Definition: A combustible compact black or dark-brown carbonaceous sedimentary rock formed from compaction of layers of partially decomposed vegetation

and occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits.

Definition: Coal is formed by biological, physical and chemical processes, governed by temperature and pressure, over millions of years on plant remains, deposited in ancient shallow swamps. The degree of alteration (metamorphism), caused by these processes, during the temporal history of development determine their position or rank in the coalification series which commence at peat and extend through lignite to bituminous coal and finally anthracite. The relative amount of moisture, volatile matter, and fixed carbon content varies from one to the other end of the coalification series. The moisture and volatile matter decrease with enhancement of rank while carbon content increases i.e., carbon content is lowest in peat and highest in anthracite. From lignite to anthracite all the members of the series are widely used as fossil fuel in different industries. Type / Grade: Coal: It is classified into different types mainly on the basis of certain chemical (ash, moisture and volatile matters) and physical (caking index, coke type and swelling index) parameters. However, different modes of classifications are being followed in different countries mainly on the basis of prevalent industrial need. The Indian coal is broadly classified into two types Coking and Non-Coking. The former constitute only a small

part of the total coal resources of the country. These two are further subdivided as follows on the basis of certain physical and chemical parameter as per the requirement of the industry.

Coking Coal o Prime Coking - Mainly used for metallurgical purpose. o Medium Coking - Mainly used in steel industry. o Semi Coking - Mainly in cement, fertilizer and sponge iron industries. Non Coking Coal: Non- coking coal comprises lions share of Indian coal. Based on Useful Heat Value (UHV), it is classified into grades A to G for commercial use. A to C grades are considered as Superior and are used in cement, fertilizer and sponge iron industries. D to G grade, available in almost in all the coalfields, is considered as Inferior and is mostly used in power sector. Lignite: It is commonly known as brown coal and is classified into grades A to C on the basis of Gross Calorific Value as per the requirement of the industries. It is considered as apt fuel for power generation especially due to its low ash content.

Origin: The vegetable origin of coal is supported by the presence in coal of carbonized fibers, stems, leaves, and seeds of plants, which can be detected even with the naked eye. Sometimes carbonized tree stumps have been found standing in layers of coal.

Plant fossil The general interpretation of these facts is that coal originated in swamps similar to present-day peat bogs and in lagoons, probably partly from plants growing in the area and partly from plant material carried in by water and wind. From the thickness of coal seams, it is assumed that the coal swamps were located near sea level and were subject to repeated submergence, so that a great quantity of vegetable matter accumulated over a long period of time.

A present day analog - a thick layer of sand deposited on a flood plain during a flood, burying the accumulating plant debris. It is generally accepted that there were at least two stages of coal formation from plant material. The initial processes of disintegration and decomposition of the organic matter were brought about by the action of bacteria and other microorganisms (bio-chemical change), resulting in formation of peat. Subsequently the geochemical process ushers in and the peat is altered to form lignite and coal through metamorphism. The pressure of the accumulated layers of overlying sediments and rock upon the submerged plant matter forced out much of the water and caused some of the volatile substances to escape and the nonvolatile carbon material to form a more compact mass. The greater the depth of burial, the process of metamorphism increases, resulting in the enhancement of rank of coal produced.

Enhancement of rank of coal with depth and time Paleogeography : Following are the main suitable paleogeographic environs/sites required for peat formation.

Slow and continuous subsidence of terrain leads to gradual rise of the water table thus helping formation of peat, the first stage of coal formation. Presence of sand bars and natural levees to protect swamps (sites for deposition of vegetation ) against major inundation by sea or river flood. Positive areas around the swamps, susceptible for erosion, has to have a low relief for restriction of supply of eroded fluviatile sediments. Plains exposed after abrupt marine regression, narrow coastal strips, widespread delta and estuary prior to drowning are some of the suitable sites for peat formation.

Natural Occurrence: Coal is found in beds or seams interstratified with shale, clays, sandstones, or limestone (rarely). It was formed chiefly in the Carboniferous period(c. 360 - 290 Ma.) of geologic time, but valuable deposits date also from the Permian(c. 290 - 250 Ma.), Triassic(c. 250 - 200 Ma.), Jurassic(c. 200 - 150 Ma.), Cretaceous(c. 150 - 70 Ma.) and Tertiary (c. 65 - 20 Ma) periods. In India, coal is mainly reported from the rocks of Permian period. These coal bearing rocks belong to the Gondwana Super Group. The name Gondwana was introduced by H.B.Medlicott in 1872 after the ancient Kingdom of Dravidian Gonds in Central India. Pioneer workers were struck by the astounding similarity of Gondwana sediments and their fossil contents, occurring in widely separated continents of the Southern hemisphere.

Concept of the Gondwanaland: By the end of the 19th century the geology of the southern continents were sufficiently well studied and it was postulated by Eduard Suess, an Austrian geologist that Africa, South America, Australia and India were once part of a supercontinent, for which he coined the name "Gondwanaland". During the Mesozoic period (265 - 65 Ma) the Gondwana supercontinent started breaking up due to plate movement and slowly India, Australia, Africa, South America and Antarctica separated from each other. This resulted in opening up of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean and closing of the Tethys, sea. Indian Coal Occurrences: Geological set- up: Coal resources of the country are mainly reported from two different stratigraphic levels (geological period) and basinal set-up - Permian sediments deposited in intra-cratonic Gondwana basins and Early Tertiary coal and lignite occurrences in peri-cratonic near shore basins and shelf. Gondwana basins of Peninsular India are generally restricted in the east-central part of the country along some well defined linear belts namely - Damodar-Koel, Son- Mahanadi, Satpura, and Pranhita-Godavari valleys besides the Rajmahal basin. In addition rocks belonging to Gondwana Formation are also reported beneath the Ganga and Brahmaputra alluvium in Bengal basin and also below the Deccan Trap. Report of coal occurrences (mostly of academic importance) are also available from Foot Hills of the Eastern Himalaya.

Economic deposits of Tertiary coals occur in two distinct geotectonic domains of the Northeastern India - one in the shelf sediments of Meghalaya and Assam and the other is in the intricately thrusted belt (Schuppen Belt) of Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. Lignite occurrences of economic importance are found within the Tertiary sediments, occurring along the pericratonic basins of the southeastern and western Peninsular Region.

Geographical distribution and resource position: Geographically coalfields of economic viability are distributed mainly in the states of Orissa, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal

Pradesh, Meghalaya , Nagaland and Sikkim.

The state-wise in-situ geological coal resource status is depicted schematically

In India the major economically potential lignite deposits are located in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Puducherry. Besides these, minor occurrences are reported from Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala and West Bengal. The geographical disposition of the major workable deposits and the state-wise in-situ geological resource of lignite are shown in the following diagram.

New Generation Alternative Exploration Techniques: Considering environmental factors as well as optimal utilization of the available coal resources of the country the following alternative clean coal exploration techniques are presently considered. Coal Bed Methane (CBM) Methane is produced within the coal seams during the coalification process and thus forms an integral part of the coal seams which act as a reservoir rock. Interestingly, coal seams have 3 - 7 times more capacity than any other type of reservoir of the same dimension. More than 95% of methane remains adsorbed in micro-pores or intermolecular space within coal beds under adequate pressure. This entrapped methane is brought to the surface through wells by depressurizing. Exploration for Coal Bed Methane has already been initiated in several coalfields of India. Amongst these one of the notable site for commercial production is in Raniganj coalfield.

Schematic Diagram Of CBM Extraction

Under Ground Coal Gasification (UCG): In this process in-situ coal seams are ignited by injection of air or oxygen and steam through well. After under ground burning of coal the resulted gas (methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide) is brought to the surface through another well. Presently, areas in Raniganj and Godavari coalfields and lignite fields of Rajasthan and Gujarat have already been taken up for exploration purpose.

Schematic Diagram of Under Ground Gasification Project Coal to Oil (CTL): Coal may be used to produce liquid fuel, suitable for transportation operation by removal of carbon or addition of hydrogen, either directly or indirectly. The fast operation is usually known as carbonization and the second one as liquefaction. In India a direct coal liquefaction pilot project has already been taken up in the Tertiary coalfields of Northeastern region. Contributed by Dr. S. Dasgupta, Coal Wing Geological Survey of India,