Lithosphere Rocks Soil Mineral Erosion Earthquake

Group 1(Sept. 06, 2012): Ching, Aiza Mae T. Dolores, Rommie Anne D. Ibuyan, Yasmine Angel O. Lana, Ivy T. Cruz, Claire Andrea dela Manigbas, Zeina Darell L. ( AC1B ) Sir. Glen Mangali

Objectives 1. To find or determine answers to questions derived from everyday experiences and to describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena. 2. To understand articles about science. 3. To identify scientific issues underlying national and local decisions and to pose explanations based on evidence derived from one's own work. Overview I. Lithosphere A. Definition of lithosphere B. Parts of the Earths Lithosphere C. Types of Lithosphere II. Rocks A. Definition of rocks B. Kinds of rocks C. Classification of rocks III. Soil A. Definition of soil B. Kinds of soil C. Four basic components that soil contains D. Organic activity E. Important benefits to soil that humus provides F. Particle size ranges for sand, silt and clay G. Layers found in soil IV. Mineral A. Definition of mineral B. Criteria that mineral encompasses C. Physical properties of Mineral D. Mineral classes V. Erosion A. Definition of Erosion B. Physical Properties C. Factors affecting erosion rates D. Global environmental effects E. Prevention and remediation VI. Earthquake A. Definition of Earthquake B. Types of Earthquakes C. Types of Faults D. Earthquake Clusters E. Earthquake Swarms F. Earthquake Storms G. The effects of earthquakes

Ching, Aiza Mae T. LITHOSPHERE The word lithosphere comes from the Greek word, lithos which means rocky and sphaira which means sphere. It is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. On Earth, it comprises the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater. Earths Lithosphere 3 parts of the Earths lithosphere Crust The crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle. Mantle The mantle is a part of a terrestrial planet or other rocky body large enough to have differentiation by density. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a highly viscous layer between the crust and the outer core. Core a. Outer core was believed to be liquid due to its inability to transmit elastic shear waves; only compressional waves are observed to pass through it. b. Inner core of the Earth, its innermost hottest part as detected by seismological studies, is a primarily solid ball about 1,220 km (760 mi) in radius,[1][2] or about 70% that of the Moon. It is believed to consist of an ironnickel alloy, and may have a temperature similar to the Sun's surface, approximately 5700 K (5430 C). Asthenosphere- the weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. The boundary between the lithosphere and the underlying asthenosphere is defined by a difference in response to stress: the lithosphere remains rigid for very long periods of

geologic time in which it deforms elastically and through brittle failure, while the asthenosphere deforms viscously and accommodates strain through plastic deformation. The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates. The uppermost part of the lithosphere that chemically reacts to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere through the soil forming process is called the pedosphere.

Tectonic Plates of the Earth Tectonic Plates Tectonics from the Vulgar Latin tectonicus, meaning "building" is concerned with the orogenies and tectonic development of cratons and tectonic terranes as well as the earthquake and volcanic belts which directly affect much of the global population. Tectonic studies are also important for understanding erosion patterns in geomorphology and as guides for the economic geologist searching for petroleum and metallic ores. Joseph Barrell- developed the concept of the lithosphere as Earths strong outer layer and wrote a series of papers introducing the concept. The concept was based on the presence of significant gravity anomalies over continental crust, from which he inferred that there, must exist a strong upper layer and above a weaker layer which could flow is the asthenosphere. Reginald Aldworth Daly- is a Harvard geologist, in 1940 these ideas were expanded which is his seminal work "Strength and Structure of the Earth" and have been broadly accepted by geologists and geophysicists. Although these ideas about lithosphere and asthenosphere were developed long before plate tectonic theory was articulated in the 1960s, the concepts that a strong lithosphere exists and that this rests on a weak asthenosphere are essential to that theory.

2 types of lithosphere

Oceanic lithosphere Is associated with Oceanic crust and exists in the ocean basins. mafic crust and ultramafic mantle (peridotite) are the parts of the Oceanic Lithosphere. It is denser than continental lithosphere, for which the mantle is associated with crust made of felsic rocks. Oceanic lithosphere thickens as it ages and moves away from the mid-ocean ridge. This thickening occurs by conductive cooling, which converts hot asthenosphere into lithospheric mantle and causes the oceanic lithosphere to become increasingly thick and dense with age. Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few tens of millions of years but after this becomes increasingly denser than asthenosphere. This is because the chemically differentiated oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, but thermal contraction of the mantle lithosphere makes it denser than the asthenosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic lithosphere has the effect that at subduction zones, oceanic lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere, which can be oceanic or continental. New oceanic lithosphere is constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic lithosphere is about 170 million years old, while parts of the continental lithosphere are billions of years old. The oldest parts of continental lithosphere underlie cratons, and the mantle lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to stabilize these regions

Continental lithosphere It is associated with Continental crust. The role of continents in mantle dynamics is poorly understood. In order to improve this, the geologists need good constraints on the thermo-chemical structure of continental lithosphere. Theyve been working on characterizing this from seismic models, which yield the most comprehensive images of continental structure, complemented by surface heat flow data and published constraints on geothermo-barometry in regions where xenoliths have been found. They document a very wide range in

lithospheric temperatures which require, besides variations in crustal heat production, variable lithosphere-mantle interaction. From the models they have used, there is little evidence of the presence of melt. Subducted lithosphere Geophysical studies in the early 21st century posit that large pieces of the lithosphere have been subducted into the mantle as deep as 2900 km to near the core-mantle boundary, while others "float" in the upper mantle, while some stick down into the mantle as far as 400 km but remain "attached" to the continental plate above, similar to the extent of the "tectosphere" proposed by Jordan in 1988.

Mantle Xenoliths Geoscientists can directly study the nature of the subcontinental mantle by examining mantle xenoliths brought up in kimberlite, lamproite, and other volcanic pipes. The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium. Such studies have confirmed that mantle lithospheres below some cratons have persisted for periods in excess of 3 billion years, despite the mantle flow that accompanies plate tectonics.

Dolores, Rommie Anne D. Rock In geology, rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of geology.

Classification of Rock Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock

Igneous Rock Latin word ignis = fire Formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Can be either intrusive (plutonic), extrusive (volcanic) or hypabyssal.

Groups of Igneous Rock o Intrusive (plutonic) rock = are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust of a planet. o Extrusive (volcanic) rock = a rock formed from magma erupted from a volcano. Hypabyssal or Subvolcanic Rock = formed at a depth in between the plutonic and volcanic rocks; formed due to cooling and resultant solidification of rising magma just beneath the earth surface Classification of Igneous Rock o 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. mode of occurrence texture mineralogy chemical composition geometry of the igneous body.

Kinds of Igneous Rock Andesite is a kind of extrusive igneous, volcanic rock, of intermediate composition, with aphanitic to porphyritic texture.

Basalt is a common extrusive volcanic rock. It is usually grey to black and fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava at the surface of a planet. It may be porphyritic containing larger crystals in a fine matrix, or vesicular, or frothy scoria. Unweathered basalt is black or grey. Dike is a planar wall rock structures, such as bedding or foliation. Massive rock formations, like igneous/magmatic intrusions and salt diapirs. Dikes can therefore be either intrusive or sedimentary in origin. Diorite is a grey to dark grey intermediate intrusive igneous rock composed principally of plagioclase feldspar biotite, hornblende, and/or pyroxene. It may contain small amounts of quartz, microcline and olivine. Zircon, apatite, sphene, magnetite, ilmenite and sulfides occur as accessory minerals Dolerite is a mafic, holocrystalline, intrusiveigneous rock equivalent to volcanic basalt or plutonic gabbro.

Felsite is a very fine grained volcanic rock that may or may not contain larger crystals. Felsite is a field term for a light colored rock that typically requires petrographic examination or chemical analysis for more precise definition Gabbro refers to a large group of dark, coarsegrained, intrusive mafic igneous rocks chemically equivalent to basalt. The rocks are plutonic, formed when molten magma is trapped beneath the Earths surface and cools into a crystalline mass. Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granite has a medium to coarse texture, occasionally with some individual crystals larger than the groundmass forming a rock known as porphyry. Granites can be pink to dark gray or even black, depending on their chemistry and mineralogy. Outcrops of granite tend to form

tors, and rounded massifs. Granitessometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Microdiorite is a medium-grained intrusive igneous rock. It contains crystals that are smaller than grains of rice, which are interlocking and randomly oriented. It is dark grey or greenish brown. Microgranite is a medium-grained intrusive igneous rock. It contains crystals, smaller than grains of rice, which are interlocking and randomly oriented. It is pale grey and can sometimes be pinkish in color. It contains a number of minerals, mostly feldspars, which are pale grey or pinkish, and quartz, which is grey or white. It also contains small specs of mafic minerals. Obsidian is a kind of igneous rock that form when lava cools quickly above ground. Obsidian is actually glass and not a mixture of minerals. The edges of this rock are very sharp. Pegmatite is a plutonic rock with exceptionally large crystals. It forms at a late stage in the solidification of granite bodies.

Peridotite is a dark igneous rocks consisting mainly of olivine and other ferromagnesian minerals

Pitchstone is a dull black glassy volcanic rock formed when lava cools swiftly.

Pumice is a kind of igneous rock which was formed when lava cooled quickly above ground. You can see where little pockets of air had been. This rock is so light, that many pumice rocks will actually float in water. Pumice is actually a kind of glass and not a mixture of minerals. Because this rock is so light, it is used quite often as a decorative landscape stone. Ground to a powder, it is used as an abrasive in polish compounds and in Lava soap. Rhyolite has a composition similar to granite but has a much smaller grain size. It is composed of the light-colored silicates and is usually buff to pink in color. Occasionally it is light gray. In texture it is classified as aphanitic. It frequently contains voids and glassy fragments, evidence of having formed in a surface environment with rapid cooling. Serpentinite is a kind of rock composed of one or more serpentine minerals. Minerals in this group are formed by serpentinization, a hydration and metamorphic transformation of ultramafic rock from the Earths mantle. The alteration is particularly important at the sea floor at tectonic plate boundaries. Syenite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rockof the same general composition as granite but with the quartz either absent or present in relatively small amounts. Trachyte is a fine-grained, light-colored, extrusiveigneous rock, consisting chiefly of alkali feldspars. It is the extrusive equivalent to syenite. Xenolith is a rock fragment which becomes enveloped in a larger rock during the latters development and hardening.

Sedimentary Rock Formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water Sedimentation - processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a solution. Sediment - particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating

General Classification of Sedimentary Rock Clastic Sedimentary Rocks - Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Pieces of rock are loosened by weathering, and then transported to some basin or depression where sediment is trapped. If the sediment is buried deeply, it becomes compacted and cemented, forming sedimentary rock. ~Subdivision: a. Conglomerates and Breccias o Dominantly composed of rounded gravel and breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel

Breccia

Conglomerate

b. Sandstones o Most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme,[2] which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of muddy matrix between these larger grains

A stone made of sand c. Mudrocks o Composed of at least 50% silt- and clay-sized particles. These relatively fine-grained particles are commonly transported as suspended particles

by turbulent flow in water or air, and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of suspension.

Biochemical (or biogenic) Sedimentary Rocks - Created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or water to build their tissue. Ex: Most types of limestone are formed from the calcareous skeletons of organisms such as corals, mollusks, and foraminifera.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks - Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by chemical precipitation. This process begins when water traveling through rock dissolves some of the minerals, carrying them away from their source. Eventually these minerals are redeposited when the water evaporates away or when the water becomes over- saturated. Ex: Rock Salt

Other Sedimentary Rocks - Formed by Pyroclastic flows, impact breccias, volcanic breccias, and other relatively uncommon processes.

Properties of Sedimentary Rock Color - often mostly determined by iron, an element with two major oxides: iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide. Iron(II) oxide o Forms under anoxic circumstances o Gives the rock a grey or greenish color Iron(III) oxide o In the form of the mineral hematite o Gives the rock a reddish to brownish color Texture - size, form and orientation of clasts or minerals in a rock Mineralogy - Determined by the supplied material from the source area, the manner of transport to the place of deposition and the stability of a particular mineral. Fossils - commonly found in sedimentary rock Primary sedimentary structures - formed during deposition Secondary sedimentary structures - formed after deposition

Metamorphic Rock (Greek) Meta = change Morph = form rocks that have been substantially changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form

Types of Metamorphism Contact caused by igneous activity Dynamic - associated with faults & earthquake zones Regional - caused by tremendous pressures associated with tectonic plate activity

Metamorphic Textures Foliated o Folios = page or leaf-like o rock has distinct banding or layering - often not smooth like in sedimentary rocks o formed under directed pressure Non-foliated o no distinct layering character o often a massive crystalline texture o formed under uniform pressures

Foliated Textures Slatey o looks like blackboard - dull surface o smooth, thin layering o breaks into flat slabs o no mineral grains visible

Schistose o distinct bands of minerals o visible mineral grains o may have shiny appearance

Phyllitic o looks like waxed surface o may have little "waves" on surface - referred to as crenulations

o some small grains visible

Gneissic o larger grains o may look like igneous rock o may have crude banding - intensely distorted o different minerals than schistose

Ibuyan, Yasmine Angel O.

Soil is a thin layer of loose material found on the surface of the earth. It comes from broken rock particles and decayed bodies of living things like plants and animals.

Kinds of Soil Clay is a soil mixture which is made up of very fine rock particles. It soaks up and holds water easily. It is sticky when wet. Tiny roots of plants cannot spread out and grow well in clay. Clay is used for making vases, pots and jars.

Sand is formed from broken rocks. It is made up of small grains of rocks. The particles of sand are larger than the particles of clay. There are more air spaces between the particles of sand so water runs through easily and dries up easily. Sand is not good for most plants. It is used for construction of buildings, roads and bridges. Humus is a kind of soil that is very rich with decayed matter, especially dead plants. It is fertile and good for plants.

Loam is a mixture of sand, clay and humus. It is the best kind of soil for plants.

Gravel is composed of small pieces of rocks found along riverbanks or along other bodies of water. The particles of gravel are larger than the particles of sand. Gravel is used in building houses, bridges and roads.

An important factor influencing the productivity of our planet's various ecosystems is the nature of their soils. Soils are vital for the existence of many forms of life that have evolved on our planet. For example, soils provide vascular plants with a medium for growth and supply these organisms with most of their nutritional requirements. Further, the nutrient status of ecosystems soils not only limits both plant growth, but also the productivity of consumer type organisms further down the food chain.

Figure 1: Most soils contain four basic components: mineral particles, water, air, and organic matter. Organic matter can be further sub-divided into humus, roots, and living organisms. The values given above are for an average soil. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net)

Soil itself is very complex. It would be very wrong to think of soils as just a collection of fine mineral particles. Soil also contains air, water, dead organic matter, and various types of living organisms (Figure 1). The formation of a soil is influenced by organisms, climate, topography, parent material, and time. The following items describe some important features of a soil that help to distinguish it from mineral sediments. Organic Activity A mass of mineral particles alone do not constitute a true soil. True soils are influenced, modified, and supplemented by living organisms. Plants and animals aid in the development of a soil through the addition of organic matter. Fungi and bacteria decompose this organic matter into a semi-soluble chemical substance known as humus. Larger soil organisms, like earthworms, beetles, and termites, vertically redistribute this humus within the mineral matter found beneath the surface of a soil. Humus is the biochemical substance that makes the upper layers of the soil become dark. It is colored dark brown to black. Humus is difficult to see in isolation because it binds with larger mineral and organic particles. Humus provides soil with a number of very important benefits:

It enhances a soil's ability to hold and store moisture. It reduces the eluviation of soluble nutrients from the soil profile. It is the primary source of carbon and nitrogen required by plants for their nutrition. It improves soil structure which is necessary for plant growth The texture of a soil refers to the size distribution of the mineral particles found in a representative sample of soil. Particles are normally grouped into three main classes: sand, silt, and clay. Table 1 describes the classification of soil particles according to size.

Table 1: Particle size ranges for sand, silt, and clay. Type of Mineral Particle Sand Silt Clay Size Range 2.0 - 0.06 millimeters 0.06 - 0.002 millimeters less than 0.002 millimeters

Clay is probably the most important type of mineral particle found in a soil. Despite their small size, clay particles have a very large surface area relative to their volume. This large surface is highly reactive and has the ability to attract and hold positively charged nutrient ions. These nutrients are available to plant roots for nutrition. Clay particles are also somewhat flexible and plastic because of their lattice-like design. This feature allows clay particles to absorb water and other substances into their structure.

Figure 3: Typical layers found in a soil profile. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net) Most soils have a distinct profile or sequence of horizontal layers. Generally, these horizons result from the processes of chemicalweathering, eluviation, illuviation, and organic decomposition. Up to five layers can be present in a typical soil: O, A, B, C, and R horizons (Figure 3).

The O horizon is the topmost layer of most soils. It is composed mainly of plant litter at various levels of decomposition and humus. A horizon is found below the O layer. This layer is composed primarily of mineral particles and has two characteristics: it is the layer in which humus and other organic materials are mixed with mineral particles, and it is a zone of translocation from which eluviation has removed finer particles and soluble substances, both of which may be deposited at a lower layer. Thus the A horizon is dark in color and usually light in texture and porous. The A horizon is commonly differentiated into a darker upper horizon or organic accumulation, and a lower horizon showing loss of material by eluviation. The B horizon is a mineral soil layer which is strongly influenced by illuviation. Consequently, this layer receives material eluviated from the A horizon. The B horizon also has a higher bulk density than the A horizon due to its enrichment of clay particles. The B horizon may be colored by oxides of iron and aluminum or by calcium carbonate illuviated from the A horizon. The C horizon is composed of weathered parent material. The texture of this material can be quite variable with particles ranging in size from clay to boulders. The C horizon has also not been significantly influenced by the pedogenic processes, translocation, and/or organic modification. The final layer in a typical soil profile is called the R horizon. This soil layer simply consists of unweathered bedrock.

Lana, Ivy T. MINERAL Is a naturally occurring substance that is stable at room temperature, representable by a chemical formula, usually a biogenic, and has an ordered atomic structure. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. There are currently more than 4,000 known minerals, according to the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) which is responsible for the approval of and naming of new mineral species found in nature. Of these, perhaps 100 can be called common, 50 are occasional, and the rest are rare to extremely rare. Mineralogy - the study of minerals.

A mineral encompasses the following criteria:

1. Naturally occurring 2. Stable at room temperature 3. Represented by a chemical formula 4. Usually a biogenic 5. Ordered atomic arrangement

Physical properties of Mineral Physical properties applied for classification include crystal structure and habit, hardness, luster, diaphaneity, color, streak, cleavage and fracture, and specific gravity. 1. Crystal structure Crystal structure results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction.

Crystals are restricted to 32 point groups, which differ by their symmetry. These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most encompassing of these being the six crystal families.

Crystal family Isometric Tetragonal Orthorhombic Hexagonal Monoclinic Triclinic

Common examples Garnet, halite, pyrite Rutile, zircon, andalusite Olivine, aragonite, orthopyroxenes Quartz, calcite, tourmaline Clinopyroxenes, orthoclase, gypsum Anorthite, albite, kyanite

2. Twinning Is the intergrowth of two or more crystal of a single mineral species. The geometry of the twinning is controlled by the mineral's symmetry. As a result, there are several types of twins. Contact or simple twins consists of two crystals joined at a plane. This kind of twinning is common in spinel. Reticulated twins - interlocking crystals resembling netting, common in rutile. Geniculated twins twins that have a bend in the middle that is caused by start of the twin. Penetration twins consists of two single crystals that have grown into each other. (Ex. Cross shaped staurolite twins and Carlsbad twinning in orthoclase) Cyclic twins caused by repeated twinning around a rotation axis. It occurs around three, four, five, six, or eight-fold axes, and the corresponding patters are called threelings. Polysynthetic twins - similar to cyclic twinning by the presence of repetitive twinning; however, instead of occurring around a rotational axis, it occurs along parallel planes, usually on a microscopic scale.

3. Crystal habit - Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of crystal. - Common habits include: Acicular - which described needlelike crystals like in natrolite, bladed, dendritic (treepattern, common in native copper) Equant- which is typical of garent, prismatic (elongated in one direction) Tabular - which differs from bladed habit in that the former is platy whereas the latter has a defined elongation. Euhedral crystals have a defined shape, Anhedral crystals do not; those in the middle are termed Subhedral. 4. Hardness - The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist sscratching. - This physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline structure of a mineral. - A minerals hardness is not necessarily constant for all sides, which is a function of its structure. - Crystallographic weakness renders some directions

softer than others. An example of this property exists in kyanite, which has a Mohs hardness of 5 parallel to [001] but 7 parallel to [100]. The most common scale of measurement is the ordinal Mohs hardness scale. A mineral with a higher index scratches those below it. The scale ranges from talc, a phyllosilicate, to diamond, a carbon polymorph that is the hardest natural material. Mohs hardness 1 2 3 4 5 Mineral Talc Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Mohs hardness 6 7 8 9 10 Mineral Orthoclase Feldspar Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond

Diamond is the hardest natural material, and has a Mohs hardness of 10.

5. Luster Luster indicates how light reflects from the minerals surface. Qualitative terms used to describe this property are split into metallic and non-metallic categories. o Metallic and sub-metallic - minerals have high reflectivity like metal. (ex. Galena and pyrite) o Non-metallic luster this includes adamantine,

Pyrite has a metallic lustre.

such as diamond; vitreous, which is a glassy luster very common in silicate minerals; pearly, such as in talc and apophyllite, resinous such as members f the garnet group, silky which is common in fibrous minerals (ex. Asbestiformchrysotile) 6. Diaphaneity Diaphaneity of a mineral describes the ability of light to pass through it. Transparent minerals do not diminish the intensity of light passing through it one example of this property is muscovite (potassium mica) Translucent minerals allow some light to pass, but less than those that are transparent. Jadeite and nephrite (mineral forms of jade are examples of minerals with this property). Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque. The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently thin, it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite are opaque even in thin-section. 7. Color and streak Color is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic. It is caused by electromagnetic radiation interacting with electrons (except in the case of incandescence, which does not apply to minerals). Two broad classes of elements are defined with regards to their contribution to a mineral's color. Idochromatic elements are essential to a mineral's composition; their contribution to a mineral's color is diagnostic. Examples of such minerals are malachite (green) and azurite (blue). Allochromatic elements in minerals are present in trace amounts as impurities. An example of such a mineral would be the ruby and sapphire varieties of the species corundum.

Minerals can have various other distinctive optical properties, such as play of colors, asterism, chayotancy, iridescence, tarnish, and pleochorism. Several of these properties involving variability in color. o Play of color - results in the sample reflecting different colors as it is turned. o Plechorism- describes the change in color as light passes through a mineral in a different orientation. o Iridescene - is a variety of the play of colors where light scatters off a coating on the surface of crystal, cleavage planes, or off layers having minor gradations in chemistry. o Play of colors - is caused by light refracting from ordered microscopic silica spheres within its physical structure. o Chatoyancy ("cat's eye") - is the wavy banding of color that is observed as the sample is rotated o Asterism - a variety of chatoyancy, gives the appearance of a star on the mineral grain. The latter property is particularly common in gem-quality corundum. The streak of a mineral refers to the color of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may not be identical to its body color. Streak is more often distinctive for metallic minerals, in contrast to non-metallic minerals whose body color is created by allochromatic elements.

8. Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity Weakness in this crystalline structure causes planes of weakness, and the breakage of a mineral along such planes is termed cleavage. The quality of cleavage can be described based on how cleanly and easily the mineral breaks. In particularly transparent mineral, or in thin-section, cleavage can be seen a series of parallel lines marking the planar surfaces when viewed at a side. Cleavage is not a universal property among minerals; for example, quartz, consisting of extensively interconnected Perfect basal cleavage is seen silica tetrahedra, does not have a crystallographic weakness in biotite (black) and god which would allow it to cleavage, whereas micaswhich cleavage is seen in the matrix (pink orthclase) have perfect basal cleavageconsist of sheets of silica tetrahedra which are very weakly held together. As cleavage is a function of crystallography, there are a variety of cleavage types. Cleavage occurs typically in either one, two, three, four, or six directions.

Basal cleavage in one direction is a distinctive property of the micas. Two-directional cleavage is described as prismatic, and occurs in minerals such as the amphiboles and pyroxenes. Rhombhedral cleavage when three directions cleavage are present. Octahedral cleavage when four directions cleavage are present. (ex. Fluorite and diamond) Sphalerite cleavage it has a six-directional dodecahedral cleavage. Minerals with many cleavages might not break equally well in all of the directions; for example, calcite has good cleavage in three direction, but gypsum has perfect cleavage in one direction, and poor cleavage in two other directions. Angles between cleavage planes vary between minerals. For example, as the amphiboles are double-chain silicates and the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates, the angle between their cleavage planes is different. The pyroxenes cleave in two directions at approximately 90, whereas the amphiboles distinctively cleave in two directions separated by approximately 120 and 60. The cleavage angles can be measured with a contact goniometer, which is similar to a protractor. Parting, sometimes called "false cleavage", is similar in appearance to cleavage but is instead produced by structural defects in the mineral as opposed to systematic weakness. Parting varies from crystal to crystal of a mineral, whereas all crystals of a given mineral will cleave if the atomic structure allows for that property. In general, parting is caused by some stress applied to a crystal. The sources of the stresses include deformation (e.g. an increase in pressure), exsolution, or twinning. Minerals that often display parting include the pyroxenes, hematite, magnetite, and corundum. When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is termed to have been fractured. There are several types of uneven fracture. The classic example is conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by smooth curved lines. This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals. Other types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly. The latter describes a break along a rough, jagged surface; an example of this property is found in native copper. Tenacity is related to both cleavage and fracture. Tenacity describes how resistant a mineral is to such breaking. Minerals can be described as brittle, ductile, malleable, sectile, flexible, or elastic.

9. Specific gravity Specific gravity numerically describes the density of a mineral. Specific gravity measures how much water it displaces. Among most minerals, this property is not diagnostic. High specific gravity is a diagnostic property of a mineral. Among more common minerals, oxides and sulfides tend to have a higher specific gravity as they include elements with higher atomic mass. Minerals with metallic or adamantine luster tend to have

Galena, PbS, is a mineral with a distinctively high specific gravity.

higher specific gravities than those having a non-metallic to dull luster. A very high specific gravity becomes very pronounced in native metals; kamacite, an ironnickel alloy common in iron meteorites has a specific gravity of 7.9, and gold has an observed specific gravity between 15 and 19.3.

Mineral Classes As the composition of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicon and oxygen, silicate elements are by far the most important class of minerals in terms of rock formation and diversity. However, non-silicate minerals are of great economic importance. Silicates - The largest grouping of minerals by far are the silicates (most rocks are 95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions such as aluminium,magnesium, iron, and calcium. - Some important rock-forming silicates include: the feldspars, quarts, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas. - The base of unit of a silicate mineral is the [SiO4]4- tetrahedron. - In the vast majority of cases of silicates, silicon is in four-fold or tetrahedral coordination with oxygen. The various types of silicates include:

Orthosilicates where isolated tetrahedra are charge-balanced by other cations. Also termed nesosilicates, this type of silicate has a silicon to oxygen ratio of 1:4. Examples of this silicate type include the olivine and garnet groups.

Inosilicates where tetrahedra are bonded in chains. These chains can be single, where a tetrahedron is bound to two others to form a continuous chain.

Alternatively, two chains can be merged to create double-chain silicates. Singlechain silicates have a silicon to oxygen ratio of 1:3, whereas the double-chain variety has a ratio of 4:11. Single-chain silicates are most commonlypyroxenes, while double-chain silicates are amphiboles. Higher-order chains exist, but they are rare.

Phyllosilicates consist of sheets of polymerized tetrahedra. They are bound at three oxygen sites, which gives a characteristic silicon to oxygen ratio of 2:5. Important examples include the mica,chlorite, and serpentine groups. Tectosilicates it is also known as framework silicates, have the highest degree of polymerization. With all corners of atetrahedra shared, the silicon to oxygen ratio becomes 1:2. Examples are quartz, the feldspars, and the zeolites. Sorosilicates also termed disilicates, have tetrahedron-tetrahedron bonding at one oxygen, which results in a 2:7 ratio of silicon to oxygen. An example of a sorosilicate is the epidote group.

Cyclosilicates, or ring silicates it has a ratio of silicon to oxygen of 1:3. Threemember, four-member, and six-member rings are known to exist; the latter is the most common, present in minerals such as tourmaline and beryl.

Non-silicates Non-silicate minerals are subdivided into several other classes by their dominant chemistry, which includes native elements, sulfides, halides, oxides and hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and organic compounds. Native element group includes native metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver, copper) Semi-metals and nonmetals (antimony, bismuth,graphite, sulfur). This group also includes natural alloys, such as electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver), phosphides, silicides, nitrides and carbides(which

Native Gold

are usually only found naturally in a few rare meteorites). Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. Common sulfides include pyrite (iron sulfide commonly known as fools' gold),chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite (nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead sulfide).

The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a second anion such as arsenic). The halide minerals are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite (calcium fluoride),halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and salt ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Halides, like sulfates, are commonly found in evaporite settings such as salt lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake.
Pink cubic halite crystal on a nahcolite matrix

The halide class includes the fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide minerals. Oxide minerals are extremely important in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted. They also carry the best record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field. They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of other minerals in the near surfaceweathering zone, and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide), magnetite (iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel (magnesium aluminium oxide a common component of the mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide), rutile (titanium dioxide), and ice (hydrogen oxide). The oxide class includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals. The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion and include calcite and aragonite (both calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/ calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate). Carbonates are commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of deadplanktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great Salt Lake, Utah) and also in karst regions, where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of caves, stalactites and stalagmites. The carbonate class also includes the nitrate and borate minerals. The borate class is defined by defined by a [BO3]3-. Similarly to silicates, borates can also be polymerized into various structures such as chains, two-dimensional sheet, and three-dimensional frameworks. Sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, SO42.

Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals. Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals. Common sulfates includeanhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate). The sulfate class also includes the chromate, molybdate, selenite, sulfite, tellurate, and tungstate minerals. The phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO4 where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium. By far the most common phosphate is apatite which is an important biological mineral found in teeth and bones of many animals. The phosphate class includes the phosphate, arsenate, vanadate, and antimonate minerals. The organic mineral class includes biogenic substances in which geological processes have been a part of the genesis or origin of the existing compound. Minerals of the organic class include various oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons and other miscellaneous species.

Cruz, Claire Andrea dela EROSION Is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by natural processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other locations.

Physical Processes Water erosion Rainfall Sheet Erosion - is the transport of loosened soil particles by surface runoff that is flowing downhill in thin sheets Rill Erosion - refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths Gully Erosion - occurs when runoff water accumulates, and then rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a considerable depth Rivers and streams Valley or stream erosion - occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. Bank erosion - is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. Thermal erosion - is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water. It can occur both along rivers and at the coast. Coastal Erosion Shoreline Erosion - which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role. Hydraulic action- takes place when air in a joint is suddenly compressed by a wave closing the entrance of the joint. Wave pounding- is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off.

 Abrasion or corrasion- is caused by waves launching seaload at the cliff. It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused with corrosion). Corrosion- is the dissolving of rock by carbonic acid in sea water. Attrition- is where particles/seaload carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs. Bioerosion - is the boring, scraping and grinding of organisms Glaciers Erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking, and ice thrusting. Abrasion - debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood. Plucking - Glaciers can also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off Ice thrusting - the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. Floods At extremely high flows, kolks, or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly rushing water. Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole-type geographical features called Rock-cut basins.

Freezing and thawing Cold weather causes water trapped in tiny rock cracks to freeze and expand, breaking the rock into several pieces. This can lead to gravity erosion on steep slopes. The scree which forms at the bottom of a steep mountainside is mostly formed from pieces of rock (soil) broken away by this means.

Wind erosion Is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

 It is also a major source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification, harmful airborne dust, and crop damageespecially after being increased far above natural rates by human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture. Severe in arid areas, and during times of drought. e.g. Great Plains two primary varieties Deflation where the wind picks up and carries loose soil particles

Three Categories (1) Surface creep, where larger, heavier particles slide or roll along the ground; (525%) (2) Saltation, where particles are lifted a short height into the air, and bounce and saltate across the surface of the soil; - Responsible for the majority (50-70%) of wind erosion (3) Suspension, where very small and light particles are lifted into the air by the wind, and are often carried for long distances. - Suspension (30-40%) Abrasion where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by airborne particles carried by wind.

Gravitational erosion Mass movement - is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity. - Is an important part of the erosion process, and is often the first stage in the breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous area. - Often referred to in general terms as a landslide. Slumping happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like clay that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not perceptible except through extended observation.

 Exfoliation Is a type of erosion that occurs when a rock is rapidly heated up by the sun. Occurs mainly in deserts due to the high temperatures during the day and cold temperatures at night. Factors affecting erosion rates Precipitation and wind speed Soil structure and composition Vegetative cover Topography Human activities that increase erosion rates Agricultural practices Deforestation Roads and urbanization Climate change Global environmental effects Land degradation Sedimentation of aquatic ecosystems Airborne dust pollution Tectonic effects Monitoring, measuring, and modeling erosion Monitoring and modeling of erosion processes can help us better understand the causes, make predictions, and plan how to implement preventative and restorative strategies. The most commonly used model for predicting soil loss from water erosion is the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), which estimates the average annual soil loss A as: A = RKLSCP R = rainfall erosivity factor

K = soil erodibility factor L & S = topographic factors representing length and slope C & P = are cropping management factors

Prevention and remediation Increase vegetative cover on the land Terracing Windbreaks (also called shelterbelts) Traditional planting methods mixed-cropping crop rotation

Manigbas, Zeina Darell L. EARTHQUAKE This occurs when plates moves, past, towards, or against each other. Friction causes the plates to get stuck that causes pressure to build up. Earthquakes occur when this buildup of pressure is released. It is the result of sudden release of energy in the Earths crust that creates seismic waves. Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the earth that imparts low-frequency acoustic energy. Types of Earthquakes Tectonic earthquake these occur when rocks in the Earths crust break due to geological forces created by movement of tectonic plates. Volcanic earthquake these occur in conjunction with volcanic activity. Collapse earthquake these are small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines. Explosion earthquake this result from the explosion of nuclear and chemical devices. Types of Faults Faults are classified according to the kind of motion that occurs on them. Dip-slip Fault it is the displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical component. Example of this fault is the Normal and Reverse Faulting. Normal Fault these are faults that occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary. It has the lowest stress level. The rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction. Reverse/ Thrust Fault - Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary. It has the highest stress level. In this, the rock mass escapes in an upward direction lifting the rock mass up. Strike-slip Fault are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other. It has an intermediate stress level.

Shallow-focus, Mid-focus and Deep-focus Earthquakes The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire. Shallow-focus earthquake Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km Mid-focus or Intermediate-depth earthquake Earthquakes with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km. Deep-focus earthquake Earthquakes which occurs at much greater depths ranging from 300 up to 700 km. Earthquake Clusters Earthquake that forms part of a sequence related to each other in terms of location and time. This consists of small tremors that causes little to no damage. There is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern. That theory is called stresscluster theory. Aftershocks An earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquakes (main shock). Formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, then the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as Foreshock.

Earthquake Swarms Sequences of earthquake striking in a specific area within a short period of time. Different from an earthquake followed by a series of aftershock. There is no main shock because none have notable higher magnitudes than the other. Earthquake Storms The earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Earthquakes away from plate boundaries Where plate boundaries occur within continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself. The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g. deglaciation). These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes Examples: The Northridge earthquake was associated with movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian plates where it runs through the northwestern part of the ZagrosMountains. The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following: Shaking and ground rupture Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.

Site or local amplification Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. Principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils. Ground rupture a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several meters in the case of major earthquakes. It is also a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any which are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure. Landslides and avalanches Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard. Fires Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. Soil liquefaction This occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. Tsunami Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them. Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

Floods A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods. Human Impact An earthquake may cause injury, loss of life, and property damage. The aftermath may bring disease and lack of basic necessities. Prediction Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. However, for well-understood faults the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades can be estimated. Earthquakes warning system have been develop that can provide regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground surface has begun to move, potentially, allowing people within the systems range to seek shelter before the earthquakes impact felt.

(15-item student made quiz) Direction: choose the correct answer. 1. What are the two Greek words in lithosphere? A . Litho & sphere C. Lithos & sphaira B. Itho & sphaira D. Lithos & era 2. A type of metamorphism that is caused by tremendous pressures associated with tectonic plate activity. A. Dynamic C . Foliated B. Regional D. Non-Foliated 3. It is the thin layer of loose material found on the earth surface. A. Gravel C . Soil B. Humus D. A horizon 4. It is the study of minerals. A. Mineralogy C. Zoology B. Geology D. Botany 5. This type of fault has the lowest stress level. A. Fault C. Normal Fault B. AB normal Fault D. High Fault 6. What are four basic components of soil? A. Organic matter, humus, roots and organism C. Mineral particles, humus, rocks and organism B. Air, water, mineral particles and organic matter D. Water, air, mineral particles and rocks 7. What is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle? A. Inner Core C. Crust B. Mantle D. Outer Core 8. An igneous rock that is formed from magma erupted from volcano A. Intermediate igneous rock C. Hypabyssal or sub-volcanic rock B. Extrusive rock D. Felsic igneous 9. Earthquake that forms part of a sequence related to each other in terms of location and time. A. Earthquake Clusters C. Fires B. Tectonic Plates D. Tsunamis 10. A mixture of sand, clay and humus. It is the best kind of soil for plants. A. Clay C. Loam B. Gravel D. Sand 11. A property of sedimentary rock that is formed during deposition. A. Mineralogy C. Primary sedimentary structures B. Fossils D. Secondary sedimentary structures 12. It is the intergrowth of two or more crystal of a single mineral species. A . Twinning C. Streak B. Luster D. Diaphaneity 13. It is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by natural processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other locations. A. Earthquake C. Aftershock B. Humidity D. Erosion 14. It is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. A Wind Erosion C. Foreshock B Gravitational Erosion D. Erosion 15. It is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity. A. Weight Movement C. Earths Movement B. Mass Movement D. Gravitational Force