2. Verbo might
Might".Es difcil para el estudiante extranjero. A veces representa el pasado de "may". En otras ocasiones puede emplearse con el presente o puede tener un significado propio. Vamos a examinarlo. I. PRESENTE
1 .RequerimientosCorteses: Como ya se indic, "may" se emplea para presentar requerimi-entos corteses. En ocasiones se usa "might" a este efecto si queremos expresarnos con aun ms cortesa. - Might I have the sauce? Me permitela salsa? - Might I suggest that we -leave early? Puedo sugerir que nos marchemos temprano? 2. Probabilidad: Puede usarse tambin en el presente con un sentido de probabilidad que es semejante a "may". Su empleo, sin embargo, indica generalmente una impresin de duda sobre esta proba-bilidad ms fuerte que "may11. - He might come, but I should be surprised Puede que venga, pero me sorprendera - Of course, she might tell us her secret, but I don't think she will. Desde luego que podra contarnos su secreto, mas no creo que lo haga. 3. Reprobacin "Might" se usa tambin en el presente para expresar reprobacin. - I think you might show less surprise! i Creo que podras mostrar menos sorpresa! - You might give me one apple! Podras darme una manzana! II. 1. PASADO Estilo Indirecto
El estilo indirecto "might" se usa como pasado de "may" para expresar posibilidad, permiso, etc. - He says he may come to this caf El dice que puede que venga a este caf
3. Verbo to need
Lo primero que debe quedar bien establecido a propsito de "To ne-ed" es que tiene dos significados: necesitar y ser menester. I. NECESITAR - REQUERIR En este sentido "need" es verbo normal. Se acompaa, por tanto, de "do", "does" y "did" en frases negativas e interrogativas. - Do you need a car? Necesitas un automvil? - You don't need a car No necesitas un coche - Did she need a car? Necesitaba ella un carro? Cuando se emplea "need" en este sentido de necesidad, un verbo que siga inmediatamente despus debe ir en gerundio. - He needs helping El necesita ayuda II. SER MENESTER - OBLIGACIN Con este sentido no es frecuente el uso de "to need" en frases afirmativas. En frases interrogativas y negativas podemos con-jugar need - con "do" o sin do para expresar ligeras diferencias de matiz en el significado. Se emplea "need" con do, does, principalmente para expresar acciones habituales, y sin do, does ms bien para referirse a una ocasin particular. A. Presente. 1. Forma Interrogativa: - Does one always need to tip? Es necesario dar siempre propina? (Habitual.) - Need I tip the maid? Es necesario que d propina a la doncella? (Particular) 2. Forma Negativa: - You should stay at hotels where you don't need to tip. Deberas alojarte en hoteles donde no tengas que dar (Habitual.) propinas
- You don't need to come - You needn't come No tienes que venir. - You don't have to come
B. Pasado. 1. Forma Interrogativa: "Need" con el sentido de "must" no se emplea con frecuen-cia en oraciones afirmativas en el pasado. Para la forma interrogativa se usa ms frecuentemente la forma "did we have to?" - Did we have to write a letter? Fue necesario escribir una carta? 2. Forma Negativa: Cuando se trata de frases negativas, debemos distinguir claramente entre "didn't need to y "needn't have". Obsrvese la diferencia entre estas frases: - He didn't need to give him anything No necesit darle nada No era necesario dar, y nada se dio - He needn't have given him anything No tena por qu haberle dado nada Tampoco aqu era necesario dar nada, pero en este caso s se dio algo.
3. CUANDO UNA FRASE DE INFINITIVO CALIFICA A UN NOMBRE O A UN PRONOMBRE. - That's nothing to laugh AT. No es cosa de broma, (graciosa) - There was nothing to ask FOR. No haba nada que preguntar (cuestionable). III. ADVERBIOS. En contraste con el caso de preposiciones que van al final de la frase, hay frecuentes casos de adverbios que se colocan al principio de exclamaciones: -. There it is! - Ah est! - In you get! - Entra!
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Esto nos proporciona los siguientes modelos: - He sent a present to his mother. - He sent a present to her. - He sent her a present. -'He sent it to her. IV. SUJETO Y PREDICADO - USO COLOQUIAL The house is empty?; Hemos visto que las preguntas se forman invirtiendo el orden de las palabras. Por ejemplo:
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Hay otras formas de adjetivar las oraciones mediante agregar el sufijo ED a un sustantivo que va acompaado de otro adje-tivo que se le antepone. Por ejemplo: - German were too much narrow-minded Los alemanes fueron demasiado obsesivos
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5. Conjunciones en ingls
Estas palabras sirven como enlace entre frases para dar sentido completo a oraciones complejas. A. Until. As Soon As. - The law will not let them work until they reach a certain age. - They quit school as soon as the law lets them "Until"indica el punto final de una accin: They waited un-til six o'clock and then they left. She worked until she was ti red, "As soon as" indica el condenso de una accin: - The students began working as soon as the teacher came in. "Until" puede ser seguido por una expresin de tiempo (un-til six o'clock) o por un sujeto y verbo (until she was tired). "As soon as" puede solamente ser seguido por un sujeto y un verbo (as soon as the teacher carne in). El tiempo presente simple es usado con "until" o "as soon as" cuando este se refiere una ocasin futura: - She will work until she is tired - The students will begin working as soon as the teacher comes in. B. "Unless". Expresa una condicin negativa; significa "if not" (al menos que, o si no...). Por tanto la oracin: - He will kill himself unless I marry him - Significa lo mismo que: - He will kill himself if I don't marry him. Note la forma del verbo en la clausula "unless": esta est en presente simple afirmativo. El verbo en la clausula principal puede ser tiempo futuro negativo o afirmativo. Cuando la clusula "if" o "unless" encabeza la oracin, se debe poner una coma entre las dos clausulas. - Unless you tell him yourself, he' 11 lose faith in you completely. Al menos que t mismo se lo digas, el perder por completo la fe en ti. Sin embargo, cuando la clausula "if" o "unless" est al fi-nal de la oracin no se usa una coma: - He'll lose faith in you unless you tell him. C. In Spite Of and Because Of. - In spite of my pleasant personality and high intelligence, I was miserable. - Because of the Tom Buster Body-Building Course, my life was changed. "In spite of and "because of" son seguidas por frases sustantivadas.In spite of"
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Las preposiciones se usan de forma muy diversa; a menudo son idiomticas, y con frecuencia resulta muy difcil ele-: conviene despus de ciertos verbos y adjetivos. Adems una palabra usada como preposicin puede emplearse tambin como adverbio con un significado diferente. En esta leccin como en otras posteriores, estudiaremos ciertas categoras de preposiciones que si se consideran en grupo presentan una lgica en su uso. Nos ocuparemos aqu de on, in, at, over y above, en su empleo exclusivo como preposiciones de lugar. II. ON Como Preposicin de Lugar. Significa generalmente que algo toca una superficie exterior. Onthetable We have cushions to put on our sofa
Pero su empleo no se limita a superficies horizontales. There is green paint on the door.
Hay pintura verde en la puerta. On indica rara vez movimiento, salvo con unos pocos verbos como to put. Put it on the chair.
Ponlo sobre la silla. II. IN Como Preposicin de Lugar. En contraste con on, como preposicin de lagar indica IN que una cosa esta encerrada en otra. The table is in your room. La mesa est en tu cuarto. There are flowers in our garden. Hay flores en tu jardn
La eleccin entre in y on puede ser significativa, decimos There are flowers in your garden porgue los jardines estn, por lo general, cercados. En relacin con la mayora de las sillas hablamos de sitting on a chair, pero refirindonos a un silln podemos decir in an armchair porgue estamos rodeatados por. Al igual que on, in raramente indica movimiento, excepto con unos pocos verbos como to put. Put it on the box.
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Se sent a la mesa. Se usa, pues, at con cosas tratndose de las cuales sera difcil estar in u on. I waited at the bus stop.
Esper en la paradero de autobs Como quiera que la relacin de at con el lugar es mucho ms inconcreta que la de on u in, la empleamos con palabras que no meros edificios o Iugares, sino que implican en s mismas una funcin especial. As diramos he is in the school cuando queremos aludir al lugar propiamente dicho, pero at school, cuando nos referimos a ello en el sentido general del lugar donde se estudia. Lo mismo ocurre con palabras similares que representan no meros edificios, entidades de alguna clase: home, church, concert, cinema, theatre, university, etc. There are beautiful window in that church.
Hay bellas ventanas en esa iglesia. Pero en cambio He was at the church last Sunday.
El estuvo en la iglesia el domingo pasado. Como at se usa frecuentemente cuando ni in ni on son adecuados, tendemos a emplearlo en lugares que son demasiado pequeos para envolvernos, como, por ejemplo, un pequeo pueblo. I decorated the dining-room in my parents house in Puddleton.
Decor el comedor de la casa de mis padres en Puddleton. At con to Look, to Shut, Etc. Se emplea at con ciertos verbos con sentido de direccin. The teacher shouted at the student.
IV. OVER Como Preposicin de Lugar. 1- Sin movimiento: Puede ser similar a on, pero generalmente sin que un objeto toque a otro. The balloon was over the city.
El globo estaba sobre la ciudad. Si un objeto toca al otro, ello puede implicar que uno cu-bre al otro.
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La alfombra estaba en (cubra) el suelo. 2- Con Movimiento: Cuando un objeto pasa sobre otro. I threw the balls over the wall.
Arroje las pelotas por encima de la tapia. Cuando se emplea over con movimiento puede ofrecer la, idea de de -ue una cosa cruza otra. The airplane flew over the sea to France.
El aeroplano vol so ore (cruz; el mar a Francia. Con movimiento over puede implicar contacto con la misma idea de cobertura. It was cold and he pulled his hat over his ears.
Haca fri y se cal el sombrero sobre sus orejas. V. ABOVE Como Preposicin de Lugar.
Above es semejante a over, si bien lo usamos principalmente cuando queremos poner de relieve que una cosa permanece sobre otra. Abo ve the table I hung a cloth lamp,
Sobre la mesa colgu una lmpara de tela. 1. Arrive In o At. Obsrvese que despus del verbo to arrive nunca se emplea to. Usamos in o at, dependiendo, por lo general, de que el lugar sea g rancie o pequeo. He arrive in Rome at eight o'clock
Lleg a Roma a las ocho. W e shall arrive at the station before you.
Llegaremos a la estacin antes que usted. Precios y Medidas. Articulo A - AN. El artculo indeterminado a (an) se emplea a menudo con precios y medidas. This car is travelling at thirty miles en hour
Este coche viaja a treinta millas por hora. It costs a pound a yard.
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El rey sali (andando) a la tribuna. Puede estimarse la importancia de usarse into y on to en estas frases si se las concidera, en Iugar de con dichas preposiciones, con in u on. As, The king walk on the platform significara que ya estuvo all cuando ech a andar; en cuanto a las otras frases no tendrn significado positivo alguno. 2. COME IN, COME ON. Son estas excepciones? No. En las frases come in y come on, in y on no son preposiciones. No se refieren ms que al verbo, y son, por tanto, adverbios. 3. INSIDE. Insidees ms concreto que la preposicin in porque acenta la idea de hallarse dentro, de estar encerrado. Most of the kings and queens of England have been crowned inside the building. Muchos de los reyes y reinas de Inglaterra han sido coronados en el interior de esta iglesia. Luckily I was inside the house when it started raining
Por suerte, estaba dentro de la casa cuando empez a llover. Emplearnos especialmente inside cuando queremos destacar que algo estar dentro como opuesto a otra posicin: fuera o cerca. I shall meet you inside the church, not at the door. He wasnt on the roof but inside tne building when it happened.
Podemos emplear inside con un verbo de movimiento, pero puede resultar ambiguo. As: He walked incide t he house puede significar que entr andando en la casa o que anduvo por el interior de la casa propiamente dicha. Generalmente por lo tanto, empleamos into para expresar movimiento hacia el interior (inside).
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Entremos a la. Abada y miremos el interior. He painted the inside of his house.
Pint el interior de su casa. Tambin puede ser un adverbio. He sat down inside.
Dentro estaba oscuro. 4. OUTSIDE Outside es lo contrario de Inside. Aqu se emplea como preposicin. It seems so dark after the sunlight outside the Abbey.
Parece tan oscuro despus de la claridad, fuera de la abada. I shall meet you outside the church.
Te encontrar en el exterior de la iglesia. Outsidepuede emplearse tambin como nombre. I think we've looked at che outside o the abbey.
Creo que hemos contemplado el exterior de la abada. It looks beuatiful front the outside.
Resulta muy hernioso desde el exterior. Puede emplearse tambin como adverbio. Outside it was raining.
No quiero salir \ir afuera). Outsideemplearse con movimiento, pero puede ser tan ambiguo como inside; para expresar movimiento hacia fuera (outside) empleamos por tanto, out of: Can't you imagine the dead kings and queens being carried out of the sunlight? No te puedes imaginar a los reyes y reinas muertos al ser alejados de la luz del sol? He walKed out of the house.
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Sac el vestido de la maleta. 5. OFF Esta preposicin es lo opuesto a onto y se emplea cuando algo que est sobre alguna cosa se quita o traslada. Take your elbow off my shoulder.
Retir sus ropas de la silla. The ashtray fell off 'the table.
El cenicero cay de la mesa. 6. AWAY FROM Expresa generalmente un movimiento de traslacin horizontal ms marcado que off. As, en la conversacin, Harry responde ms bien de forma lastimera a la protesta de Brbara, diciendo: You talk as if you wanted me to go away from here altogether.
Hablas como si quisieras que yo me fuera de aqu para siempre. She didn't want to go away from home.
No se lo quites. AWA TOy OFF TO Ambos pueden emplear se para indicar movimiento hacia un lugar alejado. He drove off to London.
Se march (en coche) para Londres. She goes away to France on holiday every year.
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El dijo que no podramos estar all a las seis. II. ON 1. - SEALA DAS: I shall see you on Sunday.
Ella se hizo un regalo el da de Navidad. 2.- MAANA, TARDE Y NOCHES DETERMINADAS: Come here on Monday morning.
Ven el lunes por la maana. He left home on the night you went out.
Se fue de casa la noche en que saliste. III. IN 1.- SEALA MESES, AOS Y, ESTACIONES. In winter we ttten have fog.
Naci en 1932.
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l va al cinema por la tarde. 3. MEDIDAS DE TIEMPO ESPECFICO. Seala algo que sucede dentro de cierto periodo: We shall meet you there ia ten minutes.
Te encontraremos all dentro de dies minutos. IV. BY El significado de by es "no ms tarde de y positivamente ante si! -3 semejante a in cuando se emplea para indicar algo que sucede dentro de cierto periodo (I shall be here in an hour). Sin em-bargo, mientras in se usa en periodos de tiempo (horas, das, etc.), by se emplea, con momentos determinados del calendario, (I shall be here by five o'clofek). You will have y our passport by the end of the month.
Tendrs tu pasaporte para fines de mes. Se emplea para expresar un periodo de tiempo durante el cual algo se verifica sin interrupcin. I lived there fpr seven months.
Viv all durante siete meses. He worked hard for three days.
Trabaj duro durante tres das. VI. DURING Es semejante a for, pero mientras for se emplea normalmente con das, meses, etc., contados numricamente, during se usa con periodos ms indeterminados. Compare: I lived there for two months.
Viv all por espacio de dos meses. I lived there duriag mj holidays.
Viv all durante mis vacaciones. En estas frases, during podra implicar, pero no lo hace ne-cesariamente, que viv all durante todo el lapso. Mientras que for da a entender una actividad o permanencia ms o menos continua, during significa ms bien en cierto momento o en el curso de".
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Me visita durante (por) la maana. VII. AGO Seala un punto en el pasado. He only put up his umbrella a minute ago. Hace slo un minuto que abri su paraguas. (No abri su paraguas hasta hace un minuto). VIII. SINCE Expresa un periodo que va hacia atrs, desde ahora o el momeii to en que se habla, a un momento determinado enel pasado. No se olvide que puesto que relaciona el pasado con el presente, since va siempre asociado con el presente perfecto. - We have done nothing since January. lo hemos hecho nada desde Enero. IV. OVER AND UNDER Usado con tiempo, o ver significa "ms. This car is over twenty years old.
Este automvil tiene ms de veinte aos. I have lived here for over twenty years.
He vivido aqu por ms de veinte aos. Por consiguiente, under, empleado con tiempo, significa menos de. He ran a mile in under four minutes.
Corri una milla en menos de cuatro minutos. X. THE 1.- CON EXPRESIONES DE TIEMPO. Obsrvese que the se omite en ingls con nombres de das, semanas, meses, etc, al menos que se definan de algn modo. I shall se e you on Saturday.
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El lunes anterior a Navidad fue muy fro. The first Tuesday in June was beautiful
El primer martes de Junio fue un da hermoso. XI. NEXT AND LAST De manera semejante se omite el artculo con next y last cu-ando estos vocablos se emplean con das, semanas o meses, a menos que como en el caso anterior, estn definidos. Obsrvese tambin que es asimismo raro emplear una preposicin ante next y last cuando no se usa the. 1. - NO DETERMINADO. Last Saturday I went to "Marbeth".
El sbado pasado fui a ver a "Marbeth". Next year we shall buy a new car.
El ao que viene (entrante) compraremos un auto nuevo. 2.- ENFASIS O DETERMINADO. He died in the last year of last century.
Muri en el ltimo ao del siglo pasado. He died on the last Wednesday of the last month of 1862.
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VERBS THAT RARELY TAKE THE CONTINUOS A. Verbs Expressing State. "Be", "seen, "know", etc., no toman el continuo: - I believe her. He looks tired. I know that man. I doubt it. He needs a shave. B. Verbs Expressing Sense of Perception. "See", "hear", "taste", etc. no toman el continuo: - She feels happy - That ice creara tastes good. Usted "seen siempre que sus ojos estn abiertos. Usted "hear" siempre que haya sonido. Pero usted "look at" y "listen to" algo selectivamente o a propsito: He heardthe radio in the living room, so he went in and listened to the news.
Los verbos "see" y "hear" usualmente no toman el continuo, pero "look at y "listen to" forman tanto los tiempos simples como los continuos: A reprter is looking at a house on fire. He sees a fireraan fall off a ladder.
II. PRESENT CONTINUOUS VS. SIMPLE PRESENT VERBS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS Algunos verbos tienen dos significados diferentes. Con un significado toman el continuo. Con el otro no pueden. A. Think and Consider. Pueden ser verbos de estado de opinin. En este sentido es-tos ocurren en el tiempo presente simple. - What do you think of my idea? - I consider it a very good one. "Think and Consider" tambin pueden significar "dar atenci-n a" o "tener en cuenta1'. En este sentido ellos pueden tomar el continuo, - I'm thinking of going to Florida for my vacation. - We're considering her Job application. B. Have. Puede describir una accin y en este sentido puede tomar el continuo. - They're having l&nch.
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Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous She's worked at this TV She's been working at this TV station for three years station for three years
PRESENT Present Continuous - She's working at this TV station now. A. El pasado simple es usado para espacios de tiempo que se encuentran por completo en el pasado. Estos no continan has-ta el presente. B. El presente perfecto continuo usualmente significa que la accin iniciada en el pasado contina hasta el pre-sente. Este siempre tiene dicho significado cuando se usa con "for" o since". - I've been watching TV for an hour. - She's been living in Chicago since 1980. C. El Presente Perfecto Usualmente tiene este significado de "pasado a presente" cuando se usa con verbos de du-racin continua (live, work, study, etc.): They've lived here all their lives.
Con estos verbos, incluso el presente perfecto o el presente perfecto continuo pueden ser usados para mostrar que la accin contina hasta el presente. - They've worked for this company for a long time, or theyve been working for this company for a long time.
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- Well be living in little boxes 100 years from now. May - We Be living in better cities Might
A. El futuro continuo (will + be + ing + verb) puede ser usado para hacer incapi en una accin que se desarrolla en un tiempo dado del futuro. La accin puede comenzar antes de este tiempo (ocasin) y terminar despus de ste. At six oclock, Ill be cooking dinner.
(La accin de cocinar comenzar antes de las seis en punto y finalizar despus de las seis, pero a las seis en punto el cocinar estar efectundose.) B. May/might be doing es usado aqu para lo que posiblemente podra estar ocurriendo en algn momento del futuro. Usted no sabe con certeza si estar pasando o no. II. FUTURE PERFECT
Will - The population of the World May Have double by the year 2100. Might
A. El futuro con will es usado para acciones que sern hechas antes que se alcance cierto punto en el futuro. B. May/might en esta forma significa que algo habr sucedido para el tiempo en que se alcance cierto punto en el futuro. III. MAY/MIGHT HAVE (DONE) May/might have done puede ser usado en el pasado tambin. Este significa Tal vez sucedi esto. We havent received the setter. It might have gotten lost in the mail.
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HAVING TO reemplaza a MUST en la forma de gerundio. III. VERB PHRASE PLUS GERUND I'm used to working long hours. Note como las frases verbales como "Be usedto", "Plan on", "Put off", "Think of", Have difficulty", Have something against", "Look forward to", and "Object to" son seguidas por gerundios. - That womanis having difficulty getting across the street. - I'm looking forward to going back to work soon IV. GERUND AS SUBTECT CLAUSES - Having money hasn't solved all our problems.
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El sujeto de un gerundio es usualmente es un adjetivo posesivo o un pronombre, excepto despus de verbos de percepcin (see, feel, hear, etc.). A. Modelo
me him saw heard her them doing it you us it my his remembers her He misses can't stand their doing it. your our its
He
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"Have (something) done" indica que la accin (de limpiar) es he-cha por otra persona. Observe que en este patrn el objeto (my old clothes) siempre se encuentra entre "have" y el "participio pasado" (cleaned, done, etc.). IV. WANT PLUS OBJECT PLUS INFINITIVE - Naturally, she wanted him to get the promotion.
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me you what told h i m How Someone advised her when to + verb showed i t where us which them why
VI. MAKE + SOMEONE/SOMETHING + ADJETIVE It is often those things which make them rich that also make them unpleasant. The products that make the country rich also pollute the air.
En estas oraciones, el adjetivo modifica el objeto directo (them, the country). Note que el adjetivo va despus del objeto directo
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ARTICLES
NOUNS Refer to: people, things, abstract ideas. 1. Countable Nouns A student The student Four students Students Singular: always uses determiners: Student (wrong) A student (right) Plural nouns: Scissors Police Pants Politics
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(Mass Nouns) General concepts: Health Money Illness 3. Proper Nouns John London Baxter PREPOSITIONS Expresses the noun relation with the other parts of the speech, such as by, on, with, from, after, before, etc. She put the flowers on the table. However, in some constructions English prepositions can be put at the end of a proposition. The people I came here with La gente con la que vine VERBS Describe actions, emotions and states. There are three main types: 1. Main verbs Auxiliary verbs Modal verbs Main Verbs:
Individuals or places:
Form well-made sentences. They carry the main meaning. Example: Walk Talk Expect Grow 2. Auxiliary Verbs and Auxiliary Modals:
They indicate the grammatical tenses in the negative and interrogative forms.
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Modals Verbs
They express possibility, capacity, permission, suggestion, desires or necessity. They are: Can May Must Could Might Ought to
Should Would Examples: He can do it She might do it You must do it Tense A verb or verb phrase referring to the time of the action. A form that takes the verb depending on the time it is expressing. There are three basic forms: Simple tenses Rashid catches the bus to school most days Continues tenses Rashid is catching the bus this morning Perfect tenses Rashid has caught the bus right now Verbs Forms There are four or five different forms The base or infinitive form Talk, expect, grow, talks, expects, grows Present participle Talking, expecting, growing The past tense Talked, expected, grew The past participle Talked, expected, grown Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
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A verb that has a direct object. Direct object: a noun phrase or pronoun coming after the verb: The teacher helped Rebecca Indirect object: is which can be used after a preposition to express the same meaning or over which refers the verb action in indirect form: John gave Peter a book John gave a book to Peter B. Intransitive Verbs:
A verb that does not have a direct object over which the verb action falls down: She laughed She was laughing at him Active and Passive Voice The teacher helped Rebecca Rebecca was helped by the teacher The two sentences have the same meaning, but in the first one, The teacher` is the subject while in the second, Rebecca` is the subject, so the focus is different. The verb in the first sentence is in the active voice. In the second sentence, the verb, formed with was` is in the passive voice. The direct object of an active verb can be always be made de subject of a passive verb. Utility: the passive voice can be very useful when you want to talk about an action or event, but do not know (or do not want to say) who did it. Example: Daren stole my pen (active voice). My pen has been stolen (passive voice). Phrasal Verbs Some verbs are used with an adverb or preposition to form a special kind of verb, called a phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs are expressions like: Take in, take off, take over, run down, break in, and so on. The meaning of a phrasal verb is often very different from the meaning of the simple verb and the adverb or preposition used on their own. PUNCTUATION Marks used to organize writing: the standardized nonalphabetical symbols or marks that are used to organize writing into clauses, phrases, and sentences, and in this way make its meaning clear Use of punctuation: the use of punctuation marks
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An apostrophe is usually used to indicate possession. In the singular -s is used: Peters dog In the plural the apostrophe is added to the end of the word: Theneighboursdog Plurals that do not end in s take - s to show possession: Childrens toys Proper names ending in s either add an apostrophe alone: Jesus life Keats poetry Or add - s: Thomass house Mrs. Jones garden B. Brackets ( ) or Parenthesis
Brackets are put round a part of a sentence that could be omitted while still leaving and intelligible statement: That hose over there (with a blue door) is ours. C. Capital Letter (A, B, C)
Capital letters are used at the beginning of a sentence, and for proper nouns and titles of people and organizations: Ms. Robertson, Dr. Smith, South America, British Rail, etc. D. Colon (:)
A colon is used to introduce a following statement: Take it or leave it: the choice is yours. It is also used to introduce a list, quotation, or summary. E. Comma (,)
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An exclamation mark is used after an interjection (or exclamation) such as Oh!, Bother! Or Hurrah! It is not normally used after an ordinary statement. G. Full Stop
A full stop marks the end of a sentence. Full stops are also used after abbreviations and initial letters standing for a whole word. Example: Dec. for December`, fig. for figure`, a.m. for ante meridiem`. Abbreviations that include the first and last letters of a word are equally acceptable with or without the full stop. Example: Dr, Mr, ft or Dr., ft.
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Compounds words, like layby` and fire engine`, may often be spelled with a hyphen between them. Prefix: words with a prefix such as non - `or anti - `are sometimes spelled with a hyphen. Compounds adjectives: when a compound adjective comes before a noun it is often hyphenated to stress that the constituent parts are not being used independently. Example: She has a red-striped jumper. This is a user-friendly dictionary. I. Inverted Commas
(Quotation marks, quotes, speech marks) Inverted commas are used for direct quotation, not for indirect speech. It is usual to have a comma before and after a quotation if the sentence continues after the quotation. Example: She said, Lets go, and set off down the street. Single quotation marks can be used to indicate a title or quotation within the speech. Example: I really enjoyed reading Romeo and Juliet` last term, she said, and now I want to see a live performance. Where such a distinction is not required, either single or double quotation marks may be used. Nowadays the single style is more often used. J. Question Mark (?)
A question mark is used at the end of direct questions, but not after reported ones. Thus you use a question mark at the end of: Where are you going`? , But not after: he asked where I was going`. K. Semicolon (;)
A semicolon can be used instead of a full stop or instead of a conjunction between two sentences that are closely related. Example: I arrived home late; the house was in darkness.
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A is the form of the indefinite article used before words that are pronounced with an initial consonant sound (even if the spelling does not begin with a consonant): a banana; a hunk; a ewe. An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (even if an unpronounced consonant comes first): an elephant; an heir. The same rule regarding sound rather than spelling applies to abbreviations: a CD but an LP. The practice of using an before words beginning with h and an unstressed syllable (for example, an hotel, an historic occasion) is falling out of use, and it is much more usual now to hear a hotel and a historic occasion, with the h sounded. Definite Article the [stressed/emphatic, ee unstressed; before a vowel, eeunstressed; before a
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Indicating one as distinct from another: used to refer to one in particular of a number of things or people, identified as distinct from all others by the use of a modifier. Put them in the small bag. the door on the left the girl who answered the phone the right to vote the points made earlier
B. Indicating Generic Class: used to refer to a person or thing considered generically or universally Exercise is good for the heart. She played the violin. The dog is a loyal pet.
C. Indicating Shared Experience: used to refer to objects and concepts associated with the shared experience of a culture, society, or community. go to the hospital thinking about the future lying in the sun
D. All People Of Particular Type: used before adjectives to refer generically to people of a particular type or class. new measures to help the unemployed They say the good always die young.
E.
Titles And Names: used before titles and some names such as place names the king of Spain the Times newspaper the president of the United States
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G. Indicating Parts Of Body: used instead of a possessive such as "my" or "your" to refer to a part of somebody's body. patted him on the head took her by the hand
H.
Indicating Most Famous Or Important: the best, only, or most outstanding. It's the place to be.
I. Expressing Rates And Ratios: used to indicate how many units apply to each or every thing measured. Available at $60 the ton
J. Indicating Family Relationship: used instead of a possessive such as "your" or "my" to refer to somebody having a particular family relationship (informal). K. L. Give my regards to the family. How's the wife? Period Of Time: used to refer to a period of time, especially a decade or an era. Living in the sixties Adverb, Adjective
to that extent: used adverbially to emphasize that somebody or something is true to a particular extent (used before comparatives). She looks the better for her holiday. The worse for wear
M. Adverb by how much or by that much: used adverbially to indicate how one amount or quality changes in relation to another (used before each of two comparative adjectives or adverbs). The cheaper the better The more you exercise, the fitter you'll feel.
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Sustitucin Sencilla: se sustituyen palabras o frases en una posicin de la oracin modelo.Teacher This is a map Book Pencil Teacher This is an orange Envelope Exercise This is an orange This is an envelope This is an exercise This is a map This is a book This is a pencil
Sustitucin Mltiple: se sustituyen palabras o frases en dos o ms posiciones las cuales van alternndose durante el ejercicio.Teacher We go to class in the afternoon In the morning Downtown (repeat) We go to class in the morning We go down town in the morning
Teacher I study French at home English At school My lesson Write (repeat) I study English at home I study English at school I study my lesson at school I write my lesson at school
Sustitucin y Otros Cambios: se sustituyen palabras o frases en una o ms posiciones que exijan otros cambios en la oracin modelo. 1. Teacher This is a map Maps Book Books 2. How many pens do you have? (repeat) These are maps This is a book These are books (repeat)
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II. DE CONVERSION (Transformacin) Estos ejercicios exigen varios tipos de cambios en la construccin de la oracin modelo. De La Forma Afirmativa A La Negativa Teacher Betty speaks English We have a class every day Class (repeat) (repeat) Student Betty doesn`t speak English We dont have a class every day
De Una Declaracin A Una Pregunta Simple Teacher You have a brother John has a sister Class (repeat) (repeat) Student Do you have a brother? Does John have a sister?
De una Declarativa A Una Pregunta mediante Una palabra Interrogativa Teacher Mary students at home Where They get up at six o`clock. When III. OTROS TIPOS DE EJERCICIOS De Respuestas A Preguntas: una palabra o frase clave para la respuesta es ofrecida a menudo por el profesor. Teacher How old is John Eighteen Class (repeat) Hes eighteen years old Student (repeat) When do they get up? Class (repeat) Where does Mary study? Student
Preguntas y Respuestas Por Los Estudiantes: el estudiante que responde a una pregunta hace entonces la siguiente pregunta a otro alumno, y se sigue as sucesivamente por toda la clase. St. A (1st. Question) St. B (2nd Question) St. B (The answer) St. C (The answer)
Ejercicios Semi-originales: se dan ciertas partes de la oracin y el alumno completa el enunciado o la pregunta con sus propias palabras (ideas).
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Ejercicios Completivos: se necesitan determinativos, preposiciones, formas verbales o palabras interrogativas para completar las oraciones que se dan con espacios en blanco.What ______ ______ name? His _____ _____ Charles.
Where _____ _____ from? She is from Russia. Ejercicios de Ordenacin de Palabras: en unos casos hay que colocar un adjetivo o un adverbio en el lugar apropiado, y en otros, todas las palabras que forman la oracin deben disponerse en el orden correcto.We live in a hotel. _______roomnumberis_____._____ name is Anne. She`s from new Cork.I / interested / am /in / sports I am interested in sports IV. COMPRENSION DE LECTURA Despus del dilogo correspondiente a la leccin deben hacerse preguntas simples indagando sobre: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Nmero de personas. Ttulo de la lectura. Lugar donde se sita la escena. Tiempo en que se da el dilogo o narracin. Nombre de los personajes, su descripcin y su actividad. Actividad de los personajes dentro de la escena. Ambiente y acontecimientos o sucesos.
BIBLIOGRAFA Salvat Ingls Life Style AKL Book American English Course Libros de Texto Instituto Meyer
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