Modelling of Systems and Processes:

Model based Control Systems:

Part II: CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Wintersemester 2007/2008 Dr. S. Simon

Fundamentals of Automatic Control .................................................................. 26 4.1 Types of controller action ........................................................................... 26 4.2 Closed loop response................................................................................. 30 Controller Tuning ............................................................................................... 32 5.1 Performance criteria for closed-loop systems ............................................ 32 5.2 Ultimate gain (Ziegler Nichols method) ...................................................... 33 5.3 Controller synthesis.................................................................................... 34 5.4 Tuning relations.......................................................................................... 37 5.5 Guidelines for common control loops ......................................................... 39 Advanced Control Systems ............................................................................... 47 6.1 Combination of feedback and feedforward control ..................................... 47 6.2 Ratio control ............................................................................................... 49 6.3 Cascade control ......................................................................................... 50 6.4 Time delay compensation .......................................................................... 51 6.5 Nonlinear Control systems ......................................................................... 52 6.6 Adaptive Control......................................................................................... 53 6.7 Multivariable Control Problems................................................................... 53 6.8 Model predictive control ............................................................................. 55

-1-

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

4 Fundamentals of Automatic Control

Basic conventional feedback strategy involves three steps: 1. Measure the present value of the CV. 2. Compare measurement with the desired value (set point). 3. Adjust some other variable (MV) which has influence on the controlled variable until the set point is reached.
d(t)
Controller

u(t)

Process

y(t)

- Which is the input of the controller in conventional feedback control? Complete the picture for the stirred tank heater example! -

4.1 Types of controller action

4.1.1 On/off control
MV is either fully on or completely off:

MV Differential gap CV Set point

Simplest and despite its drawbacks widely used type of control, commonly used as thermostats in heating system (e.g. coffee machine, fridge).

Simple (inexpensive).
Oscillatory nature of controller action. - Why do we need a differential gap resp. what is the impact of the size of that gap on controller action? -

- 26 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

4.1.2 Proportional control

Controller output is proportional to the error signal e(t) = yset(t) - y(t):
u(t) = u + K P e(t) .

KP (Controller gain): Can be adjusted to make the controller output changes more or less sensitive to deviations between set point and CV. u (Bias): u(t) = u , when e = 0. u is adjusted, so that y is at its nominal steady state value, i.e. e = 0.

Inability to eliminate steady state error that occurs after set-point changes
(Offset has to be eliminated manually by resetting the bias u ). Simplicity attractive in control applications where offset can be tolerated (e.g. level control in buffer tanks). Example: Stirred tank heating process (see chapter 2.2.1 and 3.1.1): Control objective: Keep the tank temperature at its desired value set by adjusting the rate of heat input Pel.

Fin, in

U ~

Pel

TC

Presume the bias value Pel of the controller Fout, out = to be adjusted such that the process is initally at its set point s = set. (Which value has to be chosen?) What is the response of the controlled process in case of a step change in in (regulatory control, see figure below) resp. set (servo control)?

Controlled variable s,1 = set Pel Pel,1 = Pel Manipulated variable in,2 Disturbance variable in,1 t0

Response to a step change in in without control

eS = ???

Pel = ???

in t

- 27 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Remark: Some controllers have a proportional band setting instead of a gain: 100% u PB = . KP
A narrow PB thus corresponds to a large controller gain.
umax
u

In practice, physical limits on the controller output (e.g. valve position) need to be taken into consideration.

umin e

4.1.3 Integral control

Controller output is proportional to the integral of the error signal over time:
u(t) = u + K I e( )d .
0 t

Elimination of offset: Corrective action continues until the error is brought to 0.

Little control action occurs, until the error has persisted for some time (while P-control takes immediate action as soon as an error is detected). In case of a sustained error, the integral term becomes quite large and the controller output may saturate. Further buildup of the integral term while the controller is saturated is referred to as reset windup (see exercise 8). Standalone implementation is seldom, usually combined with P-control 1 t PI-controller: u(t) = u + K C e(t) + e( )d , with TI: Integral Time. TI 0 - How does the response of the stirred tank heater to the step in in look like, if PI-control is applied (see also exercise 8)? - Which are the consequences of introducing an additional memory if the manipulated variable reaches its physical limits (see remark on top of this page)? the controller is taken into operation (i.e. operation mode switches from manual to automatic)?

- 28 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

4.1.4 Derivative control

Anticipates the future behaviour of the error signal by considering its rate of change.
u(t) = u + K D de . dt

By providing anticipatory control, the D-mode tends to stabilise the controlled

process.

Improvement of the dynamic response of the CV by decreasing the process

settling time. Amplification of noise unless the measurement is filtered seldom used for flow control (noisy measurement, quick responses). Always used in conjunction with P- or PI-control: de PD-controller: u(t) = u + K C e(t) + TD , dt with TD: Derivative Time.

- How does the derivative mode respond to a step change in the set-point? -

Combination of all three modes gives:

4.1.5 P I D control: u(t) = u + K C e(t) + TD

de 1 + dt TI

e( )d
0

Proportional Integral Derivative

The contributions of the different controller modes and the impact of the controller parameters on the closed loop response of the stirred tank heater are further investigated in exercise 8.

- 29 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

4.2 Closed loop response

= Dynamic behaviour of processes that are operated using feedback control. Assume, that the dynamics of the uncontrolled(!) process, can be (approximately!) described by a transfer functions:
G1(s) = Y(s) Y(s) ; G2 (s) = U(s) D(s)

D(s) G2(s)

where G1 and G2 describe the impact of the manipulated (u) resp. the disturbance variable (d) on the controlled variable (y)
(see previous lectures).

Yset(s) -

E(s)

GC(s)
Controller

U(s)

G1(s)
Process

Y(s)

The transfer function GC (s) =

U(s) E(s)

of the controller depends on the control algorithm. How does y respond to changes in the set point yset or the disturbance variable d?
Y(s) = G1(s) U(s) + G2(s) D(s) + G2(s) D(s) = G1(s) GC(s) E(s) = G1(s) GC(s) (Yset(s)-Y(s)) + G2(s) D(s).

Y(s) (1 - GP(s)GC(s)) = GP(s) GC(s) Yset(s) + G2(s) D(s)

Y(s) =

G1(s) GC (s) G2 (s) Yset (s) + D(s) , 1 + G1(s) GC (s) 1 + G1(s) GC (s) 144 244 3 4 4 144 244 3 4 4
GCL1(s) GCL2 (s)

with GCL(s): Closed Loop transfer function The dynamics of the closed loop process thus also can be decribed by closed loop transfer functions GCL(s) indicating the impact of the inputs of the closed loop process, i.e. the set-point and disturbances.

- 30 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Example: Stirred tank heating process:

The dynamic relationship between = -S and the heat input u = Pel - Pel,s can be described by the following transfer function (see chapter 3.2.3): G1(s) =
P-control:

(s) K V 1 = , with T = , K = P(s) 1 + T s F F cP

Presume the bias value of the controller to be adjusted such that the process is initally at its set point, i.e. s = set for Pel,s = Pel . Consider deviation variable: Pel = Pel - Pel = K C e , where Pel (t = 0) = K C 0 = 0.

Laplace transform of the control law Pel (t) = K C e(t) Laplace P(s) = KCE(s) gives the following transfer function of a P-controller: G C (s) = P(s) = KC . E(s)
KK C K CL (s) = 1+ Ts = K = KK C 1 + TCL s set (s) 1 + 1+ Ts

The closed loop transfer function of the system thus is G CL (s) = (1st order transfer function),

with K CL =

KK C T and TCL = . 1+ KK C 1+ KK C

PI-control:

Analogously we derive the following transfer function of a PI-controller:

GC (s) = KC TI s + 1 . TI s
KK (1+ T s )

For PI-control the closed loop transfer function therefore becomes

GCL (s) =
C I KK C (1 + TIs ) (s) (1+ Ts )TIs = = KK C (1+ TIs ) (1 + Ts ) TIs + KK C (1 + TIs) set (s) 1 + (1+ Ts )TIs

(2nd order transfer function). Whether or not oscillation occurs depends on the controller settings.

The impact of the controller parameters on the closed loop response (steady state error, speed of response) of this process is further investigated in exercise 8.

- 31 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5 Controller Tuning
= adjustment of controller settings (for PID-control: KC, TI, TD), so that when coupled with the process it gives the desired closed loop response. Can be done by trial and error (see e.g. exercises 9, 10 and 12). Quite tedious and time consuming. This is why a good preliminary estimate is required. This can be obtained by experience with similar control loops, based on a model.

5.1 Performance criteria for closed-loop systems

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Closed-loop system must be stable (see below). Effects of disturbances are minimised ( regulatory control). Rapid/ smooth response to set point changes ( servo control). Elimination of offset. Avoid excessive control actions. Robustness, i.e. control system is insensitive to errors in the assumed process model.

Obviously, these criteria involve inherent conflicts/ trade-offs, e.g. PID settings, which minimise the effect of disturbances, tend to produce large overshoots for set point changes. Controller settings have to be satisfactory for both load and set point changes! Conservative values (robustness ) create a sluggish response (performance ).

5.1.1 Stability
A process is said to be unstable, if for constrained inputs the output becomes larger and larger (positively or negatively) as time increases until a physical limit is reached/ some constraint will be met (e.g. safety valve will open). Most processes are open-loop stable (exception e.g. exothermic reactor). Processes, which are open-loop stable can be made closed-loop unstable, if the controller gain is large enough.

Definition BIBO-Stability (Bounded Input Bounded Output):

An unconstrained linear system is said to be stable, if the Output response is Bounded for all Bounded Inputs.

- 32 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Examples of step responses of stable/ unstable systems:

y y

Review example of CSTR given in exercise 6: Which of the steady states are stable?

5.2 Ultimate gain (Ziegler Nichols method)

Ultimate Gain Kcrit = gain, which brings the system with sole P-control to sustained oscillation (stability limit) with frequency fcrit resp. ultimate period Tcrit = 1/fcrit.
50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5

here: Tcrit = 0.6

Determined experimentally by increasing KC, until continuous cycling begins. Calculation of controller settings according to tuning rules: Controller P PI PID KC
0,5 KC,crit 0,45 KC,crit 0,6 KC,crit

TI
Tcrit /1,2 Tcrit / 2

TD
Tcrit / 8

Simple.
System is pushed to its stability limit (unstable situations can result!). Method can be time consuming (esp. if a large number of trials is required or if the process dynamics are slow) and may be expensive (due to lost productivity/ poor product quality). Not applicable to processes which are open-loop unstable. Simple processes might have no ultimate gain.
Example: See exercise 11.

- 33 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5.3 Controller synthesis

Given the transfer function G(s) of the system to be controlled, synthesize the controller required to produce a specified closed-loop response.
Closed Loop transfer function:

GCL (s) =

Y(s) GCG , = Yset (s) 1 + GCG GCL (s) 1 G(s) 1 - GCL (s)

with GC the transfer function of the controller

GC (s) =

controller synthesis formula (I).

Yset(s)

E(s) -

GC(s)
Controller

U(s)

G(s)*
Process

Y(s)

*Transfer functions of all loop components (e.g. process, measurement) are lumped into one single block, resp. transfer function G(s)

5.3.1 Perfect control

Y(s) = Yset (s) G CL (s) = 1 1 (controller gain must be infinite) (I) GC (s) = 0 Feedback control is not capable of giving perfect control!
!

- 34 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5.3.2 Closed loop response = first order process

G CL (s) =
!

1 , 1+ TCL s

with gain KCL = 1 (elimination of steady-state error).

1

1 1+ TCLs (I) GC (s) = 1 G 1 - 1+ T

CL s

1 1 1 1 = G 1 + TCL s - 1 G TCL s

(II).

Integral action required to eliminate offset (specification of unity gain). a) First order process: G(s) = (II) then gives GC (s) = 1+ Ts 1
K

K . 1 + Ts
= T 1 1+ K TCL Ts

TCL s

PI-controller with tuning parameters K C =

T , TI = T , K TCL

i.e. set integral time TI equal to the process time constant, adjust KC to obtain the desired dynamics of the closed-loop process (i.e. TCL). b) Second order process: G(s) = K , (1+ T1s) (1+ T2s) where T1 is the larger (dominant) and T2 the smaller process time constant.
K TCL s = T1 + T2 K TCL T T 1 1 + + 1 2 s (T1 + T2 ) s T1 + T2

(II) gives GC (s) = (1 + T1s ) (1 + T2s ) 1

PID-controller with tuning parameters KC = T1 + T2 T T , TI = T1 + T2 , TD = 1 2 . K TCL T1 + T2

For T1>>T2: TI T1, TD T2, i.e. set integral time TI equal to the dominant process time constant to compensate for the dominant process lag. Tuning procedure thus is reduced to the adjustment of the controller gain KC. c) First order + dead time process: G(s) =
(II) gives GC (s) =
T 1 TDT s 1 + e K TCL Ts

K e TDT s . 1 + Ts

(negative dead time).

Unrealizable controller since it requires knowledge of the future. Specified closed-loop response must be delayed by one process dead-time.

- 35 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5.3.3 Closed loop response = first order + dead time process

G CL (s) =
!

e TDT s 1 + TCL s
1 e TDT s G 1 + TCL s - e TDT s

(I) GC (s) =

(III). K e TDT s . 1 + Ts (IV).

a) First order + dead time process: G(s) = (III) gives GC (s) = 1 +Ts s TDT
Ke

e TDT s 1 + Ts 1 = TDT s K 1 + TCL s - e 1 + TCL s - e TDT s

(IV) cannot be implemented with analogue devices but needs to be converted into standard PID-form:
1) Taylor series expansion (drop all but the first two terms):
e TDT s 1 TDT s Valid, as long as dead time is small compared to the closed loop response speed. For a given dead time the error thus increases with the speed of response.

(IV) thus becomes

GC (s) = 1 + Ts 1 1 + Ts 1 T 1 . = = 1+ (TCL + TDT ) s K (TCL + TDT ) Ts K 1 + TCL s - (1- TDT s ) K

PI-controller with tuning parameters K C =

K (TCL + TDT )

, TI = T .

Set integral time TI equal to the process time constant. Increase in dead-time results in a reduction of controller gain KC. Closed loop response will deviate from the specified first order response, as the controller gain (and thus the speed of response) increases.

Presence of a dead time imposes a limit on the controller gain: K C,max =

2) PADE approximation:
e
TDT s TDT 2 T 1 + DT 2

T . K TDT

s s

Closer to the true exponential expression Can be used for all dead time systems. Recommended for long dead-times, i.e. when TDT > T/4.

PID-controller with tuning parameters: K C =

T T , TI = T, TD = DT . K (TCL + TDT ) 2

The application of the controller synthesis approach to various systems is demonstrated in exercises 9, 11 and 12.

- 36 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5.4 Tuning relations

based on process response curves, i.e. a small step (of size u) is introduced and the measured process response is recorded.
Step response of original system Approximation by step response of a 1storder+deadtime system:
y(t) y

yS

G(s) =

K e TDT s , 1 + Ts

with K = y/u
(where y = yS y0),

y0 t TDT T

and TDT given by the intersection of the tangent through the inflexion point with the time axis.

Figure 12: Process response to a step input of size u.

5.4.1 Ziegler Nichols approach (1942)

Calculation of controller settings according to tuning relations: TI Controller KC 1/K T/TDT P 0,9/K T/TDT 3,33 TDT PI 1,2/K T/TDT 2 TDT PID TD
0,5 TDT

where T and TDT denote the time constant and dead time of a 1storder plus deadtime approximation. KC is proportional to T/TDT and 1/K, TI is proportional to TDT, TD/TI typically takes on a value of 0,1 - 0,3. A lower gain is used, when integration is included in the controller. Addition of derivative mode permits a higher gain (also valid for 0).

Only a single experimental test is necessary (no trial and error). Controller settings are easily calculated.
Settings tend to result in an oscillatory response.

- 37 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5.4.2 T approach (Kuhn, 1995)

Based on the sum of time constants (including deadtime): T =: Ti + TDT
i =1 n

Determination of T:
yS

A2 A
y(t) y

A1
y0 0 T t 0 T t

Figure 13: Alternative ways to find the sum of time constants based on the process response curve.

The area between the response curve y(t) and its steady state value yS equals the area of the rectangle given by T and y (= K if a unit step input was introduced, i.e. u = 1), i.e.

A=

(y S - y(t)) dt = y T
A1 = A2 (both areas as given in figure 13)

Determination of T without integration:

Determine parameters of a 1st order + deadtime approximation as shown in figure 12 T can be obtained as T = T + TDT .
Alternative way to obtain a 1storder+deadtime approximation which is closer to the original step response: Find exponential response curve such that two points (t1, y1), (t2, y2) of the original step response are met. Step response of original system
y(t) y2

Approximation

T=

t 2 t1 , y y 1 ln y y 2

y1 y1 0 t1

y2

TDT

y = T ln 1 i + t i , where i = 1 or 2. y

t2

- 38 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Controller design based on T:

Assume the system to be of 2nd order with equal time constants T1 = T2 = T/2, K . i.e. G(s) = (1 + T 2 s)2 Choose controller parameters, such that a fairly underdamped closed loop system is obtained, e.g. with a damping d = 0,7. Controller settings can be calculated according to the following tuning rules: Controller P PI PID KC
1/K 0,5/K 1/K

TI
0,5 T 0,66 T

TD
0,16 T

Easy to obtain. Gives good results with high reliability.

Conservative controller setting (fine tuning after installation required).

The application of tuning relations to various systems is demonstrated in exercises 11 and 12.

5.5 Guidelines for common control loops

5.5.1 Commonly encountered process variables
Flow rate Liquid level Gas pressure Temperature (Composition)

5.5.2 Control valve flow characteristics

= relationship between the flow rate through the valve and the valve travel (s) as the travel is varied from 0 to 100%. Inherent flow characteristic = characteristic observed with a constant pressure drop across the valve. Installed flow characteristic = characteristic obtained in service where the pressure drop varies with flow and other changes in the system.
Target: Provide for a relatively uniform control loop performance over the expected range of system operating conditions.

- 39 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Typical flow characteristic curves (inherent flow characteristic), where KV denotes the volumetric flow rate [m/h] of water for standard conditions ( = 0 =1000 kg/m; p = 1 bar). Quick opening flow characteristic (1) Maximum change in flow rate at low valve travels with a fairly linear relationship. Additional increases in valve travel give sharply reduced changes in flow rate. Used primarily for on-off service.
100 %

1 kv kvs

Linear flow characteristic curve (2) 3 Flow rate is proportional to the valve travel. For constant pressure drop, the valve gain s 0 100% (= ratio of an incremental change in flow rate smax to incremental change in valve plug position) will be the same at all flows. Commonly specified for liquid level control and for flow control applications requiring constant gain. Equal percentage flow characteristic (3) Equal increments of valve travel produce equal percentage changes in the existing flow. Change in flow rate is proportional to the flow rate just before the change in valve position is made. Generally used on pressure control applications and on other applications where a large percentage of the pressure drop is normally absorbed by the system itself, with only a relatively small percentage available at the control valve or highly varying pressure drop conditions can be expected.

Which characteristic is obtained in service where the pressure drop varies (installed flow characteristic), depends on the contribution of the control valve to the overall pressure drop (characterized by ):
& V = & Vmax 1 k 2 1 + vs 1 k v (s)

where = p valve .
p

- 40 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

s smax

0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

s smax

Figure 14: Valve with linear flow characteristic.

Figure 15: Valve with equal percentage flow characteristic.

Rules of thumb: For < 0,2, i.e. pressure drop due to the valve is considerably smaller than that due to the plant, a valve with an equal percentage flow characteristic should be chosen. For > 0,6, i.e. pressure drop due to the valve is bigger than that due to the plant, a valve with an linear flow characteristic is more adequate.

5.5.3 Flow control

Characteristics

Dynamics are very fast (order of seconds). Essentially no dead time. High frequency noise due to e.g. turbulence/ pump vibration.

transducer

actuator

orifice

control valve

Figure 16: Flow Control.

- 41 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Choice of controller

No use of derivative action. (P)I Controller with a wide proportional band (i.e. low gain KC) and - in accordance to the controller synthesis approach - a low value of integral time TI. Note: Derivative mode amplifies noise while integration tends to average the response thus minimising noise. Notable exception: e.g. flow control of a condensate throttled reboiler: Vapour flow depends on the rate of condensation Flow rate can be varied by changing the area of heat transfer (i.e. by raising/ lowering the liquid level) in the reboiler. Flow control loop has much different controller tuning constants then mentioned before.

Figure 17: Condensate-throttle flow control.

- 42 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5.5.4 Liquid level control

Characteristics

Integrating nature (non self-regulating process!). Increase in the controller gain can bring an increase in system stability. Relatively high-gain controller can be used without concern about instability of the control system. In many control applications the liquid storage tank is used as a surge tank to damp out fluctuations in the inlet stream. Tight control is not necessary (level only to be kept between hmin and hmax).
Fin

Figure 18: Level control of a single tank.

Dynamics of closed-loop system (Laplace domain):

Fin(s)
Hset(s)

E(s) -

GC(s)

F(s) Process*

H(s)

* Process can be described by G(s) = K/s with K depending on the cross-sectional area.
H(s) =

Controller

K K (Fin (s) F(s)) = Fin (s) GC (s) (Hset (s) - H(s)) 14 244 4 3 s s E(s) K K K H(s) 1- GC (s) = Fin (s) - GC (s) Hset (s) s s s K/s (-K)/s GC H(s) = Fin (s) + Hset (s) 1 + (-K)/s GC 1 + (-K)/s GC

Here: Negative controller gain required (MV = outlet stream)!

How does the closed-loop process respond to a step change in the set point?
- 43 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Closed-loop response to a step change in the incoming flow (from Fin,1 to Fin,2):
In steady state: F = Fin Initial state: Choose controller bias value equal to incoming flow to eliminate offset:
F(t 0 ) = F = Fin,1
!
!

Without control

P-Control eS

hset F Fin,2 FS = F + KCeS

h(t0) = hset (e(t0) = 0).

F = Fin,1 t0 t

P-control: MV increases according to the error e, until F = Fin,2 - 1/K C H(s) K/s = = Fin (s) 1 + ( K)/s K C 1 1/K CK s Steady-state error eS = hset hS proportional to -1/KC. PI-control: Controller continuous to increase the value of F beyond Fin,2 to drive the level back to its set-point. Elimination of steady state error. Amplification of flow rate changes. When multiple tanks are connected in series, amplification increases.

Fin

Figure 19: Level control of multiple tanks.

- 44 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

Choice of controller

Derivative mode normally not employed, since level measurements often contain noise due to the splashing/ turbulence of the liquid entering the tank. Integral action not necessary, if small offsets in the liquid can be tolerated. P(I) Controller where the proportional band depends e.g. on control valve sizes. Conservative controller settings to avoid large/ rapid fluctuations in the exit flow rate.

5.5.5 Pressure control

Characteristics

Pressure control loops can very from very tight, fast loops (almost like flow control) to slow averaging loops (almost like liquid level control). Gas pressure process is self-regulating: The vessel/ pipeline admits more feed, when the pressure is too low, reduces the intake, when the pressure becomes too high.

Choice of controller

PI Controller with the integral time TI depending on the open loops dynamics. Usually no derivative action needed (process response time small compared to other process variables.)

Figure 20: Fast pressure loop: Valve throttling the flow of vapour from a vessel.

Figure 21: Slow pressure loop: Pressure is held by throttling the water flow to a condenser.

- 45 -

Modelling of Systems and Processes: Model Based Control Systems Controller Tuning

5.5.6 Temperature control

Characteristics

Wide variety of processes and equipment involving heat transfer. General guidelines for controller difficult to state. Due to the presence of time delays and/or multiple thermal capacities there will usually be a stability limit of the controller gain.

Choice of controller

PID Controllers commonly employed to obtain more rapid responses. Choose integral time TI equal to dominant time constant T and derivative time TD T/4.
steam reactor

product product condensate

Figure 22: Control of outlet temperature of cooling water.

reactor

Figure 23: Heat exchanger.

steam

heating jacket

Figure 24: Control of temperature of a steam-heated tank.

- 46 -