Biology

Edexcel

AS Level

Water
Importance of water 1. Water constitutes 75% of the weight of living organisms.. 2. Water intake is needed to replace water lost from the body in urine, sweating, faeces and in the exhaled air. 3. Water is important as a solvent for nutrients, wastes, hormones, and other substances to be transported. 4. Water has a coolant effect when evaporated as in evaporation of the sweat. 5. Water keeps the body temperature stable 6. Water acts as a reagent in chemical reactions as hydrolysis -reactions.

Structure
Water is composed of atoms of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. One atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen combine by sharing of electrons in an arrangement known as covalent bonding The water molecule is triangular rather than linear The nucleus of the oxygen atom draws electrons (negatively charged) away from the hydrogen nuclei (positively charged) The water molecule is electrically neutral although , there is a net negative charge on the oxygen atom and a net positive charge on the hydrogen atoms Water molecule is a polar molecule
A polar molecule Molecule carries an unequal distribution of electrical charge within it

Biology

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Biology

Edexcel

AS Level

Hydrogen bonds
1. With water molecules, the positively charged hydrogen atoms of one molecule are attracted to negatively charged oxygen atoms of nearby water molecules by forces called hydrogen bonds. 2. These are weak bonds compared to covalent bonds, yet they are strong enough to hold water molecules together and attract water molecules to charged particles or charged surfaces. 3. Hydrogen bonds largely account for the unique properties of water, one of which is as a solvent, Water is a powerful solvent for polar substances. These include: 1. Ionic substances like sodium chloride (Na and Cl all cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively charged ions) become surrounded by a shell of orientated water molecules 2. Carbon-containing (organic) molecules with ionised groups (such as the carboxyl group COO-, and amino group _NH3+) soluble organic molecules like sugars dissolve in water due to the formation of hydrogen bonds with their slightly charged hydroxyl groups (OH).
Once they have dissolved, molecules of the substance (solute) are free to move around in the water (solvent), and as a result, are more chemically reactive than when in the undissolved solid.

Non-polar substances are repelled by water, as in the case of oil on the surface of water. Non-polar substances are hydrophobic (water-hating).
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The carbon of organic compounds Organic compounds

Large molecules in which many carbon atoms are combined together,

with hydrogen and oxygen.

Non- organic forms of carbon.

1. The gas carbon dioxide (C02), 2. Hydrogen carbonate ions (the product of CO2 when dissolved in water) 3. Mineral calcium carbonate (caco3),

Biology

Edexcel

AS Level

Biology

Edexcel

AS Level

Biology

Edexcel

AS Level

Carbon properties. 1. It is a relatively small atom, 2. It is able to form four strong, stable, covalent bonds These bonds point to the corners of a regular tetrahedron (a pyramid with a triangular base). This is because the four pairs of electrons repel each other and so position themselves as far away from each other as possible. 3. Carbon atoms are able to react with each other to form extended chains. The resulting carbon skeletons may be straight chains, branched

chains, or rings.
4. Carbon also bonds covalently with other atoms, such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur, forming different groups of organic molecules with distinctive properties.
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Edexcel

AS Level

Biology

Edexcel

AS Level

The organic chemicals of living things fall into one of four discrete groups 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the largest group of organic compounds found in living things. They include sugars, starch, glycogen and cellulose Carbohydrates contain only three elements: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with hydrogen and oxygen always present in the ratio 2: 1 (as they are in water H2O), so they can he represented by the general formula CX(H2O)Y.

Biology

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Monosaccharides the simple sugars

are carbohydrates with relatively small molecules. They are soluble in water and taste sweet

Glucose is an especially important monosaccharide because: All green leaves manufacture glucose using light energy Our bodies transport glucose in the blood All cells use glucose in respiration it is one of the respiratory substrates In cells and organisms, glucose is the building block many larger molecules. The structure of glucose a. Glucose is a six-carbon sugar, or hexose. b. Glucose has a chemical or molecular formula of C6H1206. c. Glucose is folded taking ring or cyclic form

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1-Glucose can be written on paper as a linear molecule but it cannot exist in this form. Its because each carbon arranges its four bonds into a tetrahedron so molecule cannot be flat 2-The carbon atoms of an organic molecule may be numbered. This allows us to identify which atoms are affected when the molecule reacts and changes shape.

Isomers
Compounds that have the same chemical formula (the same component atoms in their molecules but that differ in the arrangement of the atom In the ring structure of glucose the positions ofH and OH that are attached to carhon-1 may interchange giving rise to two isomers known as -glucose and - glucose

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Other monosaccharides of importance in living cells a. Glucose ,fructose , & galactose are examples of

hexose sugars ( six carbon sugars )

commonly occurring in cells and organisms. b. Other monosaccharide sugars produced by cells and used in metabolism include five- carbon

sugars (pentoses), namely ribose and

deoxyrihose. These are components of the nucleic acids

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Disaccharides Disaccharides are carbohydrates made of two monosaccharides combined together. For example. sucrose is formed from a molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose chemically combined together.

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A Condensation reaction.
1. When two monosaccharide molecules are combined to form a disaccharide, a molecule of water is also formed as a product 2. The linkage between monosaccharide residues, after the removal of

3. HOH between them, is called a Glycosidic Linkage

4. This is comprised of strong, covalent bonds The condensation reaction is brought about by an enzyme

A Hydrolysis reaction
1. When disaccharides are digested to their component monosaccharides . 2. This reaction involves adding a molecule of water 3. And the splitting of the glycosidic linkage . A Hydrolysis reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme.

maltose, formed by condensation reaction of two molecules of glucose lactose, formed by condensation reaction of galactose and glucose.
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Macromolecule
Is a polymer constructed from a huge number of identical monomers Polysaccharides A polysaccharide is built from many monosaccharides connected by glycosidic linkages formed in condensation reactions Each polysaccharide contains only one type of monomer. Some polysaccharides function as stores of energy; glycogen and starch (both are coiled/ form helix, because of the hydrogen bond in the sugar
molecule between the hydroxyl group )

Other polysaccharides, such as chitin and cellulose (fibrous), have a structural role. These are huge molecules that are not so easily hydrolysed by enzyme action.

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Starch Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides, both of which are polymers of -glucose.

1-The amylose molecule is an unbranched chain

2-Amylopectin has branches at points along its chain.

The linkages between glucose residues in starch bring the sugar molecules together so a helix forms
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The whole starch molecule is stabilised by countless hydrogen bonds between parts of the component glucose molecules. Importance of starch Starch is the major storage carbohydrate of most plants. Starch is an important energy source in the diet of many animals It is useful because its molecules are both compact and insoluble, Can be hydrolysed to form sugar when required., enzymes are needed in this reaction We test for starch by adding a solution of iodine in potassium iodide. Iodine molecules fit neatly into the centre of the starch helix, creating a blueblack colour

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Glycogen Glycogen is a polymer -gIucose, chemically very similar to amylopectin, although larger and more highly branched The glycosidic 1,4 chains are a lot shorter, and there are more branches of 1,6 bonds on each chain, so the molecule is more compacted Granules of glycogen are seen in liver cells and muscle fibres when observed using the electron microscope, they occur throughout the human body, except in the brain cells (where there are virtually no energy reserves). During prolonged and vigorous exercise we draw on our glycogen reserves first. Only when these are exhausted does the body start to metabolize stored fat.

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Cellulose ( Fibrous ) -glucose molecules bond together , but instead of forming long coiled and branched chains, they form long, straight chains. The glucose molecules join in a series of condensation reactions.

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1. These occur in living things as animal fats and plant oils. 2. Fats and oils seem rather different substances but their only carbohydrates difference is that at about 20 C (room temperature) oils are liquid and fats are solid. 3. Lipids are insoluble in water. they behave as water-hating molecules

Triglycerides
Fats and oils are compounds called triglycerides They are formed by reactions in which water is removed (another case of a condensation reaction) between fatty acids and an alcohol called glycerol. Here the link formed is known as an ester linkage. The fatty acids combined in fats and oils have long hydrocarbon tails, typically about 1618 carbon atoms long, though they may contain any number from 14 to 22 carbon atoms. A molecule of triglyceride is quite large, but relatively small when compared to polymer macromolecules such as starch.

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The hydrophobic properties of triglycerides are due to the hydrocarbon tails of the component fatty acids Because of their hydrophobic properties, triglyceride molecules clump together (aggregate) into huge globules in the presence of water, making them appear to be macromolecules

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CH3(CH2)nCOOH
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Saturated and unsaturated lipids Unsaturated compounds

Carbon compounds that contain double carboncarbon bonds A double bond is formed when adjacent carbon atoms share two pairs of electrons, rather than the single electron pair shared in a single bond. 1-Lipids built from one or more unsaturated fatty acid are referred to as unsaturated fats 2-Oleic acid is an example, occurring in significant quantities in many common fats and oils, but in olive oil and rapeseed oil it makes up about 70% of the fatty acids present Monounsaturated fatty acids When one double bond is present in the carbon chain of a fatty acid Polyunsaturated fatty acids When there are two or three double bonds in carbon chain of a fatty acid

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For example

Linoleic acid which has 2 double bonds occurs in large amounts in

vegetable seed oils as ( maize , soya ,sunflower seed oils ) Linolenic acid has three double bonds occurs in small amounts in vegetable oils

Saturated compounds
1-When all the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon tail of an organic molecule are combined together by single bonds (the hydrocarbon chain consists of CH2CH2 repeated again and again) 2- Lipids built from saturated fatty acids are known as saturated fats. Examples of saturated fatty acids include palmitic acid and stearic

acid, both of which are major constituents of butter, lard, suet and cocoa
butter. Butyric acid is present in only small amounts in milk fat and butter, but plays a major part in creating their characteristic flavours .

Fats with unsaturated fatty acids melt at a lower temperature than those with saturated fatty acids because their hydrocarbon tails do not allow the molecules to pack closely together as they do in saturated fats

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The usages of triglycerides are important 1. Energy stores, compact, insoluble in water 2. Releases energy twice the amount of carbohydrates, 3. Provides buoyancy for aquatic animals. 4. Fatty acids are required for the formation of phospholipids

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