SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER

1.INTRODUCTION:

The d.c to a.c power converters are known as inverters. In other words, an inverter is a circuit which converts a d.c power in to an a.c power at desired output voltage and frequency. The a.c output voltage could be fixed at a fixed frequency this conversion can be achieved either by controlled turn on and turn off devices(e.g., BJTs, MOSFETs, IGBTs, MCTs, SITs, GTOs SITHs )or by forced commutated thyristors, depending on applications. For low and medium power outputs, the above-mentioned power devices are suitable but for high power outputs, thyristors should be used. The output voltage wave forms of ideal invertors should be sinusoidal. The voltage wave forms of practical invertors are however, non-sinusoidal and contain certain harmonic Square wave or quasi-square wave voltages may be acceptable for low and medium power applications low, distorted, sinusoidal wave forms are required. The output frequency of an inverter is determined by the rate at which the semiconductors devices are switched on and off by the inventor control circuitry and consequently, an adjustable frequency a.c output is readily provided. The harmonic contents of output voltage can be minimized or reduced significantly by switching techniques of available high speed power semi conductor devices. The filtering of harmonic is not feasible when the output frequency varies over a wide range, and the generation of a.c wave forms with low harmonic content is important. When the output voltage of an invertors is given to a transformer or a.c motor, this output voltage must be varied in conjunction with frequency to maintained the proper magnetic conditions, therefore the output voltage control is an essential features of an adjustable frequency system and voltage control of single phase inverter is discussed in this project. PEC 1 EEE

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The d.c power input to the inverter may be battery, fuel cell, solar cells or other d.c source. But in most industrial applications, it is fed by a rectifier.Inverters are mainly classified as voltage source inverter and current source inverters. A voltage fed inverter, or voltage source inverter is one in which the d.c source as small or negligible impedance. In other words, a voltage source inverter has stiff d.c voltage source at its input terminals. Because of low internal impedance, the terminal voltage of a voltage source inverter remains substantially constant in variation loads. It is, therefore, equally suitable to single motor and multi motor drives. Any short circuit across its terminal causes current to rise very fast, due to the low time constant of its internal impedance. The fault current can not be regulated by current controlled and must be cleared by fast acting fuse links. On the other hand, the current fed or current source inverter is supplied with a controlled current from a d.c source of high impedance. Typically, a phase controlled thyristor rectifier feeds the inverter with a regulated current through a large series inductor. Thus, load current rather than load voltage is controlled, and the inverter output voltage is dependent upon the load impedance. Because of a large internal impedance, the terminal voltage of a current source inverter changes substantially with a change in load. Therefore, if used in a multi motor drive, a change in load on any motor affects other motors. Hence, current source inverters are not suitable for multi motor drive. Since the inverter current is impedance of load impedance, it has inherent Protection on against shot circuits across its terminals.

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2. HOW TO GET AC OUTPUT FROM DC SUPPLY:

Figs. 2(a) and 2(b) show two schematic circuits, using transistor-switches, for generation of ac voltage from dc input supply. In both the circuits, the transistors work in common emitter configuration and are interconnected in push-pull manner. In order to have a single control signal for the transistor switches, one transistor is of n-p-n type and the other of p-n-p type and their emitters and bases are shorted as shown in the figures. Both circuits require a symmetrical bipolar dc supply. Collector of n-p-n transistor is connected to positive dc supply (+E) and that of p-n-p transistor is connected to negative dc supply of same magnitude (-E). Load, which has been assumed resistive, is connected between the emitter shorting point and the power supply ground.

Fig. 2(a): A push-pull active amplifier circuit

Fig. 2(b): A push-pull switched mode circuit

In Fig. 2(a), the transistors work in active (amplifier) mode and a sinusoidal control voltage of desired frequency is applied between the base and emitter points. When applied base signal is positive, the p-n-p transistor is reverse biased and the n-p-n transistor conducts the load current. Similarly for negative base voltage the p-n-p transistor conducts while n-p-n transistor remains reverse biased. A suitable resistor in series with the base signal will limit the base PEC 3 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER current and keep it sinusoidal provided the applied (sinusoidal) base signal magnitude is much higher than the base to emitter conduction-voltage drop. The other transistor will also be dissipating identical power during its conduction. The quantities in Fig. 2(C) are in per unit magnitudes where the base values are input supply voltage (E) and the load resistance (R). As against the amplifier circuit of Fig. 2(a), the circuit of Fig. 2(b) works in switched mode. The conducting switch remains fully on having negligible on-state voltage drop and the non-conducting switch remains fully off allowing no leakage current through it. The load voltage waveform output by switched-mode circuit of Fig. 2(b) is rectangular with magnitude +E when the n-p-n transistor is on and E when p-n-p transistor is on.

Fig. 2(c): switch in amplifier mode operation

Fig. 2(d): switch mode (inverter opration

The on and off durations of the two transistors are controlled so that (i) the resulting rectangular waveform has no dc component (ii) has a fundamental (sinusoidal) component of desired frequency and magnitude and (iii) the frequencies of unwanted harmonic voltages are much higher than that of the fundamental component. The fundamental sine wave in Fig. 2(d), shown in blue color, is identical to the sinusoidal output voltage of Fig. 2(c).Both amplifier mode and switched mode circuits of Figs. 2(a) and 2(b) are capable of producing ac voltages of controllable magnitude and frequency, however, the amplifier circuit is not acceptable in power-electronic applications due to high switch power loss. On the other hand, the switched PEC 4 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER mode circuit generates significant amount of unwanted harmonic voltages along with the desired fundamental frequency voltage. As will be shown in some later lessons, the frequency spectrum of these unwanted harmonics can be shifted towards high frequency by adopting proper switching pattern.

3. INVERTERS:
From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DC-toAC power conversion was accomplished using rotary or motor-generator sets (M-G sets). In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyristor. The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term Inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator's commutator reversed its connections at exactly the right moments to produce DC. A later development is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commutator at the other and only one field frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be "mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards", converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter. An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries. There are two main types of inverter. The output of a modified sine wave inverter is similar to a square wave output except that the output goes to zero volts for a time before switching positive or negative. It is simple and low cost and is compatible with most electronic PEC 5 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER devices, except for sensitive or specialized equipment, for example certain laser printers. A pure sine wave inverter produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (<3% total harmonic distortion) that is essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is compatible with all AC electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tie inverters. Its design is more complex, and costs 5 or 10 times more per unit power. The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier. An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage. Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout. Micro converts direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric grid. They are grid tie designs by default.

3.1 THE GERNERAL CASE:

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.

3.1.2 BASIC CIRCUIT DESIGN :

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Fig .3.1: Basic circuit design
One simple inverter circuit is shown in fig.3.1 , DC power is connected to

a transformer through the centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit. The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrato or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns.As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs.

3.1.3 OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using the Fourier analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD). The total harmonic distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage:

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on the characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage.

Fig. 3.2: Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic

The method in which the low voltage DC power is inverted, is completed in two steps. The first being the conversion of the low voltage DC power to a high voltage DC source, and the second step being the conversion of the high DC source to an AC waveform using pulse width modulation. Another method to complete the desired outcome would be to first convert the low voltage DC power to AC, and then use a transformer to boost the voltage to 120 volts. This project focused on the first method described and specifically the transformation of a high voltage DC source into an AC output. Of the different DCAC inverters on the market today there are essentially two different forms of AC output generated: modified sine wave, and pure sine wave1. A modified sine wave can be seen as more of a square wave than a sine wave; it passes the high DC voltage for specified amounts of time so that the average power and rms voltage are the same as if it were a sine wave. These types of inverters are much cheaper than pure sine wave inverters and therefore are attractive alternatives. Pure sine wave inverters, on the other hand, produce a sine wave output identical to the power coming out of an electrical outlet. This form of AC power also reduces audible noise in devices such as fluorescent lights and runs inductive loads, like motors, faster and quieter due to the low harmonic distortion.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF INVERTERS:

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER A voltage-fed inverter (VFI), or voltage-source inverter d( VSI), is one in which the dc source has small or negligible impedance. In other words, a voltage source inverter has stiff dc voltage source at its input terminals. A current-fed inverter ( CFI) or current source inverter d(CSI) is fed with adjustable current from a dc source of high impedance, i.e. from a stiff dc current source. In a CSI fed with stiff current source, output current waves are not affected by the load. In VSIs using thrusters, some type of forced commutation is usually required. In case VSIs are made up of using GTOs, power transistors, power MOSFETS or IGBTs, Selfcommutation with base or gate drive signals is employed for their controlled turn on and turnoff. Comparison of CSI and VSI CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

1. As inductor is used in the dc link, As capacitor is used in the dc link, it acts as a the source impedance is high. It low impedance voltage source. acts as a constant current source

2. A CSI can capable of withstanding short A VSI cannot accept the mis-firing of switches circuit across any two of its output terminals. Hence momentary short circuit on load and misfiring of switches are acceptable 3. CSI is used in only buck or boost VSI is used in only a buck or boost operation operation of inverter. 4.The main circuit cannot of inverter. be The main circuit cannot be interchanged here also. It is affected by the EMI noise.

interchangeable. 5. It is affected by the EMI noise.

Table 1: comparison of CSI and VSI

3.2.1 SINGLE PHASE VSI:

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER Single-phase voltage source converter can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely used in power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power static power topologies, such as for instance, the multi cell configurations that are reviewed The main features of both approaches are reviewed and presented in the following.

3.2.2 SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE VSI:

Fig.3.3 shows the power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are required to provide a neutral point 0, such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage 0.5Edc. Because the current harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are low-order harmonics, a set of large capacitors is required.

Fig. 3.3: Single phase half bridge VSI. STATE SW1 is ON and SW2 is OFF SW1 is OFF and SW2 is ON SW1 is OFF and SW2 is OFF STATE 1 2 3 VOA O.5 Edc -O.5 Edc -O.5 Edc O.5 Edc COMPONENTS CONDUCTING SW1 if >0 SW1 if <0 SW2 if >0 SW2 if <0 SW2 if >0 SW1 if <0

Table 2: Switching states for a half bridge single phase VSI It is clear that both switches SW1 and SW2 cannot be ON simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source Vi would be produced. There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch state as shown in Table 2. In order to avoid PEC 10 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should always ensure that at any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter leg is on.

3.2.3 SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE VSI:

Fig. 3.4 shows the power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load. As expected, both switches SW1 and SW2 (or SW3 and SW4) cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source Edc would be produced.

Fig. 3.4: Single phase full bridge VSI.

STATE
SW1,SW4 ON and SW2 ,SW3 OFF SW1,SW4 OFF and SW2 ,SW3 ON SW1,SW3 ON and SW2 ,SW4 OFF SW1,SW3 OFF and SW2 ,SW4 ON SW1,SW4 and SW2 ,SW3 all OFF

STATE

VA
0.5Edc -0.5Edc 0.5Edc -0.5Edc -0.5Edc 0.5Edc

VB
-0.5Edc 0.5Edc 0.5Edc -0.5Edc 0.5Edc -0.5Edc

VAB
Edc

COMPONENTS CONDUCTING
SW1 and SW4 if >0 SW1 and SW4 if <0 SW2 and SW3 if >0 SW2 and SW3 if <0 SW1 and SW3 if >0 SW1 and SW3 if <0 SW2 and SW4 if >0 SW2 and SW4 if <0 SW2 and SW3 if >0 SW1 and SW4 if <0

1 2 3 4 5

-Edc 0 0
-Edc Edc

Table 3: Switch states for a full bridge single phase VSI There are four defined (states 1, 2, 3, and 4) and one undefined (state 5) switch states as shown in Table 3. The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the ac output voltage. It can be observed that the ac output voltage can take values up to the dc link value Edc , which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies. Several PEC 11 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to full-bridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.

3.3 INVERTER APPICATIONS:

Power inverters are devices which can convert electrical energy of DC form into that of AC. They come in all shapes and sizes, from low power functions such as powering a car radio to that of backing up a building in case of power outage. Inverters can come in many different varieties, differing in price, power, efficiency and purpose. The purpose of a DC/AC power inverter is typically to take DC power supplied by a battery, such as a 12 volt car battery, and transform it into a 120 volt AC power source operating at 60 Hz, emulating the power available at an ordinary household electrical outlet.

Fig 3.5: Commercial 200 Watt Inverter Fig.3.5 provides a idea of what a small power inverter looks like. Power inverters are used today for many tasks like powering appliances in a car such as cell phones, radios and televisions. They also come in handy for consumers who own camping vehicles, boats and at construction sites where an electric grid may not be as accessible to hook into. Inverters allow the user to provide AC power in areas where only batteries can be made available, allowing portability and freeing the user of long power cords. On the market today are two different types of power inverters, modified sine wave and pure sine wave generators. These inverters differ in their outputs, providing varying levels of efficiency and distortion that can affect electronic devices in different ways. A modified sine wave is similar to a square wave but instead has a stepping look to it that relates more in shape to a sine wave. This can be seen in Fig3.6, which displays how a modified sine wave tries to emulate the sine wave itself. The waveform is easy to produce because it is just the product of switching between 3 values at set frequencies, thereby leaving PEC 12 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER out the more complicated circuitry needed for a pure sine wave. The modified sine wave inverter provides a cheap and easy solution to powering devices that need AC power. It does have some drawbacks as not all devices work properly on a modified sine wave, products such as computers and medical equipment are not resistant to the distortion of the signal and must be run off of a pure sine wave power source.

Fig 3.6 : Square, Modified, and Pure Sine Wave Pure sine wave inverters are able to simulate precisely the AC power that is delivered by a wall outlet. Usually sine wave inverters are more expensive then modified sine wave generators due to the added circuitry. This cost, however, is made up for in its ability to provide power to all AC electronic devices, allow inductive loads to run faster and quieter, and reduce the audible and electric noise in audio equipment, TVs and fluorescent lights.

4. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION: 4.1 INTRODUCTION:

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER In this we will discuss briefly various PWM control techniques that generate triggering pulses and a detailed description of Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation technique which is used as controlling method in this project. The most efficient method of controlling the output voltage is to incorporate pulse width modulation control (PWM control). In this method, a fixed DC input voltage is supplied to the inverter and a controlled AC output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the gate pulses. There are many possible PWM Techniques proposed in the literature. The choice of a particular PWM Technique depends on the permissible harmonic content in the inverter output voltage, machine type, power level and semiconductor switching devices employed for a particular application The PWM control has the following advantages. 1. The output voltage control can be obtained without any additional components. 2. The output voltage is controlled by varying the modulation index instead of varying the amplitude of the carrier signal. 3. With this type of control, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its output voltage control. The filtering requirements are minimized as higher order harmonics can be filtered easily

4.2 BASIC PWM CONTROL: Pulse-width Modulation is archived with the help of a square wave whose duty cycle is changed to get a varying voltage output as a result of average value of waveform. A mathematical explanation of this is given below.

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Consider a square wave shown in the figure above. Ton is the time for which the output is high and Toff is time for which output is low. Let Ttotal be time period of the wave such that, Duty cycle of a square wave is defined as

The output voltage varies with duty cycle as...

So you can see from the final equation the output voltage can be directly varied by varying the Ton value. 1) If Ton is 0, Vout is also 0. 2) If Ton is Ttotal then Vout is Vin or say maximum.

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4.3 PWM CLASSIFICATION:

There are many possible PWM techniques proposed in the literature. The classifications of PWM techniques can be given as follows: 1.Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) 2.Selected harmonic elimination (SHE) PWM 3.Minimum ripple current PWM 4.Space-vector PWM (SVM) 5.Random PWM 6.Hysteresis band current control PWM 7.Sinusoidal PWM with instantaneous current control 8.Delta modulation 9.Sigma-delta modulation Often, PWM techniques are classified on the basis of voltage or current control, feed forward or feedback methods, carrier or non-carrier-based control, etc. Selected Harmonic Elimination PWM The undesirable lower order harmonics of a square wave can be eliminated and the

fundamental voltage can be controlled as well by what is known as selected harmonic elimination (SHE) PWM. In this method, notches are created on the square wave at predetermined angles, the four notch angles 1, 2, 3 and 4 can be controlled to eliminate three significant harmonic components and control the fundamental voltage. A large number of harmonic components can be eliminated if the waveform can accommodate additional notch angles. The selected harmonic elimination can be implemented with a microcomputer using look up tables of notch angles. As the fundamental frequency decreases, the number of notch angles can be increased so that a higher number of significant harmonics can be eliminated. PEC 16 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER Again, the number of notch angles by cycle, or the switching frequency is determined by the switching losses of the inverter. An obvious disadvantage of the scheme is that the look up table at low fundamental frequency is unusually large. For this reason, a hybrid PWM scheme where the low frequency, low voltage region uses the sin PWM method, and the high frequency region uses the SHE method appears very attractive. Minimum Ripple Current PWM One disadvantage of the SHE PWM method is that the elimination of lower order harmonics considerably boosts the next higher level of harmonics. Since the harmonic loss in a machine is dictated by the rms ripple current, it is this parameter that should be minimized instead of emphasizing the individual harmonics. Ripple current can be found as a function of angle. The angles can then it can be iterated in a computer program so as to minimize the ripple current for a certain desired fundamental magnitude. The modified look up table of s based on harmonic loss minimization is more desirable than using the SHE method. Space Vector PWM The space-vector PWM (SVM) method is an advanced, computation-intensive PWM method and is possibly the best among all the PWM techniques for variable-frequency drive applications. Because of its superior performance characteristics, it has been finding widespread application in recent years. A computer program can be written to solve the cross over angle as a function of modulation factor. A simplified flow diagram for the implementation of space vector method algorithm with the help of digital signal processing techniques can also be implemented. The space vector method is however complex and computation-intensive; therefore the PWM switching frequency is somewhat limited. The frequency can be increased somewhat by simplifying the computations and by using the look up tables. Recently, artificial neural network based space vector modulation was proposed which can significantly increase the

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER PWM frequency. The complexity of implementation can be justified because of the larger range of linearity and improved harmonic performance of space vector modulation technique. Sinusoidal PWM with Instantaneous Current Control In a machine drive system, control of machine current is important because it influences the flux and developed torque directly. High-performance drives invariably require current control. For voltage-fed inverter with voltage control PWM, a feedback current loop can be applied to control the machine current. In such cases, the inverter operates as a programmable current source. The error in the sinusoidal current control loop is converted into sinusoidal voltage command through a proportional-integral (P-I) controller. The remaining part is the standard SPWM scheme discussed before. Due to limited band width of the control system, the actual current will have a phase lag and magnitude error which will increase with frequency. Such phase deviation is very harmful in high performance drive systems. The sinusoidal voltage command generated by current controlled loop may contain ripple, which may create a multiple zero crossing problem in sine PWM comparator. Hysteresis - Band current control PWM Hysteresis-band PWM is basically an instantaneous feedback current control method of PWM where the actual current tracks the command current within a Hysteresis band. The control circuit generates the sine reference current wave of desired magnitude and frequency, and it is compared with the actual phase current wave. A lock out time (td) is provided at each transition to prevent shoot through fault. The actual current is thus forced to track the sine reference wave within Hysteresis band by back and forth switching. The inverter then essentially becomes a current source with peak to peak current ripple, which is controlled within the Hysteresis band irrespective of voltage fluctuation. The peak to peak current ripple and switching frequency are related to the width of the Hysteresis band. An optimum band that maintains a balance between the harmonic ripple and inverter switching loss is desirable. The Hysteresis band PWM can be smoothly transitioned to square wave voltage mode through the quasi PWM region. In the low speed region of the machine, there is no difficulty in the current

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER controller tracking. However, at higher speeds, the current controller will saturate in part of the cycle and fundamental frequency related harmonics will appear. At this condition, the fundamental current will be less and its phase will lag with respect to the command current. The Hysteresis-band PWM has been very popular because of its simple implementation, fast transient response, direct Limiting of device peak current and practical insensitivity of dc link voltage ripple that permits a lower filter capacitor. However, there are a few draw backs of this method. It can be shown that the PWM frequency is not constant (varies with in a band) and, as a result, non-optimum harmonic ripple is generated in the mission current. An adaptive Hysteresis band can alleviate this problem. Sigma - Delta Modulation A PWM technique known as sigma-delta modulation has often been used in high frequency link converter systems to generate variable-frequency, variable-voltage sinusoidal waves by fabrication of integral half-cycle pulses. The tracking accuracy of the command and feedback volt-sec integrals will improve at a higher converter frequency. The polarity of all the pulses is unidirectional during the fundamental half cycle to get the maximum fundamental voltage. Instead of fundamental voltage control, if fundamental current control is desired, and then the simple delta modulation principle can be used in such a case, the instantaneous current control loop error polarity can select the appropriate voltage pulse directly at the nearest voltage gap. SINUSOIDAL PWM The sinusoidal PWM technique is very popular for industrial converters and is discussed extensively in the literature. The general principle of SPWM, an isosceles triangle carrier wave of frequency fc sinusoidal modulating wave, and the points of intersection determine the switching points of power devices. This method is also known as the triangulation, sub harmonic, or sub oscillation method. The pulse width is a sinusoidal function of the angular position of the pulses in a train as shown in the Fig 4.1.

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER For realizing sin M, a high frequency triangular carrier wave vc is compared with a sinusoidal reference wave vr of the desired frequency. The intersection of vr and vc waves determines the switching instants and commutation of the modulated pulse. In the above figure, Vc is the peak value of the triangular carrier wave and Vr that of the reference, or modulating, signal.

Fig 4.1: Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of mi<1

The carrier and reference waves are mixed in a comparator. When a sinusoidal wave has magnitude higher than the triangular wave, the comparator output is high, otherwise it is low.When a triangular carrier wave has its peak coincident with the reference sinusoid, there are N= fc/2f pulses per half cycle. In case zero of the triangular wave coincides with zero of the reference sinusoidal, there are (N-1) pulses per half cycle. When the modulating signal is a sinusoidal of amplitude Vr, and the amplitude of the triangular carrier is Vc, the ratio mi= Vr/Vc is known as the modulation index. Note that PEC 20 EEE

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER by controlling the modulation index the output voltage of the system is controlled. With a sufficiently high carrier frequency, the high frequency components do not propagate significantly in the AC network (or load) due the presence of the inductive elements. However, a higher carrier frequency does result in a larger number of switching per cycle and hence it increases the power loss. Typically switching frequencies in the 2-15 kHz range are considered adequate for power systems applications. Generally the modulation index is less than 1 i.e. mi<1. For mi>1, there are periods of the triangle wave in which there is no intersection of the carrier and the signal as shown in Fig 4.2. However, a certain amount of this over modulation is often allowed in the interest of obtaining a larger AC voltage magnitude even though the spectral content of the voltage is rendered somewhat poorer

Fig 4.2: Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation of mi=1.3

Modulation index controls the harmonic content of the output voltage wave form. The magnitude of fundamental component of the output voltage is proportional to modulation index (mi), but m can never be more than unity. Thus the output voltage is controlled by varying modulation index (mi).

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Harmonic analysis of the output modulated voltage reveals that sin M has the following important features: 1) For mi less than 1, largest harmonic amplitudes in the output are associated with harmonics of order fc/f1 or 2N1, where N is the number of pulses per half cycle. Thus, by increasing the number of pulses per half cycle, the order of dominant harmonic frequency is raised, which can then be filtered out easily. If we take N=5 then harmonics of order 9 and 11 become significant in the output voltage. It may be noticed that the highest order of significant harmonic of a modulated voltage wave is centered around the carrier frequency fc. 2) It is observed that as N is increased, the order of the significant harmonic increases and the filtering requirements are accordingly minimized. But higher value of N entails higher switching frequency of thyristors. This amounts to more switching losses and therefore an impaired the efficiency. Thus a compromise between the filtering requirements and efficiency should be made. For mi > 1, lower order harmonics appear, since mi >1, pulse width is no longer a sinusoidal function of the angular position of the pulse.

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5.MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL OF SINGLE PHASE VSC: The system consists of two independent circuits illustrating single-phase PWM voltagesourced converters (VSC). 1. Half-bridge converter 2. Full-bridge converter The converters are built with the IGBT/Diode block which is the basic building block of all VSCs. The IGBT/Diode block is a simplified model of an IGBT (or GTO or MOSFET)/Diode pair where the forward voltages of the forced-commutated device and diode are ignored. You may replace these blocks by individual IGBT and diode blocks for a more detailed representation. VSCs are controlled in open loop with the Discrete PWM Generator block available in the Extras/Discrete Control Blocks library. The two circuits use the same DC voltage (Vdc = 400V), carrier frequency (1080 Hz) and modulation index (m = 0.8).

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Fig. 5.1 single phase half bridge inverter

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Fig. 5.2 single phase full bridge inverter

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6.COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION: 6.1 Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT):

The insulated gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor device, noted for high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric power in many modern appliances: electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners and even stereo systems with switching amplifiers. Since it is designed to rapidly turn on and off, amplifiers that use it often synthesize complex waveforms with pulse width modulation and low-pass filters.

Simulink IGBT block The IGBT block implements a semiconductor device controllable by the gate signal. The IGBT is simulated as a series combination of a resistor Ron, inductor Lon, and a DC voltage source Vf in series with a switch controlled by a logical signal (g > 0 or g = 0).

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER The IGBT turns on when the collector-emitter voltage is positive and greater than Vf and a positive signal is applied at the gate input (g > 0). It turns off when the collector-emitter voltage is positive and a 0 signal is applied at the gate input (g = 0).The IGBT device is in the off state when the collector-emitter voltage is negative. Note that many commercial IGBTs do not have the reverse blocking capability. Therefore, they are usually used with an antiparallel diode.The IGBT block contains a series Rs-Cs snubber circuit, which is connected in parallel with the IGBT device (between terminals C and E).The turnoff characteristic of the IGBT model is approximated by two segments. When the gate signal falls to 0, the collector current decreases from Imax to 0.1 Imax during the fall time (Tf), and then from 0.1 Imax to 0 during the tail time (Tt).

6.2 Demux:
Library: Signal Routing

Purpose: The demux block extracts the components of an input signal and outputs the components as separate signals. The block accepts either vector (1-D array) signals or bus signals (see Signal Buses in the Using SIMULINK documentation for more information). The Number of outputs parameter allows you to specify the number and, optionally, the dimensionality of each output port. If you do not specify the dimensionality of the outputs, the block determines the dimensionality of the outputs for you.

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Dialog box parameters:

6.3 Scope:
Library: Sinks

Purpose:

The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time.

The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation.

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6.4 Discrete PWM Generator:

Signal(s) pulse

Purpose: Generate pulses for carrier-based two-level pulse width modulator (PWM) in converter bridge The PWM Generator block generates pulses for carrier-based pulse width modulation (PWM) converters using two-level topology. The block can be used to fire the forced-commutated devices (FETs, GTOs, or IGBTs) of single-phase, two-phase, three-phase, two-level bridges or a combination of two three-phase bridges. The pulses are generated by comparing a triangular carrier waveform to a reference modulating signal. The modulating signals can be generated by the PWM generator itself, or they can be a vector of external signals connected at the input of the block. One reference signal is needed to generate the pulses for a single- or a two-arm bridge, and three reference signals are needed to generate the pulses for a three-phase, single or double bridge. The amplitude (modulation), phase, and frequency of the reference signals are set to control the output voltage (on the AC terminals) of the bridge connected to the PWM Generator block.The two pulses firing the two devices of a given arm bridge are complementary. For example, pulse 4 is low (0) when pulse 3 is high (1). This is illustrated in the next two figures.

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER The following figure displays the two pulses generated by the PWM Generator block when it is programmed to control a one-arm bridge.

The triangular carrier signal is compared with the sinusoidal modulating signal. When the modulating signal is greater than the carrier pulse 1 is high (1) and pulse 2 is low (0).For a single-phase two-arm bridge the modulating signal used for arm 2 is the negative of modulating signal used for arm 1 (180 degrees phase shift).

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER Dialog box parameters:

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7. SIMULATION RESULTS: 7.1 OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:

The output load current and voltage waveforms of half PWM bridge inverter is shown below.

Fig7.1:simulation result of Half bridge PWM Inverter

The output load current and voltage waveforms of full bridge PWM inverter is shown below. PEC 32 EEE

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Fig7.2: simulation result of Full bridge PWM Inverter

7.2 FFT ANALYSIS:

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER FFT analysis on output current waveforms of single phase half and full bridge PWM inverter:

Fig. 7.3:Frequency spectrum of half bridge PWM Inverter output current.

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Fig. 7.4:Frequency spectrum of full bridge PWM Inverter output current. Harmonics generated by the full-bridge are lower and they appear at double of the carrier frequency (maximum of 40% at 2*1080+-60 Hz) As a result, the current obtained with the full-bridge is smoother. From the current waveform that the THD of load current is 7.3% for the half-bridge inverter as compared to only 2% for the full-bridge inverter.

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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER FFT analysis on output voltage waveforms of single phase half and full bridge PWM inverter:

Fig. 7.5:Frequency spectrum of Half bridge PWM Inverter output voltage. The fundamental component of V inverter is displayed above the spectrum window. Compare the magnitude of the fundamental component of the inverter voltage with the theoretical values given in the circuit. Compare also the harmonic contents in the inverter voltage. The half-bridge inverter generates a bipolar voltage (-200V or +200V) . Harmonics occur around the carrier frequency (1080 Hz +- k*60 Hz), with a maximum of 103% at 1080 Hz.

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Fig. 7.6:Frequency spectrum of full bridge PWM Inverter output voltage. The full-bridge inverter generates a monopolar voltage varying between 0 and+400V for one half cycle and then between 0 and -400V for the next half cycle. For the same DC voltage and modulation index, the fundamental component magnitude is twice the value obtained with the half-bridge. Harmonics generated by the full-bridge are lower and they appear at double of the carrier frequency (maximum of 40% at 2*1080+-60 Hz) As a result, the current obtained with the full-bridge is smoother.

CONCLUSION:
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SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTER In this project, we developed a the computer simulation model of single phase PWM inveter using MATLAB/Simulink (MLS) software package . It includes the implementation of PWM to synthesize the AC output supply for a given DC input. The most efficient method of controlling the output voltage is to incorporate pulse width modulation control (PWM control). In this method, a fixed DC input voltage is supplied to the inverter and a controlled AC output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the gate pulses. In this project The FFT analysis is performed on output voltage and currents of both both half and full bridge PWM inverters . By performing FFT analysis on the signal "I load" we noticed that the THD of load current is 7.3% for the half-bridge inverter as compared to only 2% for the full-bridge inverter and also we noticed that the THD of load voltage is 145.7% for the half-bridge inverter as compared to only 76.70% for the full-bridge inverter.

REFERECES :

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