Question 1.

1
The instantaneous values of a-phase voltage and a-phase current in a balanced star-connected

3-wire load are given. ( (a) ( ( ( ) ) ) )

(b)

(c)

(d) Phasor Diagram

(e)

(f)

Solution:

M a Three-phase Supply b Load (Balanced or Unbalanced)

c M

( )

) (

( )

( (g) ( )

) ( )

Solution:

M a

StarConnected Loads

c M Line Voltage and line current are differing by phase angle. ( )

( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ( ) )) )

( )

( ) ( )

( [ (

) ) (

( )]

(h) Sketch a neat circuit diagram for the one-wattmeter crossed-coil connection to determine the total reactive power Q in the above load. Label terminals. Show all quantity symbols. Solution: (Page 7.5 modified for one watt-meter)

c
Three-phase supply Three-phase balanced load

b
One-wattmeter crossed-coil connection

) ( )

( )

(i)
( )

( )

Solution:

c
Three-phase supply Three-phase balanced load

From the Phasor diagram, ( ( ( ( ) ) ) )

( )

Question 1.2 (a) Sketch and annotate half-wave and full-wave circuit arrangements of rectifiers with permanent magnet moving coil instrument for multi-range a.c. voltage measurements. Indicate the functions of the components. Solution: Half-wave arrangements of rectifiers with permanent magnet moving coil instrument.

Functions of the components:

The half-wave rectifier circuit with shunt resistance across the meter lowers the sensitivity for the a.c. range. The rectifier diode (D1) is not perfect that is, the application of a voltage of reversed polarity will result in a small leakage current flow causing a lower average value to be indicated and so the bypass diode D2 is used to eliminate the effect of this reverse current.

Full-wave arrangements of rectifiers with permanent magnet moving coil instrument.

Functions of the components:

There are 4 diodes connected as bridge rectifier. The shunt resistance improves scale linearity by drawing adequate current through the diodes to
ensure their operation in the linear region of their characteristic.

(b) Explain the limitations, sources of errors and reasons for different values of d.c. and a.c.
sensitivity for a rectifier PMMC voltmeter.

Solution: Limitation of PMMC voltmeter The half-wave rectifier circuit with shunt resistance across the meter lowers the sensitivity for the a.c. range. The rectifier diode (D1) is not perfect that is, the application of a voltage of reversed polarity will result in a small leakage current flow causing a lower average value to be indicated and so the bypass diode D2 is used to eliminate the effect of this reverse current. To operate in the linear part of its characteristic, each diode needs a forward voltage drop of
about 0.6 V. Therefore, the bridge rectifier may not work for voltages below 1.5 V or diode currents below 1 m.

(c) Sketch the circuit diagram for, and explain the operating principle of, a capacitor voltage
divider with magnetic voltage transformer for high voltage measurements. Show details for 330-kV input. Write the intermediate voltage equation.

Solution: Primary 330 kV Intermediate Secondary

11 kV CVD

110 V

Magnetic Voltage Transformer

Hence, the final voltage connected across the secondary is 110 V. ( ( ) )

Metering VTs are classed: 0.2M, 0.5M, 1M, 2M or 5M. Protection VTs are classed: 1P, 2P or 5P. The intermediate voltage equation is the multiplication of primary voltage to the ratio of capacitors connected across intermediate, i.e;

[ (

(d)
( )

Solution:

( (

) )

) ( )

[(

)]

[( [(

) )

( (

)] ) ]

( [(

( ) ( (

( ) ] )

( (

) )

(e) List and classify the causes of transient high-voltage spikes in d.c. and a.c. circuits and indicate two simple methods of suppressing these voltage spikes.

(f) Sketch the waveforms and explain the equations for charging and discharging of a resistorcapacitor series circuit with square-wave input. Solution: Charging waveform of a RC series circuit

Discharging waveform of a RC series circuit

Question 1.3 (a) Sketch a circuit diagram for calibrating a single-phase energy meter at various power factors.
Explain the principle involved in using a phantom load and state its advantages. Sketch a phasor diagram to indicate the range of power factor variation possible and state this range.

Principle involved in using Phantom Load: When the capacity of the meter to be tested is high considerable power will be wasted if ordinary loading arrangement is made. For testing of meter of higher capacities phantom or fictitious loading arrangement is made. Advantage of using Phantom Load: By interposing transformers the desired values of voltage and current can be obtained. Such a setup is useful to calibrate a single-phase energy meter at different power factor values, without the need for real energy consuming loads.

(b) Explain the equations and techniques used to separate transformer eddy-current and hysteresis losses by iron-loss measurements at two different frequencies. Solution: (Page 6.19) The iron-loss is the addition of eddy-current loss and hysteresis loss.

( *

Slope=b

f1

f2

( *

By extracting these two values from iron-loss measurements we can separate transformer eddy-current and hysteresis losses at two different frequencies
power-factor wattmeter. By applying correction factors, the iron loss in the iron sample is determined.

The power supplied to the primary from a sinusoidal voltage source is measured using a low-

Question 1.4 (a) Sketch the frequency response curve and the equivalent circuit of an audio-frequency
transformer. Label the inherent capacitances and inductances in the transformer equivalent circuit and identify them in a table. Indicate how this equivalent circuit may be simplified. With the aid of sketches, explain how the transformer reactances affect the frequency response.

Solution:
Resonance Peak

10 Frequency f (Hz)

AF Transformer Load
P S

Signal Source

The above equivalent circuit is simplified as below;

Capacitances, inductances and resistances in the transformer equivalent circuit

Primary inter-turn capacitance Secondary inter-turn capacitance Inter-winding capacitance Primary leakage inductance Secondary leakage inductance Magnetising inductance Primary winding resistance Core-loss resistance Secondary winding resistance

The transformer reactance affects the frequency response when low frequencies the shunt path is reduced due to leakage reactance. Again at mid-frequencies the output is constant as reactance omitted. At the high frequencies the effect of magnetising reactance is very negligible. Hence at the 3 frequencies the reactance of the AF Transformer affects.

(b) Sketch a circuit diagram and tabulate the details (voltage, current, volt-ampere, accuracy
class, VT and CT constants, type, etc.) of equipment/ accessories necessary for measuring the voltage, current, power factor, frequency and energy supplied to a single-phase load rated at 6.35 kV, 500 A, 50 Hz.

Solution: The circuit diagram of single phase high voltage measurement using CTs and VTs, is as below.

Voltage Current Volt-Ampere

V A
The power requirement must be within the rated VA, , P.F.

Accuracy class Link VT Constant CT Constant Types M

Question 1.5

(a)

Solution: a c

( ( (

) ) )

The star-connected generator, equivalent circuit below;

(b) Tabulate the most common types of errors in a.c. bridge measurements and the remedial or precautionary measures taken to minimise such errors due to nulldetectors, standard components and signal sources. Solution: The most common types of errors in a.c. bridge measurements and their remedy are given in the table below; Error Due to Null-detector Remedial or precautionary measures taken to minimize error Select suitable detector based on frequency response, tuning and sensitivity; use matching transformer and amplifiers as needed. Standard components Good design with adequate compensation. Selection of components and equipment to suit the particular test and measurement conditions. Silver contacts; dust-free enclosure. Proper care and regular maintenance. Stabilisation of power supply. Temperature compensation. Signal Sources Use sine-wave generators; use tuned detectors with filters.

Question 1.6 (a) Sketch the voltage and current resonance curves for a series R-L-C resonant circuit. Write
expressions for, and discuss the relationships between bandwidth, resonance-frequency-Qfactor, resonance frequency, half-power points and half-power frequencies.

Solution:

Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the difference between lower half-power frequency and upperhalf power frequency. Resonance frequency Q-factor: ( ) ( Resonance Frequency: It is the frequency at which the power dissipation maximum, in the R-L-C circuit. It is the geometric mean of upper-half power frequency and the lower half power frequency. )

 Half-power Points: There are 2-half power point, lower half power point and the upper half power point where the power dissipated is half of the power dissipated at resonance. The half-power points describe about leading or lagging of the power factor. Half-power Frequencies: These are the two frequencies at the respective half-power points, named as upperhalf power frequency and the lower half power frequency. The relation between the above discussed factors is: ( ) ( ) ( )

(b) Sketch, on the one graph, frequency responses showing the difference between a resonant circuit with a large Q and one with a low Q. Relate circuit Q-factor, bandwidth and resonance frequency to circuit resistance and reactance.

Solution:

(c) Explain the differences between single-tuned band-pass and band-stop R-L-C filter circuits; sketch their circuit diagrams (show only one circuit diagram of each type) and typical frequency response curves. Annotate the diagrams with key details.

Question 2.1

(a) Sketch a neat circuit diagram for the above measurement set-up.

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f) ( )

(g) ( )

(h)

Question 2.2 (a) ( )

(b) Sketch the circuit diagram for an Ayrton universal shunt and state its main advantage. Solution: (Page 1.13) Im Rm mA R2 R3 R4

R1

I1 I0

I2 I3

Advantage: Switch not needed, due to the series connection of the resistor across the ammeter. The effective resistance increases due to this series connection. There is no sudden forceful flow and no large current due to the selector switch movement.

 In the absence of a shunt the meter movement is never left in the main current circuit. (c) Sketch the circuit diagram and indicate the operating principles of a T-attenuator.

(d) Define the r.m.s. value of a complex waveform in terms of the harmonic component peak values. Solution: (Page 4.13)
R.m.s value of a complex waveform is the square root of the sum of the squares of each individual harmonic components peak values and zero harmonic.

The r.m.s. values of the harmonic components are:

The r.m.s. value of the non-sinusoidal voltage is then:

(e) List and briefly define eight key items of information to be specified for an electrical measuring instrument before selecting it for purchase.

(f) Explain why the secondary winding of a current transformer can be safely shortcircuited but not opened, if the primary winding is energised.

(g) State the equations for the complex forms of impedance of R-L parallel, R-C series and R-C parallel circuits commonly encountered in a.c. bridges. Sketch and label the circuits.

(h) Derive the d.c. maximum power transfer theorem using both theThevenin and Norton equivalent circuits and a resistive load.

(i) Describe, with the aid of sketches, applications of R-C circuits involving transients, d.c. blocking and a.c. bypass characteristics.

Question 2.3 (a) Indicate the various sources of errors in an electrodynamics wattmeter and briefly explain
the compensation methods and formula corrections to be applied to determine the true power in a.c. circuits.

(b) Sketch the circuit diagram of an R-C bridge phase-shifting network. Sketch, with details, the locus of the detector voltage when R is variable. Indicate the practical phase-shift and voltage variation limits of such a circuit and state the main advantages of the bridge circuit arrangement. State how the phase shift may be changed from lagging to leading.

Question 2.4

(a) Tabulate a comparison of permanent-magnet moving-coil and electro- dynamic indicating instruments (graphic symbol, type/operating principle, uses, control and damping, scaling, errors, etc.)

(b) Sketch and annotate the circuit arrangement of a three-range a.c. voltmeter that uses a permanent-magnet moving coil instrument and bridge rectifier. State the limitations of such instruments. Explain why the scale is calibrated to read the r.m.s. value of pure sine-wave voltages.

Question 2.5
The energy supplied to a bulk consumer balanced lead is metered on the 66-kV side of a 1000-kVA, 66/11-kV, delta-star-connected transformer. Draw a neat metering schematic that uses appropriately-selected, standard-ratio voltage and current transformers, precision double-element kWh meter, cross-coil kvarh meter and indicating instruments, with necessary selector switches, fuses and test-links. (Use pencil and rule: no free-hand sketch.) For each measurement instrument, determine and tabulate the ratings (Voltage, current, volt-ampere, accuracy class, VT and CT constants, type, etc.).

Note:

Question 2.6 (a) Sketch a series R-L-C circuit diagram, with details. Write the expression for the resonance frequency. State the conditions for series resonance. List the methods of achieving resonance.

(b) Sketch typical graphs of (i) reactances and impedance, and (ii) voltages and current in a series resonant circuit with fixed R, L, C and V values but variable frequency f. Indicate the relationships between circuit resonance-frequency-Q-factor, bandwidth, resonance frequency, half-power points and half-power frequencies.

(c) Sketch a parallel R-L-C circuit diagram, with details. Sketch typical parallel resonance curves in terms of G, Y, Z and

. Write the expression for the resonance frequency when L

and C have power losses. Indicate how the inherent resistances of the inductor and capacitor affect the circuit dynamic impedance.

Question 3.1 In a balanced, star-connected, 3-wire load, the instantaneous values of c-phase voltage and cphase current are given: ( ) ( )

Assume phase sequence a-b-c for the balanced supply, with load star point s.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

( (

) )

(e)

(f)

(g)

( ( )

(h)

(i)

Question 3.2 (a) Sketch circuit, phasor and power diagrams, with details, for an induction motor and a capacitor connected in parallel to the same supply.

(b) Explain the trigonometric form of the harmonic Fourier series. Define the r.m.s. value of a complex waveform in terms of the harmonic component peak values. Solution: (Page 4.13)
Trigonometric form of the harmonic Fourier series: By taking Fourier series, a complex waveform can be resolved into a number of sinusoidal and co-sinusoidal harmonic components, including a d.c. component.

( )
The trigonometric form of the harmonic Fourier series is putting the entire voltage component together; e.g.:

( )
( )

R.m.s value of a complex waveform is the square root of the sum of the squares of each individual harmonic components peak values and zero harmonic. The r.m.s. values of the harmonic components are:

The r.m.s. value of the non-sinusoidal voltage is then:

(c) Define with phasor diagrams and expressions: positive-, negative- and zero-sequence voltages. Using the sequence components, write equations for the set of unbalanced phase voltages.

(d) Indicate the differences in the functional requirements of metering and protection current transformers. Sketch their B-H curves, with details. Solution: (Page 8.11) Protection Current Transformers are used mainly for operation with circuit breakers. The rating of Current Transformer depends upon the purpose and the type of fault for which it is used and also on the characteristic of relay etc.
A metering Current Transformer is designed to operate at lower flux density and exciting current, whereas A Protection Current Transformer is designed to operate at higher flux densities with higher range of linear measurement.

Protection

Metering
Linear Part of Curve

0
B-H curve of Metering and Protection Metering Current Transformer operates in the linear part of the B-H curve during normal primary current.

In Metering Current Transformer when the primary current exceeds the rated value, the Current Transformer core becomes saturated and the secondary current Is does not increase abnormally, thus preventing overload burnout of current coils of meters.

In Protection Current Transformer During a fault on the primary side equipment, the current is excessive, and the protection Current Transformer must truly reflect this current on its secondary side to operate the protective relays promptly.

(e) Sketch and annotate the circuit diagram of an a.c. Wheatstone bridge with detector D and a.c. voltage source E. State the null-balance condition. Tabulate and label the forms of equations for Product Balance and Ratio Balance in terms of the branch impedances.

(f) Sketch and explain the waveforms, and write the equations, for charging and discharging of a resistor-capacitor series circuit with square-wave voltage input.

(g) Sketch and annotate the circuit arrangement of a bridge rectifier and permanentmagnet moving-coil instrument for three-range a.c. voltage measurements. Indicate the component functions. State the limitations of such instruments.

(h) Compare and explain the reasons for the different d.c. and a.c. sensitivities of the bridge rectifier PMMC voltmeter. State the main sources of error in the rectifier PMMC voltmeter and indicate the methods of minimising those errors. Explain why the scale is calibrated to read the r.m.s. value of pure sine-wave voltages.

Question 3.3

(a) Tabulate step-by-step the method of applying the superposition principle to determine the current i in a circuit with series resistor R and inductor L, if the applied voltage is given by: ( )

(b) Applying Thevenins theorem to an unbalanced a.c.

Question3.4

( (

) )

Question3.5

(a) Sketch the circuit arrangement of a single-phase induction-type energy meter and indicate its constructional features. Briefly explain its principle of operation and state the methods commonly used to compensate for errors.
Solution:

(b) Sketch a circuit diagram for measurement of iron-loss using an Epstein square. Write the equations and explain the principles involved. State the power factor calibration requirement for the wattmeter. Explain the need for a correction to be applied to the wattmeter reading. Solution: The Circuit diagram for measurement of iron-loss using an Epstein square.

The iron sample is available as strips of laminations. By assembling the strips as a square core inside two pre-wound coils of known number of turns, a transformer is formed. The power supplied to the primary from a sinusoidal voltage source is measured using a low-power-factor wattmeter. By applying correction factors, the iron loss in the iron sample is determined.

Question 3.6
(a) A series R-L-C circuit has a.c. source voltage V. Sketch and fully annotate a neat circuit diagram. Write the resonance frequency equation. List the methods of achieving resonance. State the key indicators of the series resonance condition. Solution:

Series R-L-C Circuit arrangement

(b) A series resonant circuit has fixed R, L and C values, fixed source voltage V and variable source frequency f. Sketch typical graphs of (i) reactances, resistance and impedance; and (ii) voltages and current, as the frequency is varied. Indicate, on graph (ii), the 3 dB points, the half-power frequencies, the bandwidth BW, the resonance frequency fr and the lagging and leading power factor regions.

(c) Sketch, on the one graph, typical current versus frequency responses of high-Q and low-Q series resonant circuits and identify their main features. Relate circuit resonance-frequency-Q-factor, bandwidth and resonance frequency to circuit resistance and reactance.

(d) Sketch and annotate a parallel R-L-C circuit diagram when both L and C have significant losses. State the condition for resonance in such a circuit and write the resonance frequency expression.

Solution:

Parallel R-L-C circuit diagram when both L and C have significant losses