Powder metallurgy (PM) is a highly developed method of manufacturing reliable ferrous and nonferrous metal parts.

The process entails mixing powders and compacting in a die to give shapes that are then sintered or heated to bond particles metallurgically. As more than 97% of the starting materials reach the finished product, powder metallurgy is a process that conserves both energy and materials. It is a cost-effective process that can be used to produce simple or complex parts at or close to the final dimensions with production rates from a few hundred to several thousand parts per hour. Powder Metallurgy products are today used in a wide range of industries, from automotive and aerospace applications to power tools and household appliances. Each year the international PM awards highlight the developing capabilities of the technology. The parts produced by PM have adequate physical and mechanical properties while completely meeting the functional performance characteristics. PM is generally lower than the cost of casting or making it as a wrought product, because of extremely low scrap and the fewer processing steps. The cost advantage is the main reason for selecting PM as a process of production for high volume component which needs to be produced exactly to, or close to, final dimensions.

Powder metallurgy is used in the manufacture of parts for: Automobile industry - motors, gear assemblies, brake pads Abrasives - polishing and grinding wheels Manufacturing - cutting and drilling tools (using hard metals) Electric and magnetic devices - magnets, soft magnetic cores, batteries Medical and dental - prostheses, amalgams Aerospace - motors, heat shields, structural parts Welding - solder, electrodes Energy - electrodes, fuel cells Other - porous filters, bearings, sporting goods etc.

Raw Materials Used in PM: Metals commonly used in powder form include iron, steel tin, nickel, copper, aluminum and titanium. Refractory metals include tungsten, molybdenum and tantalum. Bronze, brass, stainless steel and nickel cobalt alloys are also used.

The powder metallurgy process generally consists of four basic steps:

 Generation of powder Blending or mixing Compacting Sintering

Sizing (or) impregnation Inspection Generation of powder Powders are manufactured by various methods. The size of the powder largely effects the properties of the part produced. Some of the methods to generate the powders are Crushing Atomization Agglomeration Chemical

Crushing, milling and grinding are generally used in the production of ceramic powders. However, it is also used to manufacture some metals and metal alloys. The most common use is in the manufacture of alumina and zirconia powders. The feed oxide is melted using graphite electrodes which then is allowed to solidify into a large block. The block is then broken up and sized. This route is also know as the "Bake and Bash" method! The powders produced are very dense but they also have a course, irregular, and blocky morphology. Atomization is the process used commercially to produce the largest tonnage of metal powders. In water and gas atomization the raw material is melted then the liquid metal is broken into individual particles. To accomplish this, the melt stock, in the form of elemental, multi-element metallic alloys, and/or high quality scrap, is melted in an induction, arc, or other type of furnace. After the bath is molten and homogenous, it is transferred to a tundish which is a reservoir used to supply a constant, controlled flow of metal into the atomizing chamber. As the metal stream exits the tundish, it is struck by a high velocity stream of the atomizing medium (water, air, or an inert gas). The molten metal stream is disintegrated into fine droplets which solidify during their fall through the atomizing tank. Particles are collected at the bottom of the tank. Alternatively, centrifugal force can be used to break up the liquid as it is removed from the periphery of a rotating electrode or spinning disk/cup

Water atomization - Water jet is used instead of inert gas - Fit for high volume and low cost production - Powders of average size from 150 micron to 400 micron; cooling rates from 10 3 to 10 5 K/s. Rapid extraction of heat results in irregular particle shape => less time to spheroidize in comparison to gas atomization - Water pressure of 70 MPa for fine powders in 10 micron range - important parameters: 1. Water pressure: Increase water pressure => size decrease => increased impact 2. water jet thickness: increase thickness => finer particles => volume of atomizing medium increases 3. Angle of water impingement with molten metal & distance of jet travel

Water Atomization Process Benefits of using Atomization Process

Vertical Gas Atomizer

Since it gets carried out in sealed vessel, in controlled atmosphere and even in vacuum, a clean powder is produced There is considerable reduction of nonmetallic inclusions in the powder form as there is no contact with the refractory. Particularly useful for production of Alloys in the powderform. The most common method of agglomeration is where the constituents are physically mixed together with an organic binder. The solvent is then driven off and the resultant material sized. The binder should be burnt off during spraying. This process is used in the manufacture of NiAl, AlSi-polyester powders. Although sintering can be used as part of the spray drying process it can also be used alone as a method to manufacture powders. The constituents are mixed together and heated to get some solid state diffusion going and then the resultant product is crushed. A number of repeated cycles can be used to promote further alloying in which case the powder is called a "reacted" powder Chemical methods constitute the final manufacturing group. Included are the production of metal powders by the reduction of metallic oxides, precipitation from solution (hydrometallurgy), and thermal decomposition (carbonyl). Materials used for subsequent oxide reduction are iron ore (magnetite), mill scale, and metallic materials oxidized for oxide reduction. In the case of iron ore, a refractory tube is filled with a combination of iron ore and a mix consisting of coal, coke, and limestone. The tube is then passed through a kiln at ~1200C. The mix decomposes, producing a reducing atmosphere inside the tube and the magnetite ore is converted to metallic Fe.

Blending or mixing Powders are to be blended or mixed properly for obtaining the required properties after sintering. In this process the powder and blender are mixed together very finely. A lubricant is also employed some times to reduce the friction and hence obtaining a finer mixing. The lubricant should be removed of the die before submitting it for sintering as the presence of lubricant may change the properties of the final object. Many types of blenders are being used for the manufacturing of various parts by powder metallurgy technique.

Compacting

A controlled amount of the mixed powder is introduced into a precision die and then it is pressed or compacted at a pressure in the range 100 MPa to 1000 MPa. The compacting pressure required depends on the characteristics and shape of the particles, the method of mixing, and on the lubricant used. This is generally done at room temperature. In doing so, the loose powder is consolidated and densified into a shaped model. The model is generally called green compact. As is comes out of the die, the compact has the size and shape of the finished product. The strength of the compact is just sufficient for in process handling and transportation to the sintering furnace Powder metallurgy compacting cycle.

Compacting is done by various processes like:

a. Isostatic pressing b. Powder rolling or roll compacting c. Powder extrusion Isostatic pressing is the powder compaction method involving applying pressure from multiple directions through a liquid or gaseous medium surrounding the compacted part.

Two types of Isostatic Pressing: Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) is conducted at room temperature. A flexible (commonly polyurethane) mold immersed in a pressurized liquid medium (commonly water) is used in the cold isostatic pressing method

Two types of Cold Isostatic Pressing

Wet Bag Method-mold is removed and refilled after each pressure cycle. This method is suitable for compaction of large and complicated parts. Dry Bag Method-mold is an integral part of the vessel. The dry bag method is used for compaction of simpler and smaller parts. Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) involves isostatic pressing conducted at increased temperature. The work pressures, which are applied in the hot isostatic pressing method, are commonly between 15,000 psi to 44,000 psi (100 MPa to 300 MPa). Hot isostatic method (HIP) combines pressing and sintering, causing consolidation of powder particles, healing voids and pores. The part shrinks and densifies, forming sound high strength structure. Cans made of stainless steel, or mild steel are used in the method. The method may be used without a mold. In this case the part is first compacted by cold isostaticpressing method, and then it is sintered in order to close the interconnecting porosity. Titanium alloys, high speed steels, super-alloys, hard alloys and various ceramics are produced by the hot isostatic method (HIP).

Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) In cold isostatic pressing, the powder is contained in a flexible mould, commonly of polyurethane, which is immersed in liquid, usually water, in a pressure vessel, which is pumped to high pressure. Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) In hot isostatic pressing, the pressuring medium is a gas, normally argon. The powder is contained in a metallic can, which is subjected to the hydrostatic pressure in the pressure vessel. Full density is achievable by HIP and the process is used for superalloys, high speed steels, titanium etc. where integrity of the materials is a prime consideration. A significant contributor to HIP costs arises from the canning process. So, there is significant interest in canless HIP processing. If the powder can be consolidated to a density above about 92% by a preliminary forming process (e.g. die pressing or CIP), surface connected porosity can be eliminated, gas penetration into the part can be avoided during the subsequent HIP process and full densification can be achieved. A variant of this approach is Sinter-HIP, in which the required 92%+ density is achieved by sintering and then HIP consolidation is applied in the same vessel.

Sintering Changes occur during sintering, including changes in size, configuration, and the nature of pores. Commonly used atmospheres for sintering are hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and ammonia. Sintering operation ensures that powder particles are bonded strongly and that better alloying is achieved.. Powders can also be rolled to produce sheets. The powdered metal is fed into a two-high rolling mill and is compacted into strip at up to 100 feet per minute. The strip is then sintered and subjected to another rolling and sintering. Rolling is commonly used to produce sheet metal for electrical and electronic components as well as coins. Considerable work also has been done on rolling multiple layers of different materials simultaneously into

Extrusion process is used for manufacturing long and straight metal parts. The shape of the cross-sections can be solid round, rectangular, to T shapes, L shapes and Tubes etc. Extrusion is done by squeezing the metal in a die by using a mechanical or hydraulic press.

This process is carried out for increasing the strength and also the hardness of the part. In this the part is subjected to heating without any pressure for certain period of time under highly controlled conditions. Sintering is concerned with a. Diffusion b. Densification c. Re crystallization and grain growth Diffusion This occurs on the surface of the part when the temperature starts increasing

Densification In this the porosity present in the green compact is reduced and compactness increases and particle contact area also get increased. Due to this densification the part size gets reduced. This reduction in size of the part is not uniform as the density varies so there may be a chance of failure to take place due to change in the densities and volume.

Recrystallization and grain growth This occurs between the contact surface which leads to a structure similar to the original component to be produced.

Depending on the temperature of sintering these are classified in to two types:

Solid phase sintering the part to be sintered is heated to a temperature above the Recrystallization temperature. liquid phase sintering the part to be sintered is heated to a temperature above the melting point of one of its components or the melting point of the alloy formed. It is very necessary to maintain a proper atmosphere while sintering. Vacuum is preferred than maintaining a proper atmosphere. The atmosphere maintained during sintering may be either reducing or oxidizing or neutral. Of all reducing atmosphere is most commonly used. Sizing or impregnation From the above we understood that during the process of densification in sintering there may be a variation in size. So after sintering the produced part is checked by using a master die and pressure is applied over the part. This process is called sizing. Because of this process the interconnected porosity of the part gets closed and it will be not possible to fill the pores with oil or any other metal. So sizing is not frequently adopted. A pre machining operation is adopted before impregnation. Testing and inspection A component is to be checked clearly about its properties and other things before it is employed for the work. Some of the most commonly performed tests are

Compressive strength

Tensile strength Porosity Density Hardness Composition Microstructure etc. There are three primary methods used to produce powder metal parts. These methods include: Conventional compaction forging metal injection molding Conventional Compaction - powder is deposited into a die that is the desired shape of the part. The powder is compressed from the top and the bottom in a mechanical or hydraulic press. Compaction pressure on the powder can be as high as 50 tons per square inch. Conventional Methods - Press and sinter Processing This process comprises the following steps: Metal powders blended and fed into a die. Compacted into the desired shape. Ejected from the die, Sintered (solid-state diffused)- This takes place at a temperature below the melting point of the base material in a temperature controlled furnace. The Sintering process creates metallurgical bonds between the powder particles, adding the requisite mechanical and physical properties to it. Powder Metal Forging - is the repressing of a compacted part in an attempt to densify the part. This higher density gives the finished part better strength. In powder forging, the compacted part is heated to the forging temperature of about 1600F. Once the part is heated, it is deposited into a die of the desired finished shape and again pressed. This pressing is done very quickly to increase the density of the part.

 Powder Metal Injection Molding - is a method where the powder is mixed into a slurry so that it will flow into a metal injection mold. This process is much like the plastic injection molding process. The slurry is injected into a closed mold. This method is used for low density very small parts.

Principle of Powder Metallurgy

Powder technology is the science for the manufacture of parts from metal powders by compaction and heating that creates a homogeneous mass. Heating is executed in a furnace and is called sintering. The temperature at which sintering is performed is lower than the melting point of the powdered material. Sintering consists of diffusion in solid state by which particles of compacted powder are bonded together. This is the basic working principle of powder technology. The powder metallurgy technique finds use in various industries and manufacturing processes. It has become very popular in a very short span of time because of its efficiency, durability and reliable output. Some of them are mentioned here.

Pressing

The blended powder is transferred to a bulk hopper and placed above the powder compacting press. Powder compaction, also known as powder pressing, is the process of compacting metal powder in a die through the application of high pressures. Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool forming the bottom of the cavity. The powder is then compacted into a shape and then ejected from the die cavity. A controlled amount of powder is fed into a precision die and is compacted. Dimensions and density are closely controlled in this process. The compacted component is said to be in the "green" state. Gt.B. has over 30 compaction presses ranging from 6 to 350 tonnes capacity, and warm compaction capability which allows increased density for improved physical properties. The density of the compacted powder is directly proportional to the amount of pressure applied. To attain the same compression ratio across a component with more than one level or height, it is necessary to work with multiple lower punches. A cylindrical workpiece is made by single-level tooling. A more complex shape can be made by multiple-level tooling. Production rates of 15 to 30 parts per minutes are common. Sintering After pressing, the "green" parts are sintered by passing them through a furnace in which both temperature and atmosphere are strictly controlled. The part is heated to just below the melting point of the principal material so that the particles are fused, or sintered, together into a solid mass. Gt.B. has a potential sintering capacity of over 5000 tonnes P.A. from 6 furnaces. Recent acquisitions include high temperature furnace and vacuum furnace, allowing parts to be produced to near full density for increased physical properties.
Extruding: It employed to produce the components with high density and excellent mechanical properties. Both hot and cold extrusion processes are used for compacting special materials. In cold extrusion the powder is mixed with binder and the mixture is often compressed into billet before being extruded. The binder must be removed before or during sintering. In hot

extrusion the powder is compacted in to billet and is then heated to extruding temperature in non oxidizing atmosphere.

Rolling: It employed for making continuous strips and rods having controlled porosity with uniform mechanical properties. In this method the metal powder is feed in to two rolls, which compress and interlock the powder particles to form a sheet of sufficient strength. It is then sintered, re-rolled and heat treated if necessary. Metal powders which can be compacted in to strips include Copper, Brass, Bronze, Nickel, Monel and Stainless Steel.

Atomization This uses high pressure fluid jets to break up a molten metal stream into very fine droplets, which then solidify into fine particles High quality powders of Al, brass, iron, stainless steel, tool steel, superalloys are produced commercially Types: water atomization, gas atomization, soluble gas or vacuum atomization, centrifugal atomization, rotating disk atomization, ultrarapid solidification process, ultrasonic atomization Mechanism of atomization: In conventional (gas or water) atomization, a liquid metal is produced by pouring molten metal through a tundish with a nozzle at its base. The stream of liquid is then broken into droplets by the impingement of high pressure gas or water. This disintegration of liquid stream is shown in fig. This has five stages i) Formation of wavy surface of the liquid due to small disturbances ii) Wave fragmentation and ligament formation iii) Disintegration of ligament into fine droplets iv) Further breakdown of fragments into fine particles v) Collision and coalescence of particles Types of atomization Atomization of molten metal can be done in di erent ways depending upon the factors like economy and required powder characteristics. At present, water or gas atomizing medium can be used to disintegrate a molten metal stream. The various types of atomization techniques used are, 1. Water atomization: High pressure water jets are used to bring about the

disintegration of molten metal stream. Water jets are used mainly because of their higher viscosity and quenching ability. This is an inexpensive process and can be used for small or large scale production. But water should not chemically react with metals or alloys used. 2. Gas atomization: Here instead of water, high velocity argon, nitrogen and helium gas jets are used. The molten metal is disintegrated and collected as atomized powder in a water bath. Fluidized bed cooling is used when certain powder characteristics are required. 3. Vacuum atomization: In this method, when a molten metal supersaturated with a gas under pressure is suddenly exposed into vacuum, the gas coming from metal solution expands, causing atomization of the metal stream. This process gives very high purity powder. Usually hydrogen is used as gas. Hydrogen and argon mixture can also be used Blending & mixing: Blending Process in which powders of the same nominal composition but having di erent particle sizes are intermingled. This is done to (i) obtain a uniform distribution of particle sizes, i.e. powders consisting of di erent particle sizes are often blended to reduce porosity, (ii) for intermingling of lubricant with powders to modify metal to powder interaction during compaction Mixing process of combining powders of di erent chemistries such as elemental powder mixes (Cu-Sn) or metal-nonmetal powders. This may be done in dry or wet condition. Liquid medium like alcohol, acetone, benzene or distilled water are used as milling medium in wet milling. Ball mills or rod mills are employed for mixing hard metals such as carbides. Types of cold isostatic pressing:

Wet bag process: IN this, the mould is directly in contact with the fluid. This reduces the productivity, since the bag has to be removed every time before refilling. Tooling costs are reduced in this. Fixed mould process: the mould is fixed in the pressure vessel and powders are filled in situ. The tooling has internal channel into which fluid is pumped. This is an automated process in which the powder filling, compaction, depressurization and removal of green parts are done. Sintering It is the process of consolidating either loose aggregate of powder or a green compact of the desired composition under controlled conditions of temperature and time. Types of sintering: a) solid state sintering This is the commonly occurring consolidation of metal and alloy powders. In this, densification occurs mainly because of atomic di usion in solid state. b) Liquid phase sintering The densification is improved by employing a small amount of liquid phase (1-10% vol). The liquid phase existing within the powders at the sintering temperature has some solubility for the solid. Su icient amount of liquid is formed between the solid particles of the compact sample. During sintering, the liquid phase crystallizes at the grain boundaries binding the grains. During this stage, there is a rapid rea angement of solid particles leading to density increase. In later stage, solid phase sintering occurs resulting in grain coarsening and densification rate slows down. Used for sintering of systems like tungsten-copper and copper-tin. Also covalent compounds like silicon nitride, silicon carbide can be made, that are di icult to sinter. c) Activated sintering IN this, an alloying element called doping is added in small amount improves the densification by as much as 100 times than undoped compact

samples. Example is the doping of nickel in tungsten compacts d) Reaction sintering IN this process, high temperature materials resulting from chemical reaction between the individual constituents, giving very good bonding. Reaction sintering occurs when two or more components reacts chemically during sintering to create final part. A typical example is the reaction between alumina and titania to form aluminium titanate at 1553 K which then sinters to form a densified product. Other than mentioned above, rate controlled sintering, microwave sintering, gas plasma sintering, spark plasma sintering are also developed and practiced. Three main stages are observed in liquid phase sintering: 1. initial particle rearrangement occurs once the liquid phase is formed. The solid particles flow under the influence of surface tension forces 2. solution & reprecipitation process: in this stage, smaller particles dissolve from areas where they are in contact. This causes the particle centers to come closer causing densification. The dissolved material is ca ied away from the contact area and reprecipitate on larger particles