1.

Introduction

GPS technology is a great boon to anyone who has the need to navigate either great or small distances. The Global Positioning System(GPS) is a burgeoning technology, which provides unequalled accuracy and flexibility of positioning for navigation, surveying and GIS data capture. This wonderful navigation technology was actually first available for government use back in the late 1970s. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a radio based navigation system, that gives three dimensional coverage of the Earth, 24 hours a day in any weather conditions throughout the world. The technology seems to be beneficiary to the GPS user community in terms of obtaining accurate data upto about 100 meters for navigation, metre -level for mapping ,and down to millimetre level for geodetic positioning. The GPS technology has tremendous amount of applications in Geographical Information System (GIS) data collection, surveying, and mapping. The first GPS satellite was launched by the U.S. Air Force in early1978. There are now at least 24 satellites orbiting the earth at an altitude of about 11,000 nautical miles. The high altitude insures that the satellite orbits are stable, precise and predictable, and that the satellites' motion through space is not affected by atmospheric drag. These 24 satellites make up a full GPS constellation. The satellites orbit the Earth every 12 hours at approximately 12,000 miles above the Earth. There are four satellites in each of 6 orbital planes. Each plane is inclined 55 degrees relative to the equator, which means that satellites cross the equator tilted at a 55 degree angle. The system is designed to maintain full operational capability even if two of the 24satellites fail. The GPS system consists of three segments: 1.The space segment: the GPS satellites themselves, 2.The control system: operated by the U.S. military, 3.The user segment: which includes both military and civilian users and their GPS equipment.

The GPS system is passive, meaning that the satellites continuously transmit information towards the Earth. If someone has a GPS receiver they can receive the signal at no cost. The information is transmitted on two frequencies: L1 (1575.42 MHz), and L2 (1227.60 MHz).These frequencies are called carrier waves because they are used primarily to carry information to GPS receivers. The more information a receiver measures the more expensive the unit, and the more functions it will perform with greater accuracy. When one receiver is tracking satellites and obtaining position data, the information received has traveled over 12,000 miles and has been distorted by numerous atmospheric factors. This results in accuracy of about 25 meters. Moreover, the department of Defense (the agency running the GPS)degrades receiver accuracy by telling the satellites to transmit slightly in accurate information. This intentional distortion of the signal is called Selective Availability(SA). With SA turned on and one receiver is used, the greatest accuracy a user can expect is 100 meters. To improve the accuracy of GPS, differential, or Relative Positioning can be employed. If two or more receivers are used to track the same satellites, and one is in a known position, many of the errors of SA can be reduced, and in some cases eliminated. Differential data can be accomplished using common code or carrier data (L1 or L2). The most accurate systems use differential data from a GPS base station that continually tracks twelve satellites and transmits the differential data to remote units using a radio link. With these systems centimeter accuracy and real-time navigation is possible. All of these features make it a very desirable and useful technology for a mirid of activities including Search and Rescue, Aviation and Nautical navigation, hiking, hunting, camping, fishing, and many more. All of these various GPS users have unique needs which require different levels of understanding and skill in using this technology. The Russian government has developed a system, similar to GPS, called GLONASS. The first GLONASS satellite launch was in October1982. The full constellation consists of 24 satellites in 3 orbit planes, which have a 64.8 degree inclination to the earth's equator. The GLONASS system now consists of 12 healthy satellites. GLONASS uses the same code for each satellite and many frequencies, whereas GPS which uses two frequencies and a different code for each satellite.

2 G. P. S. BASICS CONCEPTS

2.1 GEOPOSITIONING
By positioning we understand the determination of stationary or moving objects. These can be determined as follows:1.In relation to a well-defined coordinate system, usually by three coordinate values and2.In relation to other point, taking one point as the origin of a local coordinate system. The first mode of positioning is known as point positioning, the second as relative positioning. If the object to be positioned is stationary, we term it as static positioning. When the object is moving, we call it kinematic positioning. Usually, the static positioning is used in surveying and the kinematic position in navigation. The GPS uses satellites and computers to compute positions any where on earth. The GPS is based on satellite ranging. That means the position on the earth is determined by measuring the distance from a group of satellites in space. The basic principles behind GPS are really simple, even though the system employs some of the most high-tech equipment ever developed. In order to understand GPS basics, the system can be categorized into FIVE logical Steps: 1.Triangulation from the satellite is the basis of the system. 2.To triangulate, the GPS measures the distance using the travel time of the radio message. 3.To measure travel time, the GPS need a very accurate clock 4.Once the distance to a satellite is known, then we need to know where the satellite is in space. 5.As the GPS signal travels through the ionosphere and the earth's atmosphere, the signal is delayed. 6.To compute a positions in three dimensions. We need to have four satellite measurements. The GPS uses a trigonometric approach to calculate the positions,

The GPS satellites are so high up that their orbits are very predictable and each of the satellites is equipped with a very accurate atomic clock.

2.2 GPS POSITIONING TYPES

1.Absolute Positioning The mode of positioning relies upon a single receiver station. It is also referred to as 'stand-alone' GPS, because, unlike differential positioning, ranging is carried out strictly between the satellite and the receiver station, not on a groundbased reference station that assists with the computation of error corrections. As a result, the positions derived in absolute mode are subject to the unmitigated errors inherent in satellite positioning. Overall accuracy of absolute [zztioning is considered to be no greater than 50 meters at best byAckroyd and Lorimer and to be + 100 meter accuracy by the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers. 2.Differential Positioning Relative or Differential GPS carries the triangulation principles one stepfurther, with a second receiver at a known reference point. To furtherfacilitate determination of a point's position, relative to the knownearth surface point, this configuration demands collection of an error-correcting message from the reference receiver.Differential-mode positioning relies upon an established control point.The reference station is placed on the control point, a triangulatedposition, the control point coordinate. This allows for a correctionfactor to be calculated and applied to other moving GPS units used inthe same area and in the same time series. Inaccuracies in the controlpoint's coordinate are directly additive to errors inherent in the satellitepositioning process. Error corrections derived by the reference stationvary rapidly, as the factors propagating position errors are not staticover

time. This error correction allows for a considerable amount of error of error to be negated, potentially as much as 90 percent

3.Segments of GPS
3.1 The Control Segment The Control Segment consists of five monitoring stations (ColoradoSprings, Ascesion Island, Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and Kwajalein Island).Three of the stations (Ascension, Diego Garcia, and Kwajalein) serveas uplink installations, capable of transmitting data to the satellites,including new ephemerides (satellite positions as a function of time),clock corrections, and other broadcast message data, while ColoradoSprings serves as the master control station. The Control Segment isthe sole responsibility of the DoD who undertakes construction,launching, maintenance, and virtually constant performancemonitoring of the GPS satellites.The DOD monitoring stations track all GPS signals for use in controllingthe satellites and predicting their orbits. Meteorological data also arecollected at the monitoring stations, permitting the most accurateevaluation of tropospheric delays of GPS signals. Satellite tracking datafrom the monitoring stations are transmitted to the master controlstation for processing. This processing involves the computation of satellite ephemerides and satellite clock corrections. The masterstation controls orbital corrections, when any satellite strays too farfrom its assigned position, and necessary repositioning to compensatefor unhealthy (not fully functioning) satellites.

3.2The Space Segment The Space Segment consists of the Constellation of NAVASTAR earthorbiting satellites. The current Defense Department plan calls for a fullconstellation of 24 Block II satellites (21 operational and 3 in-orbitspares). Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks (Rubidiumand Cesium standards) and has a microprocessor on board for limitedself-monitoring and data processing. 1.Satellite orbits.There are four satellites in each of 6 orbital planes. Each plane isinclined 55 degrees relative to the equator, which means that satellitescross the equator tilted at a 55 degree angle. The system is designedto maintain full operational capability even if two of the 24 satellitesfail. They orbit at altitudes of about 12000, miles each, with orbitalperiods of 12 sidereal hours (i.e., determined by or from the stars), orapproximately one half of the earth's periods, approximately 12 hoursof 3-D position fixes. The satellites are equipped with thrusters whichcan be used to maintain or modify their orbits. The next block of satellites is called Block IIR, and they will provide improved reliabilityand have a capacity of ranging between satellites, which will increasethe orbital accuracy.

2.Satellite Signals GPS satellites continuously broadcast satellite position and timing datavia radio signals on two frequencies: L1 (1575.42 MHz), and L 2(1227.60 MHz). These frequencies are called carrier waves becausethey are used primarily to carry information toGPS receivers. Theradio signals travel at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second)and take approximately 6/100ths of a second to reach the earth.The satellite signals require a direct line to GPS receivers and cannotpenetrate water, soil, walls or other obstacles. For example, heavyforest canopy causes interference, making it difficult, if not impossible,to compute positions. In canyons (and "urban canyons" in cities) GPSsignals are blocked by mountain ranges or buildings. If you place yourhand over a GPS receiver antenna, it will stop computing positions.Two kinds of code are broadcast on the L1 frequency (C/A code and Pcode). C/A (Coarse Acquisition) code is available to civilian GPS usersand provides Standard Positioning Service (SPS). Using the StandardPositioning Service one can achieve 15 meter horizontal accuracy 95%of

the time. This means that 95% of the time, the coordinates youread from your GPS receiver display will be within 15 meters of yourtrue position on the earth. P (Precise) code is broadcast on both the L1and L2 frequencies. P code, used for the Precise Positioning Service(PPS) is available only to the military. Using P code on bothfrequencies, a military receiver can achieve better accuracy thancivilian receivers. Additional techniques can increase the accuracy of both C/A code and P code GPS receiver

3.3 The User Segment The user segment is a total user and supplier community, both civilianand military. The User Segment consists of all earth-based GPSreceivers. Receivers vary greatly in size and complexity, though thebasic design is rather simple. The typical receiver iscomposed of an antenna and preamplifier, radio signal microprocessor,control and display device, data recording unit, and power supply. TheGPS receiver decodes the timing signals from the 'visible' satellites(four or more) and, having calculated their distances, computes itsown latitude, longitude, elevation, and time. This is a continuousprocess and generally the position is updated on a second-by-secondbasis, output to the receiver display device and, if the receiver displaydevice and, if the receiver provides data capture capabilities, stored bythe receiver-logging unit

4. Major types of GPS(types of user segments)

Below are the major types of GPS receivers: 1. Portable GPS. This type of GPS units is portable enough to be carried along while traveling by foot or car. However, it is not small enough to be kept inside the pocket. It typically measures 4 inches wide and weighs about 10 ounces. 2. Pocket GPS. This type of GPS unit is designed to fit inside the pocket of pants or shirt. It weight about 5 ounces, with a screen that measures 3.5 inches. It typically costs more than the portable units because of its small, slim, and lightweight feature. 3. In-Dash GPS. This type of GPS unit is built into the automobiles dash board. It is not meant to be carried along, thus adding security to the unit and avoiding loss. More and more automobile companies offer built-in GPS units on the cars and vehicles they are selling. 4. Fitness and Cycling GPS. This type of GPS unit is especially created for people who walk, jog, run, or ride the bicycle. It is designed to fit snuggly on the wrist, just like a wrist watch. Aside from the navigation feature of the device, it can also track the athletes pace, distance, speed, and even calories burned. 5. Motorcycle GPS. This type of GPS unit is almost the same as that of used in cars, but is designed to fit on motorcycle consoles, waterproof, and vibration resistant. Most units come with Bluetooth hands-free technology feature. 6. Marine GPS. This type of GPS unit is specifically designed for marine use and comes with plotting functionality. It is equipped with special marine database and navigational aids such as sound signals, buoys, and day beacons among others

5.WORKING OF GPS

The Satellite Network The GPS satellites transmit signals to a GPS receiver. These receivers passively receive satellite signals; they do not transmit and require an unobstructed view of the sky, so they can only be used effectively outdoors. Early receivers did not perform well within forested areas or near tall buildings but later receiver designs such as SiRFStarIII, MTK etc have overcome this and improved performance and sensitivity markedly. GPS operations depend on a very accurate time reference, which is provided by atomic clocks on board the satellites.

The Navstar GPS Constellation Each GPS satellite transmits data that indicates its location and the current time. All GPS satellites synchronize operations so that these repeating signals are transmitted at the same instant. The signals, moving at the speed of light, arrive at a GPS receiver at slightly different times because some satellites are further away than others. The distance to the GPS satellites can be determined by estimating the amount of time it takes for their signals to reach the receiver. When the receiver estimates the distance to at least four GPS satellites, it can calculate its position in three dimensions. There are at least 24 operational GPS satellites at all times plus a number of spares. The satellites, operated by the US DoD, orbit with a period of 12 hours (two orbits per day) at a height of about 11,500 miles traveling at 9,000mph (3.9km/s or 14,000kph). Ground stations are used to precisely track each satellite's orbit.

Here is an interesting comparison. The GPS signals are transmitted at a power equivalent to a 50 watt domestic light bulb. Those signal have to pass through space and our atmosphere before reaching your satnav after a journey of 11,500 miles. Compare that with a TV signal, transmitted from a large tower 10 - 20 miles away at most, at a power level of 510,000 watts. And compare the size of your TV's roof mounted antenna with that of your GPS, often hidden inside the case itself. A wonder then that it works as well as it does and when the occasional hiccup occurs you will at least understand the reasons why.

Signals from multiple satellites are required to calculate a position How Position is Determined A GPS receiver "knows" the location of the satellites because that information is included in the transmitted Ephemeris data (see below). By estimating how far away a satellite is, the receiver also "knows" it is located somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere centred at the satellite. It then determines the sizes of several spheres, one for each satellite and therefore knows the receiver is located where these spheres intersect. GPS Accuracy The accuracy of a position determined with GPS depends on the type of receiver. Most

consumer GPS units have an accuracy of about +/-10m. Other types of receivers use a method called Differential GPS (DGPS) to obtain much higher accuracy. DGPS requires an additional receiver fixed at a known location nearby. Observations made by the stationary receiver are used to correct positions recorded by the roving units, producing an accuracy greater than 1 meter. How Is The Signal Timed? All GPS satellites have several atomic clocks. The signal that is sent out is a random sequence, each part of which is different from every other, called pseudo-random code. This random sequence is repeated continuously. All GPS receivers know this sequence and repeat it internally. Therefore, satellites and the receivers must be in synch. The receiver picks up the satellite's transmission and compares the incoming signal to its own internal signal. By comparing how much the satellite signal is lagging, the travel time becomes known.

What does the signal consist of? GPS satellites transmit two radio signals. These are designated as L1 and L2. A Civilian GPS uses the L1 signal frequency (1575.42 MHz) in the UHF band. The signals travel by line of sight, meaning they will pass through clouds, glass, plastic etc but will not travel through solid objects such as buildings and mountains. The GPS signal contains three different bits of information a pseudo random code, almanac data and ephemeris data.

1. The pseudo random code is simply an I. D. code that identifies which satellite is transmitting information. You can often view this number on your GPS unit's satellite information page, the number attached to each signal bar identifies which satellites it's receiving a signal from. 2. Almanac data is data that describes the orbital courses of the satellites. Every satellite will broadcast almanac data for EVERY satellite. Your GPS receiver uses

this data to determine which satellites it expects to see in the local sky. It can then determine which satellites it should track. With Almanac data the receiver can concentrate on those satellites it can see and forget about those that would be over the horizon and out of view. Almanac data is not precise and can be valid for many months. 3. Ephemeris data is data that tells the GPS receiver where each GPS satellite should be at any time throughout the day. Each satellite will broadcast its OWN ephemeris data showing the orbital information for that satellite only. Because ephemeris data is very precise orbital and clock correction data necessary for precise positioning, its validity is much shorter. It is broadcast in three six second blocks repeated every 30 seconds. The data is considered valid for up to 4 hours but different manufacturers consider it valid for different periods with some treating it as stale after only 2 hours.

6.Sources of GPS signal error

Factors that can degrade the GPS signal and thus affect accuracy include the following:

There are many causes for position errors or low signal 1. Ionosphere and troposphere delays The satellite signal slows as it passes through the atmosphere. The GPS system uses a built-in model that calculates an average amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error. 2. Signal multi path This occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases the travel time of the signal, thereby causing errors. 3. Receiver clock errors A receiver's built-in clock is not as accurate as the atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing errors. 4. Orbital errors Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies of the satellite's reported location. 5. Number of satellites visible The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the accuracy. 6. Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can block signal reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading at all. GPS units typically will not work indoors, underwater or underground. 7. Satellite geometry/shading This refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given time. 8. Ideal satellite geometry exits when the satellites are located at wide angles relative to each other. 9. Poor geometry results when the satellites are located in a line or in a tight grouping.

10. Intentional degradation of the satellite signal Selective Availability (SA) is an intentional degradation of the signal once imposed by the U.S. DoD. SA was intended to prevent military adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS signals. The government turned off SA in May 2000, which significantly improved the accuracy of civilian GPS receivers.

6.1 CORRECTING ERRORS

Some errors can be factored out using mathematics and modeling. The configuration of the satellites in the sky can magnify other errors. Differential GPS can eliminate almost all error

7.GPS APPLICATIONS

Global Positioning Systems is in fact is available to users at any position worldwide at any time. With a fully operational GPS system, it can be generated to a large community of likely to grow as there are multiple applications, ranging from surveying, mapping, and navigationto GIS data capture.There are countless GPS applications, a few important ones are covered in the following passage. 1.Surveying and Mapping:The high precisions of GPS carrier phase measurements, together with appropriate adjustment algorithms, provide an adequate tool for a variety of asks for surveying and mapping. Using DGPS methods,accurate and timely mapping of almost anything can be carried out.The GPS is used to map cut blocks, road alignments, andenvironmental hazards such as landslides, forest fires, and oil spills.Applications, such as cadastral mapping, needing a high degree of accuracy also can be carried out using high grade GPS receivers.Continuous kinematic techniques can be used for topographic surveysand accurate linear mapping. 2.Navigation:Navigation using GPS can save countless hours in the field. Anyfeature, even if it is under water, can be located up to one hundredmeters simply by scaling coordinates from a map, entering waypoints,and going directly to the site. Examples include road intersections,corner posts, plot canters, accident sites, geological formations, and soon. GPS navigation in helicopters, in vehicles, or in a ship can providean easy means of navigation with substantial savings. 3.R emote Sensing and GISIt :is also possible to integrate GPS positioning into remotesensingmethods such as photogrammetry and aerial scanning, magnetometry,and video technology. Using DGPS or kinematic techniques, depending upon the accuracy required, real time or post-processing will providepositions for the sensor which can be projected to the ground, insteadof having ground control projected to an image. GPS are becomingvery effective tools for GIS data capture. The GIS user community The GIS user communitybenefits from the use of GPS for location data capture in various GISapplications. The GPS can easily be linked to a laptop computer in thefield, and, with appropriate software, users can also have all their dataon a common base with every little

distortion. Thus GPS can help inseveral aspects of construction of accurate and timely GIS databases. 4.Geodesy:Geodetic mapping and other control surveys can be carried outeffectively using high-grade GPs equipment. Especially whenhelicopters were used or when the line of sight is not possible, GPS canset new standards of accuracy and productivity. 5.Military:The GPS was primarily developed for real time military positioning.Military applications include airborne, marine, and navigatio

8.Advantages of GPS
There are many advantages of having a gps system: 1.Has panic button built in:- A gps system comes with a panic button. When this button is pressed an operator at the gps carrier can listen in on the conversation and either help you out or alert the authorities. This will keep you safe in case of accidents or hi jacks. 2. plugs into your car cigeratte lighter:- Your car will never loose your car at a football match or mall. The gps service will track the car for you and send its lights flashing. 3. Helps to find things:-If your vehicle is ever stolen the gps system will track the vehicle and the authorities will be able to get it back in no time. 4.Determine current location:- A gps system in a car, boat, plane or haversack will ensure that you are never lost.

5. leads u in right direction :-A gps system streamlines supply chains and truck movements. The system can track goods at any point of time and accurately predict when goods will reach their destination. 6. you can be found easier if in danger or in accident :-Gps systems are used to detect structural problems in buildings and roads and to predict disasters like earthquakes and so on. The scientific applications of a gps system are many. 7. A gps system can be used to locate a lost child, pet or family. The device is quite small and is like a watch or button on a collar. 8. makes navagation easier:- A gps is a great exercise monitor and will help you keep track of your seped and so on. A word of caution before signing up for a gps system find out what you are paying for and what the monthly fee will cover. Gps systems have so many uses; they help determine weather patterns, can be used in conjunction with cameras, have varied use in military and have great use in surveying for volcanic eruptions, sink holes, movements in the earths plates and so on.

9.Disadvantages of GPS
Although GPS navigation systems appear to have many advantages, as with all new forms of technology and gadgets they also have disadvantages. Depending on your use of GPS, what your technology and computer skills are and whether it's for personal or business use, disadvantages can be found with it too. Here is a look at some of the negative aspects of GPS navigation devises that you may need to consider. 1.ESSENTIAL MAP READING SKILLS Creating GPS technology that is readily available; our younger generation is losing the essential ability to read maps. With any computer devise, all can have problems that may cause the devise to malfunction or break. If you are someone who relies heavily on a devise that tells you which route to take and it happens to malfunction, you may not a map available as an alternative. You just may have a map available, but do not know or understand how to read and follow its instructions. Modern GPS technology is again dulling general knowledge that everyone should know and be capable of understanding. 2.RELYING ON TECHNOLOGY As mentioned above, some people may rely on their devise too often. Turning their navigation system on each time they get into the car, even to go to a local store. Use your sense, your sensibility and your knowledge contained in the best computer of your brain instead of the GPS in your car. 3.LOSING INDEPENDENCE AND TRUST ISSUES

This would be important for subcontractors and truck drivers whose company has installed GPS devises in the vehicles. Now you have Big Brother watching at all times, no longer can you use the company vehicle for personal chores and reasons. In the modern era of high fuel costs and the expense of maintaining vehicle and truck fleets, using a company vehicle for personal reasons is no longer considered okay. Most companies will allow you to use it, but you may need to notify them of your intentions and where you're going. 4.WAYS TO STOP SATELLITE SIGNALS Modern technology always has its downfalls. One of these is the intelligence used to stop satellite signals. A company that uses a fleet of vehicles with GPS technology installed may find their employees going to certain extents to avoid detection on their maps. I have heard tales of a simple aluminium can being placed over the antennae, that will disable the GPS system from being able to track positions and routes. Please look into this when considering GPS technology for your fleet vehicles

Bibliography
1. E:\GPS\Global Positioning System - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.mht 2. E:\GPS\HowStuffWorks How GPS Receivers Work.mht 3. E:\GPS\Garmin What is GPS.mht