESSIVE ATTRIBUTIVE: Ex. Stella has a grand piano. POSSESSIVE IDENTIFYING: Ex. The grand piano is Stellas. x is on, for, ATTRIBUTIVE: at, in, along, etc. a CIRCUMSTANTIAL INTENSIVE, be either

Ex. The grand piano is in the corner. CIRCUMSTANTIAL IDENTIFYING: Ex. Tomorrow is the Fourth of July
138

Relational attributive = an entity (CARRIER) has some quality (ATTRIBUTE) ascribed or attributed to it. The NG functioning as Attribute is typically indefinite: it has either an adj. or a common noun as Head and no article at all, or an indefinite article such as a. The probe for whatlike?, or how? relational attributive is

Relational attributive clauses are not reversible. The following examples of illustrate these points: a. b. c. d. relational attributive

This cake is delicious! Hes not a very good student. These clothes are very expensive. You are a fool.
139

Relational identifying = a relationship of identity is being set up between two entities, an IDENTIFIED and an IDENTIFIER. The NG functioning as Identifier is typically definite: it has either a common noun as Head, with the definite article, or other specific determiner, or else a proper noun or pronoun. The probe for relational identifying is which?, who? (or what? if the choice is open-ended). Relational identifying clauses are reversible (if x = a, then a= x). The following examples illustrate these points: e. Stella is my neighbours dog. f. His dream was the World Cup. g. My name is Bond, James Bond. h. This sentence is the best identifying clause.

example

of

an
140

There are various verbs, apart from be, that realize relational Processes: Typically, the following verbs of relational attributive: Become, turn (into), remain, stay, seem, appear, look, sound, smell, belong, etc. Typically, the following verbs of relational identifying: Act as, function as, mean, indicate, suggest, imply, equal, represent, constitute, form, express, signify, include, contain, consist of, etc. the ascriptive class realize

the

equative

class

realize

Thompson (1996: 88) points out that, as a rule of thumb, Thompson (1996: 88) points out that, as a rule of thumb, we can say that the main stress in an identifying clause we can say that the main stress in an identifying clause typically falls on the Identifier. In fact, the typically falls on the Identifier. In fact, the Identified is considered to be a participant that has Identified is considered to be a participant that has already been mentioned or given, whereas the Identifier already been mentioned or given, whereas the Identifier is typically mentioned for the first time or new (notice is typically mentioned for the first time or new (notice that the main stress typically indicates the new that the main stress typically indicates the new information in a clause). information in a clause).
141

Behavioural Processes
(of psychological and physiological behaviours)
Ex1. No ones listening. s listening = behavioural Process No one= BEHAVER, typically a conscious or personified being. Ex2. Youre dreaming. Ex3. Why do you laugh? Ex3bis. Why are you laughing?

142

At the intersection between material and mental Processes are behavioural Processes. These share some of the characteristics of material Pr.s and some others of mental Pr.s: as we have said, the Participant who is behaving is typically a conscious being like the Senser, while the process is grammatically more like one of doing. There is sometimes overlapping between the material and behavioural, e.g. sing, dance and sit, but also between mental and behavioural, e.g. look, watch, listen, dream, think. On the other hand, the following list includes verbs that are considered involuntary manifestations of consciousness and thus to be somatic, or physiological, behaviours: cough, sneeze, yawn, blink, laugh, sigh, etc.
143

The GRAMMAR of BEHAVIOURAL Processes: 1)PARTICIPANT: BEHAVER

As said above, the typical participant is ONLY ONE, i.e. the Behaver, a conscious or personified being like the Senser.

2)TENSE
The unmarked pattern for behavioural Processes is the PRESENT CONTINUOUS. However, the simple present in its unmarked sense is a the possible same alternative with basically

representational meaning (as in ex. 3 and 3bis above, sl. 142).

144

Verbal Processes

(of saying)

Ex1. She told me the story of her life. told= verbal Process She= SAYER, the one who/which says me= RECEIVER, the one to whom the saying is directed the story of her life= VERBIAGE, what is said Ex2. The notice tells you not to smoke. tells= verbal Process The notice= SAYER you= RECEIVER not to smoke= projected clause (indirectly reported), very similar in function to the Verbiage
145

Halliday (1994: 140-142) notices that these Processes of saying have to be interpreted in a broad symbolic sense: the SAYER can be anything animate or inanimate sending out a signal, grammatically speaking, it can be an it, as much as a he/she (see example 2 in the slide above). More examples of verbal Processes participant roles would be: and respective

1. The guidebook tells you where everything is. 2. The light says stop.

1. The guidebook= Sayer You= Receiver 2. The light= Sayer Stop= Verbiage
146

The Grammar of VERBAL Processes

1)PARTICIPANTS:
verbal Processes can

accommodate up to 4 participants: Sayer, Receiver, Verbiage and Target (see following slide).

2)TENSE:

the unmarked pattern for verbal

Processes is the PRESENT SIMPLE.

3)PROJECTION:

verbal Processes are able to project other clauses: either an indirectly reported clause (see slide 181 ff.), typically a that clause, or a directly quoted clause, a quote.
147

-The RECEIVER is an oblique participant and often appears in a Prepositional Phrase (PP): e.g. Ill explain this to them. -The VERBIAGE can either be a) the content of what is said, Ex. Please, dont recount your troubles! or, b) the name of the saying, Ex. They asked a question. He told her a silly story. -The TARGET is the entity to symbolically done through words, Ex. Youre flattering me. Ex. He insulted her to her face. me, her= TARGET to her face= RECEIVER Ex. He praised her (when talking) to me her= TARGET; to me=RECEIVER
148

which

something

is

being

Existential Processes
(there is/there exists)
Ex1. There isnt enough wine. There= dummy Subject isnt= existential Process enough wine= EXISTENT Ex2. Theres someone at the door. There= Subject is= existential Process someone= EXISTENT at the door= Circumstance of Location-Place

149

The Grammar of EXISTENTIAL Processes

1)PARTICIPANT: EXISTENT
The Existent can be an entity, whether object or person, constructed as thing, (see Ex1. and Ex2. on slide 149), but also an event or action as in: Ex3. There was another robbery last night. The word there has no representational function, but it is needed as a Subject.

2)TENSE
The unmarked pattern for existential Processes is the PRESENT SIMPLE.
150

Task 4 Choose the form of the present tense appropriate to each clause. Explain whether the choice is marked or unmarked with respect to the process type and what structural differences there are. 1)Excuse me, Sir_________(you/speak) English? 2)Wheres Anne?__________(she/have) a shower. 3)Listen! Somebody___________ (sing). 4)Im sorry,______________(I/not understand) 5)Here ________(come) your husband. _______(He/be) late as usual. 6)________(She/not like) to be disturbed when ____________(she/work). 7)The climate_________(get) warmer. 8)Martin usually_________(go) to work on Saturdays, but today________(he/stay) at home because__________ (he/want) to watch the football match on TV.

151

The Grammar of CAUSATION

Let us conclude this section on Processes with a word about CAUSATIVE VG complexes, i.e. make sb do, make sb sense, have sb do, behave, say sth, etc. Such structures are very common in English, so you need to be able to analyse them in terms of the representation of reality they build up. How do we analyse such constructions? Some examples: You make me feel like a natural woman. She wont let you bring it along. I had my mom collect the parcel for me. Like many other semantic categories, causation has to be thought of in terms of degree. A high value causation is force or make, a median, got, and a low, allow, let. Notice that passive constructions are also possible. She was made to collect it.

152

Dust Initiator /Agent

makes

me Actor

cough

Videos Initiator /Agent

allow

you Actor

to record

programs Goal

153

Circumstances
As we have already mentioned, circumstances are optional elements of the transitivity system, i.e. peripheral to Processes typically expressed as either PPs or AGs, or, to a lesser degree, NGs can contain minor, indirect participants, e.g. Actor as in The show has been cancelled by them, or Beneficiary as in Ill find some paper for you.

154

What are the functions, i.e. the meanings that are construed as circumstantial in the grammar of the clause as representation? TIME, PLACE CAUSE (Reason, Purpose, Behalf) MANNER (Means, Quality, Comparison) ACCOMPANIMENT CONTINGENCY MATTER ROLE ANGLE
155

TIME:
These circumstances function to provide various kinds of information about the time of the process. In bold below are the questions the circumstances answer, the probes.

When? (Location) They left yesterday morning. NG Stella usually gets up at six oclock. PP How long? (Duration) Stella has lived in Bologna (for) a couple months. (PP) NG Weve been waiting here (for) nearly an hour. PP How often? (Interval) He goes for a run every day. NG How many times? (Frequency) I have asked you three times. NG
156

of

PLACE: Where? (Location) Freddies was in Baddeley Street, in the middle of Covent Garden, which is in the exact middle or heart of London. PPs
(from Penelope Fitzgerald, At Freddies)

How far? (Distance) You will have to walk (for) five miles.

(PP) NG

How often? (Interval) There was a traffic light every two blocks!

157

CAUSE: Why? (Reason) Many children in Afghanistan are dying (because) of starvation. What for? (Purpose) Stella has gone for lunch (in order to have lunch). Who for? (Behalf) I am writing on behalf of our representative.

158

MANNER: What with? (Means) Stella doesnt mind traveling by train. Stella was pleased with the gift. Stella was pleased by the gift. (where by the gift can be considered either Means or Phenomenon sensed) PP How? (Quality) The Opera House rose majestically. AG She loves her husband madly. with ly adverb as Head of the Group Whatlike? (Comparison) It went through my head like an earthquake. PP with like (or unlike)
Notice that the preposition with may also express MannerQuality as in The form must be filled out with great care. (i.e. carefully)

159

ACCOMPANIMENT: With whom/what? Stella came with her sister. Stella came without her briefcase. CONTINGENCY: Under what conditions? Despite the rain, the trip was a success. MATTER: What about? This course is about Functional Grammar. (also circumstantial relational Process + Identifier) ROLE: What as? Stella acted as a leader. ANGLE: Says whom? / According to whom? From the standpoint of Sociolinguistics, Linguistics proper is an asocial way of studying language. (also functioning as Sayer)
160

George W. Bush campaigned for President...

all over the U.S.A Where? - Place throughout 2000. When? - Time with abundant funds. By means of what? - Manner (Means) enthusiastically. How? - Manner (Quality) like no other candidate. What...like? Manner (Comparison) as a result of ambition. Why? Cause (Reason) with a view to power. What for? Cause (Purpose) for the sake of his dad. Who for? Cause (Behalf) with his wife and children. With whom/what? - Accompaniment despite exhaustion. Under what conditions? - Contingency with reference to domestic issues. What about?
Matter

as a regular guy. What as? - Role in line with Americas hard work ethic.
to whom/what? Angle

According

from Miller, 2000-2001

161

4.2.Grammatical Metaphor
(ideational)
Metaphor has to do with VERBAL TRANSFERENCE of some kind. Ex. He received a flood of letters from his fans. (i.e. a large quantity of letters) Traditional rhetoric says that one word or expression (e.g. flood) has two meanings, one is literal and the other is metaphorical, or figurative. HOWEVER, in functional terms, we can look at metaphor from the perspective of the ways in which meanings are being expressed, so that metaphor can be seen as the expression of one and the same meaning through different wordings. = a large quantity of letters... CONGRUENT WORDING Ex.a large quantity< MEANING = a flood of letters... METAPHORICAL WORDING
162

Ex. My Name Escapes Me. Analysis of the surface structure would give us: escapes= material Process my Name= Actor me= Goal However, the meaning here is something like I dont remember my name, so that a more congruent realization would be precisely that wording, or Ive forgotten my name with I= Senser dont remember / have forgotten= mental Process my name= Phenomenon Sensed
163

So, we run up against problems in deciding how to best label certain wordings. And, in fact, the example above is analysed as an instance of grammatical (ideational) metaphor as: Escapes = mental Process My Name = Phenomenon sensed Me= Senser
Task 5 Write up a clause containing: (i) a mental Process of perception + Finite [Past], having (ii) a transitivity configuration with Senser and Phenomenon, this being realized as (iii) NG (conscious being) + VG + NG (any thing or fact).
164

Nominalization as Grammatical Metaphor

Nominalization= turning clausal patterns into nominal ones. PROCESSES are reworded metaphorically as NOUNS, so that VGs, instead of functioning in the clause as Processes, function as Thing in the NG. The rewording is said to be metaphorical or less congruent, i.e. less close to the state of affairs in the reality being construed. GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR IMPLIES A DISCREPANCY between SEMANTICS (meanings) and LEXICOGRAMMAR (wordings)! GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR IS A MATTER OF DEGREE!
165

Nominalization contd
Nominalization is a very common phenomenon, particularly in scientific and technical writing, which have developed a more metaphorical way of encoding reality packaged as THINGS, rather than unfolding as happenings distributed over a number of clauses. Such practice corresponds to a tendency to the objectification of reality (see also slide 15 on the notion of Medium). (Halliday and Martin 1993). Although co-representational, the more congruent and the more metaphorical versions entail a different meaning (if something said differently is something different being said). See the discussion of the example in the following slides.
166

Prolonged exposure will result in rapid deterioration of the item. (From Halliday 1999)

NG: Epithet ^ Thing Prolonged exposure

Process: relational will result in

NG: Epithet ^ Thing ^ Qualifier rapid deterioration of the item

167

A more congruent formulation of the something like this (Halliday 1999):

above

clause

would

read

If the item is exposed for long, it will deteriorate rapidly. Why is this a more congruent formulation? Because, being less packaged, it makes explicit, it un-packs the following meanings: a) a CAUSE-EFFECT logical relation between two clauses (IFTHEN); b) The Processes, participants and circumstances involved. That is, within the first clause the transitivity structure is as follows, Goal - Proc.: material - Circumstance of Time (Extent), while the transitivity structure of the second clause is Actor - Proc.: material - Circum. of Manner. Notice the correspondences between the metaphorical and more congruent versions: Exposure Prolonged (Thing) (Epithet) < < Proc.: material Time Goal Clause-complex, ifthen

circumstance: < Participant: <

(of the item) (Qualifier) will result in

(Proc.: relational)

Rapid (Epithet) Deterioration (Thing)

< <

Circumstance: Manner Proc.: material Participant: Actor

168

Of the item (Qualifier) <

4.3.Clauses in combination: The Clause-Complex

As we have already mentioned in Chapter 2, simple clauses combine to form clause-complexes. Depending on the kind of status relationship holding between clauses, we can distinguish paratactic from hypotactic sequences, which are known in traditional grammar as coordination and subordination: PARATAXIS = the relationship of coordination between two independent clauses equal in status. Ex. I went to the bar and got the beer and carried it outside. HYPOTAXIS = the relationship of subordination between one dependent clause and one independent clause. Ex. The man was old, when you saw him close.
(Examples from Roald Dahl, The Way up to Heaven and Other Stories)
169

The system of Interdependency, or TAXIS

Note that a clause-complex is typically a mixture of paratactic and hypotactic sequences, as can be seen in the following example taken from Halliday (1994: 218) Ex. I would if I could, but I cant where the relationship holding between clause 1 (I would) and clause 2 (if I could) is a subordinating one, while the relationship between clause 1 and 3 (but I cant) is coordinating: i.e. clause 1 and 3 are both independent clauses:

I would if I could, hypotactic

but I cant. paratactic

170

To practice identifying clauses, see how you can split up the following mini-text, a weather forecast report from The Times. Notice that a particular type of notation is used to mark hypotactic relations (,,, etc. the letters of the Greek alphabet). TODAYS WEATHER - North East Scotland will start rather cloudy with some patchy rain, but this will clear as the frontal system moves away. All areas will then have sunny spells, although isolated showers are possible, especially in the East. North East Scotland will start rather cloudy with some patchy rain, (clause 1 independent) but this will clear (clause 2, independent) as the frontal system moves away. (clause dependent)
171

All areas will then have sunny spells, (clause 1, independent) although isolated showers are possible, especially in the East. (clause dependent) Clause-complexing brings us back to the issue of grammatical intricacy and the spoken medium, so, to review some of what has already been discussed, go back to Chapter 1, slide 15 ff. Parallel to the Taxis dimension, and actually crosscutting it, is the type of logico-semantic relation holding between clauses. In other words, one could ask, what is the logical meaning signalled by the connective although introducing the subordinated clause in the example above? And by reasoning on the kind of semantics realized by it, the answer would be: a sort of concession. Therefore, in the next few slides, we will deal with the various types of logical meanings there can be between clauses.
172

Clauses in combination: Expansion

ELABORATION (=)
Salviati:() if the size of a body be diminished, the strength of that body is not diminished in the same proportion; indeed the smaller the body the greater its relative strength.
(From Galileo Galilei, The Two New Sciences)

The secondary clause expands on the meaning of what is already there by restating in other words, further specifying, clarifying or exemplifying, commenting.

173

Among the connectives (which include both Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adjuncts) signalling an elaborating clause are those which introduce:

Apposition Or (meaning rather), In other words, That is to say (i.e.)

Exemplification For example (e.g.), In particular, etc.

Specification, Rectification or Comment In fact, As a matter of fact, In actual fact, Indeed, Actually, etc.
174

Sometimes, instead of having an explicit connective signalling the elaboration, you can find Non-Defining Relative clauses, functioning as a kind of gloss: Ex. The movie, which is a remake of a famous one, isnt very good. Ex. Have you been to Gouda, where the cheese comes from? (Example taken from Halliday 1994: 228) You can now contrast more easily defining relative clauses which are always embedded into a group and do not constitute separate newsworthy information (sl. 56 ff.), and non-defining ones, which, as can be seen in the examples above, provide an extra bit of information, a more incidental comment or gloss.
Notice that in written English, aa non-defining relative clause is marked Notice that in written English, non-defining relative clause is marked off by punctuation, usually aa comma, but sometimes aa dash. In addition, off by punctuation, usually comma, but sometimes dash. In addition, the relative pronoun must be either which or who, never that, the relative pronoun must be either which or who, never that, which is typical of defining relative clauses. which is typical of defining relative clauses. 175

The relationship between clauses is sometimes even more implicit, when instead of the explicit marker of the elaboration there is merely the Juxtaposition of a Non-Finite clause: Ex. I used to practice the piano on a regular basis, struggling hard with the heat of the summertime. The use of the gerund without any explicit connective leaves the logico-semantic relation very difficult to identify. However, since the non-finite clause is by definition dependent on the dominant clause, there must be some relation obtaining: here the clause simply elaborates on what precedes it. We could hypothesize a concessive meaning, something like: I used to practice the piano on a regular basis, although struggling hard with the heat of the summertime.
176

EXTENSION (+)
Ex. They did a good job, only (= on the other hand) they were so slow about it. Ex. Asking him politely doesnt work, nor do threats. Ex. Some people speak in practical while others tend to be longwinded. down-to-earth terms,

Ex. If the duke hasnt given the teapot to my aunt, then it is in the cupboard. Ex. Instead of revising my notes for the exam, I went to sleep.

The secondary clause expands on what is already there by adding something new to it, or offering an alternative, by means of an addition, a replacement or subtraction.
177

Among the connectives signalling an extending clause are: -the additive and adversative conjunctions And, Or, Nor, But

-the conjunctive Adjuncts allowing for finite or a non-finite clause to follow: In addition, Also, Moreover, Furthermore

either

Alternatively, Conversely, On the other hand Whereas, While, Except that, If notthen + Finite Verbs and: Besides, Instead of, etc. + Non-Finite Verbs
178

ENHANCEMENT ()
Ex. Alice didnt want to begin another argument, so she said nothing. Ex. Alice was standing with her hands ready, for she was any moment expecting him to fall.
(from Alice in Wonderland)

Ex. She likes the simple life, and so does he. Ex. Keep going straight on, in that way you will arrive directly at the station.
(from Halliday 1994: 234)

The secondary clause is a circumstantial one, i.e. it expands on what is already there by qualifying it with some circumstantial feature of Time, Place, Cause, or Condition (see slide 155 for a complete list of PPs as circumstances).
179

The various types of ENHANCEMENT are expressed by: Place- (And) There Time- (And) Then, Next, First, Meanwhile, Finally, Afterwards, Before that, Since, etc. Cause- (And) So, Then, Therefore, Consequently, Hence, For, Because of that, For, etc. Concession- Yet, Still, Nevertheless, though Matter- On that matter, etc. Manner- Means (In) that way Manner- Comparison Similarly, Likewise, By comparison, etc.
180

Clauses in combination:
Projection
Projection covers much of the same area as what is known to traditional Grammar as direct and indirect speech, but from a different perspective. Here you see one clause as projecting another, in the sense that it indicates that the other clause, the projected one, is not a direct representation of reality, rather, a representation of a (linguistic or mental) representation: this is why you can call projected clauses locutions and ideas, stressing their semantic status. Let us consider the following examples.

181

QUOTING SPEECH.
(Halliday 1994: 250)

The simplest form of projection is direct or QUOTED SPEECH: Ex. She keeps saying to us: I stay up till 12 oclock every night. keeps saying= Process She= SAYER to us= RECEIVER I stay up till 12 oclock every night= projected locution, or direct (quoted) Notice that the quoted speech, or speech. Notice that the quoted speech, or projected locution, corresponds to what
projected locution, corresponds to what would be VERBIAGE in aa single clause. It would be VERBIAGE in single clause. It is not considered Verbiage any longer, is not considered Verbiage any longer, but aa separate clause with its own but separate clause with its own Transitivity structure. Transitivity structure.

VG

Complex

with

verbal

182

In quoting speech: The projecting clause contains a verbal Process; The projected clause represents what is said, the wording, more or less exactly; The tactic relationship is Parataxis, i.e. the two clauses have equal status. VERBAL Processes used in quoting speech include: 1) SAY, which is the general member of this class; 2) verbs specific to statements, e.g. tell, remark, observe, point out, announce, report, etc. or questions, ask, demand, inquire, query, etc.; 3) verbs combining say with some circumstantial element, e.g. reply (say in response), explain (say in explanation), protest (say with reservation), insist (say emphatically), cry/shout (say loudly), boast (say proudly), murmur (say sotto voce), etc.
183

QUOTING THOUGHT. Ex. I saw an ad in the paper for a piano, and I thought, Ill just inquire.
(Adapted from Halliday 1994: 255)

thought= mental Process I= Senser Ill just inquire= projected idea, or direct (quoted) thought.

184

In quoting thoughts: The projecting clause contains a mental Process; The projected clause represents what is thought of as if it were a wording, but the implication is I said to myself recognising the fact that one can think in words; The tactic relationship is once again Parataxis. Among mental Processes typically used to quote thoughts are think, wonder, believe, reflect, etc. See the examples below: Ex. Stella wondered, Is this for me? Ex. Shes nobodys fool, I thought.
(example from Thompson 1996: 207)

Ex. Sorry, but whats curious?, wondered Harry.

(Adapted from Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone)
185

REPORTING SPEECH.
As we know from traditional grammar, in addition to quoting locutions and ideas, we can report them (cf. indirect speech):

Ex. He said that he had originally planned to be a lawyer. said= verbal Process he= Sayer that he had originally planned to be a lawyer= projected locution, or reported speech

186

In reporting speech: The projecting clause contains a verbal Process; The projected clause represents the gist, the general sense of what is said, i.e. the wording is different from the original quotation, therefore the grammar changes; The tactic relationship is Hypotaxis, i.e. the two clauses have unequal status (the projecting clause is independent, while the projected is considered to be dependent, often signalled by initial that); Verbal Processes used in reporting speech include: 1) SAY, the general member of this class; 2) the same verbs specific to statements and questions seen when talking about quoting speech (see slide 183);
187

3) verbs for communicative functions (speech acts) used for reporting. These include insinuate, imply, remind, deny, claim, maintain, suggest, offer, request, order, propose, decide, agree, promise, urge, warn, threaten, plead, persuade, recommend, etc.) Ex. He promised he would arrive on time. Ex. The article insinuated that the President was lying. Ex. He threatened to leave. (Ill leave!, he threatened) Ex. Remind me to buy a bottle of Martini. Ex. Stella suggested that we should have a break. Ex. He claimed that it was all a conspiracy

188

REPORTING THOUGHT. Ex. Dr Godbole always thought (that) his patient would recover. thought= mental Process Dr Godbole= Senser (that) his patient would recover= Phenomenon functioning as projected idea, or reported thought

189

In reporting thoughts: The projecting Process; clause contains a mental

The projected clause represents what is thought of, again the grammar changes (see slides 191-92 below); The tactic relationship is once again that of Hypotaxis. Mental Processes typically used in reporting thought include: feel, hope, wish, think, like, etc. Ex. Maxine wished she could go to Sweden next year.

190

Comparing QUOTING and REPORTING

As said, REPORTING presents the projected clause as dependent, and the speaker/writer makes no claim to be abiding by the exact wording. Compare the two examples below and notice how the grammar of the reported projected clause changes: 1. Stella said: I will come back here tomorrow. 2. Stella said she would go back there the next day. In 1. the standpoint in the quote is that of the Sayer, Stella; she is the point of reference for the deixis (I, here, will come back, tomorrow). In 2. on the other hand, the standpoint in the projected clause is that of the speaker/writer of the projecting clause (an omniscient narrator); the deixis is that of the projecting clause (she, would go back, there, the next day).
191

In other words, all deictic elements are shifted away from reference to the speech situation, personals are shifted away from first and second person to third, demonstratives away from near to remote, and the sequence of tenses needs be followed. Notice, however, that even in 2. here and come could be kept if the speaker/writer happens to be in the same place where Stella is, and similarly tomorrow, if it hasnt come yet. So, you would have: 1. Stella said: I will come back here tomorrow 2.bis Stella said she would come back here tomorrow.

192

A final word on comparing QUOTING and REPORTING

Quoting and reporting are not simply formal variants, they differ in function, observes Halliday (1994: 256). Quoting is more immediate and lifelike; it is particularly associated with certain registers, e.g. fictional or personal, and it is used both for sayings (locutions) and thoughts (ideas). Ideas can be projected by an omniscient narrator with or without quotation marks:

Ex. And what is the use of a book, thought Alice, without pictures or conversations in it?
(from Alice in Wonderland)
193

A review of clauses in combination:

(From Halliday 1994: 220)

194

Keys to exercises
Task 1The reality being represented in the short extract taken from Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone is a game, namely Quidditch, and in particular a Quidditch match. Here is some vocabulary you might need to understand the passage: The weather turned very cold= became very cold Bundled up= wrapped up as when you dress in a lot of warm clothes Had leaked out, to leak= let a liquid/gas escape, e.g. The roof leaked. Lexical items that help us understand what Quidditch is include: the pitch, the season, playing-play-playing, match, training, versus, won, House Championship, Seeker. Notice that some of these expressions are Nouns (or NGs), some are Verbs (or VGs).

195

Keys
Task 21. They= Actor 2. The boss= Senser 3. The empty house= Senser 4. 5. Hardly anyone= Senser 6. I = Senser 7. The glass= Actor 8. (You) = Actor 9. People = Actor 10. You= Senser

cont'd

Task 3Mental Processes can be of Cognition: think, realize, believe, baffle, understand, puzzle, know, imagine, doubt, notice, strike, etc. Affection: feel, admire, need, like, please, worry, impress, (strike), fancy, delight, etc. and Perception: See, feel, taste, smell, hear. 196

Keys
Task 41) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) do you speak, verbal Process, unmarked present

cont'd

Shes having, material Pr. with Range, unmarked present Is singing, behavioural Pr., unmarked present I dont understand, mental Pr., unmarked present Comes, material Pr., marked (for Theme) - He is, relational Pr., unmarked present She doesnt like, mental Pr., unmarked present - shes working, material Pr., unmarked present Is getting, relational Pr., marked present (inceptive meaning) Goes, material Pr., marked present (habitual) - hes staying, material Pr., unmarked present - he wants, mental Pr., unmarked present

Task 5Stella saw something wonderful. Now compare with the less congruent wording: A wonderful sight met Stellas eyes.
197

Chapter 5 Textual Meanings

Task 1- Why can you say that the following text is in fact a text? How does the writer organise his text? Picnicking in this country has never again reached the dizzy heights of the Victorian era, when rigid rules brought formal rituals, facilitated by swarms of servants. The doyenne of Victorian cooking, Mrs. Beeton, waxed lyrical on the does and don'ts of the subject. But her recommendations required provisions equivalent to the combined meat, bakery and deli counters of a Sainsburys superstore just to feed a modest party. I would suggest that less is more a couple of salad or vegetable dishes, a homemade tart or pie, a few skewers of marinated chicken, lamb or seafood, bread, dips and fruit, and a portable barbie for cooking should suffice.
(from The Sunday Times Style Magazine)
198

Clause as Message
Language functions as communication: the clause is organised as message, i.e. a cohesive and coherent whole, having its own structure as a text, and being part of a larger textual unit. Major questions throughout this section will therefore be:
If the lexico-grammar is analysed in terms of its construction of textuality and texture, what are the conditions of textuality? Or, what makes a text a text?

What are the typical realizations of textual meanings in the lexico-grammar?

199

5.1.Structural cohesive devices:

THEME and RHEME

Take again the Subject Verb Object Adjunct (SVOA) structure of the typical unmarked declarative clause: The duke gave this teapot to my aunt.

The sequence in which the elements occur in the clause is not totally free, but relatively constrained. You could, indeed, have: To my aunt the duke gave this teapot with the Adjunct at the beginning of the clause instead of the Subject, and you could also have: This teapot the duke gave to my aunt With the Object in initial position, but you cannot really have, for example: * Gave to my aunt this teapot the duke
200

Whatever element we decide to put at the the clause is the THEME of the clause and which the elements follow each other is structure. Thus, the Theme will be defined

beginning of the order in the thematic as:

that with which the clause is concerned, what the message is about, what I either speaker or writer choose as my point of departure of the clause. It is realized in the lexico-grammar by the FIRST POSITION. English allows for a certain amount of variation in word-order, so that, as we saw in the preceding slide, in a statement clause the Theme can be the Subject, but also the Complement or an Adjunct. Although such variation is possible, word-order (or, we should say more properly group-order), is dictated by the structure of the clause itself. This is why we say that the Theme of a clause, although having a cohesive potential if considered at a larger textual level, is a structural device.
201

So, going back to Hallidays example with the Subject as Theme, we have:

The duke THEME

gave this teapot to my aunt. RHEME

where the RHEME = the rest of the clause

Notice that the element functioning as Theme of the clause is also the Actor: all three functions (Subj., Actor and Theme) are taken on by the same NG, namely the duke (see slide 63, language is multifunctional). So, our next question will be: are Subject, Complement and Adjunct the only elements that can go in clause initial position? Or, what other elements can go into the Theme? The answers are discussed in slides 204 ff.
202

The Information Structure

From the point of view of the receiver of the message the listener/reader the Theme is typically Given information, i.e. what the speaker/writer is treating as information that the listener/reader has access to, while the Rheme is what the speaker is treating as New information, and therefore tends to be put towards the end of the clause (see also sl. 16). This organisation of the message as Given-New is the INFORMATION structure: GIVEN= what you listener/reader already know about, or have access to. NEW= what I speaker/writer am asking you listener/reader to attend to.

THEME GIVEN

RHEME NEW
203

The TOPICAL THEME

The Theme must contain a Participant, a Process or a Circumstance, i.e. a component of the transitivity structure. Theme in declarative clauses: in an unmarked indicative declarative clause, the Theme is conflated with the (grammatical) Subject and expressed by a NG or NG complex: Ex. The duke gave that teapot to my aunt. Theme = Subj. = Participant: Actor Ex. Jack and Jill went up the hill. NG complex = Theme = Subj. = Partic.: Actor
(Examples from Halliday 1994)
204

However, as we have seen, NGs functioning as Complement can occur in thematic position, too, and also AGs and PPs functioning as circumstances (= marked Theme, that is, different from Subject). The examples below are given by Halliday (1994: 38-39) to illustrate these cases.

(Preface to Saussures Course in General Linguistics)

We are aware of our responsibility to our critics. We are also aware of our responsibility to the author, who probably would not have authorised the publication of these pages. This responsibility we accept wholly

Theme = Complement
(Forword to Whorfs Language, Thought and Reality)

Once in a blue moon a man comes along who grasps the relationship between events which have hitherto seemed quite separate, and gives mankind a new dimension of knowledge. Theme = Circumstance 205

Theme in interrogative clauses: If it is a Yes/No question, a question about polarity, then the Theme is the Finite verbal operator embodying the expression of polarity, together with the Subject : Ex. Did you see my glasses? Theme = Did you If it is a Wh- question, asking for information that is missing, then the Theme is the whelement requesting that information: Ex. Where are my glasses? Theme = Where (= wh- element)
Interrogative Interrogative clauses embody the clauses embody the thematic principle thematic principle in their in their structure! structure!

206

Theme in imperative clauses: If the clause is an unmarked imperative, then the Theme is the Predicator: Ex. Take my glasses! With the unmarked negative imperative, the Theme is the Finite carrying the polarity together with the Predicator, as for yes/no interrogatives: Ex. Dont take my glasses, please!

207

INTERPERSONAL and TEXTUAL THEMES.

The elements analysed so far as Theme also function within the transitivity structure. They constitute the TOPICAL THEME (TT). However, there are also other elements that can come first in the clause, thus preceding the topical Theme, and which are also considered thematic. Take the following examples: Ex. Probably Stella wont come tonight. Ex. John, Stella is not coming tonight. So, we can book just for the two of us.

208

In the first example, the element put at the beginning of the clause is the Adjunct probably expressing modality (particularly the degree of speakers certainty). Thus, the Adjunct functions interpersonally within one of the systems of interpersonal semantics (the system of MODALITY). Its meaning has nothing to do with the representation of reality: the next element that gives us some representation of a state of affairs is Stella, the Actor of the clause. A similar observation can be made for the element occurring in initial position in the other example: the Vocative John, functioning as a form of address. Both elements are thematised, but they are INTERPERSONAL THEMES, while the topical theme is the first element that works within the transitivity structure (the Actor in both examples). 209

In the latter example, what we find in the first position is the Conjunctive Adjunct so, which relates the clause to the preceding text: it thus functions as TEXTUAL THEME. The Topical Theme is the Subject pronoun we, functioning within the transitivity structure as Actor of the material clause. Notice that Interpersonal and Textual Themes are optional elements of the clause, whereas Topical Themes are not. Every clause has a TT. To sum up this point, the Theme of a clause extends from the beginning of a clause up to (and including) the first element that has some ideational-representational function (the first participant, process or circumstance).

210

If the element position next has

Theme is a structural element, i.e. an which is put obligatorily in the first such as a Conjunction, then what comes a topically thematic function:

Ex. Stella enjoys literature, but grammar she cant stand. Conjunction as Textual Theme ^ Topical Theme. The Conjunction but, which is relating the clause to a preceding clause in the same clause complex here, is obligatorily thematic. It is followed by grammar functioning as Complement (and Phenomenon within the transitivity structure). This word, grammar is thus the marked Topical Theme.

211

Multiple THEMES.
Thematic elements can follow in a sequence:
Textual Theme ^ Interp. Th. ^ Topical Theme

Ex. On the Wednesday.

other

hand,

maybe

Stella

will

come

on

(realised by Conjunctive Adjunct ^ Modal Adjunct ^ Actor)

Textual Theme ^ Interp. Th. ^ Topical Theme

Ex. Well, but then, John, Wednesday would be late. (realised by Continuative ^ Conjunction ^ Conjunctive Adjunct ^ Vocative ^ Subject + Carrier)
Notice that sometimes the Topical Theme is signalled explicitly by Notice that sometimes the Topical Theme is signalled explicitly by means of expressions such as with regard to, as for, as regards, about, means of expressions such as with regard to, as for, as regards, about, etc., which are then picked up later by aa pronoun (see the example etc., which are then picked up later by pronoun (see the example below from Halliday 1994: 39). below from Halliday 1994: 39). Ex. About that teapot, the duke gave it to my aunt. Ex. About that teapot, the duke gave it to my aunt. 212

Task 2- Identify the Topical Theme in the following examples:

1. The protagonist of the film Being There is Chance. 2. I was originally attracted to the core disciplines of science studies by a famous conference on knowledge. 3. Would it be unfair? 4. The reader will find other expressions of gratitude in the footnotes. 5. What a brilliant talk he gave! 6. Recently, a much-needed introduction to philosophical history has been published. 7. Where have all the flowers gone? 8. I shall return to a version of this argument later. 9. He wouldnt have married her. 10. This book may be seen as a breakthrough. 11. I still have to do it. 12. Is that an excuse? 13. What were you doing there? 14. Dont do it! 15. This trip sounds like a wonderful opportunity.
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5.2. Non-Structural cohesive devices: COHESION

In order that a sequence of clauses or clause complexes should constitute a TEXT, it is necessary to also make explicit the relationships between one clause and another. These relationships are the result of the cohesive strategies speakers/writers employ in writing/speaking. As we mentioned, thematic choices affect the cohesive potential of a text as well. However, it is beyond the scope of this introductory coursebook to deal with the thematic development of a text. In the last section of this coursebook we will introduce non-structural*** cohesive devices. There are four kinds of Cohesion, the first three are grammatical devices, and the fourth is lexical:

1)REFERENCE 2)ELLIPSIS and SUBSTITUTION 3)CONJUNCTION 4)LEXICAL COHESION

***that is, not depending on ***that is, not depending on the structure of the clause, the structure of the clause, but rather on semantic but rather on semantic structure across texts. structure across texts. 214

REFERENCE- a relation between an element of a sentence and some other element, within or outside the text, by reference to which the former is identified. It can be:

EXOPHORIC, i.e. outside the text, (situational) and homophoric (cultural).

deictic

ENDOPHORIC, i.e. within the text, the options are: anaphoric, i.e. pointing backwards, or cataphoric, i.e. pointing forwards. See Figure 8 on the following slide, for a complete picture of the paradigm.

215

Deictic-Situational Exophoric Homophoric-Cultural

REFERENCE
Anaphoric Endophoric Cataphoric

Fig. 8- The paradigm of REFERENCE

216

EXOPHORIC REFERENCE: DEIXIS- pointing to the external situation; the meaning of the personal Pronoun/Demonstrative is defined in the act of uttering, and is to be interpreted by reference to the situation here and now. Ex.1 He loves his wife madly. Ex.1a Oh no, this is horrible!

HOMOPHORA- pointing to the wider cultural context. Ex.2 The prime minister introduced many reforms.

217

ENDOPHORIC REFERENCE: ANAPHORA- backward pointing, it is to be interpreted by reference to the preceding text. Ex.3 Alice collapsed into the chair. She was exhausted.

Ex.3a Could you pass me the salt?-Here it is.

CATAPHORA- forward pointing, it is to be interpreted by reference to the following text. Ex.4 Once upon a time there was a beautiful princess. The princess was very sad...
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ELLIPSIS and SUBSTITUTIONwith these devices, discursive continuity is established by means of leaving out information: a clause or a part of a clause can be omitted (ellipsis) or a substitute form provided (substitution). It is usually confined to closely contiguous passages and characteristic of dialogue, in particular of adjacency pairs (e.g. question-answer pairs). Examples of Ellipsis: Ex. A: B: B1: B2 Did you take my glasses? I didnt._____ (Ellipsis of Residue) No. ______ (Ellipsis of Subj.+Finite+Res.) Of course, not!

Examples of Substitution: Ex. A: Ive lost my voice. - B: Get a new one. Ex. Little sisters are a pain. So are big ones.
(Examples from Hasselgard and Johansson 2000)
219

CONJUNCTION- cohesion across stretches of text may also be established by means of the logical relations between clause complexes, or sentences (inter-sentential connection). We have already looked at such relations within clause complexes (intra-sentential connection) under the heading of (see chap. 4.3). The logicosemantic relations between clauses produce clause complexes (see rank scale, slide 37). A clausecomplex corresponds to a sentence in the writing system, (see slide 40). The relations between sentences over longer stretches of language produce texture, or cohesion, and are thus a condition of textuality. So, one should look at the kinds of logical relations that are there. (see slides 169 ff.)
220

The range of possible inter-sentential meanings within the domains of Elaboration, Extension and Enhancement (see slide 169 ff.) is expressed by the choice of a Conjunctive Adjunct (an AG or PP), or a Conjunction, typically, or, in the case of Conjunctions, obligatorily in thematic position at the beginning of the sentence. (See Textual Themes, slides 211 ff.) Examples: She didnt know the rules. Therefore, she lost.
Enhancement, Causal Conjunctive Adjunct relation (Effect), realized by a

Stella was surprised that the day had stayed fine. In fact, everyone warned her that it frequently rained here.
Elaboration realized by a Conjunctive Adjunct
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Task 3 Identify all instances Conjunction in the following text.

of

Reference

and

Heat is only the motion of the atoms I told you about. Then what is cold? Cold is only absence of heat. Then if anything is cold it means that its atoms are not moving. Only in the most extreme case. There are different degrees of cold. A piece of ice is cold compared with warm water. But the atoms of a piece of ice are moving they are moving quite fast, as a matter of fact. But they are not moving as fast as the atoms of warm water. So that, compared with the water, the ice is cold. But even the water would seem cold, if compared with a red-hot poker. Now Ill tell you an experiment you ought to try one day.
(From Halliday 1994: 330)
222

LEXICAL COHESION- continuity may also be established in a text by the choice of words by means of: Repetition (or, straight reiteration***) Ex. I am jealous of everything whose beauty does not die. I am jealous of the portrait you have painted for me. (From The Picture of Dorian Gray) ***Such reiteration, be it lexical ***Such reiteration, be it lexical Lexical scatter This is a question of words having the same root, but belonging to different word classes. Apart from their root, the words have different morphological shape: Ex. work, work-ing, work-ed, etc. Ex. Sense and Sensibility. Synonymy and Antonymy Ex. clear, transparent, obvious, certain, manifest, intelligible as opposed to unclear, opaque, obscure, indistinct, uncertain, dimmed, unintelligible, imprecise, ambiguous, etc. 223
or merely structural, is also or merely structural, is also dealt with under the heading of dealt with under the heading of Grammatical Parallelism in the 3 Grammatical Parallelism in the 3 vol. of this series. vol. of this series.

Hyponymy and Meronymy are the general-specific and part-whole relationship, so that if furniture is the superordinate term, then chair, table, sofa are cohyponyms. And, trunk, branch, leaf are in a relationship of meronymy to tree. It is often the case that the distinction between these relations is clearer with concrete things than with abstract entities. See the example below for hyponymy over an extended stretch of text.
A new fruit that looks like a lime, tastes like a grapefruit and is triple the size of a peach has been launched. The fruit, the result of 21 years' research by the Jaffa company, is called a Sweetie. It will have an average cost of 39p. It is a cross between a grapefruit and a pomelo, yet looks like neither and has dark-green skin and orange flesh. It is the lowest-calorie citrus fruit on the market - apart from lemons and limes - and yet also the sweetest, with the lowest acidity. A spokesman from Jaffa said: "We are hoping that it might take over from bananas, apples and oranges as a snack."
(From Hasselgard and Johansson 2000)
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Collocation the tendency of words to frequently cooccur, so that pipe goes with smoke, snow with white, cold with ice, etc. Notice that this frequency of cooccurrence varies according to the register. See for example, the kind of lexis chosen in newspapers weather forecast. THE WEATHERGreater London Mainly dry with sunny spells, but isolated showers in places. A gentle south-westerly breeze. Orkney, Shetland Cloudy with occasional rain at first, brighter with sunny spells later. A westerly breeze.

but becoming brisk north-

Republic of Ireland Dry during the morning with sunny spells, but cloud will thicken to bring patchy drizzle in the West later.
(From The Times)
225

Task 4 Identify Lexical cohesion in the following text: THE SORTING HATHarry had never even imagined such a strange and splendid place. It was lit by thousands and thousands of candles which were floating in mid-air over four long tables, where the rest of the students were sitting. These tables were laid with glittering golden plates and goblets. (..) The hundreds of faces staring at them looked like pale lanterns in the flickering candlelight. Dotted here and there among the students, the ghosts shone misty silver. (..) Harry looked upwards and saw a velvety black ceiling dotted with stars. (..) It was hard to believe there was a ceiling there at all, and that the Great Hall didnt simply open on to the heavens.
(From Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone by J.K. Rowling)
226

Keys to exercises
Task 1Some vocabulary you might need to understand the text: The dizzy heights= a very high level of something Swarms of servants= large groups of servants Doyenne= the oldest and most experienced woman Waxed lyrical= talked a lot in a lyrical way Deli counters = delicatessen counters Barbie= barbecue One main lexical field is constructed throughout the extract, beginning with Picnicking in the very first position, to barbecue at the very end of the text, and realized throughout by words and groups like cooking, meat, baker and deli counters, Sainsburys superstore, feed, salad or vegetable dishesdips and fruit, portable barbie for cooking. This chain reflects the topic or Field of the text and is achieved by the writer by means of the choice of lexical items (lexical cohesion). There are also other instances of texture, like for example, the use of the conjunction But in initial position to contrast the sentence in which it occurs to what precedes it, and co-reference, her (recommendations) referring back to the doyenneMrs. Beeton (waxed lyrical on the).
227

Keys contd
Also, some comments can be made on the thematic development of the text, which is as follows: the Theme of the first sentence is the qualified NG Picnicking in this country. Then, the next Theme in the following sentence is realized by another NG, the evoked protagonist of this short extract on picnicking, that is, the doyenne of Victorian cooking, namely, Mrs. Beeton. The Rheme of the second sentence, the verbal structure waxed lyrical on the does and donts of the subject becomes the nominalised Theme of the next one, namely, her recommendations (together with the conjunction but, which is obligatorily thematic). In the final sentence, the Theme changes and it becomes I, the writers voice, the Sayer of the verbal Process suggest.

228

Task 21. The protagonist of the film Being There 2. I 3. Would it 4. The reader 5. What a brilliant talk (the Theme is the whole Complement) 6. Recently 7. Where 8. I 9. He 10. This book 11. I 12. Is that 13. What 14. Dont do 15. This trip

229

Task 3Then = Enhancement: Cause/Effect, implying if so...then But1 = Enhancement: Concession, meaning and yet As a matter of fact = Elaboration But2 = Enhancement: Concession, meaning and yet So that = Enhancement, Cause/Effect But3 = Enhancement: Concession, meaning and yet Now = Enhancement, abstract Time, internal to the argument Co-referential chains are: I-you, anything cold-its, the atomsthey-they Heat is only the motion of the atoms I told you about. Then what is cold? Cold is only absence of heat. Then if anything is cold it means that its atoms are not moving. Only in the most extreme case. There are different degrees of cold. A piece of ice is cold compared with warm water. But the atoms of a piece of ice are moving they are moving quite fast, as a matter of fact. But they are not moving as fast as the atoms of warm water. So that, compared with the water, the ice is cold. But even the water would seem cold, if compared with a red-hot poker. Now Ill tell you an experiment you ought to try one day.
230

Task 4Harry had never even imagined such a strange and splendid place. It was lit by thousands and thousands of candles which were floating in mid-air over four long tables, where the rest of the students were sitting. These tables were laid with glittering golden plates and goblets. (..) The hundreds of faces staring at them looked like pale lanterns in the flickering candlelight. Dotted here and there among the students, the ghosts shone misty silver. (..) Harry looked upwards and saw a velvety black ceiling dotted with stars. (..) It was hard to believe there was a ceiling there at all, and that the Great Hall didnt simply open on to the heavens. Strange and splendid = quasi-synonyms Lit, candles, glittering golden, pale lanterns, flickering candlelight, shone misty silver = all items in the lexical string contribute to the construction of the same semantic field of light, they are collocates Ceiling-ceiling, Harry-Harry, students-students = repetitions Tables-plates and goblets = superordinate term and co-hyponyms Ceiling-Great Hall = meronymy (part and whole) Stars-heavens = collocates Ceiling-heavens = textually construed as quasi-synonyms Such a strange and splendid place-the Great Hall = quasi-synonyms
231

In short...
My work Subject Participant: Carrier Theme is Finite + Predicator Process: relational attributive Rheme nearly finished Complement now Adjunct

participant: Circumstance: Attribute Time

The clause has been analyzed as the grammatical unit in which three different kinds of meanings are constructed simultaneously, the interpersonal, the ideational and the textual.
232

As illustrated in the slide above, three distinct structures, each expressing one kind of semantic organization, clause as exchange, representation and message, are mapped on to one another in a single wording. Each structure also reveals something of the context in which the clause has been uttered and, in turn, it is triggered by the context itself: So, for example, the clause in sl. 232, when considered as representation of a state of affairs, is linked to the Field of discourse, i.e. the activity of describing a model of grammar. If thought of as exchange, it is linked to the Tenor, i.e. teacher engaged in introductory, explanatory discourse with students-novice, and, if considered as organised message, to the Mode, i.e. a written coursebook whose medium is mixed, whose rhetorical organisation includes, among other things, sections, sub-sections, graphics and colors, and whose rhetorical aim is both explanatory and persuasive.
233

Traditional Grammar studies the forms and asks what do forms mean?, while Functional Grammar studies the functions and asks how are meanings expressed? FG is indebted to rhetoric in its emphasis on text, registers and discourse. It is sociological in orientation, in that it aims at developing awareness of the socio-cultural contexts in which language is used. It is descriptive and probabilistic more than prescriptive and normative.

(Found in Hasselgard and Johansson 2000) 234

Appendix A- Test Sample Items

1. In: Stella didnt say a word, the Finite is A. didnt say a word C. didnt say 2. the Theme is A. Stella didnt C. Stella B. didnt D. Stella didnt

B. didnt D. didnt say

3. Identify the Residue in: The other few questions about word formation are answered in the last chapter. A. The other few questions about word formation are B. about word formation are C. answered in the last chapter D. answered 4. In: The patron himself cooked us a meal, the underlined element is the A. Receiver B. Goal C. Range D. Beneficiary

235

5. In: At the start of the week, hopes for a peaceful conclusion to the dispute were quite high, the underlined element is A. a non-finite clause B. a non-modifying Prepositional Phrase C. an embedded Prepositional Phrase D. a Prepositional Phrase functioning as Circumstance 6. Can I help you? What is the speech function realized by the preceding clause? A. Question B. Offer C. Statement D. Command 7. A. B. C. D. Identify the participants in: Journalists (1) are not a privileged class (2) (1) Carrier and (2) Attribute (1) Attribute and (2) Carrier (1) Possessor and (2) Possessed (1) Identified and (2) Identifier

8. In: On the other hand, in my view, the results do suggest a clear preference for continuing some kind of bilingual program, the underlined elements are, from left to right A. Topical Interpersonal Textual Theme B. Interpersonal Textual Topical Theme C. Textual Interpersonal Topical Theme D. Interpersonal Topical Textual Theme 236

9. In: The topic for the next session (1) will be Projection (2), the participants are A. (1) Identified and (2) Identifier B. (1) Carrier and (2) Attribute C. (1) Actor and (2) Range D. (1) Attribute and (2) Carrier 10. In declarative clauses the Subject is the A. Marked Theme B. Rheme C. Unmarked Theme D. Interpersonal Theme 11. In: In my opinion, that is the best book on the subject, the underlined Circumstance is: A. Contingency B. Role C. Matter D. Angle 12. The functional analysis of the Nominal Group Those fantastic old horror movies, from left to right reads A. Demonstrative + Epithet + Epithet + Epithet + Thing B. Numerative + Epithet + Classifier + Epithet + Thing C. Demonstrative + Epithet + Epithet + Classifier + Thing D. Numerative + Demonstrative + Classifier + Epithet + Thing

237

13. Identify the kind of modality construed in the underlined clause: We may be late, so dont wait for us. A. modalization-usuality B. modulation-willingness C. modulation-obligation D. modalization-probability 14. In: What other problems (1) do you perceive? (2), the elements are A. (1) Phenomenon (2) mental Process B. (1) Senser (2) mental Process C. (1) Goal (2) material Process D. (1) Actor (2) material Process 15. According to Functional Grammar, A. Grammatical structures have no reference to semantics B. Grammar is a system of communication C. Sentences should be analysed in isolation D. Context has no significant relation to text

238

Appendix A- Keys
1. B. didnt 2. C. Stella 3. C. answered in the last chapter 4. D. Beneficiary 5. C. an embedded Prepositional Phrase 6. B. Offer 7. A. (1) Carrier and (2) Attribute 8. C. Textual Interpersonal Topical Theme 9. A. (1) Identified and (2) Identifier 10. C. Unmarked Theme 11. D. Angle 12. C. Demonstrative + Epithet + Epithet + Classifier + Thing 13. D. modalization-probability 14. A. (1) Phenomenon (2) mental Process 15. B. Grammar is a system of communication

239

Appendix B List of Texts

The KIER GROUP text ............................... sl. DUBBING ........................................... sl. The MRS. MOSS text ................................ sl. TIT FOR TAT ....................................... sl. BEAUTY AND THE BEAST .............................. sl. TIPS FOR DRIVING .................................. sl. 8 16 17 69 82 89

DESPERATE TEENAGER ................................ sl. 102 QUIDDITCH ......................................... sl. 111 PICNICKING IN BRITAIN ............................. sl. 198 THE SORTING HAT ................................... sl. 226

240

Unless otherwise specified, most of the authentic examples discussed are drawn from the following sources: The Times The Sunday Times Style Magazine The Financial Times Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone by J. K. Rowling Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll The Way up to Heaven and Other Stories by Roald Dahl Beauty and the Beast. A pantomime. My Name Escapes Me by Alec Guinness At Freddie's by Penelope Fitzgerald The Picture of Dorian Gray by O. Wilde Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin Dialogue Analysis and Multimedia Translation by M. Freddi Thomas Kuhn: a philosophical history for our times by S. Fuller
241

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Hasan, R. (1985/1989) Linguistics, Language and Verbal Art. Oxford: OUP Hasselgard, H. and S. Johansson (2000) Systemic-Functional Grammar. http://folk.uio.no/hhasselg/systemic// Lipson, M. Exploring Functional Grammar. Lecture Notes, A.A. 2001-2002 Lock, G. (1996) Functional English Grammar. Cambridge: CUP Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Macmillan 2002 Malinowski, B. (1923) The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages, Supplement 1 to C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning, London: Kegan Paul Matthews, P.H. (1997) Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford: OUP Matthiessen C. and M.A.K. Halliday (1997) Systemic Functional Grammar: a first step into the theory. http://minerva.ling.mq.edu.au/Resources/ Martin, J.R. (1992) English Text: System and Structure. Amsterdam: Benjamins Martin, J.R. (1998) Linguistics and the Consumer: The Practice of Theory. Linguistics and Education, 9(4), 411-448 Martin, J.R. (2000) Beyond Exchange: Appraisal Systems in English. In: S. Hunston and G. Thompson (eds.), Evaluation in Text. Oxford: OUP, 142-175 Martin, J.R. and D. Rose (2003) Working with Discourse: Meaning beyond the clause. London: Continuum Miller, D.R. English Linguistics. Lecture Notes, A.A. 2000-2001 NSOED in CD-rom, The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary in CD-rom OED On-line, The Oxford English Dictionary On-line 243 In:

Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of English. London: Longman Ravelli, L. (2000) Getting Started with Functional Analysis of Texts. In: L. Unsworth (ed.), Researching Languages in Schools and Communities. London: Cassel, 27-64 Scollon, R. and S. Scollon (2001) Intercultural Communication. Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd ed. Steiner, E. (2000) Systemic Functional Linguistics and its Application to Foreign Language Teaching. In: C. Fandrych and U. Tallowitz (eds.) Gramatica Funcional y sus Aplicaciones. Special Issue of Estudios de Linguistica Aplicada, 26, 15-27 Thompson, G. (1996) Introducing Functional Grammar. London: Arnold Toolan, M. (1998) Language in Literature: an introduction to stylistics. London: Arnold Unsworth, L. (2000) How Is Functional Grammar Different from Traditional School Grammar? http://www.edfac.usyd.edu.au/staff/unswortl/ Wignell, P. (1995) Making Sense of Text. Sydney: AEE

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Prof. Donna R. Miller, Chair of English Linguistics at the University of Bologna and editor of this series, for her time and energy dedicated to commenting on this handbook.
244